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0 for violating his parole conditions . Bell 's parole violation hearing resulted in another sentence , and Bell was released on March 12 , 2012 .
= = Background = =
Bell was born in Akron , Ohio and attended the Massachusetts Institute of Technology where he earned a degree in chemistry . After graduation , he worked for Intel as an electrical engineer before founding his own computer storage device company , SemiDisk Systems in 1982 . When his company closed in 1992 , Bell said he developed a " phobia " of financial and tax @-@ related issues . He had been a Libertarian Party member and described his political beliefs as anarcho @-@ libertarian . Bell attended three meetings of the Multnomah County Common Law Court ( possessing no judicial authority according to Federal government laws ) in Portland , Oregon , which put government officials on trial in absentia and awarded judgements against them . Bell attended these meetings in order to find government ' plants ' in that group . Bell subsequently became involved in a tax dispute with the Internal Revenue Service , which stated that he owed $ 30 @,@ 000 to the federal government .
= = " Assassination Politics " essay = =
From 1995 through early 1996 , Bell authored an essay entitled " Assassination Politics " in which he described the idea of using digital signatures through email to create an assassination market , " predicting " the deaths of government employees . Bell also speculated that some people could use these net @-@ based markets quite openly without encryption ( Part 10 of the essay ) . So there were two ways theorized to operate the scheme , one complex and secure and the other more open and potentially insecure . In effect , the arrangement would create an incentive for people to assassinate corrupt government officials , offering a reward that could be claimed by someone willing to submit an entry predicting a given person 's death at a particular time . If that person died at about that time , the correct bettor would win the pool money . Bell published his idea in a 10 @-@ part essay titled " Assassination Politics " on the alt.anarchism USENET newsgroup . Described by Wired as " an unholy mix of encryption , anonymity , and digital cash to bring about the ultimate annihilation of all forms of government " , the essay was nominated for a Chrysler Award for Innovation in Design in 1998 as " an imaginative and sophisticated prospective for improving governmental accountability " . Although the U.S. Supreme Court has ruled that advocating violence against government officials is , in the absence of an " incitement to imminent lawless action " , protected by the First Amendment , the publication of " Assassination Politics " put Bell under the scrutiny of federal investigators in 1995 . The Cypherpunks list archives includes many references to , what became known as ' AP ' and ' APster ' from 1996 onwards . The name 's ' assassination politics ' and ' Jim Bell ' also cropped up in the US governments pursuit and prosecution of Carl Johnson ( The CJ Files ) . In 2001 , an Australian anarchist claimed to be acting on the ' Part 10 ' part of Assassination politics . This was covered by Declan McCullagh in Wired 's story titled " Online Cincy Cop Threats Probed " . Later , in 2003 , The Denver Post published a similar story titled " Online threats target Denver investigators - Anarchist says e @-@ mails harmless ; feds disagree " . This story was written by Jim Hughes . The essay attracted interest from theorists long before and after its author 's legal entanglements ; libertarian economist Bob Murphy criticised the assassination politics scheme in a pair of articles titled " The Politics of Destruction " in 2002 . Murphy claimed that assassination politics was both technically infeasible and ideologically undesirable – from an anarcho @-@ capitalist perspective ( crypto @-@ anarchism being a form of anarcho @-@ capitalism ) . Others , such as R. Sukumaran , argue that assassination markets as suggested by Bell are perhaps technically feasible , but because they are so revolutionary , they " threaten elites " and will be made illegal . However , Sukumaran argues that AP was revived within DARPA by Poindexter with FutureMAP , an attempt to " extrapolate the Iowa Presidential markets system to the prediction of terroristic events " under the " interest of national security . " Mike Huben has argued that were Assassination Politics ever to be accepted then governments would merely operate secretly ( critiques of libertarianism ) . Almost all commentary so far has focused on the first nine parts of the essay and there is little on part 10 .
= = Investigation , prosecution and imprisonment = =
According to testimony by a federal agent , the federal government began infiltrating the Multnomah County Common Law Court via Steven Walsh , a government agent who attended the meetings under a false name and who even began to lead the organization . According to court documents , Bell attended three meetings of the group nearly a year after Walsh 's infiltration .
In February 1997 , the Internal Revenue Service acted on Bell 's tax debt , docking his wages and seizing his automobile . Inside the car , investigators found bomb @-@ making instructions , political literature and detailed information concerning cyanide and fertilizer .
IRS officers raided Bell 's home on April 1 , 1997 . He was arrested in May of that year , and , in July , he pleaded guilty to charges of obstruction of IRS agents and the use of a false Social Security number ( officials alleged that he had used four such numbers since 1984 in order to conceal his assets ; Bell said that he did not believe anyone had a right to know his real Social Security number ) .
As part of his plea bargain , Bell pleaded guilty in July 1997 to collecting the names and home addresses of IRS employees , and the home addresses of FBI , Bureau of Alcohol , Tobacco and Firearms agents and police in Clark County , Washington ; Bell also accepted responsibility for conducting a stinkbomb attack in the Vancouver IRS office . He was convicted of the two low @-@ level felonies and sentenced in December 1997 to eleven months in prison followed by three years of federal probation . As a condition of his sentence , Bell was compelled to pay , upon his release , $ 1 @,@ 359 in restitution for the stinkbomb attack . He was also subjected to three years of supervised release , during which he was barred from accessing computers and from possessing chemicals .
In Bell 's June 2003 lawsuit , Bell accused the federal government of extorting the 1997 plea agreement from him . Bell asserted that when he balked at that agreement in November 1997 , in part due to the government 's violation of the terms , government agents instructed fellow inmate Ryan Thomas Lund to assault Bell . The lawsuit alleged that Lund did this at about 6 : 00 P.M. on November 25 , 1997 , for the purpose of intimidating Bell , and to keep Bell away from his family and the news media . Later , in an ostensibly unrelated event , Lund filed a lawsuit stating that on December 14 , 1997 , two days after Bell 's December 12 , 1997 sentencing , Lund ( who was in solitary confinement at the time due to his assault on Bell ) had a " slip and fall " accident while alone in his cell , ostensibly due to a wet cell floor . Lund had also been promised a 27 @-@ month sentence for his illegal possession of firearms and methamphetamine , when the relevant federal law required a mandatory 10 @-@ year sentence . Bell alleged that the sentence reduction and lawsuit payoff were engineered to reward Lund for extorting Bell . Bell claimed that he was kept under " inhumane conditions for at least ten days " .
Bell further alleged in his 2003 lawsuit that a forged appeal case , number 99 @-@ 30210 , was entered into the court record . He stated that " Ninth Circuit Court personnel ... began corruptly falsifying , forging , and improperly adding to and deleting from the Ninth Circuit Court documentary record ... with regard to appeal # 99 @-@ 30210 . " Bell 's October 2004 amendment further alleges that , a handwritten note , " purportedly signed by Bell , but not in Bell 's handwriting style " , was forged to the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals . He alleges that this notice of appeal was filed around June 20 , 1999 ( claim 505 ) , and that , " ... Ninth Circuit personnel agreed to and did continually add false records to that docket , and at various times they deleted some of those false records and substituted new false records , for the purposes of concealing the true events and for continuing to obstruct Bell ’ s access to justice and his constitutional rights . " ( Claim 510 ) In his lawsuit , Bell seeks to establish that over a dozen government employees were guilty of numerous felonies .
= = Release and conviction = =
Bell served his prison sentence at a federal medium @-@ security prison in Phoenix , Arizona , from which he was released in April 2000 . He was rearrested in June of the same year on the charge of violating several of his 36 probation conditions , and was returned in November 2000 to a federal detention center at SeaTac , Washington following a search of his home that Bell called a " disguised burglary " .
Bell had conducted sousveillance against Bureau of Alcohol , Tobacco and Firearms agents , using public databases and legally obtained CD @-@ ROMs , " to let them know that surveillance can be done in both directions . " Over a six @-@ month period , Bell also compiled evidence of what he alleged was illegal surveillance of him by a government agency . In the days leading up to his arrest , he claimed that the agency had unlawfully installed a covert listening device in his home and a tracking device in his car , something the ATF admitted doing during the subsequent trial . The ATF stated that it had planted a covert GPS system in Bell 's car and that it had tracked the movements of his Nissan Maxima in real time .
Bell alleged in his 2003 lawsuit that the government employees had actually planted an illegal GPS tracking device in his car months before the one ostensibly allowed by the October 2000 warrant , at least as early as Bell 's April 2000 release from prison . The information from that prior device could not be used , however , because there was no warrant allowing it to be planted . Bell also alleged that federal government employees had also illegally planted a GPS tracking transmitter in a vehicle he drove in June 1998 , one which the government never disclosed . Bell further stated that his defense lawyers colluded to keep Bell from being able to demand disclosure of all such secretly planted devices .
Bell pleaded not guilty to violating 18 U.S.C. section 2281 , a law prohibiting the intimidation of family members of federal agents and some forms of stalking . The charges specified that Bell had performed Internet background checks on federal agents he asserted were harassing him , and Bell defended his actions by saying he was using public records to defend against what he saw as harassment by government officials . Journalist Declan McCullagh wrote , " [ Bell ] says , and a good number of observers agree , that the Feds are prosecuting him for doing what an investigative reporter does : Compiling information from publicly available databases , documenting what 's happening , and so on . This case could set a precedent that affects the First Amendment privilege of journalists . "
Declan McCullagh asserts that during the trial , the judge sealed the entire court file , forbade the defense from issuing subpoenas to witnesses , granted the prosecution significant latitude in making negative suggestions about Bell 's character , and refused requests for a mistrial . McCullagh also asserts that he was subpoenaed by two Treasury Department agents to appear before the court , without being notified ahead of time as required by federal regulations regarding subpoenas involving the media . Following the conviction , Jim Bell renewed his attempts at firing his court @-@ appointed lawyer , appealing his case to the Supreme Court , and filing civil lawsuits against those he alleges were involved in an orchestrated conspiracy to deny him a fair trial and an unbiased , court @-@ appointed defense counsel ; his targets included two judges , at least two prosecutors , and his former probation officers and defense attorneys .
= = Bell 's Isotope @-@ Modified Optical Fiber patent application = =
In February 2012 , Bell applied for a patent on an invention which would improve fibre optic communication speeds and assist in transmitting long distances . Although yet to produce any fibre , Bell states his mathematical models show the velocity of light within the fiber can be improved to from 68 % to 98 % of the speed of light with lower optical loss and dispersion which would allow light pulses to be transmitted for longer distances without being smeared together over time and distance .
= Norwegian Police Service =
The Norwegian Police Service ( Norwegian : Politi- og lensmannsetaten ) is the Norwegian civilian police agency . It consists of a central National Police Directorate , seven specialty agencies and twenty @-@ seven police districts . The government agency is subordinate to the Ministry of Justice and Public Security and has 13 @,@ 000 employees , of which 8 @,@ 000 are police officers . In addition to police powers , the service is responsible for border control , certain civil duties , coordinating search and rescue operations , counter @-@ terrorism , highway patrolling , writ of execution , criminal investigation and prosecution .
The police service dates to the 13th century when the first sheriffs were appointed . As the first city in Norway to do so , Trondheim had a chief of police appointed in 1686 , and Oslo established a uniformed police corps in 1859 . The directorate is led by National Police Commissioner Odd Reidar Humlegård . Police districts were introduced in 1894 , with the current structure dating from 2003 .
Each police district is led by a chief of police and is subdivided into several police stations in towns and cities , and sheriffs ' offices for rural areas . The Governor of Svalbard acts as chief of police for Svalbard . Norwegian police officers do not carry firearms , but keep their Heckler & Koch MP5 submachine guns and Heckler & Koch P30 pistols locked down in the patrol cars . The Norwegian Prosecuting Authority is partially integrated with the police .
Specialist agencies within the services include the National Criminal Investigation Service , the National Authority for Investigation and Prosecution of Economic and Environmental Crime ( Økokrim ) , the National Police Immigration Service , the National Mobile Police Service , the Norwegian Border Commissioner , the National Police Computing and Material Service and the Norwegian Police University College . Several other national responsibilities are under the command of Oslo Police District , such as the Emergency Response Unit and the two police helicopters . The Police Security Service is separate from the National Police Directorate .
= = History = =
The police force in Norway was established during the 13th century . Originally the 60 to 80 sheriffs ( lensmann ) were predominantly used for writ of execution and to a less degree police power . In the cities the duties were originally taken care of by a gjaldker . The sheriffs were originally subordinate to the sysselmann , but from the 14th century they instead became subordinate to the bailiff ( fogd ) and the number of sheriffs increased . In the cities the police authority was transferred directly to the bailiff . By the mid @-@ 17th century there were between 300 and 350 sheriffs . With the introduction of the absolute monarchy in 1660 and subsequent strengthening of the civil service , the importance of the police increased . The bailiffs as such became part of the police structure , with their superiors , the county governor , receiving a similar role as that of chief of police . The first titled chief of police was hired in Trondheim in 1686 , thus creating the first police district , although his jurisdiction only covered the city proper . Chiefs of police were hired in Bergen in 1692 , Christiania ( Oslo ) in 1744 and Christianssand in 1776 .
From the 19th century , deputies were hired in larger areas to assist the sheriffs . Following the democratization in 1814 , the Ministry of Justice was created in 1818 and has since had the primary responsibility for organizing the police force . The 19th century saw a large increase in the number of chiefs of police , reaching sixteen by the middle of the century . Christiania established the country 's first uniformed corps of constables in 1859 , which gave the force a more unified appearance . Similar structures were soon introduced in many other cities . From 1859 the municipalities would finance the wages of the deputies and constables , which made it difficult for the police to use those forces outside the municipal borders . The first organized education of police officers started in Christiania in 1889 .
In 1894 the authorities decided to abolish the position of bailiff and it was decided that some of its tasks would be transferred to the sheriffs . This resulted in 26 new chief of police positions , largely corresponding to the old bailiwicks . Some received jurisdiction over both cities and rural areas , other just rural areas . At the same time the existing police districts were expanded to include the surrounding rural areas . However , the individual bailiff were not removed from office until their natural retirement , leaving some bailiwick in place until 1919 . The reform eliminated the difference between the rural and city police forces ; yet the sheriffs were only subordinate to the chief of police in police matters — in civil matters and administration they remained under the county governors .
The police school was established in 1920 and the Governor of Svalbard was created in 1925 . To increase the police force 's flexibility , the municipal funding was cut and replaced with state funding in 1937 . That year also saw the first two specialty agencies were created , the Police Surveillance Agency ( later the Police Security Service ) and the Mobile Police Service . After a border agreement was reached between Norway and the Soviet Union in 1949 , the Norwegian Border Commission was established the following year . The Criminal Investigation Service was established in 1959 , and the search and rescue system with two joint coordination centers and sub @-@ centers for each police district was created in 1970 .
The number of police districts was nearly constant from 1894 to 2002 , although a few have been creased and closed . However , the organization in the various police districts varied considerably , especially in the cities . In particular , some cities had their civilian responsibilities taken care of by the municipality . This was confusing for the public , resulting in the police services reorganizing to a homogenous organization during the 1980s , whereby the civil tasks being organized as part of the police stations . Økokrim was established in 1988 and in 1994 the administrative responsibilities for the sheriff 's offices was transferred to police districts . Only once has the order to shoot to kill been issued , during the Torp hostage crisis in 1994 . The police school became a university college in 1993 and introduced a three @-@ year education ; in 1998 a second campus opened in Bodø . Police Reform 2000 was a major restructuring of the police force . First the National Police Directorate was created in 2001 , and from 2003 the number of police districts were reduced from 54 to 27 . The Police Computing and Material Service and the Criminal Investigation Service were both established in 2004 . Ten police officers have been killed in service since 1945 . The Gjørv Report following the 2011 Norway attacks criticized several aspects of the police force , labeling the work as " unacceptable " . National Commissioner Øystein Mæland withdrew following the criticism , in part because an internal report of the attacks had not found any criticism of the police force .
= = Structure = =
The National Police Directorate , located in Downtown Oslo , is the central administration for the Norwegian Police Service . It conducts management and supervision of the specialist agencies and police districts , including organizational development and support activities . The directorate is led by the National Police Commissioner , who , since 2012 , has been Odd Reidar Humlegård . The National Criminal Investigation Service is a national unit which works with organized and serious crime . It both works as an assistant unit for police districts , with special focus on technical and tactical investigation , in addition to being responsible on its own for organized crime . It acts as the center for international police cooperation , including participation in Interpol and Europol . The National Authority for Investigation and Prosecution of Economic and Environmental Crime is responsible for complex cases of economic crime and acts as a public prosecutor for those cases . The National Police Immigration Service registers and identifies asylum seekers and returns those which have their applications rejected . The National Mobile Police Service is based in Stavern and operates throughout the country . Their primary role is as highway patrol and manages the police reserves , although they also assist police districts in extraordinary events where extra manpower is needed or where they are in the vicinity .
The Norwegian Border Commissioner is located in Kirkenes and is responsible for managing the Norway – Russia border and upholding the border agreement . Special consideration is needed as it is the only non @-@ Schengen Area land border of Norway . Border controls are the responsibility of the respective police district . The National Police Computing and Material Service is responsible for managing the police 's information and communications technology , procurement , security and real estate . Norway has two joint rescue coordination centers , one for Northern Norway located in Bodø and on one for Southern Norway located in Sola . Their jurisdiction border goes at the 65th parallel north ( Nord @-@ Trøndelag – Nordland border ) . Organizationally they are directly subordinate to the Ministry of Justice and the Police , although their operations are subordinate to the chiefs of police in Salten and Rogaland , respectively . The Police Security Service is Norway 's security agency ; although considered a law enforcement agency , it is not subordinate to the National Police Directorate nor part of the Norwegian Police Service .
Metropolitan Norway is divided into 27 police districts . Each district is further subdivided into local police stations and rural police districts , the latter led by a sheriff . Each police district is headquartered at a main police station and is led by a chief of police . Police districts hold a common pool of resources and personnel and have a common administration and budget . Each also has a joint operations center which also acts as an emergency call center for 112 . Many of the larger districts have their own execution and enforcement authority , while this in integrated in the smaller districts . The size of the police districts varies , from Oslo with 2 @,@ 500 employees and covering a population of 570 @,@ 000 to Eastern Finnmark which has 160 employees and 30 @,@ 000 residents .
Each districts has specially @-@ trained mobile units for armed and other challenging missions , and dog units for narcotics and search and rescue missions . The police districts also have police boats for coastal waters and selected lakes , with focus on driving under the influence , speeding and environmental monitoring . In Troms and Finnmark , the Reindeer Police are responsible for monitoring and supervising reindeer husbandry and environmental supervision . As of 2009 there were 301 rural police districts , 68 local police stations and 10 execution and enforcement authorities .
Oslo Police District has a series of special divisions and task forces which provide aid to all other police districts when necessary . It is responsible for the two police helicopters , which is mostly used for traffic motoring , search and rescue and apprehension . The Emergency Response Unit is a deployment unit for terrorism , sabotage and hostage incidents , which is separate from the crisis and hostage negotiation service . Oslo 's dog patrol service includes the national bomb squad . The departments further has a mobile deployment squad against demonstrations and riots , a Police Negotiation Unit for use against barricades and kidnapping , a mounted police , and the responsibility for protecting high @-@ ranking government and royal officials .
Svalbard is not part of the regular police districts — instead it law enforcement it handled by the Governor of Svalbard . He holds the responsibility as both county governor and chief of police , as well as holding other authority granted from the executive branch . Duties include environmental policy , family law , law enforcement , search and rescue , tourism management , information services , contact with foreign settlements , and abjudication in some areas of maritime inquiries and judicial examinations — albeit never in the same cases as acting as police . Jan Mayen is subordinate to Salten Police District .
= = Jurisdiction and capabilities = =
Norway has a unified police , which means that there is a single police organization and that police power and prosecutor power is not granted to other agencies within Norway . The sole exception is the military police , albeit which only has jurisdiction over military personnel and on military installations , except during martial law . The police are decentralized and generalized to allow a more flexible resource allocation , while remaining under political control . This entails that police officers have no geographical or sector limitations to their powers . The Police Act and several special laws regulate the agencies and the officer 's powers and responsibilities . The police are required to assist other public institutions , including the healthcare authorities , and can be asked by other agencies to assist when it is necessary to enact a decision by force . Conversely , the police can ask for assistance from the Coast Guard when necessary . The police are responsible for all responses against terrorism and sabotage unless Norway is under armed attack .
Responsibilities and functions related to security includes patrolling , continual emergency availability , highway patrolling , sea patrolling , coordination of search and rescue activities , embassy security and as a body guard service for members of the government , the royal family and other in need . The crime fighting responsibility is split between preventative measures , such as information , observation and controls , and consequential measures , such as investigation and prosecution . The police further have duties related to civilian court cases , such as writ of execution , evaluation of natural damage , assisting the courts after bankruptcies and functioning as a notary public .
The police have a series of functions related to public management , such as the issuing of passports , firearms licenses , police certificates , permissions for lotteries and withdrawal of driving licenses , approval of security guard companies and bouncers , recommendations to municipal councils for issuing alcohol sales licenses , approval of second @-@ hand shops and arrangements which are otherwise unlawful , dealing with unowned dogs and animals in the care of people sentenced unsuitable to hold animals .
The police also have the responsibility for prisoner transport during detention , including transport to and from court . The police serve as border guards for the outer border of the Schengen Area . The busiest are Oslo Airport , Gardermoen , which has 130 man @-@ years tied to it , Storskog on the Russian border and Sandefjord Airport , Torp . These are the only borders with designated border employees — all other are manned with regular officers . The police is not responsible for customs , which is the responsibility of the Norwegian Customs and Excise Authorities . Norway participates in a series of international police cooperation , such as Interpol , Europol , the Schengen Information System , Frontex , and the Baltic Sea Task Force on Organized Crime . Norway also has a close cooperation with the other Nordic police forces . The Norwegian Police Service occasionally participates in international operations .
In 2011 the police force had 746 @,@ 464 assignments , the most common with 180 @,@ 000 assignments being investigation cases , such as reported deaths , controls and reports of motor vehicle theft . This was followed by traffic assignments , public disturbance of peace , animal cases , theft , private disturbance of peace , and sickness and psychiatry . Seventy @-@ five percent of assignments are solved with a single patrol , while ninety percent are solved with one and two . In armed situations only twenty percent are solved with a single patrol . In 2010 the Norwegian Police Service had 13 billion Norwegian krone in costs , of which seventy percent was used on wages . It employed 13 @,@ 493 man @-@ years , or 1 @.@ 6 man @-@ years per 1000 residents . There were 394 @,@ 137 reported offenses , or 81 @.@ 1 per 1000 people , of which 46 percent were solved . There were 5 @,@ 399 debt settlements , 226 @,@ 491 applications for writ of execution , 195 @,@ 345 immigration cases and 4 @,@ 615 forced returns .
= = Investigation and prosecution = =
The Norwegian Prosecuting Authority is integrated into the Norwegian Police Service . The authority is divided into a higher and lower authority , with the higher authority ( public prosecutor ) being a separate government agency and the lower authority ( police prosecutor ) being members of the police . The latter includes chief of police , deputy chief of police , police prosecutors and deputy police prosecutors . In questions of prosecution the police districts are subordinate to the Norwegian Prosecuting Authority and in other matters subordinate to the National Police Directorate .
The higher authorities will take decisions in serious criminal charges and for appeals . The Norwegian Persecuting Authority is led by the Director General of Public Prosecutions , which since 1997 has been Tor @-@ Aksel Busch . The director general makes decisions of indictment in cases with a maximum penalty of twenty @-@ one years and certain other serious crimes . There are twelve subordinate agencies , ten regional and two supporting Kripos and Økokrim , respectively . The regional public prosecution offices take decisions regarding cases not covered by the director general or the police prosecutors .
If an offense is filed , the issue may be investigated by police on duty . Permission for search and seizure is issued by the police prosecutor on duty at the police district . Apprehended people are permitted a free defense counsel at the public 's expense . If the police wish to keep apprehended people in detention , the issue is brought to the relevant district court , a process which may be repeated several times if the custody needs to be extended . Investigations are led by a police prosecutor . During investigation , the case may be concluded as a non @-@ criminal offense , dismissed , or transferred to another police district . Minor cases with a positive finding may be resolved by police penalty notice , settlement by a conflict resolution board and withdrawal of prosecution .
Criminal cases with an assumed perpetrator are sent to the public prosecutor , who will consider issuing an indictment . If positive , the trial will take place at a district court , with a police prosecutor presiding over the case . Cases with more than six years maximum penalty will normally be carried out with public prosecutors prosecuting . Either party can , on specified terms , appeal the outcome of the case to the court of appeal and ultimately the Supreme Court of Norway .
= = Education and employment = =
Education of police officers is the responsibility of the Norwegian Police University College , which is subordinate to the National Police Directorate . The main campus is located at Majorstuen in Oslo , while the secondary campus is located at Mørkved in Bodø . In addition the college has training centers in Kongsvinger and Stavern . Police officer training is a three @-@ year bachelor 's degree , where the first and third year take place at the college and the second year is on @-@ the @-@ ground training in police districts .
In 2009 , 1990 people applied for 432 places at the college . From 2010 , admission is administrated through the Norwegian Universities and Colleges Admission Service . The college also has a three @-@ year part @-@ time master 's degree in police science . As the chief of police and deputy chief of police are part of the prosecuting authority , they must be a candidate of law to act in such a position . Although there no longer is a formal requirement for such an education , the role as prosecutor effectively hinders others from holding the position .
At the time of graduation all officers are qualified for operational service . However , each employee must undergo 40 hours of yearly training , including firearms practice , to keep their operational certification . Without this , they cannot patrol , use firearms or participate in actions . Forty @-@ four percent of police officers in 2012 lacked such certification . The main reason is that the police districts see it as a waste of resources to train investigation and administrative staff which do not participate in operative duty , and that a higher quality is achieved through specialization of tasks , such as dedicated investigation personnel .
Each police district may dictate that operational personnel have a higher amount of training , for instance 80 hours is required in Oslo . Officers are certified at five levels , of which the top four can use firearms . Level three consists of a call @-@ out unit for each police district , consisting of a combined 646 people . This requires 103 hours of special training per year . Higher levels are required for body @-@ guard service ( 55 officers ) and the Emergency Response Union ( 73 officers ) . All certification curriculum is developed by and organized by the university college .
The Norwegian Police Federation is the trade union which organizes employees from all levels within the police force . The federation is a member of the Confederation of Unions for Professionals , Norway and the European Confederation of Police . It is illegal for police officers to strike . The federation have nonetheless undertaken several actions , including collective sick leave to close a police station and by members sabotaging courses by not participating . Reports of misconduct and criminal offenses by officers during duty is investigated by the Norwegian Bureau for the Investigation of Police Affairs . Based in Hamar , it is directly subordinate to the Ministry of Justice and the Police and is not part of the Norwegian Police Service .
= = Equipment = =
As of 2011 the police 's new patrol cars are four @-@ wheel drive Volkswagen Passat with automatic transmission . New transport cars are Mercedes @-@ Benz Vito for light transport and Mercedes @-@ Benz Sprinter for heavy transport . The police force operates two Eurocopter EC135 helicopters , which are based at Oslo Airport , Gardermoen . In addition , the Emergency Response Unit can use the Royal Norwegian Air Force 's Bell 412 helicopters .
The police have two main types of uniforms , type I is used for personnel which primarily undertake indoor work , and type II is used for personnel which primarily undertakes outdoor service . Both types have summer and winter versions , and type I also has a dress uniform version . Both types use black as the dominant color with light blue shirts .
Police officers are not armed with firearms during patrolling , but have weapons locked down in the patrol cars . Arming of the locked @-@ down weapons requires permission from the chief of police or someone designated by him . The police use Heckler & Koch MP5 submachine guns and Heckler & Koch P30 semi @-@ automatic pistols . The Emergency Response Unit uses Diemaco C8 assault rifles . Norwegian police officers do not use electroshock weapons .
Previously the police used a decentralized information technology system developed during the mid @-@ 1990s . As late as 2012 servers were still being run with Windows NT 4 @.@ 0 from 1996 and log @-@ on times were typically twenty minutes . The new IT @-@ system D # 2 was introduced in 2011 and will have been taken into use by all divisions by 2012 . D # 2 will be operated by ErgoGroup and will have two redundant server centers . Personnel have access to the system via thin clients . The police have a system to raise a national alarm to close border crossings and call in reserve personnel . The one time it was activated the message was not received by any of the intended recipients . Since 2009 it has been possible to report criminal damage and theft of wallets , bicycles and mobile telephones without a known perpetrator ( s ) online .
The Norwegian Public Safety Radio has been installed in Oslo , Østfold , Akershus and southern Buskerud . The system is uses Terrestrial Trunked Radio and allows for a common public safety network for all emergency agencies . Features include authentication , encryption and possibilities to transmit data traffic . As the system is rolled out , central parts will receive transmission speeds of 163 kbit / s . The rest of the country uses an analog radio system specific for each police district . In addition to lack of interoperability with paramedics and fire fighters , none of the systems are encrypted , forcing police officers to rely heavily on GSM @-@ based mobile telephones for dispatch communication when transmitting sensitive information .
Police cars lack GPS navigation devices and mobile data terminal . Instead , all communication must be radioed to the dispatcher at the joint operations center , and officers must rely on printed road atlases for navigation . In contrast , GPS navigation and terminal equipment was finished installed in ambulances and fire trucks in 2003 . The Norwegian Public Safety Radio is scheduled for completion in 2015 .
= = Ranks = =
Source : Norwegian National Police
= Cicuta =
Cicuta , commonly known as water hemlock , is a small genus of four species of highly poisonous plants in the family Apiaceae . They are perennial herbaceous plants which grow up to 2 @.@ 5 meters ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) tall , having distinctive small green or white flowers arranged in an umbrella shape ( umbel ) . Plants in this genus may also be referred to as cowbane or poison parsnip . Cicuta is native to temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere , mainly North America and Europe , typically growing in wet meadows , along streambanks and other wet and marshy areas . These plants bear a close resemblance to other members in the family Apiaceae and may be confused with a number of other edible and poisonous plants . The common name hemlock may also be confused with poison hemlock ( Conium maculatum ) .
Water hemlock is considered one of North America 's most toxic plants , being highly poisonous to humans . Three members of the genus contain a toxin named cicutoxin which causes central nervous system stimulatory effects including seizures following ingestion . Medical treatment of poisoning may include the use of activated charcoal to decrease gastrointestinal absorption of the toxic principle along with supportive care including anticonvulsant drugs such as a benzodiazepine . High doses of anticonvulsant medicine are often required to halt seizure activity and further medical care including intubation and mechanical ventilation may be required .
= = Description = =
Cicuta spp. are perennial plants that are all similar in morphology , growing up to a maximum of 2 @.@ 5 meters ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) in height . The stem of the plant is branching , erect , smooth and hollow ( except for partitions at the junction of the leaves and stem ) , sometimes being purple @-@ striped , or mottled ( typically only C. maculata has the purple stripes or spots ) . Attached to the base of the stem is a tuberous root with thickened rootstocks . The rootstocks are multichambered and contain a yellowish oily liquid which turns reddish brown on exposure to air and emits a characteristic smell of raw parsnip . The alternate leaves are 2 or 3 pinnately compound and may reach 30 centimeters ( 12 in ) to 90 centimeters ( 35 in ) in length . The leaflets are lanceolate , serrate , 5 centimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) to 10 centimeters ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) in length , and sharply toothed . The plant flowers in spring or early summer ; the flowers are small with green or white petals clustered in an umbrella shape ( umbel ) characteristic to this family ; the umbel measures 5 centimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) to 10 centimeters ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) across . The plants produce a cylindrical fruit which is 4 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 16 in ) to 6 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 24 in ) in length . The plant is spread primarily by seeds which are produced in large numbers and are small in size .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Cicuta genus is one of many genera in the Apiaceae family which is in the order Apiales . The Apiaceae family is also known as Umbelliferae and both of these family names are permitted to be used by the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature . In Europe , Cicuta was not distinguished from the similar genus Conium before the year 1500 . The first mention of the genus in the United States was in the eighteenth century . Carl Linnaeus formally described three species in 1753 . The type species is Cicuta virosa . The genus is now recognized to comprise four species :
Other species names such as Cicuta bolanderi , Cicuta californica , and Cicuta curtissii are older names now recognized to be varieties of the widespread , morphologically variable Cicuta maculata . Cicuta maculata is now recognized to have four varieties : var. maculata , var. augustifolia , var. victorinii , and var. bolanderi . Phylogenetic analysis using the sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA internal transcribed spacer ( ITS ) loci was not conclusive but seems to show that C. bulbifera and C. virosa are monophyletic , while C. douglasii may not be . It was also suggested a specimen from California may warrant recognition as a distinct species . Other common names for the genus in general include poison parsnip , beaver poison , wild carrot , wild parsnip , and false parsley .
= = Similar species = =
Members of the family Apiaceae bear close resemblance to each other , and have many characteristics in common . Cicuta spp. are often mistaken for edible plants such as kvanne ( Angelica archangelica ) , wild celery ( Apium graveolens ) , pignut ( Conopodium majus ) , wild carrot ( Daucus carota ) , wild parsnip ( Pastinaca sativa ) , and water parsnip ( Berula spp . ) . One of the more common misidentifications is between water hemlock and water parsnip ; both have clusters of small white flowers shaped like umbrellas , and both have the same habitat near the shore line of lakes and rivers . Differences between water parsnip and water hemlock include the water parsnip having leaves only once compound while the water hemlock has leaves which are two or three times compound . Water hemlock also has a large swelling at the stem base which water parsnip lacks . Additionally , water hemlock has bracts at the base of each small flower cluster , not at the base of the main flower head , while water parsnip has both bracts at the base of flowers and also at the main flower head .
Additionally , there can be confusion between the various water hemlock species and poison hemlock ( Conium maculatum ) as the common name hemlock is applied to both Cicuta and Conium maculatum . Both are poisonous and can be differentiated by differences in their root structure . Water hemlock has a branched root systems with tubules , while poison hemlock has a single tap root . Another reliable method to identify water hemlock is to examine the leaf veins . Water Hemlock is unique in the Apiaceae family in that it has leaf veins which terminate in the notches between the leaf tips , rather than extend to the tip of the leaf , as is found in the leaf structure of other members of this family .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Cicuta spp. are found growing across North America and Europe . Typically , they grow in wet habitats usually alongside ponds and streams , in marshes or swamps , or areas that are swampy at least part of the year . Plants can also be found growing in water . Of the four species , Cicuta maculata has the most widespread distribution occurring across the majority of North America . Cicuta bulbifera also has a relatively large distribution , found throughout Northern North America . Cicuta douglasii is found in the northwest corner of North America , while Cicuta virosa is only found in central Europe and in the far north of North America .
= = Toxicity = =
All members of Cicuta except C. bulbifera contain high levels of the poisonous principle cicutoxin , an unsaturated aliphatic alcohol that is structurally closely related to the toxin oenanthotoxin found in the plant hemlock water dropwort . Cicutoxin is present at all stages of growth and in all parts of the plant , but is most concentrated in the roots which appear to be the most toxic in the early spring . Its primary toxic effect is to act as a stimulant in the central nervous system . It is a non @-@ competitive gamma @-@ aminobutyric acid ( GABA ) receptor antagonist . Cicutoxin acts on the GABAA receptor causing a block of the chloride channel which results in neuronal depolarization . In the presence of cicutoxin this depolarization continues unabated causing cell overactivity . The hyperactivity in brain cells results in seizures . Cicutoxin is highly poisonous and water hemlock is considered one of North America 's most toxic plants . Ingestion of Cicuta can be fatal in humans and there are reports in the medical literature of severe poisoning and death as early as 1670 . A number of people have also died following ingestion of the plant in the 20th and 21st century .
The LD50 in mice administered cicutoxin by intraperitoneal injection is 48 @.@ 3 mg per kg body weight ( mg / kg ) ; this compares with 5 @.@ 9 mg / kg for mice given potassium cyanide by intraperitoneal injection , while the LD50 for arsenic via intraperitoneal injection in mice is 46 @.@ 2 mg / kg . The exact toxic dose of plant material in humans is unknown ; it is thought ingestion of water hemlock in any quantity can result in poisoning and very small amounts may lead to death . Poisoning has been reported following children blowing whistles made from the hollow stem of water hemlock plants . Intoxication has also been reported following skin contact with the plant ; a case was reported where a family of five people rubbed the plant onto the skin and were poisoned , with two children dying . Livestock have long been the worst affected , leading to the common name " cowbane " . Poisoning in livestock is common and typically occurs following ingestion of roots of the plant . In the spring when the ground is soft , grazing animals tend to pull the entire plant out of the ground ingesting both the foiliage and the roots . Roots exposed by ploughing can also be the source of livestock poisonings . Ingestion of plant material may cause death in the animal in as little as 15 minutes .
= = = Symptoms = = =
Upon consumption , both in humans and other species , the symptoms of poisoning are mainly characterized by generalized seizures . The onset of symptoms following ingestion may be as soon as 15 minutes post ingestion . Initial symptoms reported may include nausea , vomiting , abdominal pain , tremors , confusion , weakness , dizziness , and drowsiness ; although the rapid onset of seizure activity may be the first sign presented following poisoning . Seizures are usually described as clonic or tonic – clonic . Complications of ongoing seizure activity include increased body temperature , decreases in the pH of the blood ( metabolic acidosis ) , swelling in the brain , blood coagulation disorders , muscle breakdown ( rhabdomyolysis ) , and kidney failure . Additional neurological symptoms may include hallucinations , delirium , tingling , pricking , or numbness of a person 's skin , dilated pupils , and coma . Cardiovascular symptoms include alternating slow or fast heart rate and alternating low and high blood pressure . Other cardiac effects may include ECG abnormalities such as widening of the PR interval , supraventricular tachycardia , and ventricular fibrillation . Symptoms of excess salivation , wheezing , respiratory distress , and absence of breathing have also been reported .
Deaths usually occur from respiratory failure or ventricular fibrillation secondary to ongoing seizure activity ; fatalities have occurred within a few hours of ingestion . Poisoned people who recover usually regain consciousness and seizures cease within 24 to 48 hours of poisoning , although seizures may persist for up to 96 hours . There are occasional long @-@ term effects such as retrograde amnesia of the events leading to intoxication and the intoxication itself . Other ongoing mild effects may include restlessness , muscle weakness , twitching , and anxiety . Complete resolution of symptoms may take a number of days or , in some cases , these ongoing symptoms may persist for months after poisoning .
= = = Diagnosis and treatment = = =
Water hemlock poisoning is usually diagnosed following a history of plant ingestion and symptoms of abrupt onset of seizures . Laboratory tests to determine the presence of cicutoxin in the blood such as spectrofluorimetry , high pressure liquid chromatography , thin layer chromatography , and mass spectrometry have been used to detect cicutoxin but these tests are not performed routinely in hospital laboratories . If a sample of the plant ingested has been retained , diagnosis can be confirmed by having the plant identified by a botanist .
Initial treatment of poisoning may include gastrointestinal decontamination with activated charcoal . Decontamination is typically only performed if a potentially toxic amount of plant matter has been ingested up to one hour previously and the patient has a normal intact airway or has been intubated . There is no specific antidote for water hemlock poisoning and treatment mainly consists of supportive care . Treatment may include control of seizures with the administration of a benzodiazepines such as lorazepam or diazepam , or if seizures are refractory to this treatment , a barbiturate such as phenobarbital is administered . The anticonvulsant phenytoin is not recommended as it has not been shown to be effective for seizure control following water hemlock poisoning . Treatment with high doses of benzodiazepines or barbiturates may cause respiratory depression and respiratory support including intubation and mechanical ventilation is required in these patients . Continuous electroencephalography monitoring is recommended in symptomatic patients .
Further treatment for complications of metabolic acidosis , rhabdomyolysis , hyperthermia , or low blood pressure may be required . Metabolic acidosis is treated by administering sodium bicarbonate . Low blood pressure is usually treated with intravenous fluid replacement , but the administration of dopamine or norepinephrine may be required to restore blood pressure . The management of rhabdomyolysis includes ensuring adequate hydration and urinary alkalinization ; a complication of rhabdomyolysis is acute renal failure which may require management with hemodialysis . However , hemodialysis , hemoperfusion or other extracorporeal techniques do not remove cicutoxin from the blood and are therefore not useful in enhancing elimination .
= Action of 28 January 1945 =
The Action of 28 January 1945 was an inconclusive naval battle of the Second World War fought between two British Royal Navy light cruisers and three Kriegsmarine ( German navy ) destroyers near Bergen , Norway . The battle was both the last of many actions between British and German warships off Norway during the war , and the second last surface engagement to fought by the Kriegsmarine . It resulted in heavy damage to one of the German destroyers and light damage to another destroyer and both British cruisers .
Shortly after midnight on the night of 27 / 28 January , as the three destroyers of the German 4th Destroyer Flotilla were sailing from northern Norway to the Baltic Sea , they were intercepted by the British cruisers HMS Diadem and Mauritius . In the resulting engagement , the destroyers Z31 and Z34 were damaged by gunfire but the German flotilla outran the slower British ships and escaped . All the German war
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0 @,@ 200 personally held MLGL shares and $ 125 @,@ 000 . Two more new common shares would be granted to Harold to repay the $ 911 @,@ 000 debt HEBL owed him from his two transactions with the company . This gave Harold , who feared that Bill was positioning himself to take over the holding company , control of HEBL . Harold did not want his bickering children to inherit MLGL because he feared they would destroy it .
Though Harold ran up significant amounts of personal debt during his ownership of MLGL , he made the company very profitable , so much so that MLG became known as the " Cashbox on Carlton Street " , referring to the address of the arena . Upon Harold 's death in April 1990 , most of his estate , which was worth less than $ 50 million , was left to charitable organizations . The executors of Harold 's will were supermarket tycoon Steve Stavro , Giffin and Donald Crump . In November 1990 Molson exercised their option on 19 @.@ 9 % of the company , paying $ 10 @,@ 000 for 735 @,@ 575 of HEBL 's MLGL shares , which at the time were valued at $ 20 million . Due to restrictions against cross @-@ ownership in the NHL , the company set up a trust to hold their stake , and the league instructed them to sell the shares within an " adequate amount of time " . Shortly after the estate , which had limited income due to HEBL still owing TD Bank $ 15 @.@ 8 million on its loan to acquire Harold Jr 's HEBL stock , missed a January 1991 deadline to repay its $ 20 million loan ( including interest ) from Molson , Stavro personally loaned the estate the funds to pay off the debt . In exchange he received an option to purchase the estate 's HEBL shares before January 1996 . Bill challenged the transaction , but it was approved by the court . In early 1991 Molson offered to buy the estate 's shares for $ 40 each . In September 1991 Bill sold his HEBL stock to his father 's estate for $ 21 million , giving it ownership of the entire company . Shortly thereafter it was announced that Stavro had reached a deal with Molson on an option to purchase their MLGL shares until April 1994 and for Molson to waive their option on the estate 's shares .
= = = Steve Stavro = = =
Stavro founded MLG Ventures ( MLGV ) in March 1994 with partners Toronto @-@ Dominion Bank and Ontario Teachers ' Pension Plan . MLG Holdings Ltd . ( MLGH ) , of which Stavro owned 80 % and TD Bank controlled the remaining 20 % , held a 51 % ownership stake in MLGV , with the remaining 49 % owned by Teachers ' . The following month MLGV announced that they had reached an agreement to purchase the 60 @.@ 3 % of MLGL held by Harold 's estate for $ 34 a share or $ 75 million total , valuing the company at $ 125 million . The estate still owned Stavro $ 23 million at the time . Molson also sold its 19 @.@ 9 % of MLGL to MLGV in April 1994 for $ 25 million . Larry Tanenbaum 's company Kilmer Sports purchased a 25 % share of MLGH from Stavro in 1996 for a reported $ 21 million .
MLGV subsequently purchased all the remaining shares and took MLGL private in 1998 , after acquiring more than the 90 % of stock necessary to force objecting shareholders out , and MLGL and MLGV amalgamated . The purchase was the subject of a Ontario Securities Commission ( OSC ) review , due to allegations that MLGV had engaged in insider trading by failing to disclose that broadcast revenue was expected to substantially increase , and a $ 50 million lawsuit from Bill who claimed that Stavro and others devalued MLGL and withheld information relevant to the value of the company prior to the sale of his stock . Ontario 's Office of the Public Trustee , which was charged with representing the charities named by Harold 's will as beneficiaries , argued that Stavro had a conflict of interest as both executor of the will and buyer and had not paid market value because there was no public bidding process for the shares . Several minority owners , including Harry Ornest , who held 3 @.@ 5 % of the company , and Jim Devellano also objected to MLGV 's attempts to take the company private without an auction . Stavro and his partners in MLGV reached a settlement in 1996 to pay an additional $ 23 @.@ 5 million plus interest to the charities as well as $ 2 @.@ 5 million to the minority shareholders who had sued , clearing the way for them to become the majority owner of MLGL . They also settled with the OSC in 1999 for $ 1 @.@ 6 million , which included a fine and costs . Teachers ' invested $ 44 @.@ 3 million and TD $ 9 @.@ 75 million in the deal .
Following the merger , the ownership structure of the now defunct MLGV was retained by MLGL . MLGH was the majority owner of MLGL , holding 51 % of the company . It in turn was controlled by Stavro ( 55 % ) , with minority shareholders Tanenbaum ( 25 % ) and TD Capital Group ( 20 % ) . The remaining 49 % of MLGL was owned by Teachers ' . This tiered ownership structure gave Stavro effective control of MLGL with only a net 29 % stake of the company . Teachers ' invested a further $ 50 million in the company in the form of a convertible bond in 1998 to finance the purchase of the Raptors and ACC and complete construction of the arena .
= = = Ontario Teachers ' Pension Plan = = =
In 2003 an agreement was reached to restructure the company with Stavro selling his stake to Bell Globemedia for a reported $ 120 – 150 @-@ million after debt repayments , the other partners converting their debts into equity , and each partner getting a direct ownership stake in the newly named MLSE , with MLGH being dissolved . This left Teachers ' as the controlling majority owners of MLSE with 58 @.@ 4 % , and minority partners Bell Globemedia ( 15 @.@ 4 % ) , TD Capital with ( 13 @.@ 5 % ) and Tanenbaum , who took over as non @-@ executive chairman , with 13 % . Each owner of MLSE had a right of first refusal on any shares sold , in proportion to their ownership share . The same year MLSE was internally valued at over $ 1 billion by Teachers ' in its annual report . In 2008 the Toronto Star reported that a valuation commissioned by the company concluded that the company was worth $ 1 @.@ 5 billion USD . On December 5 , 2008 CTVglobemedia ( the renamed Bell Globemedia ) sold half of its 15 @.@ 4 % stake to Tanenbaum for $ 100 million , making Tanenbaum the second @-@ largest stakeholder with 20 @.@ 7 % . The transaction valued the company at $ 1 @.@ 2 billion . On August 20 , 2009 Teachers ' announced that it had agreed to purchase the remaining 7 @.@ 7 % stake in MLSE owned by CTVglobemedia , bumping their stake to 66 % .
= = = Bell and Rogers = = =
In December 2010 it was reported that Rogers Communications , owner of the Toronto Blue Jays , was in negotiations to purchase the Teachers ' 66 % stake in MLSE , with the asking price set at $ 1 @.@ 3 billion , and in March 2011 Teachers ' confirmed that their share in the company was for up for sale . Tanenbaum 's right of first refusal on the shares gave him control over any sale by Teachers ' . In May 2011 Teachers ' announced that they had reached an agreement to purchase TD Capital 's 13 @.@ 5 % ownership share , giving them 79 @.@ 5 % of the company and leaving Tanenbaum as the only minority partner with 20 @.@ 5 % , simplifying a sale of their shares . In November 2011 Teachers ' announced that they were taking the company off the market . However , only a couple of weeks later , on December 9 , 2011 , Teachers ' announced the sale of its entire stake in MLSE to a partnership between Bell Canada and Rogers Communications , in a deal valued at $ 1 @.@ 32 billion , giving the company an equity value of $ 1 @.@ 66 billion and an enterprise value of $ 2 billion due to the assumption of their share of MLSE 's $ 372 million in debt and $ 66 million in leases . As part of the deal , Tanenbaum increased his stake in the company by 5 % , valued at $ 109 million , to 25 % to secure his approval . The deal required the approval of Canada 's Competition Bureau , the Canadian Radio @-@ television and Telecommunications Commission ( with regards to MLSE 's TV channels ) , as well as the NHL , the AHL , the NBA , and MLS ( with regards to each of MLSE 's main sports franchises ) .
The Competition Bureau announced in May 2012 that it would not challenge the transaction , but that it will " actively review " the situation in light of " serious concerns " expressed by various parties , reserving the right to take action at a later date . The NHL Board of Governors approved the sale at a meeting in Las Vegas on June 19 , 2012 . The final approval , that of the CRTC , was granted on August 16 , with the commission noting that it only had jurisdiction over the TV channels owned by MLSE ( the transfer of ownership from MLSE to Bell , Rogers and Kilmer directly , it decided , posed no major concerns ) , and not the broadcast rights associated with MLSE 's teams . The transaction closed on August 22 , 2012 .
As part of the sale , two numbered companies were created to jointly hold stock . Following the restructuring , the ownership hierarchy of MLSE was :
8047286 Canada Inc . ( Rogers / Bell joint holding company ) – 75 %
Rogers Communications – 50 % ( net ownership 37 @.@ 5 % )
7680147 Canada Inc . ( Bell holding company ) – 50 %
Bell Canada Enterprises – 74 @.@ 67 % ( net ownership 28 % )
BCE Master Trust Fund ( investment fund of Bell 's pension plan ) – 25 @.@ 33 % ( net ownership 9 @.@ 5 % )
Kilmer Sports ( holding company of Larry Tanenbaum ) – 25 %
This ownership structure ensures that , at the shareholder level , Rogers and Bell vote their overall 75 % interest in the company together and thus decisions on the management of the company must be made by consensus of the two . ( If Rogers and Bell owned their interests directly , either Rogers or Bell could be overruled by its competitor in combination with Tanenbaum . ) As such , Rogers and Bell have agreed that their previously four of six ( now six of eight ) directors on the MLSE board will always vote together , and thus that any disagreements between the two companies will be settled privately without the involvement of Tanenbaum . Bell has indicated that the involvement of Bell 's pension fund is , at least in part , intended to ensure Bell can retain its existing 18 % interest in the Montreal Canadiens , as NHL rules prevent any shareholder that owns more than 30 % of a team from holding an ownership position in any other team . As a result of Bell and Rogers having co @-@ ownership in MLSE , the regional broadcasts of Maple Leafs , Raptors and Toronto FC games are split between Bell 's TSN and Rogers ' Sportsnet .
In 2015 MLSE initiated a corporate restructuring , with the plan to transfer most of its assets to another holding company , named " Maple Leaf Sports & Entertainment Partnership " ( MLSEP ) , which would be wholly owned , directly and indirectly , by MLSE .
= = Assets = =
= = = Sports teams = = =
Toronto Maple Leafs ( National Hockey League ) – Valued at $ 1 @.@ 15 billion USD in 2015 , 3rd in the NHL
Toronto Raptors ( National Basketball Association ) – Valued at $ 920 million USD in 2015 , 14th in the NBA
Toronto FC ( Major League Soccer ) – Valued at $ 175 million USD in 2015 , 5th in MLS
Toronto Marlies ( American Hockey League )
Toronto FC II ( United Soccer League )
TFC Academy ( League1 Ontario )
Raptors 905 ( NBA D @-@ League )
Note that the valuations done by Forbes are estimates and are not based on numbers provided by MLSE .
= = = Facilities and properties = = =
= = = = Owns = = = =
Air Canada Centre – a multi @-@ purpose indoor arena in downtown Toronto home to the Maple Leafs and Raptors which was constructed at a cost of $ 265 million
Maple Leaf Square ( 37 @.@ 5 % ) – a real estate development adjacent to the Air Canada Centre , developed in partnership with fellow OTPP subsidiary Cadillac Fairview , which includes , among other tenants , the following businesses operated by MLSE :
Real Sports Bar & Grill – a sports @-@ themed restaurant
Real Sports Apparel – a sports clothing store
e11even – an upscale restaurant on the corner of Bremner and York streets
= = = = Invested in and operates ( owned by the City of Toronto ) = = = =
BMO Field – home of Toronto FC and the Canadian men 's national soccer team ( CONCACAF )
Ricoh Coliseum – home of the Marlies
BioSteel Centre – practice facility for the Raptors
= = = = Invested in = = = =
MasterCard Centre – practice facility for the Maple Leafs and Marlies
KIA Training Ground – practice facility for Toronto FC and Toronto FC II , and home of the TFC Academy
Lamport Stadium – former home of the TFC Academy
= = = Television channels = = =
Leafs TV – a specialty channel devoted to the Maple Leafs and Marlies ( valued at $ 19 million on behalf of the CRTC in 2012 )
NBA TV Canada – a localized version of NBA TV , a US basketball channel , which also devotes part of its schedule to specific coverage of the Raptors ( valued at $ 21 million on behalf of the CRTC in 2012 )
= = Staff = =
= = = Board of Directors = = =
Larry Tanenbaum – Kilmer Sports ( Non @-@ Executive Chairman of the Board )
George A. Cope – BCE and Bell Canada
Dale Lastman – Goodmans LLP
Guy Laurence – Rogers Communications
Edward Rogers III – Rogers Communications
Anthony Staffieri – Rogers Communications
Bernard Le Duc – Bell Canada
Siim Vanaselja – Bell Canada
= = = Executive team = = =
Michael Friisdahl – President and CEO
Brendan Shanahan – President and Alternate Governor , Toronto Maple Leafs
Masai Ujiri – President and General Manager , Basketball Operations
Bill Manning – President , Toronto FC
= José Sarria =
José Julio Sarria also known as The Grand Mere , Absolute Empress I de San Francisco , and the Widow Norton ( December 13 , 1922 – August 19 , 2013 ) was an American political activist from San Francisco , California who , in 1961 , became the first openly gay candidate for public office in the United States . He is also remembered for performing as a drag queen at the Black Cat Bar and as the founder of the Imperial Court System .
Sarria was born to Julio Sarria and Maria Dolores Maldonado . His parents did not marry and his father showed no interest in his son 's life . Maria initially raised José on her own , but when this became too difficult she placed him with another couple . Both they and his mother indulged his early interest in wearing girl 's clothing . Sarria showed an affinity for languages , which led to his first serious romance with another man . Sarria tutored Paul Kolish , an Austrian baron who had fled from the Nazis . Sarria and Kolish fell in love , and their relationship endured until Kolish and his son were killed in a car accident in 1947 .
Sarria served in the United States Army during World War II . Following his discharge , he studied to become a teacher and frequented the Black Cat . He met waiter Jimmy Moore , whom Sarria described as " the love of [ his ] life " . Sarria was hired as a cocktail waiter . Following a conviction on a morals charge , Sarria , realizing he could not now become a certified teacher , began performing in drag . He appeared regularly at the Black Cat . An early LGBT activist , Sarria co @-@ founded several homophile organizations , including the League for Civil Education , the Tavern Guild and the Society for Individual Rights . Sarria became the first openly gay candidate for public office in the United States when he ran for the San Francisco Board of Supervisors in 1961 . In 1964 Sarria declared himself " Empress José I , The Widow Norton " and founded the Imperial Court System , which grew to become an international association of charitable organizations .
Following the closure of the Black Cat in 1964 , Sarria went to work with restaurateur Pierre Parker . The pair operated French restaurants at World 's Fairs . While at the 1964 New York World 's Fair , Sarria learned that Jimmy Moore had committed suicide . Sarria worked at several more Fairs before retiring in 1974 . After living with Parker in Phoenix , Arizona for several years , Sarria returned to San Francisco . He continued to reign over the Courts for 43 years , before abdicating in 2007 . For his lifetime of activism , the city of San Francisco renamed a section of 16th Street in Sarria 's honor .
= = Family history = =
Sarria was born in San Francisco , California to Maria Dolores Maldonado and Julio Sarria . His family was of Spanish and Colombian origin . His mother Maria was born in Bogotá to an upper class and politically active family . During the events of the Thousand Days War and following her mother 's death , Maria sought out the protection of her mother 's friend , General Rafael Uribe Uribe , to escape Colombia . The general located Maria 's surviving uncle , who took her to the American consulate . There she was made a ward of the United States and relocated to Panama . " My mother got to Panama with directions to the home of a family called Kopp . He was the chairman of the big German beer company there " , said Sarria . " She went to work for the Kopps . ... My mother was the upstairs maid and took care of the children . " In 1919 she relocated to Guatemala City but remained there for just six months and , in 1920 , sailed to San Francisco . As Sarria reported it , " Now on the boat is where my mother met my father , Julio Sarria . He came from a large and very wealthy family , very well known . ... His grandparents came from Spain . "
Maria initially worked for the woman who sponsored her passage to the United States and then took a job as a maid with a family named Jost . Julio was the maitre d ' at the Palace Hotel . Julio courted Maria until she realized she was pregnant . Their son José was born on December 12 . His birth certificate reads 1923 but Sarria believed he was born in 1922 . Julio and Maria never married .
= = Early life = =
Sarria 's mother continued to work for the Jost family but it became increasingly difficult for her to fulfil her job responsibilities and care for an infant . Maria made arrangements for him to be raised by another couple , Jesserina and Charles Millen . Jesserina had recently lost her youngest child to diphtheria and suffered severe depression . Her doctor suggested she take in another child to raise and after meeting with her Maria agreed to let her raise José . José came to consider the Millens and their children to be his second family . Maria bought a house and moved the Millens and José into it .
Sarria did not have a relationship with his birth father , a man who showed zero interest in him and failed to provide his family with financial support . Julio Sarria was eventually arrested for failure to pay child support . A judge ordered that he pay $ 5 to be released ; this money was then turned over for Jose 's care . Julio was arrested each month until he returned to Nicaragua in around 1926 or 1927 ; each time he paid the $ 5 and was released . Julio died in Nicaragua in 1945 . Years later , José learned that his father had acknowledged him as his first @-@ born .
Sarria attended the Emerson School for kindergarten and then , because he spoke only Spanish , was sent to private schools until learning English . Sarria began dressing in female clothes at an early age and his family indulged him , allowing him occasionally to go on family outings dressed as a girl . In his youth he studied ballet , tap dancing and singing .
When Sarria was around ten years old , he asked his mother how much money they had in the bank . Maria , who gave her money to her employer Mr. Jost to invest , asked to see the books . She discovered that Jost had been embezzling from her and from the other women whom she had referred to him . Jost was arrested , convicted and deported . Maria sued Jost 's corporate partners and received a settlement but never recovered the bulk of the money . Unable to afford her house payments , Maria moved José and the Millen family to Redwood City in 1932 .
As a teenager Sarria enrolled in Commerce High School , where he took advanced classes in French and German . With his Spanish and English these brought his total languages to four . His facility with languages led to his first serious relationship with another man . Sarria tutored Paul Kolish , an Austrian baron who fled to Switzerland when the Nazis invaded Austria . He brought with him his wife and son Jonathan , each of whom suffered from asthma and tuberculosis . When his wife died , he brought Jonathan to America . Kolish found himself falling in love with his tutor and Sarria 's family welcomed him and his son . Sarria graduated from high school and enrolled in college to study home economics .
= = Military service = =
Following the attack on Pearl Harbor , Sarria became determined to join the military , despite being , at just under five feet tall , too short to meet the Army 's height requirement . He seduced a major who was attached to the San Francisco recruiting station on the condition that the major approve Sarria 's enlistment . Sarria was approved and entered the Army Reserve , continuing his studies as he waited to be called up to active duty . Shortly before he was scheduled for induction in the regular Army , his beloved second father , Charles Millen , died of a heart attack . Sarria 's induction was delayed a month , then he was sworn in and ordered to Sacramento , California , for basic training with the Signal Corps .
Because of his fluency in several languages , Sarria was assigned to Intelligence School . However , following a routine background check for security clearance , he was advised that he would no longer be in the program . Sarria assumed that it was because investigators discovered his homosexuality . " I mean I had no lisp , but I wasn 't the most masculine guy in town ... So I think that they figured that I was a little bit gay . " Sarria officially remained attached to the Signal Corps but was ordered to Cooks and Bakers School and trained as a cook . After graduating from cooking school , he was assigned to train as a scout , but deliberately failed the training because of the dangerous nature of the assignment . He was then assigned to the motor pool .
Through his work at the motor pool , Sarria met a young officer named Major Mataxis . He became the major 's orderly , eventually running an officers ' mess in occupied Germany where he cooked for Mataxis and about ten other officers . He was discharged from the Army in 1947 , at the rank of Staff Sergeant .
Upon Sarria 's return from overseas , Kolish began to worry about their future . The United States had no legal recognition for same @-@ sex relationships and Kolish looked for a way to provide for Sarria after Kolish 's death . He proposed marriage to Sarria 's mother Maria . Maria was willing , but José refused to allow it . Given no other choice , Kolish contacted his only remaining adult relative , a brother who lived in Hollywood , and left instructions for the care of Sarria and his family .
On Christmas Day 1947 , Kolish and his son were struck by a drunk driver while driving to spend the holiday with Sarria and his family . Both were killed . The coroner determined that Jonathan died first , meaning that Paul 's brother inherited everything . The brother ignored Paul 's wishes regarding Sarria . " I would have gotten one of the houses " , Sarria claimed , " but he only gave me a little money and one ring . He claimed that was all Paul wanted me to have . He was so evil . He said afterwards , ' If you expect anything else , you 're not going to get it . ' "
= = The Nightingale of Montgomery Street = =
Following his military service , Sarria returned to San Francisco . He enrolled in college with plans of becoming a teacher . He and his sister Teresa began frequenting the Black Cat Bar , a center of the city 's Beat and bohemian scene . Sarria and Teresa both became smitten with a waiter named Jimmy Moore and bet as to which of them could get him into bed first . José won the bet and soon Moore and he were lovers . Sarria began covering for Moore when he was unable to work and soon Black Cat owner Sol Stoumen hired him as a cocktail waiter .
At around this time , Sarria was arrested for solicitation in a sting operation at the St. Francis Hotel . Sarria maintained his innocence , stating that the arresting officer knew him personally . " But they had to make an example of somebody ... I was in the wrong place at the wrong time . " Nonetheless , he was convicted and subjected to a large fine . Sarria , understanding that his conviction meant he could never become certified as a teacher , dropped out of college . Unsure of how to find work , he took the advice of a drag performer named Michelle and entered a drag contest at an Oakland bar called Pearl 's . Sarria took second place , winning a two @-@ week performance contract at the bar at $ 50 a week . " I decided then to be the most notorious impersonator or homosexual or fairy or whatever you wanted to call me – and you would pay me for it . " Returning to San Francisco , he picked up some small singing jobs while still cocktail waiting at the Black Cat .
One night at the Black Cat , Sarria recognized the piano player 's rendition of Bizet 's opera Carmen and began singing arias from the opera while he delivered drinks . This quickly led to a schedule of three to four shows a night , along with a regular Sunday afternoon show . Sarria was billed as " The Nightingale of Montgomery Street " . Initially he focused on singing parodies of popular torch songs . Soon , however , Sarria was performing full @-@ blown parodic operas in his natural high tenor . His specialty was a re @-@ working of Carmen set in modern @-@ day San Francisco . Sarria as Carmen would prowl through the popular cruising area Union Square . The audience cheered " Carmen " on as she dodged the vice squad and made her escape .
Sarria encouraged patrons to be as open and honest as possible . " People were living double lives and I didn 't understand it . It was persecution . Why be ashamed of who you are ? " He exhorted the clientele , " There 's nothing wrong with being gay – the crime is getting caught " , and " United we stand , divided they catch us one by one " . At closing time he would call upon patrons to join hands and sing " God Save Us Nelly Queens " to the tune of " God Save the Queen " . Sometimes he would bring the crowd outside to sing the final verse to the men across the street in jail , who had been arrested in raids earlier in the night . Speaking of this ritual in the film Word is Out , gay journalist George Mendenhall said :
It sounds silly , but if you lived at that time and had the oppression coming down from the police department and from society , there was nowhere to turn ... and to be able to put your arms around other gay men and to be able to stand up and sing ' God Save Us Nelly Queens ' ... we were really not saying ' God Save Us Nelly Queens . ' We were saying ' We have our rights , too.'
Sarria fought against police harassment , both of gays and of gay bars . Raids on gay bars were routine , with everyone inside the raided bar taken into custody and charged with such crimes as being " inmates in a disorderly house " . Although the charges were routinely dropped , the arrested patrons ' names , addresses and workplaces were printed in the newspapers . When charges were not dropped , the arrested men usually quietly pleaded guilty . Sarria encouraged men to plead not guilty and demand a jury trial . Following Sarria 's advice , more and more gay men began demanding jury trials , so many that court dockets were overloaded and judges began expecting that prosecutors have actual evidence against the accused before going to trial . One favored harassment technique , employed especially on Halloween after midnight , was to arrest drag queens under an old city ordinance that made it illegal for a man to dress in women 's clothing with an " intent to deceive " . In consultation with attorney Melvin Belli , Sarria countered this tactic by distributing labels to his fellow drag queens ( hand @-@ made , in the shape of a black cat 's head ) that read " I am a boy " . If confronted , the queen would simply display the tag to prove that there was no intent to deceive . Sarria 's actions helped bring an end to Halloween police raids . Along with Guy Strait , Sarria formed the League for Civil Education ( LCE ) in 1960 or 1961 . The LCE ran educational programs on the topic of homosexuality and provided support for men being ostracized for being gay and for those caught in police raids .
= = Political candidacy = =
During an intensive period of police pressure after the 1959 San Francisco mayoral election , in which the supposed leniency of city government toward homosexuals became an issue , Sarria ran for the San Francisco Board of Supervisors in 1961 , becoming the first openly gay candidate for public office in the United States . Although Sarria never expected to win he almost did win by default . On the last day for candidates to file petitions , city officials realized that there were fewer than five candidates running for the five open seats , which would have guaranteed Sarria a seat . By the end of the day , a total of 34 candidates had filed . LCE co @-@ founder Strait began printing the LCE News in part to support Sarria 's candidacy . Sarria garnered some 6 @,@ 000 votes in the city @-@ wide race , finishing ninth . This was not enough to win a seat but was enough to shock political pundits and set in motion the idea that a gay voting bloc could wield real power in city politics . " [ He ] put the gay vote on the map " , said Terence Kissack , former executive director of the GLBT Historical Society . " He made it visible and showed there was a constituency . " As Sarria put it , " From that day on , nobody ran for anything in San Francisco without knocking on the door of the gay community . "
In 1962 , Sarria along with bar owners and employees formed the Tavern Guild , the country 's first gay business association . The Guild raised money for legal fees and bail for people arrested at gay bars and helped bar owners coordinate their response to the harassment by the California Department of Alcoholic Beverage Control and the police .
Sarria continued to perform and agitate at the Black Cat until , after some 15 years of unrelenting police pressure , the bar lost its liquor license in 1963 . The Black Cat stayed open as a luncheonette for a few more months before finally closing for good in February 1964 .
= = José I , The Widow Norton = =
With the demise of the Black Cat , Sarria helped found the Society for Individual Rights ( SIR ) in 1963 . SIR grew out of a split between Sarria and Strait over the direction that LCE was heading . Strait and his supporters wanted to focus more on publishing the group 's newsletter , while Sarria and his backers wanted to maintain focus on street @-@ level organizing . SIR sponsored both social and political functions , including bowling leagues , bridge clubs , voter registration drives and " Candidates ' Nights " and published its own magazine , Vector . In association with the Tavern Guild , SIR printed and distributed " Pocket Lawyers " . These pocket @-@ sized guides offered advice on what to do if arrested or harassed by police . SIR lasted for 17 years .
Crowned Queen of the Beaux Arts Ball in 1964 by the Tavern Guild , Sarria , stating that he was " already a queen " , proclaimed himself " Her Royal Majesty , Empress of San Francisco , José I , The Widow Norton " . Sarria devised the name " Widow Norton " as a reference to the much @-@ celebrated citizen of 19th century San Francisco , Joshua Norton , who had declared himself Emperor of the United States and Protector of Mexico in 1859 . Sarria organized elaborate annual pilgrimages to lay flowers on Norton 's grave in the Woodlawn Cemetery in Colma , California . He purchased a plot adjacent to Norton 's where he is now interred .
Sarria 's assumption of the title of Empress led to the establishment of the Imperial Court System , a network of non @-@ profit charitable organizations throughout the United States , Canada and Mexico that raises money for various beneficiaries . Sarria is much revered within the hierarchy of the Imperial Court System and is affectionately and informally known as " Mama " or " Mama José " among Imperial Court members . The " José Honors Awards " are presented to Imperial Court dignitaries and others in a bi @-@ annual banquet held in Sarria 's honor .
= = Restaurateur = =
In 1964 , Sarria went into business with restaurateur Pierre Parker , who owned restaurants called " Lucky Pierre " in Carmel , California and New York City . They met when Parker wandered into the Black Cat one night and they struck up a friendship . In addition to his restaurants , Parker held the French food concession for the World 's Fair . He invited Sarria to join him at the 1964 New York World 's Fair .
While working at the Fair , Sarria learned that his longtime companion , Jimmy Moore , had died . Moore had been a frequent drinker throughout their relationship and had been arrested a number of times for public drunkenness . A judge finally told Moore that the next time he was arrested he would be given the maximum sentence . Moore was arrested again and , scared of a long prison term , hanged himself in jail . Although devastated , Sarria could not come home from the exposition . At the end of the season he returned and he and Moore 's father consoled each other . " And so , that ended my big romance . The great love of my life . It carried on for nine years . "
Sarria and Parker worked together through both seasons of the New York fair , Expo 67 in Montreal , HemisFair ' 68 in San Antonio , Texas and Expo ' 74 in Spokane , Washington , after which Sarria retired . He and Parker moved to Phoenix , Arizona , where Sarria lived until returning to San Francisco in 1977 . He remained politically active , endorsing the candidacies of Harvey Milk for the Board of Supervisors . In 1977 , Milk would win the board seat that Sarria had sought in 1961 .
= = Later life = =
Sarria and members of the Imperial Court appeared along with other notable drag queens in the 1995 film To Wong Foo , Thanks for Everything ! Julie Newmar . They played the judges of the " Drag Queen of the Year Contest " that opened the film .
In 2005 , Sarria found himself at the center of a legal controversy over his role on the jury in the 1991 murder trial of Clifford Bolden . Bolden had been sentenced to death in 1991 for the 1986 murder of Henry Michael Pederson , whom Bolden allegedly picked up in a bar in San Francisco 's Castro district . Bolden 's attorneys claimed that Sarria , who was not on the jury that convicted Bolden but was seated as an alternate for the penalty phase , had known Bolden 's lover , Pederson and another of the jurors . They alleged that he had concealed this knowledge in order to remain on the jury and push for a death sentence . Sarria acknowledged having spoken occasionally with the other juror but denied the rest of the allegations . Sarria was cleared of wrongdoing in February 2008 .
Sarria was honored in 2005 with the San Francisco LGBT Pride Celebration Committee 's Lifetime Achievement Grand Marshal Award . On May 25 , 2006 , Sarria 's lifetime of activism was commemorated when the city of San Francisco renamed a section of 16th Street in the Castro to José Sarria Court . A plaque outlining Sarria 's accomplishments is embedded in the sidewalk in front of the Harvey Milk Memorial Branch of the San Francisco Public Library , which is located at 1 José Sarria Court . In 2009 , the California State Assembly honored Sarria during an official celebration of LGBT Pride Month on June 21 .
Sarria reigned over the Imperial Court System until February 17 , 2007 , abdicating the throne in favor of his first heir apparent , Nicole Murray @-@ Ramirez , who assumed the title Empress Nicole the Great , Queen Mother of the Americas .
Sarria left San Francisco in 1996 , settling in the Palm Springs , California , area for more than a decade before moving to Los Ranchos de Albuquerque , New Mexico , a suburb of Albuquerque . On granting Sarria its Lifetime Achievement Award in March 2012 , Albuquerque Pride noted that he was living in Los Ranchos in " a cute little casita and is enjoying his time raising chickens . " The " casita " was the guest house adjacent to the home of Tony Ross and his husband PJ Sedillo ( also known as Fontana DeVine , Imperial Dowager Empress VI of the United Court of the Sandias ) ; Ross and Sedillo served as Sarria 's caregivers in the last three years of his life .
= = Death = =
Sarria died of adrenal cancer at the age of 89 or 90 on August 19 , 2013 , at his home in Los Ranchos de Albuquerque . Obituaries and tributes appeared around the United States in media including The Advocate , KALW Public Radio ( San Francisco ) , The New York Times and the San Francisco Chronicle . Media outside the United States that reported the death include Gay Star News , an online newspaper based in London ; Replika , a monthly LGBT magazine in Warsaw , Poland ; Roze Golf , a regional LGBT radio program and online magazine based in Enschede , Netherlands ; the website of RTVE , the Spanish national public television network ; and Svenska Dagbladet , a daily newspaper in Stockholm , Sweden .
Sarria 's imperial @-@ drag @-@ themed funeral was held on September 6 , 2013 at Grace Cathedral of San Francisco , with the Right Rev. Marc Handley Andrus , bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of California , presiding ; some 1 @,@ 000 mourners attended the service . Various local and state elected officials participated , including California State Sen. Mark Leno , former San Francisco mayor Art Agnos , San Francisco Treasurer Jose Cisneros , and members of the San Francisco Board of Supervisors . Leaders of the Imperial Court System and the Sisters of Perpetual Indulgence attended in full regalia , with the formal mourning dress for the court dictated by Sarria in advance . Other dignitaries at the funeral included Stuart Milk , nephew of politician Harvey Milk and head of the Harvey Milk Foundation .
Immediately following the funeral , a cortege of approximately 500 mourners accompanied Sarria 's body to Woodlawn Memorial Park in Colma , where he was buried with full military honors in a plot he had previously purchased at the foot of the grave of Joshua Norton .
= = Archives & memorabilia = =
Sarria documented his public and private activities throughout his life , amassing an extensive collection of archival materials and artifacts . He donated the majority of his papers and memorabilia , along with a sampling of his costumes , to the GLBT Historical Society , an archive and research center in San Francisco . An initial donation came in 1996 followed by another substantial body of material in 2012 .
In addition , Sarria gave a small selection of costumes , accessories and documents to the Oakland Museum of California — including a cape and headdress that he wore in performances of his comic version of Aida at The Black Cat . Sarria continued to own a smaller collection of art , artifacts and documentation ; he had said that he expected to eventually donate those materials to the GLBT Historical Society . An article published in The Atlantic in 2011 asserted that Sarria had also donated materials to the Smithsonian Institution . This claim appears to be erroneous , as Sarria stated in 2012 that he declined the Smithsonian 's request .
= Robert Garran =
Sir Robert Randolph Garran GCMG KC ( 10 February 1867 – 11 January 1957 ) was an Australian lawyer and the first Australian public servant , an early leading expert in Australian constitutional law , the first employee of the Government of Australia and the first Solicitor @-@ General of Australia . Garran spent thirty @-@ one years as permanent head of the Attorney @-@ General 's Department , providing advice to ten different Prime Ministers ( from Barton to Lyons ) . He played a significant behind @-@ the @-@ scenes role in the Australian federation movement , as adviser to Edmund Barton and chair of the Drafting Committee at the 1897 – 1898 Constitutional Convention .
In addition to his professional work , Garran was also an important figure in the development of the city of Canberra during its early years . He founded several important cultural associations , organised the creation of the Canberra University College , and later contributed to the establishment of the Australian National University . Garran published at least eight books and many journal articles throughout his lifetime , covering such topics as constitutional law , the history of federalism in Australia , and German language poetry .
= = Early life = =
Garran was born in Sydney , New South Wales , the only son ( among seven children ) of journalist and politician Andrew Garran and his wife Mary Isham . His parents were committed to social justice , Mary campaigning for issues such as the promotion of education for women , and Andrew advocating Federation and covering reformist movements as editor of The Sydney Morning Herald and later promoting them as a member of the New South Wales Legislative Council .
The family lived in Phillip Street in central Sydney . Garran 's mother " had a deep distrust , well justified in those days , of milkman 's milk " and so she kept a cow in the backyard , which would walk on its own to The Domain each day to graze and return twice a day to be milked . The Garrans later lived in the suburb of Darlinghurst , just to the east of the centre of the city .
Garran attended Sydney Grammar School from the age of ten , starting in 1877 . He was a successful student , and became School Captain in 1884 . He then studied arts and law at the University of Sydney , where he was awarded scholarships for classics , mathematics and general academic ability . Garran graduated with a Bachelor of Arts degree with first @-@ class honours in 1888 , winning the University 's Medal in Philosophy , and a Bachelor of Laws degree in 1889 .
After graduating , Garran began to study for the Bar examination . He was employed for a year with a firm of Sydney solicitors , and the next year served as associate to Justice William Charles Windeyer of the Supreme Court of New South Wales . Windeyer had a reputation for being a harsh and inflexible judge , particularly in criminal cases , where he was said to have " a rigorous and unrelenting sense of the retribution that he believed criminal justice demanded , [ and ] a sympathy verging on the emotional for the victims of crime . " Garran however offered a different view , saying that " those who knew him well knew that under a brusque exterior he was the kindest of men " , and his reputation had to some degree been created by misrepresentation . In 1891 , Garran was admitted to the New South Wales Bar , where he commenced practice as a barrister , primarily working in equity .
= = Federation movement = =
Garran , like his father , was strongly involved in the Australian Federation movement , the movement which sought to unite the British colonies in Australia ( and , in early proposals , New Zealand ) into one federated country . The first Constitutional Convention was held in 1891 in the chamber of the Legislative Council of New South Wales in Macquarie Street , Sydney , around the corner from Garran 's chambers in Phillip Street ; Garran regularly attended and sat in the public gallery to see " history ... in the making under my very eyes . " Garran would later recall with approval that the 1891 convention was the first with the courage to face the " lion in the path " , the issue of customs duties and tariffs , which had previously divided states such as Victoria , who were in favour of protectionism , and states such as New South Wales , who were in favour of free trade . In Garran 's view a clause proposed at the convention , which allowed for tariffs against international trade while ensuring free trade domestically ( the predecessor to the final section 92 of the Constitution of Australia ) , " expressed the terms on which New South Wales was prepared to face the lion . "
Garran became involved with the work of Edmund Barton , who would later be the first Prime Minister of Australia but at the time was the de facto leader of the federation movement in New South Wales as Sir Henry Parkes declined into poor health . Garran , along with others such as Atlee Hunt , worked essentially as secretaries to Barton 's federation campaign , drafting correspondence and planning meetings . At one late night meeting , planning a speech Barton was to give in the Sydney suburb of Ashfield , Barton coined the phrase " For the first time , we have a nation for a continent , and a continent for a nation " ; Garran recalled that the now famous phrase " would have been unrecorded if I had not happened to jot it down . "
In June 1893 , when the Australasian Federal League was formed at a meeting in the Sydney Town Hall , Garran joined immediately and was made a member of the executive committee . He was one of the League 's four delegates to the 1893 Corowa Conference and a League delegate to the 1896 Bathurst Conference , informal conferences held between members of the League ( primarily based in Sydney ) , the Australian Natives ' Association ( mainly Victorian ) and other pro @-@ federation groups . At Corowa he was part of an impromptu group organised by John Quick which drafted a resolution , passed at the Conference , calling on the colonial parliaments to hold a directly elected Constitutional Convention to be charged with drafting the Bill for the Constitution of Australia . The proposal , which came to be known as the Corowa Plan , was later accepted at the 1895 Premiers ' Conference and formed the basis for the federation process over the following five years .
In 1897 , Garran published The Coming Commonwealth , an influential book on the history of the Federation movement and the debate over the 1891 draft of the Constitution of Australia . The book was based on material he prepared for a course on federalism and federal systems of government , which he had planned to give at the University of Sydney , but which failed to attract a sufficient number of students . Nevertheless , the book was both unique and popular , as one of the few books on the topic at the time , with the first edition quickly selling out . Soon after its publication the Premier of New South Wales George Reid , who had been elected as a New South Wales delegate to the 1897 – 1898 Constitutional Convention , invited Garran to be his secretary . At the Convention , Reid appointed him secretary of the Drafting Committee , at Barton 's request ; he was also a member of the Press Committee .
Garran recorded in a letter to his family during the convention 's Melbourne sitting that :
The committee professes to find me very useful in unravelling the conundrums sent down by the finance committee ... The last two nights I have found the drafting committee fagged [ tired ] and despairing , and now they have pitched the conundrums at me and gone out for a smoke ; and then I worked out algebraic formulas to clear the thing up , drafted clauses accordingly , and when the committee returned we had plain sailing .
Garran joked that the long work of the drafting committee breached the Factory Acts , the group ( primarily Barton , Richard O 'Connor , John Downer and Garran ) often working late into the night preparing drafts for the convention to consider and debate the next morning . On the evening before the convention 's last day , Barton had gone to bed exhausted in the small hours , Garran and Charles Gavan Duffy finishing the final schedule of amendments at breakfast time . The convention concluded successfully , approving a final draft which would ultimately , aside from a small amendment arranged at the last minute in London , become the Constitution of Australia .
Throughout 1898 , following the completion of the proposed Constitution , Garran participated in the campaign promoting Federation leading up to the referendums at which the people of the colonies voted whether or not to approve the Constitution . He contributed a daily column to the Evening News , and had humorous poems critiquing opponents of federation published in The Bulletin . The following year , he began working with Quick on the Annotated Constitution of the Australian Commonwealth , a reference work on the Constitution including a history , and detailed discussion of each section analysing its meaning and its development at the Conventions . Published in 1901 , the Annotated Constitution , commonly referred to simply as " Quick & Garran " , soon became the standard work on the Constitution and is still regarded as one of the most important works on the subject .
= = Public service = =
On the day that Federation was completed and Australia created , 1 January 1901 , Garran was made a Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George ( CMG ) " in recognition of services in connection with the Federation of Australian Colonies and the establishment of the Commonwealth of Australia " , and was appointed secretary and Permanent Head of the Attorney @-@ General 's Department by the first Attorney @-@ General of Australia , Alfred Deakin . Garran was the first , and for a time the only , public servant employed by the Government of Australia . Garran later said of this time that :
I was not only the head [ of the department ] , but the tail . I was my own clerk and messenger . My first duty was to write out with my own hand Commonwealth Gazette No. 1 proclaiming the establishment of the Commonwealth and the appointment of ministers of state , and to send myself down with it to the government printer .
In this role , Garran was responsible for organising the first federal election in March 1901 , and for organising the transfer of various government departments from the states to the federal government , including the Department of Defence , the postal and telegraphic services ( now part of the Department of Communications , Information Technology and the Arts ) and the Department of Trade and Customs ( now part of the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade ) . As parliamentary drafter , Garran also developed legislation to administer those new departments and other important legislation .
Garran and his fellow staff aimed for a simple style of legislative drafting , a goal enabled by the fact that there was no pre @-@ existing federal legislation on which their work would have to be based . In Garran 's opinion the approach , which was put into practice many years before the similarly principled plain English movement became popular in government in the 1970s , was intended " to set an example of clear , straightforward language , free from technical jargon . " Subsequent parliamentary drafters have noted that Garran was unusual in this respect for deliberately setting out to achieve and improve a particular drafting style , and that it was not until the early 1980s that such discipline among drafters re @-@ emerged .
However , Garran himself admitted that his drafting could be overly simplistic , citing the first customs and excise legislation ( the Customs Act 1901 and the Excise Act 1901 ) , developed with the Minister for Trade and Customs Charles Kingston , as an example of the style taken to excess . The style was also once parodied by foundation High Court Justice Richard O 'Connor as follows :
Every man shall wear –
( a ) Coat
( b ) Vest
( c ) Trousers
Penalty : £ 100 .
In 1902 , Garran married Hilda Robson . Together they would have four sons , Richard ( born 1903 ) , John ( 1905 ) , Andrew ( 1906 ) and Isham Peter ( 1910 ) . At this time the family lived in Melbourne , and the boys all attended Melbourne Grammar School and later studied at the University of Melbourne , attending Trinity College there .
The Attorney @-@ General 's Department also managed litigation on behalf of the government . Initially the department contracted private law firms to actually conduct the litigation , but in 1903 the office of the Commonwealth Crown Solicitor was established , with Charles Powers the first to hold the job . The other Crown Solicitors that Garran worked with included Gordon Castle ( with whom he had also worked as a drafter ) and William Sharwood .
Garran worked with several Attorneys @-@ General as Permanent Head of the Department . Garran regarded the first Attorney @-@ General , Alfred Deakin , as an excellent thinker and a natural lawyer , and on occasion " [ spoke ] of Deakin as the Balfour of Australian politics . " He was also very much impressed with the fifth Attorney @-@ General , Isaac Isaacs , who was an extremely diligent worker , and two time Attorney @-@ General Littleton Groom , who was " probably one of the most useful Ministers the Commonwealth has had . "
In 1912 , Garran was considered as a possible appointee to the High Court , following the expansion of the bench from five seats to seven and the death of Richard O 'Connor . Billy Hughes , Attorney @-@ General in the Fisher government at the time , later said Garran would have been appointed " but for the fact that he is too valuable a man for us to lose . We cannot spare him . "
= = = Solicitor @-@ General = = =
In 1916 , Garran was made the first Solicitor @-@ General of Australia ( the office was then known as Commonwealth Solicitor @-@ General ) by Billy Hughes , who had since become Prime Minister . The creation of the office and Garran 's appointment to it was to some degree recognition of his existing role as Permanent Head of the Attorney @-@ General 's Department , in which Garran gave legal advice to several successive governments , but it also represented a formal delegation of many of the powers and functions formerly exercised by the Attorney @-@ General .
Garran developed a strong relationship with Hughes , giving him legal advice on the World War I conscription plebiscites and on the range of regulations which were made under the War Precautions Act 1914 . The War Precautions Regulations had a broad scope , and were generally supported by the High Court , which adopted a much more flexible approach to the reach of the Commonwealth 's defence power during wartime . A substantial amount of Garran 's work during the war involved preparing and carrying out the regulations . Many of them were directed at maximising the economic aspect of the war effort and ensuring supplies of goods to Australian troops ; others were directed at controlling citizens or former citizens of the enemy Central Powers living in Australia . On one occasion , when Hughes had been informed that at a party hosted by a German man , the band had played " Das Lied der Deutschen " , Hughes asked Garran " By the way , what is this tune ? " to which Garran replied that it was Haydn 's melody to " Gott erhalte Franz den Kaiser " , and as it was used as the tune to several hymns " it was probably sung in half a dozen churches in Sydney last Sunday . " Hughes then said " Good Heavens ! I have played that thing with one finger hundreds of times . "
The partnership between Garran and Hughes is regarded by some as unusual , given that Garran was " tall , gentlemanly , wise and scholarly " , and patient with his staff , whereas Hughes was " short of stature [ and ] renowned for bursts of temper . " Nevertheless , the partnership was a successful one , with Hughes recognising the importance of Garran 's constitutional expertise , remarking once about the World War I period that " the best way to govern Australia was to have Sir Robert Garran at [ my ] elbow , with a fountain pen and a blank sheet of paper , and the War Precautions Act . " Likewise , Garran respected Hughes ' strong leadership style , which had been important in guiding the country through the war , although in describing the Nationalist Party 's loss in the 1922 federal election , Garran later said that " Hughes also overestimated his own hold on Parliament [ although ] his hold on the people was probably undiminished . "
Garran accompanied Hughes and Joseph Cook ( then the Minister for the Navy ) to the 1917 and 1918 meetings of the Imperial War Cabinet in London , United Kingdom , and was also part of the British Empire delegation to the 1919 Paris Peace Conference in Paris , France . There he was on several of the treaty drafting committees , and contributed to many provisions , notably the portions of the League of Nations Covenant relating to League of Nations mandates . Though focusing mainly on League of Nations matters , Garran and John Latham ( the head of Australian Naval Intelligence ) had the status of technical advisers to Hughes and Cook , and so could attend the main conference and any of the associated councils . Observing the proceedings , Garran admired the " moral and physical courage " of French premier Georges Clemenceau , whom he regarded as determined to protect France from Germany but in a measured and temperate way ; in Garran 's words , Clemenceau " always withstood the excessive demands of the French chauvinists , of the French army , and of Foch himself . " Garran viewed some similarities between British Prime Minister David Lloyd George and United States President Woodrow Wilson where others saw only differences , since Lloyd George " also had a strong vein of idealism in his character " , and Wilson could be pragmatic when the situation called for it , such as in discussions relating to American interests . Garran also met other political and military leaders at the conference , including T. E. Lawrence , " an Oxford youth of 29 – he looks 18 " , who was modest and " without any affectation ... in a company of two or three [ he ] could talk very interestingly , but at a larger gathering he was apt to be dumb . "
Following the war , Garran worked with Professor Harrison Moore of the University of Melbourne and South Australian judge Professor Jethro Brown on a report about proposed constitutional amendments which ultimately became the referendum questions put forward in the 1919 referendum . Garran had been made a Knight Bachelor in 1917 and was appointed as a Knight Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George ( KCMG ) in 1920 . Garran attended two Imperial Conferences , accompanying Prime Minister Stanley Bruce in 1923 and in 1930 joining Prime Minister James Scullin and Attorney @-@ General Frank Brennan , chair of the Drafting Committee which prepared drafts of agreements on various topics , such as merchant shipping . He also attended the eleventh League of Nations conference that year with them in Geneva , Switzerland . At the Royal Commission on the Constitution in 1927 , Garran was invited to give evidence by Prime Minister Bruce , where he discussed the history and origins of the Constitution and the evolution of the institutions established under it .
Through the 1920s and early 1930s , Garran prepared annual summaries of legislative developments in Australia , highlighting important individual pieces of legislation for the Journal of Comparative Legislation and International Law ( now known as the International and Comparative Law Quarterly ) published by Oxford University Press .
Towards the end of his time as Solicitor @-@ General , Garran 's work included the preparation of the Debt Conversion Agreement between the Government of Australia and the governments of the states , which involved the federal government taking over and managing the debts of the individual states , following the 1928 referendum .
In 1927 , Garran had moved from his home in Melbourne , Victoria to the newly established capital Canberra , one of the first public officials to do so ( many government departments and their public servants did not move to Canberra until after World War II ) . He also worked within the Government to facilitate housing in Canberra for officials moving from other cities , and was involved in establishing cultural organisations in the city . In 1928 he was the inaugural President of the Canberra Rotary Club . In 1929 , he formed the Canberra University Association in order to promote the formation of a university in Canberra , and in 1930 organised the establishment of Canberra University College ( essentially a campus of the University of Melbourne ) which taught undergraduate courses , chairing its council for its first twenty @-@ three years . Throughout the 1920s and 1930s , Garran " consistently advocated the establishment of what he prophetically called ' a National University at Canberra ' " , which would be primarily for specialist research and postgraduate study , in areas particularly relating to Australia , such as foreign relations with Asia and the Pacific region . This vision was evidently influential on the establishment of the Australian National University ( ANU ) in 1946 , the only research @-@ only university in the country ( although in 1960 it amalgamated with Canberra University College to offer undergraduate courses ) .
= = Retirement = =
Garran retired from his governmental positions on 9 February 1932 , a fixed retirement date on the day before his sixty @-@ fifth birthday . He soon returned to practise as a barrister , and within a month he was made a King 's Counsel ( KC ) . However , he occasionally carried out more prominent work . In 1932 , he was selected on the advice of now Attorney @-@ General John Latham to chair the Indian Defence Expenditure Tribunal , to advise on the dispute between India and the United Kingdom regarding the costs of the military defence of India . In 1934 , along with John Keating , William Somerville and David John Gilbert , he formed a committee which prepared The Case for Union , the Government of Australia 's official reply to the secessionist movement in the state of Western Australia .
Garran was also involved with the arts ; he was the vice @-@ president of the Canberra Musical Society , where he sang and played the clarinet , and in 1946 won a national song competition run by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation . Garran also published translations of Heinrich Heine 's 1827 work Buch der Lieder ( " Book of Songs " ) in 1924 , and of the works of Franz Schubert and Robert Schumann in 1946 .
In 1937 , Garran was made a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George ( GCMG ) , the third time he had been knighted . Shortly after the establishment of
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Kiner ) . In 161 games , Pujols batted .330 ( second to Derrek Lee 's .335 average ) with 195 hits ( fourth behind Lee , Miguel Cabrera , and Jimmy Rollins ) , 38 doubles , 41 home runs ( third , behind Andruw Jones 's 51 and Lee 's 46 ) , 117 RBIs ( tied with Burrell for second behind Jones 's 128 ) , and 129 runs scored ( first in the league ) . For the first time in his career , he won the NL MVP award as Bonds was limited to 14 games due to an injury .
Pujols returned to the playoffs as the Cardinals won the NL Central for the second year in a row . He had five hits in nine at @-@ bats with four runs scored and two RBIs in the NLDS as the Cardinals swept the Padres . In Game 5 of the NLCS against the Astros , with the Cardinals trailing by two runs and only one out from elimination in the ninth inning , Pujols hit a game @-@ winning three @-@ run home run against Brad Lidge that landed on the train tracks in the back of Minute Maid Park . The Cardinals won 5 – 4 . MLB.com writer Matthew Leach later called it " one of the most famous playoff home runs in recent years . " Nevertheless , the Cardinals were eliminated in Game 6 by the Astros . Pujols batted .304 with two home runs and six RBIs in the series .
= = = = Continued success and first World Series ( 2006 – 2008 ) = = = =
Over two games in April 2006 , Pujols hit home runs in four consecutive plate appearances , making him the 20th player to accomplish the feat . Pujols maintained after the game that he was more concerned with winning than the numbers : " I don 't look at numbers " , he said . " I don 't know . I didn 't know anything about [ the record ] until you guys brought it up . Because that 's not me . I don 't get locked in on numbers . I don 't get locked in on anything like that . I get locked in on seeing the ball and helping my team out to win and hopefully doing some damage out there . "
Pujols had three hits and four RBIs , including his 1,000th career hit ( a home run against Jerome Williams ) , as the Cardinals beat the Cubs 9 – 3 on April 21 , 2006 . On June 4 , he was placed on the disabled list ( DL ) for the first time in his career with a strained right oblique that kept him out for three weeks .
On August 22 , Pujols hit a three @-@ run home run and a grand slam against John Maine in an 8 – 7 loss to the Mets . On September 28 , with the Cardinals trailing 2 – 1 to the Padres in the eighth inning , he hit a game @-@ winning three @-@ run home run against Cla Meredith , helping the Cardinals win 4 – 2 and end a seven @-@ game losing streak . The win preserved the Cardinals ' 1 @.@ 5 game division lead ; La Russa said afterward that it was " the most huge of the huge ones he 's hit . "
Pujols finished the season with a .331 average ( third to Freddy Sanchez 's .344 and Cabrera 's .339 ) , 177 hits , 33 doubles , 49 home runs ( second to Ryan Howard 's 58 ) , 137 RBIs ( second to Howard 's 149 ) , and 119 runs scored ( tied with Matt Holliday , Hanley Ramírez , and Alfonso Soriano for fifth ) . Of his 49 home runs , 20 accounted for a game @-@ winning RBI , breaking Willie Mays ' single @-@ season record set in 1962 . He finished second to Howard in MVP voting and won the NL Gold Glove Award for first base . He won his first of four consecutive Fielding Bible Awards for the first base position .
Led by Pujols and Carpenter , the Cardinals won the NL Central and reached the playoffs for the third year in a row . In Game 1 of the NLDS against the Padres , he hit a game @-@ winning two @-@ run home run against Jake Peavy as the Cardinals won 5 – 1 . He had a game @-@ winning RBI against David Wells and had three hits in Game 2 as the Cardinals won 2 – 0 . He batted .333 with a home run and an RBI in the series as the Cardinals defeated the Padres in four games . In Game 2 of the NLCS against the Mets , Pujols scored three runs as the Cardinals won 9 – 6 . He batted .318 with one home run and one RBI in the series as the Cardinals defeated the Mets in seven games .
In Game 1 of the World Series against the Detroit Tigers , he hit a game @-@ winning two @-@ run home run against Justin Verlander as the Cardinals won 4 – 2 . In Game 5 , he made a sprawling , flip @-@ from @-@ his @-@ back play to rob Plácido Polanco of a hit as the Cardinals clinched the series giving Pujols his first career World Series ring .
Near the beginning of the 2007 season in an April 22 game against the Cubs , Pujols hit a game @-@ winning three @-@ run home run against Ryan Dempster in the 10th inning of a 12 – 9 victory , tying Ken Boyer for second all @-@ time on the Cardinals ' home run list with his 255th . Pujols finished the season with 185 hits , 38 doubles and 103 RBIs ( a career @-@ low ) . He was among the league leaders in batting average ( .327 , sixth ) and home runs ( 32 , tied with Carlos Lee and Chris Young ) for tenth . He scored 99 runs , ending his streak of seasons with at least 30 home runs , a .300 average , 100 runs scored , and 100 RBIs at six . He finished ninth in MVP voting , the first year he had finished outside the top five in his career .
Pujols began 2008 by reaching base in 42 straight games , the longest streak to open a season since Derek Jeter reached base in the first 53 games of 1999 . On June 11 , he was placed on the DL with a strained left calf muscle . Although he was expected to miss three weeks , he was activated from the DL on June 26 . Pujols hit his 300th home run against Bob Howry on July 4 in a 2 – 1 loss to the Cubs . He said after the game that to him it was " just another homer that goes out of the park . I 'm happy to do it in front of our fans — they were waiting for it . "
On September 11 , in a 3 – 2 loss to the Cubs , Pujols hit his 100th RBI of the season against Rich Harden , making him the third player in major league history to start his career with eight seasons of at least 100 RBIs ( along with Simmons and Williams ) . He regretted that the milestone came in a loss , saying , " I wish it would have come with a great win . It would have been more special . " In 148 games in 2008 , Pujols batted .357 ( second to Chipper Jones 's .364 average ) with 187 hits ( third , behind Reyes 's 204 and David Wright 's 189 ) , 44 doubles ( tied with Stephen Drew and Aramis Ramírez for fourth in the league behind Berkman and Nate McLouth 's 46 and Corey Hart 's 45 ) , 37 home runs ( tied with Ryan Braun and Ryan Ludwick for fourth in the league behind Howard 's 48 , Dunn 's 40 , and Delgado 's 38 ) , 116 RBIs ( fourth , behind Howard 's 146 , Wrights 124 , and Adrian Gonzalez 's 119 ) , and 100 runs scored . Pujols won his second NL MVP Award , and he won the Silver Slugger Award for the fourth time in his career . He was named The Sporting News Player of the Year for the second time in his career . For his work off the field , he was named the 2008 winner of the Roberto Clemente Award . He considered having Tommy John surgery after the season but underwent nerve transposition surgery on his right elbow instead to ease discomfort .
= = = = Later career and second World Series ( 2009 – 2011 ) = = = =
On April 25 , 2009 , Pujols picked up his 1,000th career RBI with a 441 @-@ foot grand slam against David Patton in an 8 – 2 victory over the Cubs . " I hit that ball as good as I can hit a ball " , he said after the game . On July 3 , he hit his 10th career grand slam against Weathers in a 7 – 4 victory over the Reds , breaking Musial 's record for most grand slams by a Cardinal . The grand slam was also his 350th career home run , making him the third @-@ fastest player to reach 350 home runs ( behind Alex Rodriguez and Ken Griffey , Jr . ) . He received the highest number of votes in NL history for the All @-@ Star Game that year .
Pujols had four hits , three runs scored , and five RBIs on August 4 , including a grand slam against Sean Green which tied the NL record for most grand slams in a season ( five ) , in a 10 @-@ inning , 12 – 7 victory over the Mets . In 160 games , Pujols batted .327 ( third , behind Ramírez 's .342 and Pablo Sandoval 's .330 ) with 186 hits ( sixth ) , 45 doubles ( second to Miguel Tejada 's 46 ) , 47 home runs ( first ) , 135 RBIs ( third behind Fielder and Howard 's 141 ) , and 124 runs scored ( first ) . He was unanimously named the NL MVP for the third time , tying Musial as the Cardinals ' leader in that category . For the fifth time in his career , he won the Silver Slugger Award . He won the Sporting News MLB Player of the Year award for the second consecutive year , joining Williams and Joe Morgan as the only players to win it in back @-@ to @-@ back years . For the fourth year in a row , he won the Fielding Bible Award for first base .
Aided by the midseason acquisition of Matt Holliday ( who replaced Ryan Ludwick as the cleanup hitter ) and the emergence of Adam Wainwright ( who led the NL in wins ) , the Cardinals returned to the playoffs after a two @-@ year hiatus . In the NLDS against the Dodgers , Pujols batted .300 with one RBI as the Cardinals were swept in three games . Following the postseason , Pujols had surgery to remove five bone spurs from his right elbow . The Cardinals called the surgery a " success " , and Dr. James Andrews decided that Pujols did not need Tommy John surgery at that time .
On June 29 , 2010 , in an 8 – 0 victory over the Diamondbacks , Pujols had five RBIs and hit two home runs against Dontrelle Willis for his 37th career multihomer game , which tied Musial 's franchise record for multihomer games . " It 's pretty special " , he said of tying Musial . " I 'm blessed to have the opportunity to be compared sometimes with him . "
On August 26 , he hit his 400th career home run against Jordan Zimmermann in a 13 @-@ inning , 11 – 10 loss to the Nationals . He became the third @-@ youngest player to reach the milestone ( behind Griffey , Jr. and Rodriguez ) , and he became the fourth @-@ quickest player by at bats to reach the milestone ( behind McGwire , Babe Ruth , Harmon Killebrew , and Thome ) . On September 11 , in a 12 @-@ inning 6 – 3 loss to Atlanta , Pujols had three RBIs and reached 100 RBIs for the 10th consecutive year with a two @-@ run double against Tommy Hanson . Only Simmons has a longer streak of 100 RBI seasons at the beginning of a career , with 11 . Pujols joined Jimmie Foxx , Lou Gehrig , and Rodriguez in having 10 consecutive seasons of 100 or more RBIs at any time in their career . Foxx and Rodriguez are the only two players besides Pujols to have 10 consecutive years of 30 home runs and 100 RBIs . The next day , in a 7 – 3 victory over the Braves , he passed Musial to be the all @-@ time Cardinals ' leader in multi @-@ home run games when he hit two home runs against Tim Hudson for the 38th time in a game .
In 159 games , Pujols batted .312 ( sixth ) with 183 hits ( fifth ) and 39 doubles ( tied for eighth with Marlon Byrd ) ; he led the league in runs scored ( 115 ) , home runs ( 42 ) , and RBIs ( 118 ) . He won his second Gold Glove Award for first base , and he won the NL First Base Silver Slugger Award for the sixth time . He finished second in the NL MVP voting to Joey Votto , who said he was " shocked " that Pujols only got one first @-@ place vote .
Pujols and the Cardinals set a deadline for the start of 2011 spring training for contract extension negotiations but failed to agree on an extension . After Pujols struggled in his first 30 games of the season ( batting .231 ) , he batted .316 with 30 home runs in his final 117 games . Against the Cubs , he hit consecutive extra @-@ inning walk @-@ off home runs on June 4 and 5 for the first time since Albert Belle in 1995 . Carpenter noted after the game that Pujols 's slump earlier in the year was over : " He continues to do great things , there 's no doubt about it " , he said . " The things that he 's done the last few days have been just like the old Albert . "
On June 19 against the Royals , Wilson Betemit collided with Pujols , causing a small fracture in Pujols ' left wrist which kept Pujols inactive until July 5 . On July 30 , in a 9 – 2 victory over the Cubs , he got his 2,000th career hit against Carlos Mármol . He became the fifth Cardinal to reach 2 @,@ 000 hits and 12th quickest major leaguer by games to get to the milestone . In the Cardinals ' final game of the season , against the Astros on September 28 , he had the game @-@ winning RBI against Brett Myers in the 8 – 0 victory , helping the Cardinals overcome a 10 @.@ 5 game deficit to Atlanta to win the Wild Card . Pujols finished the season with 173 hits ( tied for ninth with Aramis Ramírez ) , 29 doubles ( a career @-@ low ) , and 105 runs scored ( tied for third with Justin Upton behind Ryan Braun 's 109 and Matt Kemp 's 115 ) . He saw his streak of seasons batting at least .300 with 30 home runs and 100 RBIs snapped when he hit 37 home runs ( third , behind Fielder 's 38 and Kemp 's 39 ) but batted .299 with 99 RBIs ( seventh ) ; however , only three other players in the major leagues matched him in those categories ( José Bautista , Fielder , and Kemp ) , causing Tyler Kepner of The New York Times to write , " Even when Pujols struggles , he excels . " He was fifth in MVP voting .
In Game 2 of the NLDS against the Phillies on October 2 , Pujols had a game @-@ winning RBI single against Cliff Lee in the 5 – 4 victory . He batted .350 with one RBI in the series as the Cardinals defeated the Phillies in 5 games . In Game 2 of the NLCS against the Brewers , he had four hits , three runs scored , one home run , and five RBIs in a 12 – 3 victory . He batted .478 with two home runs and nine RBIs in the series as the Cardinals defeated the Brewers in six games .
On October 22 , in Game 3 of the World Series , Pujols became the first player to get at least four hits , two home runs , and five RBIs in a World Series game in a 16 – 7 victory over the Rangers . Pujols had five hits , three home runs , four runs scored , and six RBIs in the game . He joined Babe Ruth and Reggie Jackson as the only players in baseball history to hit three home runs in a World Series game ( Pablo Sandoval would also accomplish the feat the following year ) , became the first player in series history to have hits in four consecutive innings , and tied records for most hits and most RBIs in a World Series game . He had one hit and no RBIs the other six games of the series but became a World Series champion for the second time as the Cardinals defeated the Rangers in seven games . After the season , he became a free agent for the first time in his career .
= = = Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim ( 2012 – present ) = = =
= = = = Contract signing = = = =
Three teams were reported to be interested in Pujols during the offseason : the Cardinals , the Miami Marlins , and the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim . The Cardinals offered Pujols a 10 @-@ year , $ 210 million deal ( with $ 30 million deferred ) , but Pujols rejected it . His wife explained on a radio talk show that they were " insulted " and " confused " that the Cardinals had initially offered Pujols a five @-@ year deal . The Marlins reportedly offered Pujols a 10 @-@ year contract too , but on December 8 he signed a 10 @-@ year deal with the Angels worth around $ 254 million . The contract offered by the Marlins was reportedly around the value as that offered by the Angels . However , the Marlins ( who have a history of fire sales ) refused to include a no trade clause in the contract .
= = = = 2012 season = = = =
Pujols did not perform very well to begin the 2012 season , batting .217 with no home runs and four RBIs in the month of April . Soon after the Angels called up top prospect Mike Trout and fired hitting coach Mickey Hatcher , Pujols 's numbers began to rise , as he batted .323 with 13 home runs from May 15 through the All @-@ Star Break . On July 31 , he hit two home runs against Derek Holland in a 6 – 2 victory over the Rangers . After the game , Holland observed that Pujols had ended his early @-@ season struggles : " He 's definitely turned it around , no doubt about it " , he said . " He is what he is . He had a slow start , but he 's picked it up . He 's a great hitter . He and Trout are doing a great job picking [ the Angels ] up . " On August 14 , Pujols had four RBI , including a game @-@ winning three @-@ run home run against Ubaldo Jiménez in a 9 – 6 victory over the Cleveland Indians . In 153 games , Pujols batted .285 with 173 hits , 50 doubles ( second to Alex Gordon 's 51 ) , 30 home runs , 105 RBI ( 7th in AL ) , and 85 runs scored .
= = = = 2013 season = = = =
On August 18 , 2013 , Pujols was ruled out for the remainder of the 2013 season after suffering a knee injury . Pujols had by far the worst season of his career in 2013 , failing to play at least 100 games for the first time in his career . Pujols also posted career worsts in hits , runs scored , doubles , home runs , RBI , walks , batting average , on base percentage , slugging percentage , and OPS . Overall in 99 games , Pujols batted .258 with 101 hits , 19 doubles , 17 home runs , 64 RBI , and 49 runs scored .
In August 2013 , former Cardinals player Jack Clark accused Pujols of using performance @-@ enhancing drugs on his radio show on WGNU in St. Louis . Clark served as the Cardinals ' hitting coach during the early part of Pujols ' tenure in St. Louis . On the morning of August 9 , Pujols issued a statement adamantly denying that he had ever taken PEDs . He denounced Clark 's allegations as " irresponsible and reckless " and threatened to sue Clark and WGNU over the allegations . Partly due to legal threats from Pujols , InsideSTL Enterprises , which owns WGNU 's weekday airtime under a time brokerage agreement , cut ties with Clark . On October 4 , 2013 , Pujols filed a defamation lawsuit against Clark . In response on October 14 , Clark challenged Pujols to both take polygraph tests to resolve who is telling the truth . However , on February 10 , 2014 , Clark apologized and retracted his accusations against Pujols , saying he had " no knowledge whatsoever " that Pujols ever used PEDs . " During a heated discussion on air , I misspoke " , Clark said . In return , Pujols dropped the suit .
= = = = 2014 season = = = =
On April 22 , 2014 , Pujols hit his 499th and 500th home run of his career off of Taylor Jordan in a game versus the Washington Nationals at Nationals Park . Pujols became the 26th player ever to reach the 500 home run mark , as well as the third youngest to reach it . He also became the first player to hit career home runs 499 and 500 in the same game . Nationals Park is the same ballpark where he hit his 400th career home run in the 2010 season . Participating in the longest game of the year in MLB , and the longest in the history of Angel Stadium , Pujols ended a 19 @-@ inning , 6 : 31 contest against the Red Sox with a solo home run for a 5 – 4 final score . It was also his first walk @-@ off home run as an Angel and first since June 2011 . On September 6 , 2014 against the Minnesota Twins , Pujols collected his 2,500th career hit , a two @-@ run go @-@ ahead double off of Jared Burton in the 9th inning . He also passed the 1 @,@ 500 run mark in the same game . In the process , he became the fifth player in major league history with 2 @,@ 500 hits and 500 home runs while maintaining a .310 lifetime batting average ( the others are Babe Ruth , Jimmie Foxx , Ted Williams and Manny Ramirez ) . Pujols leads all active players in doubles , with 561 .
After the season , Pujols traveled to Japan to join a team of MLB All @-@ Stars playing against All @-@ Stars of Nippon Professional Baseball in the 2014 Major League Baseball Japan All @-@ Star Series .
= = = = 2015 season = = = =
Before the 2015 season , Pujols was enjoying his first offseason in which he was not injured or recovering from injury while with the Angels . However , his offensive production was slow through the first month of the season . By the end of April , Pujols was batting .208 with 3 homers and nine RBIs in 86 plate appearances . While it was suggested that this was because of older age , or his recent poor health while with the Angels , it seemed to be simply due to bad luck . By May 2015 , Pujols offensive production had started to come around . Between May 28 , 2015 and June 22 , 2015 , Pujols batted .356 with 15 homers , 30 RBI 's and posted a 1 @.@ 326 OPS . At this time , Pujols was leading the American League in home runs with 23 , and was on pace to hit more than 50 . On July 6 , it was announced that Pujols was selected to the 2015 All Star Game , as a reserve for the American League , but due to an injury just days back with Tigers slugger Miguel Cabrera , he would instead start at first base . It was his 10th selection to the midsummer classic , and first as a member of the Angels .
On September 22 , 2015 , Pujols hit his 556th career home run to pass Ramirez for sole possession of 14th place on the all @-@ time career home run leaderboard . On October 4 , 2015 , in the last game of the season , Pujols hit his 40th home run of the season , the seventh time he hit 40 home runs in a season throughout his career . This was the most times any active MLB player had reached the mark in as many times , only trailing Alex Rodriguez , who has done it eight times .
= = = = 2016 season = = = =
On April 25 , 2016 , Pujols hit his 564th career home run , passing Reggie Jackson for 13th on the all @-@ time list . On April 30 , Pujols became the 85th player to make 10 @,@ 000 career plate appearances . On May 2 , Pujols became the 20th player all time to amass 5 @,@ 000 career total bases . On May 27 , Pujols hit his 570th career home run , passing Rafael Palmeiro for 12th on the all @-@ time list . On June 25 , Pujols hit his 574th career home run , passing Harmon Killebrew for 11th all time .
= = Playing style = =
Pujols 's swing has been praised for its consistency . " It 's the same swing every time " , former teammate Lance Berkman once said . " He has the ability to repeat his swing over and over and over , which leads to him being very consistent " , Cardinals ' video coordinator Chad Blair said . Sports Illustrated writer Daniel G. Habib described the swing as " quick " and " quiet . " Pujols uses a 32 @.@ 5 @-@ ounce bat against right @-@ handed pitchers , but he uses a 33 @-@ ounce bat against left @-@ handers to avoid trying to pull the ball when he swings . Defensively , Pujols has won two Gold Glove Awards since moving to first base in 2004 . He has credited his hitting ability partly to guessing what pitchers will do :
= = Personal life = =
Pujols married his wife , Deidre , on January 1 , 2000 . They have five children : Isabella ( Deidre 's daughter from a previous relationship ) , Albert , Jr . , Sophia , Ezra , and Esther Grace . During the offseason , they live in St. Louis . Albert and his wife are supporters of people with Down syndrome , a condition Isabella was born with . In 2007 , Pujols became a U.S. citizen , scoring a perfect 100 on his citizenship test .
Pujols is close friends with third baseman Plácido Polanco , a former teammate with the Cardinals . Polanco has called Pujols his " closest friend in baseball " , and Pujols is the godfather to Polanco 's son , Ishmael . Pujols is also friends with Robinson Canó , who selected Mark Trumbo for the 2012 Home Run Derby after Pujols asked him to .
In 2009 , Pujols donated money to the Mike Coolbaugh Memorial Tournament , allowing the event to occur after a sponsor backed out . On August 28 , 2010 , Pujols and La Russa attended Glenn Beck 's Restoring Honor rally in Washington , D.C. , after being assured by Beck that the rally was not political . During the rally , Pujols was presented with a medal for his off @-@ the @-@ field efforts .
= = = Business ventures = = =
In 2006 , Pujols and the Hanon family opened Pujols 5 Westport Grill , a restaurant located in Westport Plaza of Maryland Heights , Missouri . A 10 @-@ foot , 1 @,@ 100 @-@ lb. statue of Pujols was dedicated on November 2 , 2011 , outside the restaurant . An anonymous donor commissioned sculptor Harry Weber to create the statue , which belongs to the Pujols Family Foundation . After Pujols signed with the Angels , the restaurant was renamed the St. Louis Sports Hall of Fame Grill .
In 2008 , Pujols teamed up with St. Louis Soccer United , a group looking to bring a Major League Soccer ( MLS ) franchise to the St. Louis area . However , the group 's bid for a franchise was unsuccessful , and a minor league soccer team was created instead .
= = = Christianity = = =
Pujols and his wife are Christians . He became a Christian on November 13 , 1998 , influenced in part by Deidre and his grandmother . One of his writings on his family 's foundation 's website states , " In the Pujols family , God is first . Everything else is a distant second . " He writes ,
" My life 's goal is to bring glory to Jesus . My life is not mostly dedicated to the Lord , it is 100 % committed to Jesus Christ and His will . God has given me the ability to succeed in the game of baseball . But baseball is not the end ; baseball is the means by which my wife , Dee Dee , and I glorify God . Baseball is simply my platform to elevate Jesus Christ , my Lord and Savior . "
During his tenure with the Cardinals , Pujols and his family attended West County Community Church , a Southern Baptist church in Wildwood , Missouri .
= = = Pujols Family Foundation = = =
In 2005 , Albert and Deidre Pujols launched the Pujols Family Foundation , a 501 ( c ) ( 3 ) non @-@ profit dedicated to their " commitment to faith , family and others . " The organization promotes awareness of Down syndrome and works to support those who have it and their families , aids the poor in the Dominican Republic , and supports people with disabilities and / or life @-@ threatening illnesses . Among other activities , the foundation hosts events for people with Down syndrome . The foundation gave the Down Syndrome Association of Greater St. Louis the resources to open an office and hire staff . In 2009 , the Albert Pujols Wellness Center for Adults with Down Syndrome opened in Chesterfield , Missouri ; Pujols was present at the opening on November 18 .
Pujols has taken several trips to the Dominican Republic , by taking supplies as well as a team of doctors and dentists to the poor who need medical care . The Pujols Family Foundation also holds an annual golf tournament to raise money to send dentists to the Dominican Republic .
= = Accomplishments = =
Through 2012 , Pujols ranked in the top 10 players in major league history in three statistical categories : slugging percentage ( fifth ) , on @-@ base plus slugging ( OPS ; sixth ) , and OPS + ( tied for ninth with Ty Cobb ) . At the end of the 2012 season , he led all active players in batting average ( .325 ) , slugging percentage ( .608 ) , and OPS ( 1 @.@ 022 ) . Through 2012 , he ranked among the top 10 active players in doubles ( ninth ) , home runs ( fourth , behind Rodriguez , Thome , and Manny Ramirez ) , RBIs ( sixth ) , and runs scored ( ninth ) . Pujols has a .994 fielding percentage at first base ( through 2012 ) , and he set the major league single @-@ season record for assists with 185 in 2009 .
Pujols is in the top 10 in several Cardinals ' statistics . He is second to Musial in doubles ( 455 ) , home runs ( 445 ) , and RBIs ( 1 @,@ 329 ) . He is seventh in games ( 1 @,@ 705 ) , seventh in batting average ( .328 ) , third in runs scored ( 1 @,@ 291 , behind Musial and Lou Brock ) , and fourth in hits ( 2 @,@ 073 , behind Musial , Brock and Hornsby ) . He also is in the top 10 in several single @-@ season Cardinals ' records . His 137 runs scored in 2003 are tied for seventh with Tommy McCarthy , his 51 doubles in 2003 and 2004 are tied with Musial for sixth , he holds five of the top 10 Cardinals ' home run totals , and his 137 RBIs in 2006 are tied for seventh with Jim Bottomley , Johnny Mize , and Joe Torre .
Pujols has earned praise from many of his fellow players and coaches . In 2008 , he was named the most feared hitter in baseball in a poll of all 30 MLB managers . La Russa has called him " the best player I 've ever managed . " Votto referred to him as " one of the greatest hitters of all time . " Larry Walker called him " a great hitter , " and Brendan Ryan said , " He 's the best there is . " Fernando Viña said , while Pujols was with the Cardinals , " He 's the face of the Cardinals . "
Pujols has said he does not play solely for the numbers . " I don 't play for numbers . I play first of all to glorify God and to accomplish in this game what everybody wants to accomplish , which is getting to the World Series and coming up with a win at the end . Those are the things that I really try to focus on and try to make sure that I do every day for the rest of my career . "
= = = Awards and honors = = =
= Crucifixion and Last Judgement diptych =
The Crucifixion and Last Judgement diptych ( or Diptych with Calvary and Last Judgement ) consists of two small painted panels attributed to the Early Netherlandish artist Jan van Eyck , with areas finished by unidentified followers or members of his workshop . This diptych is one of the early Northern Renaissance oil on panel masterpieces , renowned for its unusually complex and highly detailed iconography , and for the technical skill evident in its completion . It was executed in a miniature format ; the panels are just 56 @.@ 5 cm ( 22 @.@ 2 in ) high by 19 @.@ 7 cm ( 7 @.@ 8 in ) wide . The diptych was probably commissioned for personal and private devotion .
The left @-@ hand wing depicts the Crucifixion . It shows Christ 's followers grieving in the foreground , soldiers and spectators milling about in the mid @-@ ground and a portrayal of three crucified bodies in the upper @-@ ground . The scene is framed against an azure sky with a view of Jerusalem in the distance . The right @-@ hand wing portrays scenes associated with the Last Judgement : a hellscape at its base , the resurrected awaiting judgement in the centre @-@ ground , and a representation of Christ in Majesty flanked by a Great Deësis of saints , apostles , clergy , virgins and nobility in the upper section . Portions of the work contain Greek , Latin and Hebrew inscriptions . The original gilt frames contain Biblical passages in Latin drawn from the books of Isaiah , Deuteronomy and Revelation . According to a date written in Russian on their reverse , the panels were transferred to canvas supports in 1867 .
The earliest surviving mention of the work appears in 1841 , when scholars believed the two panels were wings of a lost triptych . The Metropolitan Museum of Art acquired the diptych in 1933 . At that time , the work was attributed to Jan 's brother Hubert because key areas formally resembled pages of the Turin @-@ Milan Hours , which were then believed to be of Hubert 's hand . On the evidence of technique and the style of dress of the figures , the majority of scholars believe the panels are late works by Jan van Eyck , executed in the early 1430s and finished after his death . Other art historians hold that van Eyck painted the panels around the early 1420s and attribute the weaker passages to a younger van Eyck 's relative inexperience .
= = Format and technique = =
Along with Robert Campin and later Rogier van der Weyden , Van Eyck revolutionised the approach towards naturalism and realism in Northern European painting during the early to mid 15th century . He was the first to manipulate oils to give the close detailing that infused his figures with the high degree of realism and complexity of emotion seen in this diptych . He coupled this with a mastery of glaze to create luminous surfaces with a deep perspective — most noticeable in the upper portion of the Crucifixion panel — which had not been achieved before .
In the 1420s and 1430s , when oil and panel painting were still in their infancy , vertical formats were often used for depictions of the Last Judgement , because the narrow framing particularly suited a hierarchical presentation of heaven , earth and hell . By contrast , depictions of the Crucifixion were usually presented in a horizontal format . To fit such expansive and highly detailed representations onto two equally small and narrow wings , van Eyck was forced to make a number of innovations , redesigning many elements of the Crucifixion panel to match the vertical and condensed presentation of the Judgement narrative . The result is a panel with the crosses rising high into the sky , an unusually packed crowd scene in the mid @-@ ground , and the moving spectacle of the mourners in the foreground , all rendered in a continuous slope from bottom to top in the style of medieval tapestries . Art historian Otto Pächt says it " is the whole world in one painting , an Orbis Pictus " .
In the Crucifixion panel , van Eyck follows the early 14th @-@ century tradition of presenting the biblical episodes using a narrative technique . According to art historian Jeffrey Chipps Smith , the episodes appear as " simultaneous , not sequential " events . Van Eyck condenses key episodes from the gospels into a single composition , each placed so as to draw the viewer 's eye upward in a logical sequence . This device allowed van Eyck to create a greater illusion of depth with more complex and unusual spatial arrangements . In the Crucifixion panel , he uses different indicators to show the relative closeness of particular groupings of figures to Jesus . Given the size of the mourners in the foreground relative to the crucified figures , the soldiers and spectators gathered in the mid @-@ ground are far larger than a strict adherence to perspective would allow . In the Last Judgement the damned are placed in hell in the lower mid @-@ ground while the saints and angels are positioned higher in the upper foreground . Pächt writes of this panel that the scene is " assimilated into a single spatial cosmos " , with the archangel acting as a divider in the pictorial space between heaven and hell .
Art historians are unsure as to whether the panels were meant to be a diptych or a triptych . They may have formed the outer wings of a triptych , with a since @-@ lost panel representing the Adoration of the Magi at the centre , or , as the German art historian J.D. Passavant speculated in 1841 , the lost centre panel may have been a Nativity . It is now thought unlikely that a lost panel could be the postulated original companion to the outer wings ; such a coupling would have been very odd to painters of the 1420s and 1430s . It has also been proposed that a central piece was added later , or as Albert Châtelet writes , the central panel may have been stolen . Art historian Erwin Panofsky believed the Crucifixion and Last Judgement panels were intended as a diptych . He argued that it would have been unusual for mere outer wings to have been given the " sumptuous treatment " afforded these two panels . This approach is reminiscent of the medieval reliquaries . Others have observed that triptychs were usually much larger works intended for public display , and they tended towards gilded and heavily inscribed frames ; typically only the central panel would have been as lavishly decorated as these panels . Contemporary diptychs , in contrast , were usually produced for private devotion and were typically ungilded . There is no documentary evidence for an original central panel , however , and technical examination suggests the two works were intended as wings of a diptych , then an emerging format . Pächt believes there is not enough evidence to determine whether a third panel existed .
= = The diptych = =
= = = Crucifixion panel = = =
The Crucifixion panel comprises three horizontal planes , each representing different moments from the Passion . The upper third shows the crucifixion before a view of Jerusalem ; the lower two thirds detail the crowds and Jesus ' followers at Golgotha ( Place of the Skull ) . Located outside the city walls amongst rock tombs and gardens , in the first century Golgotha was Jerusalem 's place of execution , and the visible patches of hill highlight the area 's " stony , forbidding , and lifeless " nature . The atmosphere of bleakness is reinforced by the random figures in the upper ground that scramble for a better view . The gospels tell of Jesus ' followers and relatives , as well as his prosecutors and assorted spectators , attending the crucifixion at Golgotha . In van Eyck 's panel the former are represented in the foreground , while the latter , including High Priests and Temple Elders , are shown in the mid @-@ ground .
The centre foreground shows a group of five mourners , with three other figures set to the right and left . In the center group , John the Evangelist supports the Virgin Mary , surrounded by three women . Mary 's dramatic swoon in grief pushes her forward in the pictorial space , and according to Smith , places her " closest to the viewer 's presumed position " . Dressed in an enveloping blue robe that hides most of her face , she collapses and is caught by John , who supports her by her arms . Mary Magdalene kneels to the right , dressed in a white @-@ trimmed green robe and red sleeves . Raising her arms aloft , she clenches her fingers in a distraught , agonised manner . She is the only figure from this group shown to look directly at Christ and serves as one of the key painterly devices to direct the viewer 's gaze upwards towards the crosses . The fourth and fifth mourners have been identified as prophesying sibyls , and stand to the far left and right of the centre group . The sibyl to the left faces the cross with her back to the viewer while the turbaned mourner on the right faces the group and is either the Erythraean or the Cumaean sibyl , both of whom are attributed in Christian tradition with warning the occupying Romans of the cult of redemption that would develop around Christ 's death and resurrection . She has an almost indifferent expression that has been interpreted both as satisfaction at seeing her prophesies realised , and as compassionate contemplation of the other women 's grief .
The mid @-@ ground shows a crowd scene above the group of mourners , separated by two soldiers who stand between the two groupings . The mourners from the foreground are reflected in the shield carried on the hip of the lance @-@ bearing Roman soldier who leans on the man to his right wearing a red turban . Smith believes this serves to highlight the mourners ' emotional and physical separation from the assorted figures gathered in the mid @-@ ground . Art historian Adam Labuda sees these two figures , positioned full @-@ length between the chief mourners and mid @-@ ground spectators , as a pictorial device that along with the Magdalene 's upward gaze draws viewers ' eyes upwards through the panel 's dramatic sequence .
Van Eyck 's depiction lays particular emphasis on the brutishness and indifference of the crowd witnessing Christ 's suffering . They comprise a mixture of Roman legionaries , judges and various hangers @-@ on arriving to witness the spectacle . A number are dressed in rich , brightly coloured clothes , a mixture of oriental and northern European styles , while several are mounted on horseback . Some openly jeer and taunt the condemned , others gape stupefied at " just another " execution , while others talk amongst themselves . The exception is the armoured centurion , seated on a white horse at the extreme right edge of the panel , who looks up at Christ , arms spread wide , head thrown back , at " the very moment of his illumination " in recognition of Christ 's divinity . The horsemen closely resemble both the Soldiers of Christ and Righteous Judges from the lower inner panels of van Eyck 's c . 1432 Ghent Altarpiece . Art historian Till @-@ Holger Borchert observes that these figures are given " greater dynamism by being seen in rear rather than profile view " , and that this vantage point draws the observer 's eye upwards towards the mid @-@ ground and the crucifixion .
Van Eyck extends the height of the crosses to an unrealistic degree to allow the crucifixion to dominate the upper third of the panel . Christ faces the viewer directly , while the crosses of the two thieves are set at angles to either side . The thieves are each bound with cords of rope rather than nails . The body of the thief to the right — the repentant thief mentioned in the Gospel of Luke — is lifeless . The " bad " thief to his left is dying twisted in pain , and according to art historian James W.H. Weale , depicted as " struggling desperately , but in vain " . Both men 's hands have turned black from a lack of blood flow . A placard prepared by Pilate or Roman soldiers placed above Jesus ' head reads " Jesus of Nazareth , King of the Jews " in Hebrew , Latin and Greek .
The panel captures the instant of Christ 's death , traditionally the moment after the breaking of the thieves ' legs ( although this is not depicted ) . Christ is naked except for a transparent veil , with some of his pubic hair visible . His hands and feet are nailed to the timber ; the blood from the nail holding his feet to the cross stains its wooden base . His arms strain under the weight of his upper body , and in his final agony , his jaw has fallen slack ; his mouth is open with his teeth exposed in the grimace of death . In the mid @-@ ground , at the base of the cross , Longinus , on horseback , wearing a fur @-@ trimmed hat and green tunic , guided by an assistant , stretches to pierce Jesus ' side with a lance , as deep @-@ red blood pours from the wound . To the right of Longinus , a mostly obscured Stephaton holds high a sponge soaked with vinegar on the tip of a reed .
The first generation of Early Netherlandish painters did not usually pay much attention to landscape backgrounds . They were often included , showing strong influence from the Italian painters , but typically as minor elements of the composition , seen in the far distance and lacking any real observation of nature . This diptych , however , contains one of the most memorable landscape backgrounds in Northern 15th @-@ century art . The panoramic view of Jerusalem extends upwards in the distance to the mountainous peaked range in the background . The sky , which continues to the upper part of the right hand panel , is rendered in deep blues and lined with cumulus clouds . These clouds are similar to those in the Ghent Altarpiece and , as in that work , are included to give depth to and enliven the background skyscape . The sky seems to have just darkened , in keeping with the idea that the panel captures the moment of Jesus ' death . Faint cirrus clouds can be seen in the far high @-@ ground , with the presence of the sun is suggested by a shadow falling on the top left area of the panel .
= = = Last Judgement panel = = =
The right hand wing , as with the Crucifixion wing , is divided horizontally into three areas . Here they represent , from top to bottom heaven , earth and hell . Heaven contains a traditional Great Deësis with clergy and laity ; earth , in the mid @-@ ground , is dominated by the figures of Archangel Michael and a personification of Death ; while in the lower ground the damned fall into hell , where they are tortured and eaten by beasts . Describing the hell passage , art historian Bryson Burroughs writes that " the diabolical inventions of Bosch and Brueghel are children 's boggy lands compared to the horrors of the hell [ van Eyck ] has imagined . "
Pächt compares the scene to a medieval bestiary , comprising a " whole fauna of zoomorphic fiends " . Van Eyck 's hell is inhabited by demonic monsters whose only visible features are often " their glittering eyes and the white of their fangs " . The sinners fall head first into their torment , at the mercy of devils taking recognisable forms such as rats , snakes and pigs , as well as a bear and a donkey . Daringly , van Eyck shows kings and members of the clergy among those condemned to hell .
The earth is represented by the narrow area between heaven and hell . The passage shows the resurrection of the dead as the fires of the last day rage . The dead rise from their graves to the left and from the stormy sea to the right . The Archangel Michael stands on death 's shoulders , the largest figure in the painting , whose body and wings span the entire pictorial space . Michael wears jewel @-@ studded golden armour and has curly blond hair and multicoloured wings similar to those seen in the donor panel of van Eyck 's 1437 Dresden Triptych of the Virgin and Child . Michael appears , according to Smith , " like a giant on the earth , whose crust is revealed to be the wings of the skeletal figure of Death . The damned are excreted though Death 's bowels into the dark slime of hell . " The bat @-@ like death figure , with skull extruding up to earth and skeletal arms and legs reaching down into hell , is the protagonist of the narrative according to Pächt , but death is vanquished by the slim and youthful looking archangel standing between the horrors of hell and the promise of heaven .
The upper portion of the panel shows the second coming as recorded in Matthew 25 : 31 : " But when the Son of Man comes in his glory , and all the holy angels with him , then he will sit on the throne of his glory . " Christ , who was naked , frail and almost lifeless in the Crucifixion panel , is now resurrected and triumphant in heaven . He is dressed in a long red mantle and is barefoot . His hands and feet are surrounded by circles of yellow light . The Holy Wounds are visible on his palms held open ; the puncture mark left by Longinus ' spear is visible on his side through the opening in his robe , as are the nail holes on his feet .
Christ is seated at the centre of a large array of angels , saints and holy elders . According to Pächt , in this scene in heaven that " all is sweetness , gentleness and order . " Mary and John the Baptist kneel in prayer to his immediate right and left . Both have halos and are rendered at a far larger scale than the surrounding figures , over whom they seem to tower . Mary holds her right hand at her breast , while her left is raised as if to ask for mercy for the smaller naked figures sheltered by her cloak , evoking the conventional pose of the Virgin of Mercy . A choir of virgins gather directly under Christ 's feet . They face outwards towards the viewer and sing Christ 's praise .
Headed by Saint Peter , the Apostles are dressed in white robes and sit on two facing benches set below Christ and to the right and left of the choir of virgins . Two angels attend to the groups gathered at each side of the benches . A further two angels are positioned immediately above Christ . They hold his cross and are dressed in white amice and albs , with the right hand angel wearing an outer blue dalmatic vestment . They are flanked on either side by angels playing long wind instruments , probably trumpets . The two angels on either side of Christ bear the symbols of the crucifixion already represented on the left hand panel . The angel on the left holds a lance and crown of thorns , the angel on the right a sponge and nails .
Van Eyck was a central influence on Petrus Christus and the younger painter is thought to have studied the panels while they were still in van Eyck 's workshop . He made a much larger and adapted paraphrase of the panel in 1452 , as part of a monumental altarpiece , now in Berlin . Although there are significant differences between the two works , the influence of van Eyck on Christus ' work is most evident in the vertical , narrow format and in the central figure of Saint Michael , who also divides the scene between heaven and hell .
= = = Iconography = = =
Art historian John Ward highlights the rich and complex iconography and symbolic meaning van Eyck employed to bring attention to what he saw as the co @-@ existence of the spiritual and material worlds . In his paintings , iconographical features are typically subtly woven into the work , as " relatively small , in the background , or in the shadow [ details ] " . The significance of the imagery is often so densely and intricately layered that a work has to be viewed multiple times before even the most obvious meanings become apparent . According to Ward , the iconographical elements are commonly positioned " initially to overlook , and eventually to discover " . Writing about the Last Judgement panel , Burroughs notes that " each of its several scenes requires attention for itself alone . " According to Ward , van Eyck forces the viewer to search for the meaning in the iconography , creating a multi @-@ layered surface which rewards the attentive viewer with deeper understanding of both the painting and its symbols . Much of van Eyck 's iconography intends to convey the idea of " the promised passage from sin and death to salvation and rebirth " .
= = = Inscriptions = = =
Both the frames and pictorial areas of the diptych are heavily inscribed with lettering and phrases in Latin , Greek and Hebrew . Van Eyck 's early works display a predilection for inscriptions , which serve a dual purpose . They are decorative while also functioning in a manner similar to the commentaries often seen on the margins of medieval manuscripts which set in context the significance of the accompanying imagery . Diptychs were usually commissioned for private devotion , and van Eyck would have expected the viewer to contemplate text and imagery in unison .
In this work , the inscriptions are in Roman capitals or Gothic miniature , and in some places seem to contain misspellings , making interpretation difficult . Its gold @-@ lined frame and Latin inscriptions , with their subtle references to various passages in the two panels , indicate that the donor was wealthy and educated . The sides of each frame are lined with inscriptions from the Book of Isaiah ( 53 : 6 – 9 , 12 ) , Revelations ( 20 : 13 , 21 : 3 – 4 ) or the Book of Deuteronomy ( 32 : 23 – 24 ) . In the right hand panel , the wings of the figure of death contain Latin inscriptions on either side ; on the left are the words CHAOS MAGNVM ( " great chaos " ) , with UMBRA MORTIS ( " shadow of death " ) inscribed to the right . A warning from Matthew 25 : 41 is written on both sides of death 's head and wings , and extends from earth down into the hell section . It reads , Ite vos maledicti in ignem eternam ( " Go , ye cursed , into everlasting fire " ) . In this way , van Eyck dramatically aligns the biblical extract in diagonal dual beams of light seemingly hurled from the heavens . Also in the section are letters reading ME OBVLIVI .
In the mid @-@ ground , the Archangel Michael 's armour is heavily inscribed with esoteric and often difficult to source phrases . Letters on his breast plate read VINAE ( X ) while his jewel @-@ encrusted oval buckler displays the cross and is decorated with Greek script reading ADORAVI TETGRAMMATHON AGLA . The meaning of this phrase has not been conclusively identified ; some art historians believe it contains misspellings and has been misread . Friedländer transcribed the first word as ADORAVI while the final word AGLA is thought be taken from the first four letters of the Hebrew words for " Thou Art Mighty " , and thus may signify God ; the word also appears in a floor tile in the Ghent Altarpiece . In the upper portion , gilded inscriptions running vertically across the edges of Christ 's mantle read VENITE BENEDICTI PATRIS MEI ( " Come , ye blessed of my father " ) .
= = Attribution and dating = =
Over the years the panels have been attributed to both Jan and Hubert van Eyck as well as Petrus Christus . In 1841 , Passavant attributed the diptych jointly to Hubert and Jan van Eyck ; by 1853 , he had revised his opinion and gave attribution exclusively to Jan. Gustav Waagen , the first director
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of the Gemäldegalerie , Berlin , attributed them to Petrus Christus in the mid 19th @-@ century , based on the left hand panel 's similarity in composition to a 1452 Last Judgement signed by Christus now in Berlin . This view was rejected in 1887 , and they once more became associated with Jan. The panels came into the possession of the Hermitage Gallery in 1917 , credited to Jan.
Bryson Burroughs , writing for the Metropolitan at the time of their acquisition in 1933 , attributed the works to Hubert . Burroughs saw in the panels the hand of an expressive artist , " all nerves and sensibilities " , overcome with sympathy for the plight of the central figures in the panels , but who was nonetheless weak in drawing line . This profile , he believed , was incompatible with the aloof and impassive master craftsman Jan is known to have been . Yet Burroughs acknowledged there was " no certain documented proof for the attribution [ to Hubert ] . " He admitted his evidence was " limited , inevitably incomplete " , and thus " circumstantial and presumptive " . More recent scholarship tends to agree Jan painted the panels based on the evidence that they are stylistically closer to Jan than Hubert , who died in 1426 ; and that Jan , who travelled across the Alps to Italy that year , painted the mountain range .
The paintings have often been compared to the seven pages of the Turin @-@ Milan Hours illuminated manuscript attributed to the unidentified artist " Hand G " , generally thought to have been Jan van Eyck . The closeness is seen to lie both in the miniaturist technique and the particular painterly style . The similarity of a Turin drawing of the crucified Christ to the figure in the New York diptych has led some art historians to conclude they were , at least , painted near the same time , during the 1420s and early 1430s . Most believe both the drawing and diptych panel at least originated from a prototype designed by Jan van Eyck . Panofsky attributed the New York panels to " Hand G " . When the Turin @-@ Milan Hours miniatures were discovered they were at first believed to have been painted before the Duke of Berry 's death in 1416 , an idea that was quickly rejected with the date extended to sometime in the early 1430s .
Pächt writes of the diptych that it reflects the " personal style and unique scenic imagination " of " Hand G " ( whom he believed to be either Hubert or Jan ) . Until Hans Belting and Dagmar Eichberger 's 1983 Jan van Eyck als Erzähler , academics tended to focus exclusively on the diptych 's dating and attribution , with little attention paid to its source influences and iconography . Borchert estimates a completion of c . 1440 , while Paul Durrieu suggests a dating as early as 1413 . In 1983 , Belting and Eichberger suggested a date of c . 1430 based on specific characteristics of the work : the " birds @-@ eye view " perspective and horizon , the densely packed figures and , especially , a pictorial narrative that moves logically across the areas of the image in the Crucifixion panel . Belting and Eichberger believe this style was employed during the early panel works , but was largely abandoned by the 1430s .
The 1430s dating is supported by the style of the underdrawing , which is consistent with known signed works by van Eyck from that time . In addition , the figures are dressed in clothes fashionable in the 1420s with the exception of one of the possible donors , tentatively identified as Margaret of Bavaria , who is depicted as the sybil standing in the right foreground of the crucifixion panel and wears clothes in style in the early 1430s .
The upper portions of the Last Judgement panel are generally considered as the work of a weaker painter with a less individual style . It is thought that van Eyck left the panels unfinished with completed underdrawings , and the area was finished by workshop members or by followers after he died . Maryan Ainsworth of the Metropolitan takes a different view . She highlights the close relationship known to have existed between contemporary workshops in the Low Countries and France , and speculates that a French miniaturist or illuminator , perhaps from the workshop of the Bedford Master , travelled to Bruges to assist van Eyck on the right hand panel .
= = Provenance = =
Nothing is known of the work 's provenance before the 1840s . Given the panels ' diminutive size — which is typical of early diptychs — it seems probable that the work was commissioned for private rather than public devotion . The notion of a well @-@ educated patron , with knowledge of and appreciation for the art of earlier centuries , is reinforced by both the classical language inscriptions and the abundant detail found across all areas of the panels .
Writing in 1841 in the journal Kunstblatt , Passavant gave an account of how the panels were bought at auction from either a Spanish monastery or convent . The Russian diplomat Dmitry Tatishchev acquired the panels , possibly from a Spanish convent or monastery near Madrid or Burgos , while living in Spain between 1814 and 1821 . Tatishchev left his pictures to Tsar Nicholas I in 1845 , and they came into the possession of the Hermitage Gallery in Saint Petersburg in 1917 .
The panels were included in the Soviet sale of Hermitage paintings , which included another important van Eyck work , the 1434 – 1436 Annunciation . They were purchased by Charles Henschel of New York art dealer M. Knoedler & Company for $ 185 @,@ 000 , significantly less than the asking price of $ 600 @,@ 000 when the works were offered in 1931 . The panels were shipped from Saint Petersburg to the Matthiesen Gallery in Berlin before M. Knoedler & Company sold them on to the Metropolitan in New York that year .
= = Gallery = =
= = = Left panel = = =
= = = Right panel = = =
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= = 1st generation = =
Apple stated that an Intel @-@ based replacement for the PowerPC @-@ based Power Mac G5 machines had been expected for some time before the Mac Pro was formally announced on August 7 , 2006 at the annual Apple Worldwide Developers Conference ( WWDC ) . The iMac , Mac Mini , MacBook , and MacBook Pro had moved to an Intel @-@ based architecture starting in January 2006 , leaving the Power Mac G5 as the only machine in the Mac lineup still based on the PowerPC processor architecture Apple had used since 1993 . Apple had dropped the term " Power " from the other machines in their lineup , and started using " Pro " on their higher @-@ end laptop offerings . As such , the name " Mac Pro " was widely used before the machine was announced . The Mac Pro is in the Unix workstation market . Although the high @-@ end technical market has not traditionally been an area of strength for Apple , the company has been positioning itself as a leader in non @-@ linear digital editing for high @-@ definition video , which demands storage and memory far in excess of a general desktop machine . Additionally , the codecs used in these applications are generally processor intensive and highly threadable , which Apple 's ProRes whitepaper describes as scaling almost linearly with additional processor cores . Apple 's previous machine aimed at this market , the Power Mac G5 , has up to two dual @-@ core processors ( marketed as " Quad @-@ Core " ) , but lacks the storage expansion capabilities of the newer design .
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Apple received criticism after an incremental upgrade to the Mac Pro line following the 2012 WWDC . The line received more default memory and increased processor speed but still used Intel 's older Westmere @-@ EP processors instead of the newer E5 series . The line also lacked then @-@ current technologies like SATA III , USB 3 , and Thunderbolt , the last of which had been added to every other Macintosh at that point . An email from Apple CEO Tim Cook promised a more significant update to the line in 2013 . Apple stopped shipping the first @-@ generation Mac Pro in Europe on March 1 , 2013 after an amendment to a safety regulation left the professional Mac non @-@ compliant . The last day to order was February 18 , 2013 . The first generation Mac Pro was removed from Apple 's online store following unveiling of the redesigned second generation Mac Pro at a media event on October 22 , 2013 .
= = = CPU = = =
The 2010 and later Mac Pro systems were available with one or two central processing units ( CPU ) with options giving four , six , eight , or twelve cores . As an example , the eight core standard configuration Mac Pro uses two Quad core × 8 Intel E5620 Xeon CPUs at 2 @.@ 4 GHz , but could be configured with two Hexa Core Intel Xeon X5670 CPUs at 2 @.@ 93 GHz . Since the CPUs are socketed , the CPUs can be removed and replaced with compatible 64 @-@ bit Intel Xeon CPUs .
= = = Memory = = =
The original Mac Pro 's main memory uses 667 MHz DDR2 ECC FB @-@ DIMMs ; the early 2008 model uses 800 MHz ECC DDR2 FB @-@ DIMMS , the 2009 and onward Mac Pro use 1066 MHz DDR3 ECC DIMMs for the standard models , and 1333 MHz DDR3 ECC DIMMs for systems configured with 2 @.@ 66 GHz or faster CPUs . In the original and 2008 models , these modules are installed in pairs , one each on two riser cards . The cards have 4 DIMM slots each , allowing a total of 32 GB of memory ( 8 × 4 GB ) to be installed . Notably , due to its FB @-@ DIMM architecture , installing more RAM in the Mac Pro will improve its memory bandwidth , but may also increase its memory latency . With a simple installation of a single FB @-@ DIMM , the peak bandwidth is 8 GB / s , but this can increase to 16 GB / s by installing two FB @-@ DIMMs , one on each of the two buses , which is the default configuration from Apple . While electrically the FB @-@ DIMMs are standard , for pre @-@ 2009 Mac Pro models Apple specifies larger @-@ than @-@ normal heatsinks on the memory modules . Problems have been reported by users who have used third party RAM with normal size FB @-@ DIMM heatsinks . ( see notes below ) . 2009 and later Mac Pro computers do not require memory modules with heatsinks .
= = = Hard drives = = =
The Mac Pro had room for four internal 3 @.@ 5 " SATA @-@ 300 hard drives in four internal " bays " . The hard drives were mounted on individual trays ( also known as " sleds " ) by captive screws . A set of four drive trays was supplied with each machine . Adding hard drives to the system did not require cables to be attached as the drive was connected to the system simply by being inserted into the corresponding drive slot . A case lock on the back of the system locked the disks trays into their positions . The Mac Pro also supported Serial ATA solid @-@ state drives ( SSD ) in the 4 hard drive bays via an SSD @-@ to @-@ hard drive sled adapter ( mid @-@ 2010 models and later ) , and by third @-@ party solutions for earlier models ( e.g. , by an adapter / bracket which plugged into an unused PCIe slot ) . Various 2 @.@ 5 @-@ inch SSD drive capacities and configurations were available as options . The Mac Pro was also available with an optional hardware RAID card . With the addition of a SAS controller card or SAS RAID controller card , SAS drives could be directly connected to the system 's SATA ports . Two optical drive bays were provided , each with a corresponding SATA port and an Ultra ATA / 100 port . The Mac Pro had one PATA port and could support two PATA devices in the optical drive bays . It had a total of six SATA ports – four were connected to the system 's drive bays , and two were not connected . The extra SATA ports could be put into service through the use of after @-@ market extender cables to connect internal optical drives , or to provide eSATA ports with the use of an eSATA bulkhead connector . However , the two extra SATA ports were unsupported and disabled under Boot Camp . A built @-@ to @-@ order Mac Pro could be configured with up to 8 TB of storage ( 4 × 2 TB disks ) or 2 TB ( 4 × 512 GB SSD ) .
= = = Expansion cards = = =
The 2008 model had two PCI Express ( PCIe ) 2 @.@ 0 expansion slots and two PCI Express 1 @.@ 1 slots , providing them with up to 300 W of power in total . The first slot was double wide and intended to hold the main video card , arranged with an empty area the width of a normal card beside it to leave room for the large coolers modern cards often use . In most machines , one slot would be blocked by the cooler . Instead of the tiny screws typically used to fasten the cards to the case , in the Mac Pro a single " bar " held the cards in place , which is itself held in place by two " captive " thumbscrews that can be loosened by hand without tools and will not fall out of the case . On the original Mac Pro introduced in August 2006 , the PCIe slots can be configured individually to give more bandwidth to devices that require it , with a total of 40 " lanes " , or 13 GB / s total throughput . When running Mac OS X , the Mac Pro did not support SLI or ATI CrossFire , limiting its ability to use the latest " high @-@ end gaming " video card products ; however , individuals have reported success with both CrossFire and SLI installations when running Windows XP , as SLI and CrossFire compatibility is largely a function of software . The bandwidth allocation of the PCIe slots can be configured via the Expansion Slot Utility included with Mac OS X only on the August 2006 Mac Pro . The Early @-@ 2008 and later Mac Pros had PCIe slots hardwired as follows :
= = = External connectivity = = =
For external connectivity , the Mac Pro included five USB 2 @.@ 0 ports , two FireWire 400 and two FireWire 800 ( Late 2006 until Early 2008 ) , respectively four FireWire 800 ( Early 2009 until Mid 2012 ) ports . Networking was supported with two built @-@ in Gigabit Ethernet ports . 802 @.@ 11 a / b / g / n Wi @-@ Fi support ( AirPort Extreme ) required an optional module in the Mid 2006 , Early 2008 and Early 2009 models , whereas in the 2010 model and later Wi @-@ Fi was standard . Bluetooth also required an optional module in the Mid 2006 model , but was standard in the Early 2008 and newer models . Displays were supported by one or ( optionally ) more PCIe graphics cards . More recent cards featured two Mini DisplayPort connectors and one dual @-@ link Digital Visual Interface ( DVI ) port , with various configurations of on @-@ card graphics memory available . Digital ( TOSlink optical ) audio and analog 3 @.@ 5 mm stereo mini jacks for sound in and out were included , the latter becoming available on both the front and back of the case . Unlike other Mac computers , the Mac Pro did not include an infrared receiver ( required to use the Apple Remote ) . In Mac OS X Leopard , Front Row could be accessed on the Mac Pro ( and other Macs ) using the Command ( ⌘ ) -Escape keystroke .
= = = Case = = =
From 2006 through 2012 , the exterior of the Mac Pro 's aluminum case was very similar to that of the Power Mac G5 , with the exception of an additional optical drive bay , and a new arrangement of I / O ports on both the front and the back . The G5 has the added feature of plastic covering that protects the internal hardware . You can also remove the exterior covering to display the interior , as the plastic will keep everything inside protected . . The case could be opened by operating a single lever on the back , which unlocked one of the two sides of the machine , as well as the drive bays . All of the expansion slots for memory , PCIe cards and drives could be accessed with the side panel removed and no tools were required for installation . The Xeon processors generated much less heat than the previous dual @-@ core G5s , so the size of the internal cooling devices had been reduced significantly . This allowed the interior to be re @-@ arranged , leaving more room at the top of the case and doubling the number of internal drive bays . Less heat also meant less air to move out of the case for cooling during normal operations ; the Mac Pro was very quiet in normal operation , quieter than the much noisier Power Mac G5 , and proved difficult to measure using common sound pressure level meters .
= = = Operating systems = = =
The Mac Pro comes with EFI 1 @.@ 1 , a successor to Apple 's use of Open Firmware and the wider industry 's use of BIOS .
Apple 's Boot Camp provides BIOS backwards compatibility , allowing dual and triple boot configurations . These operating systems are installable on Intel x86 based Apple computers :
Mac OS X 10 @.@ 4 @.@ 7 and later
Microsoft Windows XP , Vista , and Windows 7 32 @-@ bit & 64 @-@ bit ( hardware drivers are included in Boot Camp )
Other x86 operating systems such as Linux x86 , Solaris , and BSD
This is made possible by the presence of an x86 Intel architecture as provided by the CPU and the BIOS emulation which Apple has provided on top of EFI . Installing any additional operating system other than Windows is not supported directly by Apple . Though Apple 's Boot Camp drivers are only for Windows , it is often possible to achieve full or nearly full compatibility with another OS by using third @-@ party drivers .
= = = Specifications = = =
= = = Reception = = =
Ars Technica reviewed the 2006 Mac Pro , rating it 9 out of 10 .
= = 2nd generation = =
Apple Senior Vice President of Marketing Phil Schiller presented a " sneak peek " of the completely redesigned Mac Pro during the 2013 Worldwide Developers Conference keynote . The video revealed an overhauled case design , a polished reflective aluminum cylinder built around a central thermal dissipation core and vented by a single fan , which pulls air from under the case , through the core , and out the top of the case . Apple states that the second generation Mac Pro achieves twice the performance of the last model . The model is assembled in Austin , Texas , on a highly automated line . Apple released the new Mac Pro on December 19 , 2013 .
= = = Hardware = = =
The redesigned Mac Pro occupies less than one eighth the volume of immediately previous model , being shorter ( 9 @.@ 9 inches ( 25 cm ) ) , thinner ( 6 @.@ 6 inches ( 17 cm ) ) and lighter ( 11 pounds ( 5 @.@ 0 kg ) ) . It supports one central processing unit ( CPU ) ( up to a 12 @-@ core Xeon E5 CPU ) , four 1866 MHz DDR3 slots , dual AMD FirePro D series GPUs ( up to D700 with 6 GB VRAM each ) , and PCIe @-@ based flash storage . There is a 3x MIMO antenna system for the unit 's 802.11ac WiFi networking interface , Bluetooth 4 @.@ 0 to facilitate close @-@ range wireless functions such as music transfer , keyboards , mice , tablets , speakers , security , cameras , and printers . The system can simultaneously support six Apple Thunderbolt Displays , or three 4K resolution computer monitors .
The second generation Mac Pro has a redesigned configuration of ports . It has a HDMI 1 @.@ 4 port , dual Gigabit Ethernet ports , six Thunderbolt 2 ports , four USB 3 ports , and combined digital Mini @-@ TOSlink optical / analog 3 @.@ 5 mm stereo mini jack for sound out , as well as a dedicated headphones mini jack ( the two are distinctly selectable within the Sound System Preference panel , Output tab ) . There is no Sound in port ; the system has a low @-@ fidelity internal mono speaker . The Thunderbolt 2 ports support up to thirty @-@ six Thunderbolt devices ( six per port ) and can support up to three simultaneous 4K displays . This design requires two GPUs to support the seven display outputs ( HDMI and six Thunderbolt ) . The I / O panel is illuminated when the unit senses it has been moved to make it easier for the user to see the ports . Unlike the previous model , it has no FireWire 800 ports , dedicated digital audio in / out ports , a SuperDrive , DVI port , 3 @.@ 5 @-@ inch drive bays for replaceable storage drives , or changeable internal PCIe slots . Instead , there are six Thunderbolt 2 ports to connect high @-@ speed external peripherals , including enclosures for internal PCIe cards .
Apple 's website mentions only RAM as user @-@ serviceable , though third party tear @-@ downs show nearly all components can be removed and replaced . A lock switch on the aluminum casing allows for easy access to the internals , as well as fitting a security lock with its own cable , and components are secured with standard screws . The flash storage and GPUs use proprietary connectors and are specially sized to fit into the enclosure . Unlike the rest of the Macintosh line the CPU is not soldered to the logic board and can be replaced with another LGA 2011 socket processor , including processor options not offered by Apple . The type of RAM modules that Apple supplies with the late @-@ 2013 Mac Pro are either ECC unbuffered ( UDIMM ) on the up to 8 GB modules ( shown on each module as PC3 @-@ 14900E ) . The optional 16 GB modules are ECC registered ( RDIMM ) modules ( shown on each module as PC3 @-@ 14900R ) . The higher @-@ capacity 32 GB modules that some third @-@ party vendors offer are also RDIMM . The UDIMM and RDIMM module types cannot be mixed . Apple publishes recommended configurations to use .
= = = Specifications = = =
= = = Reception = = =
Reception of the new design has been generally positive , at times with caveats . The performance has been widely lauded , especially handling video tasks on the dual GPU units , with some reviewers noting the ability to apply dozens of filters to realtime 4K resolution video in Final Cut Pro X. Drive performance , connected via PCIe , is also widely mentioned as a strong point . Technical reviewers praised the OpenCL API under which the machine 's powerful twin GPUs and its multi @-@ core CPU can be treated as a single pool of computing power . However , in late 2013 through early 2014 , some reviewers have noted the lack of internal expandability , second CPU , serviceability , and questioned the then @-@ limited offerings via Thunderbolt 2 ports .
= = Mac Pro Server = =
On November 5 , 2010 , Apple introduced the Mac Pro Server , which officially replaced the Xserve line of Apple servers as of January 31 , 2011 . The Mac Pro Server includes an unlimited Mac OS X Server license and an Intel Xeon 2 @.@ 8 GHz Quad @-@ Core processor , with 8 GB of DDR3 RAM . In mid @-@ 2012 , the Mac Pro Server was upgraded to an Intel Xeon 3 @.@ 2 GHz Quad @-@ Core processor . The Mac Pro Server was discontinued on October 22 , 2013 , with the introduction of the second @-@ generation Mac Pro . However , the OS X Server software package can be purchased from the Mac App Store .
= 1976 UEFA Cup Final =
The 1976 UEFA Cup Final were association football matches played over two @-@ legs between Liverpool of England and Club Brugge of Belgium on 28 April 1976 and 19 May 1976 at Anfield , Liverpool and the Olympiastadion , Brugge . It was the final of the 1975 – 76 season of Europe 's secondary cup competition , the UEFA Cup . Liverpool were appearing in their second final ; they had won the competition in 1973 . Brugge were appearing in their first European final and were the first Belgian team to reach the final of a European competition .
Each club needed to progress through five rounds to reach the final . Matches were contested over two legs , with one at each team 's home ground . Liverpool 's ties varied from comfortable victories to close affairs . They beat Spanish team Real Sociedad 9 – 1 on aggregate in the second round , while they beat Spanish team Barcelona 2 – 1 in the semi @-@ finals . The majority of Brugge 's ties were close . Their biggest margin of victory was by two goals , which occurred in both the first and third round against Lyon of France and Italian team Roma , respectively .
Watched by a crowd of 50 @,@ 188 at Anfield , Brugge took a two @-@ goal lead in the first half of the first leg when Raoul Lambert and Julien Cools scored . Liverpool recovered in the second half ; three goals in seven minutes from Ray Kennedy , Jimmy Case , and Kevin Keegan secured a 3 – 2 victory in the first leg for Liverpool . A crowd of 29 @,@ 423 at the Olympiastadion saw Brugge take the lead in the 11th minute of the second leg . Liverpool equalised four minutes later when Keegan scored . The scores remained the same throughout the remainder of the match , resulting in a 1 – 1 draw . Thus , Liverpool won the final 4 – 3 on aggregate to secure their second UEFA Cup .
= = Route to the final = =
= = = Liverpool = = =
Liverpool qualified for the UEFA Cup by finishing as runners @-@ up in the 1974 – 75 Football League . Their opponents in the first round were Scottish team Hibernian . Liverpool lost the first leg at Hibernian 's home stadium Easter Road 1 – 0 , but recovered in the second leg at their home ground , Anfield , winning 3 – 1 courtesy of a John Toshack hat @-@ trick . They thus won the round 3 – 2 on aggregate . For the second round Liverpool were drawn against Spanish team Real Sociedad ; they won the first game 3 – 1 in Spain . A 6 – 0 victory in the second leg meant Liverpool won the tie 9 – 1 on aggregate .
Liverpool 's opponents in the third round were Śląsk Wrocław of Poland . The first leg at Wrocław 's home ground the Stadion Oporowska was won 2 – 1 by Liverpool courtesy of goals from Ray Kennedy and Toshack . A Jimmy Case hat @-@ trick in the second leg at Anfield secured a 3 – 0 victory for Liverpool , which meant they progressed to the quarter @-@ finals with a 5 – 1 aggregate victory . Liverpool 's next opponents were East German team Dynamo Dresden . The first leg in East Germany ended in a 0 – 0 draw , after Liverpool goalkeeper Ray Clemence saved a penalty from Peter Kotte . A 2 – 1 victory in the second leg courtesy of goals from Case and Kevin Keegan meant Liverpool progressed to the semi @-@ finals courtesy of a 2 – 1 aggregate victory .
Spanish team Barcelona were the opposition in the semi @-@ finals . The first leg was held at Barcelona 's home ground the Camp Nou . Liverpool won the match 1 – 0 , after Toshack scored in the 13th minute . The second leg at Anfield saw Liverpool go ahead in the 50th minute when Phil Thompson scored . Barcelona equalised a minute later but were unable to score again before the final whistle . The match ended 1 – 1 ; Liverpool progressed to their second UEFA Cup final courtesy of their 2 – 1 aggregate victory .
= = = Club Brugge = = =
Club Brugge gained entry to the UEFA Cup by finishing fourth in the 1974 – 75 Belgian First Division . Lyon of France were the opposition in the first round . The first leg , at Lyon 's home ground Stade de Gerland , ended in a 4 – 3 defeat for Brugge . They won the second leg at their home stadium , the Olympiastadion , 3 – 0 to secure their place in the next round courtesy of a 6 – 3 aggregate victory .
Their opponents in the second round were English team Ipswich Town . The first leg , at Ipswich 's home ground Portman Road , was won 3 – 0 by the English team . Brugge needed to score at least three goals to have any chance of staying in the competition . They won the second leg 4 – 0 , to win the tie 4 – 3 on aggregate and progress to the third round .
Roma were the opposition in the third round . Brugge won the first leg in Belgium 1 – 0 courtesy of a Julien Cools goal . Another 1 – 0 in the second leg at Roma 's home ground , the Stadio Olimpico meant Brugge progressed to the quarter @-@ finals courtesy of a 2 – 0 aggregate victory . Brugge were drawn against another Italian team , Milan in the quarter @-@ finals . They won the first leg 2 – 0 in Belgium thanks to goals from Ulrik le Fevre and Eduard Krieger . Brugge lost the second leg 2 – 1 , at Milan 's home ground the San Siro , but still qualified for the semi @-@ finals as a result of a 3 – 2 aggregate victory .
Brugge 's opposition in the semi @-@ finals were German team Hamburg . The first leg , at Hamburg 's home ground the Volksparkstadion , ended in a 1 – 1 draw . This gave the advantage to Brugge , as they had an away goal . A 1 – 0 victory in the second leg in Belgium secured a 2 – 1 aggregate victory , which meant Brugge progressed to their first European final .
= = Background = =
Liverpool were appearing in their second UEFA Cup final . They had previously won the competition in 1973 when they beat Borussia Mönchengladbach 3 – 2 . Club Brugge were appearing in their first European final and were the first Belgian team to reach the final of a European competition . The furthest they had progressed in previous European competitions was the quarter @-@ finals of the 1970 – 71 European Cup Winners ' Cup , where they were beaten by eventual winners Chelsea of England .
Liverpool had won the 1975 – 76 Football League between the first and second legs of the UEFA Cup Final ; a 3 – 1 victory over Wolverhampton Wanderers on the final day of the league season ensured they became champions . As a result of their league success , Liverpool qualified for the 1976 – 77 European Cup as English champions . Brugge had won the 1975 – 76 Belgian First Division ; they won the competition by four points from second @-@ place Anderlecht . Their success meant that they would also be competing in next season 's European Cup as Belgian champions .
= = First leg = =
= = = Summary = = =
Brugge started the match the better of the two sides and took the lead in the 5th minute . A headed back @-@ pass by Phil Neal fell short of Liverpool goalkeeper Ray Clemence allowing Brugge midfielder Raoul Lambert to take control of the ball and lob it over Clemence and into the Liverpool goal . Seven minutes later Brugge extended their lead when Julien Cools scored . The Belgians kept attacking , but the Liverpool defence of Emlyn Hughes and Tommy Smith were able to repel the Belgians until half @-@ time .
Liverpool manager Bob Paisley decided that a change to his team had to be made during the interval . Paisley decided to replace striker John Toshack with midfielder Jimmy Case . The change made a difference as Case 's runs down the right hand side of the pitch unsettled the Belgians . The full effect came in the 59th minute when Liverpool scored ; Steve Heighway passed to Ray Kennedy who scored from 20 yards ( 18 m ) . Liverpool leveled the score two minutes later ; a shot from Kennedy rebounded off the post to Case who scored from close range .
Three minutes later Liverpool were ahead ; Heighway was upended in the penalty area , and Kevin Keegan scored the subsequent penalty to give Liverpool a 3 – 2 lead . Liverpool had chances to increase their lead afterwards , but failed to do so ; Brugge failed to score further as well . The final score when the referee blew for full @-@ time was 3 – 2 .
= = = Details = = =
= = Second leg = =
= = = Summary = = =
Liverpool entered the second leg with a one @-@ goal lead , although Brugge needed to score only one clear goal to win the competition by virtue of the away goals rule . The Belgians scored the goal they needed in the 11th minute . Liverpool defender Smith was adjudged to have handled the ball in the Liverpool penalty area and Brugge were awarded a penalty kick . Lambert converted the opportunity to give Brugge a 1 – 0 lead and level the aggregate tie at 3 – 3 . Responding to the setback , Liverpool equalised four minutes later . They were awarded a free @-@ kick outside the Brugge penalty area . Hughes rolled the ball to Keegan whose right @-@ footed shot went into the Brugge goal to level the scores at 1 – 1 and give Liverpool a 4 – 3 aggregate lead . The goal incidentally was the first Brugge had conceded at home in the UEFA Cup all season .
Brugge needed to score again to keep the tie alive , and pushed their players forward in search of an equaliser . This forced Liverpool to pull all their players , except Keegan , into defensive positions to try to preserve their lead . Despite this Liverpool had a chance to take the lead in the 34th minute . Smith 's volley from a Kennedy free @-@ kick went wide of the Brugge goal . Brugge 's pressure almost paid off five minutes into the second half . Ulrik le Fevre and Roger van Gool combined to split the Liverpool defence , leaving Lambert with the ball . His subsequent shot beat Liverpool goalkeeper Clemence but hit the post . Brugge kept attacking in an effort to find the goal they needed ; their best chance came four minutes from the end . Brugge breached the Liverpool defence , but Cools ' shot was denied by a diving save from Clemence . No more goals were scored ; the final score was 1 – 1 .
The second @-@ leg draw meant Liverpool won the tie , 4 – 3 on aggregate , to win their second UEFA Cup after their first victory in 1973 . They also completed a League and UEFA Cup double for a second time . Liverpool manager Bob Paisley was delighted with players after their performance in the second leg : " The second half was the longest 45 minutes of my life . There was an awful lot of pride in this game because we came representing England . We did not let the country down and we are proud of our lads . "
= = = Details = = =
= Friday Night Lights ( TV series ) =
Friday Night Lights is an American drama television series about a high school football team in the fictional town of Dillon , Texas . It was developed by Peter Berg and executive produced by Brian Grazer , David Nevins , Sarah Aubrey , and Jason Katims , based on the 1990 nonfiction book by H. G. Bissinger , adapted as the 2004 film of the same name . The series ' primary setting , Dillon , is a small , close @-@ knit community in rural Texas . Team coach Eric Taylor ( Kyle Chandler ) and his family , Tami , Julie , and Grace are featured . The show uses this small town backdrop to address many issues facing contemporary American culture , including family values , school funding , racism , drugs , abortion , and lack of economic opportunities .
Produced by NBCUniversal , Friday Night Lights premiered on October 3 , 2006 and aired for two seasons on NBC . Although the show had garnered critical acclaim and passionate fans , the series suffered low ratings and was in danger of cancellation after the second season . To save the series , NBC struck a deal with DirecTV to co @-@ produce three more seasons ; each subsequent season premiered on DirecTV 's 101 Network , with NBC rebroadcasts a few months later . The series ended its run on The 101 Network on February 9 , 2011 after five seasons .
Though Friday Night Lights never garnered a sizable audience , it was a critical success , lauded for its realistic portrayal of Middle America and deep exploration of its central characters . The show appeared on a number of best lists and was awarded a Peabody Award , a Humanitas Prize , a Television Critics Association Award , and several technical Primetime Emmy Awards . At the 2011 Primetime Emmy Awards , the show was nominated for Outstanding Drama Series . Kyle Chandler and Connie Britton also scored multiple nominations for the Outstanding Lead Actor and Actress awards for a drama series . Executive producer Jason Katims was nominated for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series . Chandler and Katims each won the Emmy in 2011 .
= = Production = =
= = = Inspiration = = =
Friday Night Lights was inspired by H.G. " Buzz " Bissinger 's non @-@ fiction book Friday Night Lights : A Town , a Team , and a Dream ( 1990 ) and the 2004 film based on it . The book , which explores the 1988 season of the Permian Panthers , a high school football team in Odessa , Texas , was a factual work of documentary journalism . The people featured were not renamed in the book . The Universal Pictures film , which stars Billy Bob Thornton and was directed by Peter Berg , Bissinger 's second cousin , based its characters on the residents of Odessa c . 1988 .
= = = Conception = = =
Once filming on the movie was completed , Berg began to explore adapting the story for television . Berg later said that he had regretted having to jettison many of the interpersonal topics from the book because of the time constraints of a feature film . Creating a TV series , particularly one based on fictional characters , allowed him to address many of those elements in @-@ depth .
He decided to set the series in a fictional town of Dillon , Texas , with some characteristics of Odessa . The football team was given the Panthers name . Berg deliberately carried elements from the film to the series , particularly for the pilot , which was closely related to the film . He cast Connie Britton as the wife of Head Coach Eric Taylor and Brad Leland as Buddy Garrity , a major businessman and football booster , in roles similar to those they played in the film .
= = Production = =
Filming for the show 's pilot began in February 2006 in Austin , Texas . Berg said that he required filming the pilot and eventually the show in Texas as " a deal breaker " in order to agree to participate weekly in the project . The show features homages to its Texas heritage . In the pilot , Berg featured Texas Longhorns football coach Mack Brown as a Dillon booster and had a caller to the fictional Panther Radio compare Panthers ' coach Eric Taylor to Brown . The pilot referred to much of the surrounding area in its scenes . Football scenes were filmed at Pflugerville High School 's Kuempel Stadium and at the RRISD Complex . The Dillon Panther football team and coaches ' uniforms were based on the uniforms of the Pflugerville Panthers . Some of the scenes were filmed at Texas School for the Deaf .
Berg 's observation of local high school students while preparing to film the movie inspired his development of some of the characters . For example , Jason Street , the character whose promising football career is ended by a spinal injury in the pilot , was inspired by a local event . David Edwards , a football player from San Antonio ’ s Madison High , was paralyzed during a November 2003 game . Berg was at the game when this accident occurred ; he was profoundly affected by Edwards ' injury and how it overturned his life . Berg set up a similar incident in the pilot .
= = = Performances = = =
While relying on a script each week , the producers decided at the outset to allow the cast leeway in what they said and did on the show . Their decisions could affect the delivery of their lines and the blocking of each scene . If the actors felt that something was untrue to their character or a mode of delivery didn 't work , they were free to change it , provided they still hit the vital plot points .
This freedom was complemented by filming without rehearsal and without extensive blocking . Camera operators were trained to follow the actors , rather than having the actors stand in one place with cameras fixed around them . The actors knew that the filming would work around them . Executive producer Jeffrey Reiner described this method as " no rehearsal , no blocking , just three cameras and we shoot . "
Working in this fashion profoundly influenced everyone involved with the show . Series star Kyle Chandler said : " When I look back at my life , I 'm going to say , ' Wow , [ executive producer ] Peter Berg really changed my life . ' " Executive producer and head writer Jason Katims echoed this sentiment , saying : " When I first came on [ the FNL ] set , I thought , it ’ s interesting – this is what I imagined filmmaking would be , before I saw what filmmaking was . "
= = = Filming = = =
All five seasons of Friday Night Lights were filmed in Austin and Pflugerville . With the show yielding roughly $ 33 million a year in revenue , other states courted the production company after the State of Texas failed to pay all of the rebates it had promised to the show 's producers . The Texas legislature authorized funding to match the offers of other states , and the production company preferred to stay near Austin , so the show remained in Texas .
Friday Night Lights is unusual for using actual locations rather than stage sets and sound stage . These factors together with reliance on filming hundreds of locals as extras , gives the series an authentic feel and look .
The producers used a documentary @-@ style filming technique . Three cameras were used for each shoot and entire scenes were shot in one take . In contrast , most productions film a scene from each angle and typically repeat the scene several times while readjusting lighting to accommodate each shot . The first takes usually made the final cut . By filming a scene all at once , the producers tried to create an environment for the actors that was more organic and allowed for the best performances .
The series borrowed the uniforms , cheerleaders , fans , and stadium of the Pflugerville Panthers . Producers shot Pflugerville games and used them as game footage in the series . University of Southern California football announcers Peter Arbogast and Paul McDonald provided off @-@ screen commentary during the football game sequences . The facilities , colors , and bobcat logos of Texas State University in San Marcos , Texas were used as the setting and creative inspiration for the fictional Texas Methodist University . The show features the fictional ' Herrmann Field , ' named for George Herrmann , the head coach of the Pflugerville Panthers .
Some scenes were filmed outside Texas . On June 20 , 2010 , scenes were filmed at Temple University , which was to portray the fictional Braemore College . An episode from Julie 's senior year in high school was filmed in the Boston area , at Boston College , Boston University , and Tufts University .
Some scenes at fictional Oklahoma Tech University were filmed at Gregory Gym at The University of Texas at Austin .
= = = Marketing = = =
Initially targeted at the youth market , the show emphasized the football element . NBC teamed with social networking site Bebo to create a site that allowed students to upload video and photos , as well as create blogs about their local football teams . Students who participated were eligible for one of ten $ 5 @,@ 000 scholarships . NBC had negotiated with Bebo for network and series promotion on Bebo ’ s network of youth @-@ oriented sites including Piczo , Hi5 , Tickle , Ringo , and FastWeb .
To complement this promotion , NBC sent out “ School Spirit ” kits to 1 @,@ 000 high schools around the country . These kits included posters , pom @-@ poms , mini @-@ footballs , and disposable cameras , all bearing the show ’ s logo . The kits also contained copies of the show ’ s pilot episode on DVD . The network repeated this promotion for its second season promotion , when it teamed with HouseParty.com to send out 1 @,@ 000 " Party Kits , " which contained advance copies of the Season 2 opener along with other promotional material .
NBC also paired with Toyota to create the " Hometown Sweepstakes " , in which students could earn cash grants of up to $ 50 @,@ 000 for their school ’ s athletic program . It was open to high school students ages 14 to 18 and was designed to draw people to the show ’ s official web site , where they could download AOL Instant Messenger icons , screensavers , and desktop wallpaper . Students who registered could also download free movie theater passes to special early screenings of the pilot episode . These movie theater screenings took place in 50 cities nationwide and ran until a week before the show premiered on NBC .
In the later part of the season , NBC chose to switch course and pursue the female demographic . The network designed a strategy based on the personal elements of the show , giving the show the tagline , " It ’ s about life " . NBC Marketing President Vince Manze stressed that the goal was to ensure viewers that the show was family and relationships as well as athletics . The network ran 30 @-@ second spots in movie theaters that featured cast members and fans being interviewed about the show .
= = Cast and characters = =
As a show about the community of Dillon , Texas , Friday Night Lights has an ensemble cast . The show features Panthers ' football coach Eric Taylor ( Kyle Chandler ) , who strives to balance his work , family , status in a sometimes confrontational community , and his personal ambitions . His family – wife Tami Taylor ( Connie Britton ) , a guidance counselor turned principal at Dillon High , and teenage daughter Julie Taylor ( Aimee Teegarden ) – are also central to the show . Coach Taylor and Tami are the only two characters to appear in every episode .
Outside of the Taylor family , the show explores the lives of the Dillon high school football players . In the pilot , Coach Taylor 's protege and star quarterback Jason Street ( Scott Porter ) , suffers a spinal injury that ends his football career . He faces life as a paraplegic . At first , Street struggles with these disabilities and the upturn of his life . Gradually , he copes with his new reality . Lyla Garrity ( Minka Kelly ) , his girlfriend , undergoes her own changes , making a transition from a Panthers cheerleader to a Christian youth leader .
Because of Street 's injury , sophomore Matt Saracen ( Zach Gilford ) , who is quiet and reserved , becomes the Panthers ' starting quarterback . He eventually dates the coach 's daughter , Julie . Viewers learn that Saracen 's father is serving as a soldier in Iraq , and Saracen is the sole caretaker for his grandmother Lorraine Saracen ( Louanne Stephens ) . Saracen receives little help , except from his best friend Landry Clarke ( Jesse Plemons ) and eventual live @-@ in nurse and love interest Carlotta Alonso ( Daniella Alonso ) . Star running back Brian " Smash " Williams ( Gaius Charles ) works to get a college football scholarship . Fullback Tim Riggins ( Taylor Kitsch ) struggles with alcoholism and complicated family problems . His brother Billy Riggins ( Derek Phillips ) , while not his legal guardian , serves as Tim 's caretaker . Tyra Collette ( Adrianne Palicki ) stars as a town vixen who wants to leave Dillon for a better life . Involved with Riggins , Tyra eventually develops a complicated relationship with Landry Clarke .
= = Plot = =
= = = Season one = = =
Season one revolves around two main events : Coach Eric Taylor beginning as head coach and the injury and paralysis of star quarterback Jason Street in the first game of the season . Coach Taylor 's career depends on his ability to get the Dillon Panthers to the state championship , despite the loss of Street . If the team suffers a losing streak , he knows his family will no longer be welcome in Dillon .
His wife Tami Taylor begins work as a guidance counselor at the local high school . Over the course of the season , she becomes a support and a mentor to many of the students , and her position plays a pivotal role in the season finale .
Jason Street and Matt Saracen each struggle within extremely difficult conditions . Street must learn to live with his disability in a town that worships athletics . Saracen has to face new challenges as a lead athlete . As Street 's friendship with Herc , his rehab roommate and wheelchair rugby teammate , grows stronger , so do his will and independence . For the quiet Matt , who seldom plays football , his new role of QB1 calls for a different part of him . Motherless , he also cares for his grandmother while his father is fighting in Iraq . Matt falls in love with Coach Taylor 's daughter , Julie , who loathes Texas small town life and dislikes football . She falls for Matt and their relationship slowly blossoms over the season .
Also explored is the pressure on the cocky , driven Brian " Smash " Williams . Easily the most promising player on the Panthers ' roster , he works hard to achieve excellence and sees his future career as instrumental in gaining a better life for him and his family . Since his father was killed in a car accident , his mother Corrina has taken multiple jobs to keep the family afloat . Smash decides to take performance @-@ enhancing drugs to ensure he can gain a college football scholarship .
Tim Riggins is struggling with alcoholism and absentee parents , with few prospects beyond high school . He is portrayed as a loyal friend with a good heart .
Tyra Collette also comes from a broken home ; her mother suffers abusive relationships with men . Tyra begins the season as Riggins ’ girlfriend . Thanks to counselor Tami Taylor and Landry Clarke – the school math geek and Saracen ’ s best friend – Tyra starts to see hope that she might get out of Dillon and break the cycle of women in her family .
Meanwhile , Lyla Garrity undergoes significant changes . Faced with Jason 's injury , she begins seeing Riggins for some comfort . Jason begins growing closer to another woman . Lyla learns about her father 's many adulterous affairs and begins to establish her independence .
= = = Season two = = =
Season two begins with Coach Taylor living and working in Austin as an assistant coach at fictional TMU , while wife Tami remains in Dillon with daughter Julie and newborn baby Gracie . Tami is struggling with the demands of the new baby and Julie 's rebellious behavior . The Panthers ' new coach , Bill McGregor , creates friction between Smash and Matt by showing blatant favoritism to Smash , drives Tim so hard he passes out during practice from dehydration and is hospitalized , alienates assistant coach Jason Street by his condescending manner , and alienates Boosters president Buddy Garrity by barring him from team practices . When Smash and Matt actually come to blows on the field and a crucial game is won by Smash , Buddy engineers the firing of the new coach and persuades Taylor that both the team and his family are suffering in his absence . Taylor agrees to return .
Julie continues to act out . She ends her romantic relationship with Matt , whom she sees as turning into a replica of her father , and pursues an older man , " the Swede , " who works with her as a lifeguard at the local pool . When she finds the Swede has no interest in a serious relationship , she begins a friendship with a young teacher that her mother feels is inappropriate . Tami confronts the teacher at school , but some students overhear the conversation and spread rumors about Julie ; Julie is mortified and furious at her mother .
Meanwhile , Coach Taylor attempts to win games with the Panthers but faces a number of issues .
Tim is kicked off the team after missing a week of practice when he leaves on the spur of the moment to go with Jason Street to Mexico to look for a treatment for Jason 's paralysis . On returning to Dillon , Tim finds that a neighbor woman , with whom he had a brief affair , is now seeing his brother Billy and has all but moved into their house . Tim moves out but has trouble finding another place to live and ultimately returns . Coach Taylor allows him to rejoin the team after he shows up at practice and on his own initiative apologizes to everyone on the team for his lack of commitment .
Lyla Garrity becomes increasingly involved in an organization for young Christians . As part of a religious outreach program , she befriends a young convict , Santiago Herrera , who is released from juvenile detention shortly after they first meet . She gets him a job at her father Buddy 's car dealership . Buddy encourages Santiago to try out for football after noticing his superior speed and coordination . When Taylor expresses interest in the boy , it is discovered that his legal guardian has left town and he has no adult in his life . Buddy agrees to take legal responsibility for him .
Smash is courted by a number of college recruiters . He makes it clear his priority is a quick route to the NFL , leading to tension between him and his mother , who insists his priority should be getting an education . Smash accepts a scholarship to the prestigious TMU . However , Smash punches a white teenager who sexually harasses his sister when they 're at the movies . This turns into a blown @-@ out @-@ of @-@ proportion racial incident , and Smash is deemed someone who has " character issues . " His scholarship to TMU is revoked . He later commits to Whitmore University , a smaller historically black college that is more highly regarded for its academics than its athletic programs . The football coach at Whitmore has a strong relationship with Coach Taylor , and had been scouting Smash since he was in middle school .
Matt begins a relationship with a cheerleader before leaving her for his grandmother 's new live @-@ in nurse , Carlotta .
Additionally , the early season follows an arc where Landry kills and hides the body of a man who attempted to rape Tyra , leading to a romance between the two . Eventually , guilt builds within Landry and he confesses . Charges are not pressed , although tension between him and Tyra remains .
Jason Street impregnates a woman in what was supposed to be a one @-@ night stand at the end of season two . Jason pleads with the woman to keep the child and promises to take care of the two .
This season ends on a cliffhanger due to the Writers ' Strike . The show 's head writer and executive producer , Jason Katims , stated that this last episode was “ not in any way viewed as the season finale ... If we were leading to the end of the season [ under normal circumstances ] , we would have most likely brought the story around to the coach and his family again , ” and there would have been a strong football element as well , Katims said . Seven of the 22 episodes NBC ordered for Season 2 weren ’ t made .
= = = Season three = = =
The season began with Coach Taylor failing to lead the Panthers to another State championship the year before , creating new pressure for him . Quarterback Matt Saracen 's position is threatened by the arrival of freshman J.D. McCoy , an amazing natural talent who comes from a rich family with an overbearing father , Joe . Matt moves to wide receiver after Taylor names J.D. starting quarterback . Tyra starts dating a cowboy named Cash , leading to complications in her relationship with Landry . Tim and Lyla start dating . Tami Taylor becomes the principal of Dillon High School and fights with Buddy Garrity about the allocation of funds toward a Jumbotron .
Smash Williams , who injured his knee during the previous year 's playoffs , rediscovers his love for the game . Billy , Tim , Herc , and Jason decide to flip Buddy Garrity 's house for a profit . Matt and Julie reconcile and rekindle their romance . Smash gets a tryout with Texas A & M , and succeeds in winning a spot on their team . Lyla helps Tim pursue a college football scholarship . Tim initially puts off the recruiter and is concerned Lyla is trying to turn him into someone he 's not by encouraging him to pursue college , but he sees she 's looking out for his best interests . Buddy loses money , which is Lyla 's college fund , in a bad business deal and he retaliates by trashing the strip club , The Landing Strip . Lyla wants to attend Vanderbilt University and after Buddy loses the money , she considers going to San Antonio State University , the school that gives Tim a scholarship . Lyla moves in with Tim after she and her father have a fight . Billy Riggins gets engaged to Tyra 's older sister Mindy . Mindy is pregnant at the time of their engagement . Jason Street eventually finds a job at a sports agency in New York City , after visiting a former Panthers player who is now playing professionally , and moves to the northeast to be close to his girlfriend and newborn baby .
Matt is pushed back into his former football role in the playoffs . While Eric Taylor and Buddy Garrity were making a visit to a possible recruit who just moved into town , the coach learns of a plot to have him replaced as head coach of the Dillon Panthers . They learn that Joe McCoy wants Taylor replaced with Wade Aikman , J.D. ' s personal coach . After the school 's administration meets to decide who gets the coaching job , Aikman is offered the job at Dillon High School , while Taylor is offered the job of coaching at recently reopened East Dillon High School . Billy and Mindy 's wedding ends the season .
= = = Season four = = =
Season 4 kicks off with Eric Taylor struggling as the East Dillon High coach . The team , field and conditions are a complete change from the privileged and sparkling conditions at West Dillon .
As Coach begins putting together his new Lion team , he realizes he 's in for more than he bargained for . The players who try out are less than desirable , but Coach gets a lucky break with a couple of new faces . The first is Vince Howard , a student who has gotten in trouble with the law too many times . He is given one last chance if he plays football for the East Dillon Lions . Although he has no prior football experience , he has natural talent and becomes the team 's first star quarterback . The second break comes to the Lions when Buddy Garrity reveals to Eric that the address on file for the Panthers new prodigy running back , Luke Cafferty , is nothing more than a mailbox in front of an empty lot , and Luke is really zoned for East Dillon . Tami is faced with a struggle as the principal of West Dillon . A new character on the show , Becky , is introduced when Tim Riggins rents a trailer on her mother 's property . Although she is in love with Tim , she and Luke are both shopping at a convenience store and she allows Luke to drive her home . The two have sex and Becky becomes pregnant . Even though she is a student at East Dillon , she seeks out Tami 's help with the situation . Tami discusses all of the options with her and Becky decides to get an abortion . Her mother goes with her to the procedure . Parents find out about this and led by Luke 's mother , seek Mrs. Taylor 's dismissal as principal . When Tami refuses to apologize , as she followed procedure , she is put on leave . She decides to return to her role as a guidance counselor , but at East Dillon .
The football season is one focused on growth and reestablishing a sense of Lion pride . The culmination of their hard work is tested in their last game of the season as they play the Dillon Panthers led by J.D. McCoy . In an amazing show of perseverance , the East Dillon Lions defeat the Dillon Panthers , ruining the Panthers ' playoff chances .
In season four , Matt Saracen struggles with staying in Dillon and living as a townie . He turned down an art school in Chicago and is instead studying art at the local technical college . After returning from a hunting trip with Tim Riggins , he finds out that his father was killed in Iraq . The episode " The Son " shows Matt going through the five stages of grief as he comes to accept the death of his father , a man he claims to hate . This episode garnered much buzz online and resulted in a failed campaign for Zach Gilford to get an Emmy nomination in the guest actor category ; however , the episode did get an Emmy nomination for Outstanding Writing in a Drama Series . After this emotionally charged episode , Matt abruptly moves to Chicago without saying goodbye to his girlfriend or best friend . He returns briefly in the finale and makes amends with both Julie and Landry , who ends up flying back to Chicago with Matt .
The character of Tim Riggins has developed over time from an unfocused and moody alcoholic to a young man of character and dependability . Sometimes that dependability is reflected in his uncanny ability to make the wrong choices for the right reasons , which usually involve his brother . Even though he has proven his ability to help others correct their misguided choices , unfortunately there is no one who does this for Tim . In this season , his irresponsible , headstrong , but lovable brother again entices Tim into another wrong choice by convincing Tim that the only way they can make any money is by transforming their newly opened garage into a chop shop . Just as they finally end this side business and Tim has enough for the down payment on a large amount of land he 's been dreaming about , the police show up to arrest him at the garage . The police officers recognize Tim as " number 33 " giving Tim no chance to deny that it 's his chop shop . True to his character , he makes the decision to take the rap and allows his brother to be with his new wife and child . The season ends as Tim walks toward the jail .
= = = Season five = = =
Season 5 , the final season , opens with summer wrapping up in Dillon : Billy Riggins joins Coach Taylor as a special teams coach for the East Dillon Lions . Tami is the new guidance counselor at East Dillon , where she is faced with the challenge of a particularly difficult student named Epyck . Landry is departing for Rice University , and Tim Riggins has three more months in jail . Becky experiences turmoil in her living situation and moves in with Billy and Mindy and develops a family of her own with them , while also developing a closer relationship with Luke . With Vince leading the Lions , along with Luke Cafferty , new recruit Hastings Ruckle , and the rest of the team standing strong behind him , Eric Taylor has strong hopes for the team to go to state . But as Vince 's past comes back to haunt him , it seems that the team will have to deal with struggles off the field , as well as on . Vince 's troubles also cause his relationship with Jess to take a hit . Julie 's college experience is nothing like she imagined and after she experiences a difficulty situation involving her history TA , she is forced to take a good look at what she wants . Buddy Garrity becomes a father again when Buddy Jr . , who developed problems in California , is sent back to Dillon to get help from his father . He 's pleased when his son becomes a Lions football player .
Julie looks for support first from her parents , and then from her old boyfriend Matt Saracen , who is living in Chicago and attending art school . Julie drives up to spend some time with him , but leaves still confused about her future . Tim is up for parole , and with the help of Coach Taylor and Buddy Garrity , is approved for early release . Buddy gives him a job as a bartender at his bar . Tim is angry with his brother Billy and threatens to move to Alaska to work on a pipeline but Tyra Collette comes back for a visit to Dillon and tells him he needs to repair his relationship with Billy . After they spend the night together , she asks Tim to show her his land , and the episode closes with Tyra asking , " Alaska , Tim ? " to which Tim smiles a guilty smile .
In the last episode , East Dillon wins the state championship after Coach Taylor and Vince share a moment of respect for each other . Coach Taylor then moves with his wife to Philadelphia as she accepts the job as Dean of Admissions at a prestigious school , and the show ends showing them living happily . Tim and Tyra talk about their dreams and a potential future at his new home site . Julie is engaged to Matt and lives with him in Chicago . Vince is the quarterback of the " Superteam " of East / West Dillon , joined by Hastings , Buddy Jr . , and Tinker . Jess is living in Dallas , and helping to student coach a team and is following her dreams . Billy is expecting twins with Mindy . Luke Cafferty is seen with Becky at the bus depot departing for the Army . The second to the last scene is of Tim and Billy , taking a break while putting up the frame of Tim 's new house . They sit back , crack open a beer , and Billy toasts , " Texas Forever ? " to which Timmy responds emphatically , " Texas Forever " and they clink their beers . The series ends with Eric coaching a new high school team in Philadelphia ( in a noticeably smaller stadium than those in Texas ) . After practice , Eric recites the phrase : " Clear eyes , full hearts ... " After not getting the normal response of " Can 't lose , " he says , " We 'll deal with that later . " Tami then shows up and the two walk off the field as the lights turn off .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Although the series never had a high viewership , it was met with critical acclaim and has a strong fan @-@ base . On the review aggregator website Metacritic , the first season received a score of 78 out of 100 , based on 32 reviews . Virginia Heffernan wrote for The New York Times that " if the season is anything like the pilot , this new drama about high school football could be great – and not just television great , but great in the way of a poem or painting . " The Washington Post similarly praised the series as " extraordinary in just about every conceivable way . " Bill Simmons , a former columnist for ESPN Magazine implored readers of his column in the September 24
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, 2007 issue to watch the show , calling it " the greatest sports @-@ related show ever made . " Positive reviews also came from USA Today , the San Francisco Chronicle , and international sources , with The Guardian 's Jonathan Bernstien calling the pilot " beautifully shot " and the Metro awarding it 4 out of 5 stars .
Throughout its inaugural season , many online journalists heaped praise on the show . Matt Roush of TV Guide dedicated several of his " Roush Dispatch " columns to the show calling the last episodes of season one " terrifically entertaining " while Zap2it 's Amy Amatangelo asked her readers to " promise to watch [ the last 4 episodes of ] Friday Night Lights . " The show 's pilot did , however , receive negative reviews as well . The Philadelphia Inquirer 's review was particularly harsh , calling the show a " standard high school sports soap opera . "
Season two reviews were considerably less positive than for the first , with the Landry and Tyra murder plot being particularly panned by critics . The Los Angeles Times said that the show had lost its innocence , while The Boston Globe said the event was " out of sync with the real @-@ life tone of the show . " Others were more positive , though , with Variety saying " faith should be shown in showrunner / writer Jason Katims " while The New York Times said " to hold Friday Night Lights to a measure of realism would be to miss what are its essentially expressionistic pleasures . "
Time Out magazine 's Andrew Johnston included the series in his list of the ten best TV shows for both 2006 and 2007 , stating " Who 'd have thought a tribute to heartland values would turn out to be the most avant @-@ garde show on TV ? The music and random close @-@ ups said more than the dialogue in Peter Berg 's phenomenal football drama . " Time magazine 's James Poniewozik named it one of the Top 10 Returning Series of 2007 , ranking it at No. 4 . In 2007 , AOL ranked Friday Night Lights the fifth Best School Show of All Time . The same year , the show placed No. 71 on Entertainment Weekly 's " New TV Classics " list . In 2009 , Alan Sepinwall placed it in his " Best of the ' 00s in TV : Best Dramas " and wrote : " Few shows are as willing to so directly confront the emotions of its characters , aided by central performances — as one of TV ’ s most realistic and loving couples — from Chandler and Connie Britton . " The A.V. Club named it the 16th best TV series of the 2000s . In 2010 , Kristin Dos Santos of E ! Online ranked it number 4 on her list , " Top 20 TV Series of the Past 20 Years " .
Friday Night Lights 's final season was lauded by critics . Based on 10 reviews , the season obtained a score of 82 out of 100 on Metacritic , indicating " universal acclaim " and it was included on numerous best lists . Poniewozik ranked it No. 7 on his list of 2011 's Top 10 TV Series , saying , " The final season of this drama came down , as you would expect , to a final dramatic game . But the real action was always just as much in the stands " . He also ranked the final episode " Always " No. 1 on 2011 's Top 10 TV Episodes list . Paste also named it one of the 20 best TV shows of 2011 and Slant Magazine ranked Friday Night Lights No. 10 on its list of 2011 's 25 Best TV Shows , concluding " The show 's true concerns — obsession , class , family — were articulated beautifully as ever in the quiet , familiar relationships between a town and its team , and a coach and his wife " . The Salt Lake Tribune in its list of the Top 10 series of 2011 ranked Friday Night Lights No. 1 explaining " For five seasons , Friday Night Lights was both the simplest and most complex show on TV . It felt like real life , and real life is complicated . " TV Guide named the show among its Best TV Shows of 2011 praising the fact that " Friday Night Lights left its fans with the best portrait of a marriage ever on TV " . It was also included on The Huffington Post 's and E ! Online 's 2011 's Best TV Shows .
In 2013 , the Writers Guild of America ranked Friday Night Lights No. 22 in its of the " 101 Best Written TV Series of All Time " .
= = = Awards and accolades = = =
Friday Night Lights won a Peabody Award , three AFI awards , an Emmy Award for Outstanding Casting for a Drama Series , an ACE Eddie Award for editing , an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Directing , a Television Critics Association Award , and has earned multiple Writers Guild of America nominations . The show 's two leading actors , Kyle Chandler and Connie Britton , received Emmy nominations for their performances in 2010 , while executive producer Jason Katims won two Humanitas Prize awards for writing .
In 2011 , after concluding its run , the show was honored by four Emmy nominations and Kyle Chandler won the award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series and Jason Katims won for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series for " Always " .
= = = Fan base = = =
Friday Night Lights enjoys what former NBC President Kevin Reilly called a " passionate and vocal [ fanbase ] " . This fan dedication has shown itself in everything from advertisers expressing their support for the show to news outlets getting massive amounts of support mail after running positive pieces about the show .
After some statements made by NBC 's Entertainment head Ben Silverman about the future of the show and the fact that everything seemed to point that Friday Night Lights wouldn 't return after the writers ' strike , fans put together several campaigns . Save FNL Campaign raised money to send footballs and contributions to charity foundations that were related to the show . The Save FNL Campaign raised a total of $ 15 @,@ 840 for 18 @,@ 750 footballs , $ 2061 for charity , and $ 924 worth of DVDs for troops stationed overseas .
= = Television ratings = =
= = = U.S. ratings = = =
Though it was critically acclaimed , Friday Night Lights never enjoyed high ratings . The first two seasons averaged roughly 6 million viewers each . Ratings dropped in subsequent seasons with the third season averaging 4 @.@ 6 million viewers , the fourth season with 3 @.@ 8 million , and fifth season with 3 @.@ 6 million .
= = = International ratings = = =
The show 's pilot , which aired on February 21 , 2007 on ITV4 , was watched by 26 @,@ 000 viewers in the UK . This was attributed to the program being aired opposite of the Barcelona – Liverpool football game in the first knockout round of the 2006 – 07 UEFA Champions League .
= = = DVR ratings = = =
On December 29 , 2006 Nielsen Media Research reported the results of having , for the first time , monitored viewers who use a Digital Video Recorder to record shows for later viewing . These ratings , called " live plus seven " , include all viewers who use a DVR to record the show and then watch it within a week of its initial airing .
According to the Nielsen numbers , DVR viewers increased Friday Night Lights ratings by 7 @.@ 5 % overall in December . When Nielsen monitored viewers again in April 2007 the increase went up to 17 % for the week ending on April 8 .
= = = Affluent viewers = = =
On March 5 , 2007 , Media Life Magazine reported that Friday Night Lights was one of the most popular shows among " affluent viewers " who had little experience playing football . This was determined using a report from Magna Global who in turn used analysis done by Nielsen Media Research . Affluence in the study was determined by yearly income .
In the study , Friday Night Lights tied for the 11th most watched show by affluent viewers . According to the study viewers of the show have a median household income of $ 65 @,@ 000 per year .
= = Distribution = =
= = = Online episodes = = =
Streaming videos , such as cast interviews and the full episode from the previous week , have been available on NBC.com since the series ’ inception . In December 2006 , NBC expanded this selection to include every episode of the season . The move to offer every episode was made for only a few select shows and represents a marketing push on NBC 's part .
In addition to the free ad @-@ support offerings , every episode of Friday Night Lights became available for download on the iTunes Store on February 10 , 2007 for $ 1 @.@ 99 per episode . As a special promotion , the pilot was initially offered as a free download . The series is also available on Netflix .
= = = Syndication = = =
ABC Family acquired syndication rights for the first four seasons and began airing reruns September 6 , 2010 , but it was pulled on October 18 , 2010 , due to low ratings . In July 2011 , it was announced that ESPN Classic had acquired the rights of all the five seasons of the show and started airing the series beginning on July 12 , 2011 .
In an attempt to bolster series ratings , NBC repositioned reruns of the show to air on its sister network Bravo , during the weeks leading up to the season one finale on NBC . These episodes aired on a schedule of one hour every Friday and three hours every Saturday . Bravo is known to have an audience that is upscale and largely female , which is in line with the new strategy of NBC 's then @-@ President Kevin Reilly ( now at FOX ) for selling the show . When questioned about this strategy , he admitted to having regrets about initially marketing the show incorrectly , saying : “ It ’ s been so clear to me that [ the marketing for ] the show ended up confusing people in terms of what [ the public thought ] it was supposed to be " . He said he felt the show is , at its core , a “ women 's show ” , and his wish is that the marketing had reflected that to a greater extent .
Once the 2006 – 2007 television season ended , NBC planned to air reruns throughout the summer in the hopes of gaining new viewers during the summer hiatus . Despite rising ratings for the reruns , NBC abruptly pulled them from the network 's schedule on June 24 , 2007 . NBC resumed airing reruns in late August / early September , timed to the Season 1 DVD release .
TeenNick acquired the rights in 2015 and began airing the series , in chronological order , on April 10 , 2015 with a week @-@ long event in which three episodes aired nightly .
= = = DirecTV = = =
During the 2007 – 08 Writers Guild of America strike , NBC Universal 's decision to release the Season 2 DVD with only the 15 produced episodes and comments by NBC chief Ben Silverman led to speculation that the show would be canceled .
In March 2008 , it was confirmed that NBC had picked up the series for a third season , after a cost @-@ sharing partnership between NBC and DirecTV was struck . The agreement had first run episodes airing exclusively on DirecTV , and the episodes aired on NBC at a later date . Season 3 premiered exclusively on DirecTV channel 101 , with the episodes replaying on NBC beginning on January 16 , 2009 . In March 2009 , NBC announced it had renewed the series for two more seasons .
= = Home media releases = =
= = = DVD = = =
The first season was released on DVD in region 1 on August 28 , 2007 , and in region 2 on October 29 , 2007 . Special features include deleted scenes from several episodes and a featurette titled " Behind The Lights : Creating The First Season of Friday Night Lights " .
The second season was released on DVD in region 1 on April 22 , 2008 , and in region 2 on February 11 , 2013 . Special features include deleted scenes from several episodes , audio commentaries for " Last Days of Summer " , " Are You Ready for Friday Night " and " There Goes the Neighborhood " and a featurette titled " Friday Night Lights Cast & Producers at the Paley Festival in L.A. " .
The third season was released on DVD in region 1 on May 19 , 2009 , and in region 2 on March 25 , 2013 . Special features include deleted scenes from various episode and an audio commentary for " Tomorrow Blues " .
The fourth season was released on DVD in region 1 on August 17 , 2010 , and in region 2 on May 20 , 2013 . Special features include deleted scenes from various episodes , audio commentary for " East of Dillon " , and several behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurettes .
The fifth season was released on DVD in region 1 on April 5 , 2011 , and in region 2 on August 12 , 2013 . Special features include deleted scenes from several episodes , audio commentaries for " Don 't Go " and " Always " , a featurette titled " The Lights Go Out " , and a photo gallery .
A complete series box set containing all the episodes and material from the individual season sets was released in region 1 on October 4 , 2011 .
In March 2016 , it was announced that Mill Creek Entertainment had acquired the rights to the series in region 1 ; they will re @-@ release the first two seasons on DVD on September 6 , 2016 .
= = = Soundtracks = = =
Two soundtracks with music featured on the show were released . The first , Friday Night Lights , was released in 2007 , and included music from The Killers , OutKast , and Explosions in the Sky , who had produced the score for the film . The second soundtrack , Friday Night Lights Vol . 2 , was released in 2010 , and included the main " Friday Night Lights Theme " by W. G. Walden . The score for both the film and television show , along with all background music and all instrumental music is performed by Explosions in the Sky .
= = Potential film sequel = =
In July 2011 , it was revealed that creator and executive producer Peter Berg was interested in continuing the series , as a feature film . In August 2011 , Berg said at a Television Critics Association panel that the Friday Night Lights film is in development . Berg was quoted as saying " We 're very serious about trying to do it " , adding that the script is currently being written . Universal Pictures and Imagine Television would produce the film , with Kyle Chandler and Connie Britton set to return . In May 2013 , executive producer Brian Grazer confirmed the continued development to make a film . In December 2013 , it was confirmed by Berg that a film would not be moving forward .
= Quantum of Solace =
Quantum of Solace ( 2008 ) is the 22nd James Bond film produced by Eon Productions , and is the direct sequel to the 2006 film Casino Royale . Directed by Marc Forster , it features Daniel Craig 's second performance as James Bond . In the film , Bond seeks revenge for the death of his lover , Vesper Lynd , and is assisted by Camille Montes ( Olga Kurylenko ) , who is plotting revenge for the murder of her family . The trail eventually leads them to wealthy businessman Dominic Greene ( Mathieu Amalric ) , a member of the Quantum organisation , who intends to stage a coup d 'état in Bolivia to seize control of that country 's water supply .
Producer Michael G. Wilson developed the film 's plot while Casino Royale was being shot . Neal Purvis , Robert Wade and Paul Haggis contributed to the script . Daniel Craig and Marc Forster had to write some sections themselves due to the Writers ' Strike , though they were not given the screenwriter credit in the final cut . The title was chosen from a 1959 short story in Ian Fleming 's For Your Eyes Only , though the film does not contain any elements of that story . Location filming took place in Mexico , Panama , Chile , Italy , Austria and Wales while interior sets were built and filmed at Pinewood Studios . Forster aimed to make a modern film that also featured classic cinema motifs : a vintage Douglas DC @-@ 3 was used for a flight sequence , and Dennis Gassner 's set designs are reminiscent of Ken Adam 's work on several early Bond films . Taking a course away from the usual Bond villains , Forster rejected any grotesque appearance for the character Dominic Greene to emphasise the hidden and secret nature of the film 's contemporary villains .
The film was also marked by its frequent depictions of violence , with a 2012 study by the University of Otago in New Zealand finding it to be the most violent film in the franchise . Whereas Dr. No featured 109 " trivial or severely violent " acts , Quantum of Solace had a count of 250 – the most depictions of violence in any Bond film . Quantum of Solace premiered at the Odeon Leicester Square on 29 October 2008 , gathering mixed reviews , which mainly praised Craig 's gritty performance and the film 's action sequences , but feeling that the film was not as impressive as its predecessor Casino Royale . As of November 2012 , it is the third @-@ highest @-@ grossing James Bond film , without adjusting for inflation , earning $ 586 million worldwide .
= = Plot = =
James Bond is driving from Lake Garda to Siena , Italy , with the captured Mr. White ( Jesper Christensen ) in the boot of his car . After evading pursuers , Bond delivers White to M , who interrogates him regarding his organisation , Quantum . M 's bodyguard Craig Mitchell ( Glenn Foster ) , is a double agent ; he attacks M , enabling White to escape . Bond chases Mitchell and kills him . Bond and M return to London and search Mitchell 's flat , discovering that Mitchell had a contact in Haiti , Edmund Slate ( Neil Jackson ) . Bond learns that Slate is a hitman sent to kill Camille Montes ( Olga Kurylenko ) at the behest of her lover , environmentalist entrepreneur Dominic Greene ( Mathieu Amalric ) . Observing her subsequent meeting with Greene , Bond learns that Greene is helping exiled Bolivian General Medrano ( Joaquin Cosio ) — who murdered Camille 's family — to overthrow his government and become the new president , in exchange for a seemingly barren piece of desert .
After rescuing Camille from Medrano , Bond follows Greene to a performance of Tosca in Bregenz , Austria . Meanwhile , the head of the CIA 's South American section , Gregg Beam ( David Harbour ) , strikes a non @-@ interference deal with Greene for access to putative stocks of Bolivian oil . Bond infiltrates Quantum 's meeting at the opera , identifying members of Quantum 's executive board , and a gunfight ensues . A Special Branch bodyguard working for Quantum member Guy Haines ( Paul Ritter ) , is killed after he fights with Bond . M assumes that Bond killed him , and has Bond 's passports and credit cards revoked . Bond heads to Italy and convinces his old ally René Mathis ( Giancarlo Giannini ) to accompany him to Bolivia . They are greeted by Strawberry Fields ( Gemma Arterton ) , a consular employee who demands that Bond return to the UK immediately . Bond seduces her and they attend a fundraising party Greene holds that night . At the party , Bond again rescues Camille from Greene . Leaving , Bond and Camille are pulled over by Bolivian police working for Medrano . They had earlier attacked Mathis and put him in the boot of Bond 's car to frame Bond . In the ensuing struggle , Mathis is killed .
The following day , Bond and Camille survey Quantum 's intended land acquisition by air ; their plane is shot down by a Bolivian fighter aircraft . They skydive into a sinkhole , and discover that Quantum is damming Bolivia 's supply of fresh water to create a monopoly . Back in La Paz , Bond meets M and learns that Quantum murdered Fields by drowning her in crude oil . Bond meets CIA Agent Felix Leiter ( Jeffrey Wright ) , who discloses that Greene and Medrano will meet in the Atacama Desert to finalise their agreement . Warned by Leiter , he evades the CIA 's Special Activities Division when they attempt to kill him .
At an eco hotel in the desert , Greene tells Medrano that now he controls the majority of Bolivia 's water supply , Medrano must accept a new contract that makes Greene Planet Bolivia 's sole water utility company at significantly higher rates . Bond infiltrates the hotel , kills the Chief of Police ( Fernando Guillén Cuervo ) for betraying Mathis , and confronts Greene . Meanwhile , Camille kills Medrano , avenging the murders of her family . The struggle leaves the hotel destroyed by fire . Bond captures Greene and interrogates him about Quantum , leaving him stranded in the desert with only a can of engine oil .
Bond travels to Kazan , Russia , where he finds Vesper Lynd 's former lover , Yusef Kabira ( Simon Kassianides ) , a member of Quantum who seduces women with valuable connections , and who is indirectly responsible for her death . Bond tells Kabira 's latest target , Corrine Veneau ( Stana Katic ) , a Canadian Intelligence agent , of his true intentions , thus sparing her Vesper 's fate . He allows MI6 to arrest Kabira . Outside , M tells Bond that Greene was found dead in the middle of the desert , shot twice and with engine oil in his stomach . M tells Bond that she needs him back ; he responds that he never left . Walking away , he drops Vesper 's necklace in the snow .
= = Cast = =
Daniel Craig as James Bond . Craig 's physical training for his reprise of the role placed extra effort into running and boxing , to spare him the injuries he sustained on his stunts in the first film . Craig felt he was fitter , being less bulky than in the first film . He also practised speedboating and stunt driving . Craig felt Casino Royale was [ physically ] " a walk in the park " compared to Quantum of Solace , which required a different performance from him because Quantum of Solace is a revenge film , not a love story like Casino Royale . While filming in Pinewood , he suffered a gash when kicked in his face , which required eight stitches , and a fingertip was sliced off . He laughed these off , noting they did not delay filming , and joked his finger wound would enable him to have a criminal career ( though it had grown back when he made this comment ) . He also had minor plastic surgery on his face . The actor advised Paul Haggis on the script and helped choose Marc Forster as the director .
Olga Kurylenko as Camille Montes , a Bolivian agent with her own vendetta regarding Greene and Medrano . Forster chose her because out of the 400 women who auditioned , she seemed the least nervous . When she read the script , she was glad she had no love scene with Craig ; she felt it would have distracted viewers from her performance . Kurylenko spent three weeks training to fight with weapons , and she learnt a form of indoor skydiving known as body flying . Kurylenko said she had to do " training non @-@ stop from the morning to the evening " for the action scenes , overcoming her fears with the help of Craig and the stunt team . She was given a DVD box set of Bond films , since the franchise was not easily available to watch in her native Ukraine . Kurylenko found Michelle Yeoh in Tomorrow Never Dies inspiring " because she did the fight scenes by herself . " The producers had intended to cast a South American actress in the role . Kurylenko trained with a dialect coach to perform with a Spanish accent . She said that the accent was easy for her because she has " a lot of hispanic friends , from Latin America and Spain , and it 's an accent I 've always heard " . When reflecting on her experience as a Bond girl , she stated she was proudest of overcoming her fears in performing stunts .
Mathieu Amalric as Dominic Greene , the main villain . He is a leading member of Quantum posing as a businessman working in reforestation and charity funding for environmental science . In the 2015 Bond film Spectre , he is revealed to be a member of the crime syndicate SPECTRE , which Quantum is a subsidiary of . Amalric acknowledged taking the role was an easy decision because , " It 's impossible to say to your kids that ' I could have been in a Bond film but I refused . ' " Amalric wanted to wear make @-@ up for the role , but Forster explained that he wanted Greene not to look grotesque , but to symbolise the hidden evils in society . Amalric modelled his performance on " the smile of Tony Blair [ and ] the craziness of Sarkozy , " the latter of whom he called " the worst villain we [ the French ] have ever had ... he walks around thinking he 's in a Bond film . " He later claimed this was not criticism of either politician , but rather an example of how a politician relies on performance instead of a genuine policy to win power . " Sarkozy , is just a better actor than [ his presidential opponent ] Ségolène Royal — that 's all , " he explained . Amalric and Forster reconceived the character , who was supposed to have a " special skill " in the script , to someone who uses pure animal instinct when fighting Bond in the climax . Bruno Ganz was also considered for the part , but Forster decided Amalric gave the character a " pitiful " quality .
Gemma Arterton as MI6 agent Strawberry Fields , who works at the British consulate in Bolivia . Fields , who is merely an office worker as described by M , takes herself seriously and tries to overpower Bond when the pair meet . She is later seduced by Bond , infiltrates Greene 's fund raiser party with him and ends up paying the ultimate price . Forster found Arterton a witty actress and selected her from a reported 1 @,@ 500 candidates . One of the casting directors asked her to audition for the role , having seen her portray Rosaline in Love 's Labour 's Lost at the Globe Theatre . Arterton said Fields was " not so frolicsome " as other Bond girls , but is instead " fresh and young , not ... a femme fatale . " Arterton described Fields as a homage to the 1960s Bond girls , comparing her red wig to that of Diana Rigg , who played Tracy Bond in On Her Majesty 's Secret Service . Rigg , alongside Honor Blackman , is one of her favourite Bond girls . Arterton had to film her character 's death scene first day on the set , where she was completely covered head to toe in non @-@ toxic black paint . Although she found the experience unpleasant , she believes the scene will be an iconic part of the film . The character 's first name , which is a reference to the Beatles song " Strawberry Fields Forever " , is never actually uttered on screen ; when Bond asks her for her name , she replies , " Just Fields . " Robert A. Caplen suggests that this is a conscious effort to portray a woman " whose character attributes are neither undermined nor compromised " by her name , even though her name may have sexual overtones reminiscent of earlier Bond girls .
Giancarlo Giannini as René Mathis , Bond 's ally who was mistakenly believed to be a traitor in Casino Royale . Having been acquitted , he chooses to aid Bond again in his quest to find out who betrayed him .
Jeffrey Wright as Felix Leiter , Bond 's ally at the CIA . Early script drafts gave Leiter a larger role , but his screentime was restricted by on @-@ set rewrites .
Judi Dench as M. Forster felt Dench was underused in the previous films and wanted to make her part bigger , having her interact with Bond more because she is " the only woman Bond doesn 't see in a sexual context , " which Forster finds interesting .
Anatole Taubman as Elvis , Greene 's second @-@ in @-@ command . Taubman wanted to make Elvis " as colourful , as edgy and as interesting as possible " , with one of his suggestions being the bowl cut . Amalric and Taubman improvised a backstory for Elvis : he is Dominic 's cousin and once lived on the streets before being inducted into Quantum . He called Elvis " a bit of a goofball . He thinks he 's all that but he 's not really . ... He 's not a comic guy . He definitely takes himself very serious , but maybe by his taking himself too serious he may become friendly . "
David Harbour as Gregg Beam , the CIA section chief for South America and a contact of Felix Leiter .
Joaquín Cosío as General Medrano , the exiled general whom Greene is helping to get back into power , in return for support of his organisation . He murdered Camille 's entire family when she was a young girl .
Fernando Guillén Cuervo as Carlos , the Colonel of Bolivian Police , the chief of all police forces , and the contact of René Mathis in Bolivia .
Jesper Christensen as Mr. White , whom Bond captured after he stole the money won at Casino Royale in Montenegro .
Rory Kinnear as Bill Tanner , M 's aide .
Paul Ritter as Guy Haines
Tim Pigott @-@ Smith as the British Secretary of State for Foreign and Commonwealth Affairs .
Neil Jackson as Edmund Slate , a henchman who fights Bond in Haiti .
Simon Kassianides as Yusef , a member of Quantum who seduces female agents and manipulates them into giving away classified information . He is indirectly responsible for Vesper Lynd 's death .
Stana Katic as Corrine Veneau , a Canadian agent and Yusef 's latest target .
Glenn Foster as Craig Mitchell , M 's bodyguard and a double agent .
Oona Chaplin as Perla de las Dunas ' receptionist , a woman saved by Camille Montes in one of the last sequences .
Lucrezia Lante della Rovere as Gemma , Mathis ' girlfriend .
Elizabeth Arciniega as Mr. White 's girlfriend .
Marc Forster asked his friends and fellow directors Guillermo del Toro and Alfonso Cuarón to appear in cameos . Cuarón appears as a Bolivian helicopter pilot , while del Toro provides several other voices .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
" If you remember in Chinatown , if you control the water you control the whole development of the country . I think it 's true . Right now it appears to be oil , but there 's a lot of other resources that we don 't think about too much but are all essential , and they 're very limited and every country needs it . Because every country knows that raising the standard of living ( and populations are getting bigger ) is the way we 're all going . "
In July 2006 , as Casino Royale entered post @-@ production , Eon Productions announced that the next film would be based on an original idea by producer Michael G. Wilson . It was decided beforehand the film would be a direct sequel , to exploit Bond 's emotions following Vesper 's death in the previous film . Just as Casino Royale 's theme was terrorism , the sequel focuses on environmentalism . The film was confirmed for a 2 May 2008 release date , with Craig reprising the lead role . Roger Michell , who directed Craig in Enduring Love and The Mother , was in negotiations to direct , but opted out because there was no script . Sony Entertainment vice @-@ chairman Jeff Blake admitted a production schedule of 18 months was a very short window , and the release date was pushed back to late 2008 . Neal Purvis and Robert Wade completed their draft of the script by April 2007 , and Paul Haggis , who polished the Casino Royale script , began his rewrite the next month .
In June 2007 , Marc Forster was confirmed as director . He was surprised that he was approached for the job , stating he was not a big Bond film fan through the years , and that he would not have accepted the project had he not seen Casino Royale prior to making his decision : he felt Bond had been humanised in that film , arguing since travelling the world had become less exotic since the series ' advent , it made sense to focus more on Bond as a character . Born in Germany and raised in Switzerland , Forster was the first Bond director not to come from the British Commonwealth of Nations , although he noted Bond 's mother is Swiss , making him somewhat appropriate to handle the British icon . The director collaborated strongly with Barbara Broccoli and Michael G. Wilson , noting they only blocked two very expensive ideas he had . The director found Casino Royale 's 144 @-@ minute running time too long , and wanted his follow @-@ up to be " tight and fast ... like a bullet . "
" Because Bond plays it real , I thought the political circumstances should be real too , even though Bond shouldn 't be a political film . I thought the more political I make it , the more real it feels , not just with Bolivia and what 's happening in Haiti , but with all these corporations like Shell and Chevron saying they 're green because it 's so fashionable to be green . During the Cold War , everything was very clear , the good guys and the bad guys . Today there 's much overlapping of good and bad . It isn 't as morally distinct , because we all have both elements in us . "
Haggis , Forster and Wilson rewrote the story from scratch . Haggis said he completed his script two hours before the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike officially began . Forster noted a running theme in his films were emotionally repressed protagonists , and the theme of the picture would be Bond learning to trust after feeling betrayed by Vesper . Forster said he created the Camille character as a strong female counterpart to Bond rather than a casual love interest : she openly shows emotions similar to those which Bond experiences but is unable to express . Haggis located his draft 's climax in the Swiss Alps , but Forster wanted the action sequences to be based around the four classical elements of earth , water , air and fire . The decision to homage Goldfinger in Fields 's death came about as Forster wanted to show oil had replaced gold as the most precious material . The producers rejected Haggis 's idea that Vesper Lynd had a child , because " Bond was an orphan ... Once he finds the kid , Bond can 't just leave the kid . " The water supply issue in Bolivia was the main theme of the film , with a story based on the Cochabamba Water Revolt .
Michael G. Wilson decided on the film 's title Quantum of Solace only " a few days " before its announcement on 24 January 2008 . It was the name of a short story in Ian Fleming 's anthology For Your Eyes Only ( 1960 ) . The film is related to the title in one of its thematic elements : " when the ' Quantum of Solace ' drops to zero , humanity and consideration of one human for another is gone . " Daniel Craig admitted , " I was unsure at first . Bond is looking for his quantum of solace and that 's what he wants , he wants his closure . Ian Fleming says that if you don 't have a quantum of solace in your relationship then the relationship is over . It 's that spark of niceness in a relationship that if you don 't have you might as well give up . " He said that " Bond doesn 't have that because his girlfriend [ Vesper Lynd ] has been killed , " and therefore , " [ Bond is ] looking for revenge ... to make himself happy with the world again . " Afterwards , Quantum was made the name of the organisation introduced in Casino Royale . Craig noted the letter Q itself looks rather odd . Near the end of the film , the Camille Montes character and Bond have a discussion about their individual quests to avenge the deaths of their loved ones . Montes asks Bond to " let me know what it feels like " when he succeeds , the implication of the title being that it will be a small amount of solace compared to his despair . Bond 's lack of emotion when he does exact revenge shows this to be the case .
According to a December 2011 interview with Craig , " We had the bare bones of a script and then there was a writers ' strike and there was nothing we could do . We couldn 't employ a writer to finish it . I say to myself , ' Never again ' , but who knows ? There was me trying to rewrite scenes — and a writer I am not . " He said that he and Forster " were the ones allowed to do it . The rules were that you couldn 't employ anyone as a writer , but the actor and director could work on scenes together . We were stuffed . We got away with it , but only just . It was never meant to be as much of a sequel as it was , but it ended up being a sequel , starting where the last one finished . "
During filming , after the strike ended , Forster read a spec script by Joshua Zetumer , which he liked , and hired him to reshape scenes for the later parts of the shoot , which the director was still unsatisfied with . Forster had the actors rehearse their scenes , as he liked to film scenes continually . Zetumer rewrote dialogue depending on the actors ' ideas each day .
= = = Filming = = =
Quantum of Solace was shot in six countries . Second unit filming began in Italy at the Palio di Siena horse race on 16 August 2007 , although at that point Forster was unsure how it would fit into the film . Some scenes were filmed also in Maratea and Craco , two small distinctive towns in Basilicata in southern Italy . Other places used for location shooting were Madrid in August 2007 ; Baja California , Mexico in early 2008 , for shots of the aerial battle ; Malcesine , Limone sul Garda and Tremosine in Italy during March , and at Talamone during the end of April . The main unit began on 3 January 2008 at Pinewood Studios . The 007 Stage was used for the fight in the art gallery , and an MI6 safehouse hidden within the city 's cisterns , while other stages housed Bond 's Bolivian hotel suite , and the MI6 headquarters . Interior and exterior airport scenes were filmed at Farnborough Airfield and the snowy closing scenes were filmed at the Bruneval Barracks in Aldershot .
Shooting in Panama City began on 7 February 2008 at Howard Air Force Base . The country doubled for Haiti and Bolivia , with the National Institute of Culture of Panama standing in for a hotel in the latter country . A sequence requiring several hundred extras was also shot at nearby Colón . Shooting in Panama was also carried out at Fort Sherman , a former US military base on the Colón coast . Forster was disappointed he could only shoot the boat chase in that harbour , as he had a more spectacular vision for the scene . Officials in the country worked with the locals to " minimise inconvenience " for the cast and crew , and in return hoped the city 's exposure in the film would increase tourism . The crew was going to move to Cusco , Peru for ten days of filming on 2 March , but the location was cancelled for budget reasons . Twelve days of filming in Chile began on 24 March at Antofagasta . There was shooting in Cobija , the Paranal Observatory , and other locations in the Atacama Desert . Forster chose the desert and the observatory 's ESO Hotel to represent Bond 's rigid emotions , and being on the verge of committing a vengeful act as he confronts Greene in the film 's climax .
While filming in Sierra Gorda , Chile , the local mayor , Carlos Lopez , staged a protest because he was angry at the filmmakers ' portrayal of the Antofagasta region as part of Bolivia . He was arrested , detained briefly , and put on trial two days later . Eon dismissed his claim that they needed his permission to film in the area . Michael G. Wilson also explained Bolivia was appropriate to the plot , because of the country 's history of water problems , and was surprised the two countries disliked each other a century after the War of the Pacific . In a poll by Chilean daily newspaper La Segunda , 75 % of its readers disagreed with Lopez 's actions , due to the negative image they felt it presented of Chile , and the controversy 's potential to put off productions looking to film in the country in the future .
From 4 – 12 April the main unit shot on Sienese rooftops . Shooting on the real rooftops turned out to be less expensive than building them at Pinewood . The next four weeks were scheduled for filming the car chase at Lake Garda and Carrara . On 19 April , an Aston Martin employee driving a DBS to the set crashed into the lake . He survived , and was fined £ 400 for reckless driving . Another accident occurred on 21 April , and two days later , two stuntmen were seriously injured , with one , Greek stuntman Aris Comninos , having to be put in intensive care . Filming of the scenes was temporarily halted so that Italian police could investigate the causes of the accidents . Stunt co @-@ ordinator Gary Powell said the accidents were a testament to the realism of the action . Rumours of a " curse " spread among tabloid media , something which deeply offended Craig , who disliked that they compared Comninos ' accident to something like his minor finger injury later on the shoot ( also part of the " curse " ) . Comninos recovered safely from his injury .
Filming took place at the floating opera stage at Bregenz , Austria , from 28 April – 9 May 2008 . The sequence , where Bond stalks the villains during a performance of Tosca , required 1 @,@ 500 extras . The production used a large model of an eye , which Forster felt fitted in the Bond style , and the opera itself has parallels to the film . A short driving sequence was filmed at the nearby Feldkirch , Vorarlberg . The crew returned to Italy from 13 – 17 May to shoot a ( planned ) car crash at the marble quarry in Carrara , and a recreation of the Palio di Siena at the Piazza del Campo in Siena . 1 @,@ 000 extras were hired for a scene where Bond emerges from the Fonte Gaia . Originally , he would have emerged from the city 's cisterns at Siena Cathedral , but this was thought disrespectful . By June the crew returned to Pinewood for four weeks , where new sets ( including the interior of the hotel in the climax ) were built . The wrap party was held on 21 June .
= = = Design = = =
Production designer Peter Lamont , a crew member on 18 previous Bond films , retired after Casino Royale . Forster hired Dennis Gassner in his stead , having admired his work on The Truman Show and the films of the Coen brothers . Craig said the film would have " a touch of Ken Adam , " while Michael G. Wilson also called Gassner 's designs " a postmodern look at modernism . " Forster said he felt the early Bond films ' design " were ahead of their time , " and enjoyed the clashing of an older style with his own because it created a unique look unto itself . Gassner wanted his sets to emphasise Craig 's " great angular , textured face and wonderful blue eyes , " and totally redesigned the MI6 headquarters because he felt Judi Dench " was a bit tired in the last film , so I thought , let 's bring her into a new world . "
Louise Frogley replaced Lindy Hemming as costume designer , though Hemming remained as supervisor . Hemming hired Brioni for Bond 's suits since her tenure on the series began with 1995 's GoldenEye , but Lindsay Pugh , another supervisor , explained their suits were " too relaxed . " Tom Ford was hired to tailor " sharper " suits for Craig . Pugh said the costumes aimed towards the 1960s feel , especially for Bond and Fields . Prada provided the dresses for both Bond girls . Jasper Conran designed Camille 's ginger bandeau , bronze skirt and gold fish necklace , while Chrome Hearts designed gothic jewellery for Amalric 's character , which the actor liked enough to keep after filming . Sophie Harley , who created Vesper Lynd 's earrings and Algerian loveknot necklace in Casino Royale , was called upon to create another version of the necklace .
The film returns to the traditional gun barrel opening shot , which was altered into part of the story for Casino Royale where it was moved to the beginning of the title sequence . In this film the gun barrel sequence was moved to the end of the movie , which Wilson explained was done for a surprise , and to signify the conclusion of the story begun in the previous film . The opening credits sequence was created by MK12 . Having worked on Forster 's Stranger than Fiction and The Kite Runner , MK12 spontaneously began developing the sequence early on in production , and had a good idea of its appearance which meant it did not have to be redone when the title singer was changed . MK12 selected various twilight colours to represent Bond 's mood and focused on a dot motif based on the gunbarrel shot . MK12 also worked on scenes with graphical user interface , including the electronic table MI6 use , and the Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , Haiti title cards .
= = = Effects = = =
Quantum of Solace was the last in Ford Motor 's three @-@ film deal that began with 2002 's Die Another Day . Although Ford sold over 90 % of the Aston Martin company in 2007 , the Aston Martin DBS V12 returned for the film 's car chase around Lake Garda ; Dan Bradley was hired as second unit director because of his work on the second and third Bourne films , so the film would continue the gritty action style begun in Casino Royale . He had intended to use Ford GTs for the opening chase , but it was replaced by the Alfa Romeo 159 . After location filming in Italy , further close @-@ ups of Craig , the cars and the truck were shot at Pinewood against a blue screen . Originally three Alfa Romeos were in the sequence : but Forster felt the scene was running too long and re @-@ edited the scene so it only looked like two Romeos were chasing Bond . Six Aston Martins were destroyed during filming , and one of them was purchased by a fan .
Fourteen cameras were used to film the Palio di Siena footage , which was later edited into the main sequence . Aerial shots using helicopters were banned , and the crew were also forbidden from showing any violence " involving either people or animals . " To shoot the foot chase in Siena in April 2008 four camera cranes were built in the town , and a cable camera was also used . Framestore worked on the Siena chase , duplicating the 1 @,@ 000 extras during principal photography to match shots of the 40 @,@ 000 strong audience at the real Palio , removing wires that held Craig and the stuntmen in the rooftop segment of the chase , and digital expansion of the floor and skylight in the art gallery Bond and Mitchell fall into . The art gallery fight was intended to be simple , but during filming Craig 's stunt double accidentally fell from the construction scaffolding . Forster preferred the idea of Bond hanging from ropes reaching for his gun to kill Mitchell , rather than having both men run out of the building to continue their chase as specified in the script , and the number of effects shots increased .
To film the aerial dogfight , a " Snakehead " camera was built and placed on the nose and tail of a Piper Aerostar 700 . SolidWorks , who provided the software used to design the camera , stated " pilots for the first time can fly as aggressively as they dare without sacrificing the drama of the shot . " The camera could turn 360 degrees and was shaped like a periscope . The crew also mounted SpaceCams on helicopters , and placed cameras with 1600 mm lenses underground , to cover the action . Forster wanted to film the plane fight as a homage to Alfred Hitchcock 's North by Northwest , and chose planes like the Douglas DC @-@ 3 to suit that .
The free @-@ fall scene involved its own set of challenges , Craig disliked the idea of " being hung by wires and blown by a large fan in front of a green screen " but actual sky diving coverage has serious drawbacks . It 's not only difficult , dangerous and time @-@ consuming , but nearly always results in problematic head @-@ replacements for close @-@ ups . Stunt co @-@ ordinator Gary Powell and VFX Designer Kevin Tod Haug , presented the idea of filming the scene in a large vertical wind tunnel in Bedford to do this sequence as practically as possible . While a great solution for the actors ' performances the technique presented enormous VFX challenges : relighting shots captured in a tall white tube to match the sky over the Bolivian desert , and the impossibility of filming medium to wide shots of the actors . An array of eight Dalsa Origin cameras ( supported by seven HD cameras and a 35mm hand @-@ held camera , all running in sync ) was used to create a virtual camera with which to shoot the actors floating in the simulator . Ged Wright and his team at Double Negative developed a method to use the data from these cameras that allowed these real performances to be placed in a synthetic environment as seen by a synthetic camera . During the shooting in the wind tunnel Craig and Kurylenko wore wind @-@ resistant contact lenses that enabled them to open their eyes as they fell . For safety and comfort , they only shot for 30 seconds at a time . Forster wished he had more time to work on the free @-@ fall scene .
The Moving Picture Company created the climactic hotel sequence . The fire effects were supervised by Chris Corbould , and post @-@ production MPC had to enhance the sequence by making the smoke look closer to the actors , so it would look more dangerous . A full @-@ scale replica of the building 's exterior was used for the exploding part Bond and Camille escape from . The boat chase was another scene that required very little CGI . Machine FX worked on replacing a few shots of visible stuntmen with a digital version of Craig 's head , and recreated the boats Bond jumps over on his motorcycle to make it look more dangerous . Crowd creation was done for the Tosca scene by Machine FX , to make the performance look like it had sold out . Forster edited the opera scene to resemble The Man Who Knew Too Much . In total , there are 900 + visual effects shots in Quantum of Solace .
= = = Music = = =
David Arnold , who composed the scores for the previous four Bond films , returned for Quantum of Solace . He said that Forster likes to work very closely with his composers and that , in comparison to the accelerated schedule he was tied to on Casino Royale , the intention was to spend a long time scoring the film to " really work it out . " He also said he would be " taking a different approach " with the score . Arnold composed the music based on impressions from reading the script , and Forster edited those into the film . As with Casino Royale , Arnold kept use of the " James Bond Theme " to a minimum . Arnold collaborated with Kieran Hebden for " Crawl , End Crawl , " a remix of the score played during the end credits .
Jack White of The White Stripes and Alicia Keys collaborated on " Another Way to Die , " the first Bond music duet . They had wanted to work together for two years beforehand . The song was recorded in Nashville , Tennessee ; White played the drums while Keys performed on the piano . The Memphis Horns also contributed to the track . White 's favourite Bond theme is John Barry 's instrumental piece for On Her Majesty 's Secret Service , and he watched various opening credit sequences from the series for inspiration while mixing the track . Mark Ronson and Amy Winehouse had recorded a demo track for the film , but Ronson explained Winehouse 's well @-@ publicised legal issues in the preceding weeks made her " not ready to record any music " at that time .
= = Release = =
The film premiered at the Odeon Leicester Square on 29 October 2008 . Princes William and Harry attended , and proceeds from the screening were donated to the charities Help for Heroes and the Royal British Legion . The film was originally scheduled to be released in the UK and North America on 7 November ; however , Eon pushed forward the British date to 31 October during filming , while the American date was pushed back in August to 14 November , after Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince had been moved to 2009 , thereby allowing the distributors to market the film over the autumn blockbuster Thanksgiving holiday weekend . In Australia , the film was moved a week to 19 November , after 20th Century Fox chose to release Australia on Quantum of Solace 's original date of 26 November .
= = = Marketing = = =
Returning product placement partners from Casino Royale included Ford , Heineken , Smirnoff , Omega SA , Virgin Atlantic and Sony Ericsson . A reported £ 50 million was earned in product placement , which tops the Bond films ' record of £ 44 million for Die Another Day . The 2009 Ford Ka is driven by Camille in the film . Avon created a fragrance called Bond Girl 007 with Gemma Arterton as the " face " of the product . Coca @-@ Cola became a promotional partner , rebranding Coke Zero as " Coke Zero Zero 7 . " A tie @-@ in advert featured the orchestral element of " Another Way to Die . " In the film , Coca @-@ Cola was briefly seen being served at Dominic Greene 's party . Sony held a competition , " Mission for a Million , " enabling registered players to use their products to complete certain tasks . Each completed " mission " gives consumers a chance to win $ 1 million and a trip to a top secret location .
= = = = Merchandise = = = =
Corgi International Limited made 5 @-@ inch action figures and gadgets ( such as a voice @-@ activated briefcase ) , as well as its traditional die @-@ cast toy vehicles . It also created 7 @-@ inch figures of characters from the previous films . Scalextric released four racing sets to coincide with the film . Activision released its first James Bond game , also titled Quantum of Solace , which is based on both Casino Royale and Quantum of Solace . It is the first Bond game to feature Craig 's likeness and the first seventh generation console game in the series . Swatch designed a series of wrist watches , each of them inspired by a Bond villain .
Though the screenplay did not get made into a novel despite its original storyline , Penguin Books published a compilation of Fleming 's short stories entitled Quantum of Solace : The Complete James Bond Short Stories , with a UK release date of 29 May 2008 and a North American release date of 26 August 2008 . The book combines the contents of Fleming 's two short story collections , For Your Eyes Only — including the original " Quantum of Solace " short story — and Octopussy and The Living Daylights .
= = = Home media = = =
Quantum of Solace was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray by MGM via 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment in Australia , the UK and North America from 18 to 24 March 2009 . At the DVD sales chart the film opened at No. 3 , grossing $ 21 @,@ 894 @,@ 957 from 1.21m DVD units sold . As of 1 November 2009 , 2 @,@ 643 @,@ 250 DVD units were sold , generating $ 44 @,@ 110 @,@ 750 in sales revenue . These figures do not include Blu @-@ ray sales or DVD rentals . The DVDs were released in both a standard one @-@ disc set and a deluxe two @-@ disc special edition . There are no audio commentaries or deleted scenes on these editions .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Upon its opening in the UK , the film grossed £ 4 @.@ 9 million ( $ 8 million ) , breaking the record for the largest Friday opening ( 31 October 2008 ) in the UK . The film then broke the UK opening weekend record , taking £ 15 @.@ 5 million ( $ 25 million ) in its first weekend , surpassing the previous record of £ 14 @.@ 9 million held by Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire . It earned a further £ 14 million in France and Sweden — where it opened on the same day . The weekend gross of the equivalent of $ 10 @.@ 6 million in France was a record for the series , surpassing what Casino Royale made in five days by 16 % . The $ 2 @.@ 7 million gross in Sweden was the fourth @-@ highest opening for a film there .
The following week , the film was playing in sixty countries . It grossed the equivalent of $ 39 @.@ 3 million in the UK , $ 16 @.@ 5 million in France and $ 7 @.@ 7 million in Germany on 7 November 2008 . The film broke records in Switzerland , Finland , United Arab Emirates , Nigeria , Romania and Slovenia . Its Chinese and Indian openings were the second largest ever for foreign @-@ language films .
The film grossed $ 27 million on its opening day in 3 @,@ 451 cinemas in Canada and the United States , where it was the number one film for the weekend , with $ 67 @.@ 5 million and $ 19 @,@ 568 average per cinema . It was the highest @-@ grossing opening weekend Bond film in the US , and tied with The Incredibles for the biggest November opening outside of the Harry Potter series . The film earned a B- from CinemaScore 's audience surveys . From the 31 October British opening through to the 14 November US opening weekend , the film had grossed a total $ 319 @,@ 128 @,@ 882 worldwide . As of 10 February 2010 , it had grossed the equivalent of $ 417 @,@ 722 @,@ 300 in countries other than Canada and the US , where it grossed $ 168 @,@ 368 @,@ 427 , to give a total of $ 586 @,@ 090 @,@ 727 .
= = = Critical response = = =
Reviews for Quantum of Solace have been mixed . Of the 280 reviews listed on Rotten Tomatoes , 65 % are positive , with an average rating of 6 @.@ 1 / 10 . Metacritic calculated a score of 58 out of 100 from 38 reviews , indicating a " mixed or average " response . Critics generally preferred Casino Royale , but continued to praise Craig 's depiction of Bond , and agree that the film is still an enjoyable addition to the series . The action sequences and pacing were praised , but criticism grew over the realism and serious but gritty feel that the film carried over .
Roger Moore , the third actor to play Bond in the films , said that Craig was a " damn good Bond but the film as a whole , there was a bit too much flash cutting [ and ] it was just like a commercial of the action . There didn 't seem to be any geography and you were wondering what the hell was going on . " Kim Newman of Empire gave it 4 / 5 , remarking it was not " bigger and better than Casino Royale , [ which is ] perhaps a smart move in that there 's still a sense at the finish that Bond 's mission has barely begun . " However , he expressed nostalgia for the more humorous Bond films . The Sunday Times review noted that " following Casino Royale was never going to be easy , but the director Marc Forster has brought the brand 's successful relaunch crashing back to earth – with a yawn " ; the screenplay " is at times incomprehensible " and the casting " is a mess . " The review concludes that " Bond has been stripped of his iconic status . He no longer represents anything particularly British , or even modern . In place of glamour , we get a spurious grit ; instead of style , we get product placement ; in place of fantasy , we get a redundant and silly realism . " The Guardian gave a more positive review , rating it as 3 / 5 stars , and was particularly fond of Craig 's performance , saying he " made the part his own , every inch the coolly ruthless agent @-@ killer , nursing a broken heart and coldly suppressed rage " and calling the film " a crash @-@ bang Bond , high on action , low on quips , long on location glamour , short on product placement " ; it concludes " Quantum of Solace isn 't as good as Casino Royale : the smart elegance of Craig 's Bond debut has been toned down in favour of conventional action . But the man himself powers this movie ; he carries the film : it 's an indefinably difficult task for an actor . Craig measures up . "
Screen Daily says , " Notices will focus — rightly — on Craig 's magnetism as the steely , sexy , murderous MI6 agent , but two other factors weigh in and freshen up proceedings : Forster 's new technical team , led by cinematographer Roberto Schaefer and production designer Dennis Gassner . And the ongoing shift of M , as played by Judi Dench , to front and centre : the Bond girls fade into insignificance as she becomes his moral counterpoint and theirs is the only real relationship on screen . " The review continues , " Bond is , as has been previously noted , practically the Martin Scorsese of the BAFTAs : 22 films later , with grosses probably close to the GDP of one of the small nations it depicts , it 's still waiting for that Alexander Korda award . The best Casino Royale could achieve was a gong for sound . Will this be the year that changes its fortunes ? " Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , who praised the previous film , disliked Quantum of Solace . He wrote that the plot was mediocre , characters weak and that Bond lacked his usual personality , despite his praise for Craig 's interpretation of the role . Throughout his review , he emphasised that " James Bond is not an action hero . " Kate Muir wrote in The Times that " The Bond franchise is 50 years old this year , and the scriptless mess of Quantum of Solace may be considered its mid @-@ life crisis " , before she went on to praise the film 's successor Skyfall as a " resurrection " . Some writers criticised the choice of Quantum of Solace as a title . " Yes , it 's a bad title , " wrote Marni Weisz , the editor of Famous , a Canadian film publication distributed in cinemas in that country , in an editorial entitled " At least it 's not Octopussy . "
Not all the reviews were as critical . Tim Robey of The Daily Telegraph , in a reflective review of the film in 2013 , was positive . He praised the film 's shorter runtime , claiming that many other Bond films run out of steam before the end , and included Casino Royale in this category . Describing the film as having a " rock @-@ solid dramatic idea and the intelligence to run with it " , he gave the film four stars out of five .
= = = Accolades = = =
The film was nominated for Best Original Score , Best Original Song , Visual Effects , Film and Sound Editing at the 2008 Satellite Awards , winning Best Song . It was nominated for Best Action Movie at the 2009 Critics ' Choice Awards , and at the Empire Awards , which is voted for by the public , it was shortlisted for Best Actor , Best Actress , Best Newcomer , Best Thriller and Best Soundtrack . It was nominated for the Saturn Award for Best Action / Adventure / Thriller Film , while Kurylenko and Dench were both nominated for the Best Supporting Actress award . An editorial by The Times also listed the film 's pre @-@ titles sequence
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tournaments , and is still one of the most popular fighting games for competitive play .
The game received critical praise , as well as awards and acknowledgements from gaming publications . It achieved strong sales upon release , and is the GameCube 's best @-@ selling game , with more than 7 million copies sold by March 2008 .
= = Gameplay = =
Like its predecessor , Super Smash Bros. Melee differs from traditional fighting games as the objective is to force their opponents beyond the boundaries of the stage . Most attacks inflict damage and can , if enough damage is dealt , knock back the enemy . Each character 's health is measured by a meter that represents the damage received as a percentage . The higher the percentage value , the farther the player gets knocked back , and the easier they are to knock off the stage . Unlike other games of the same genre , in which moves are entered by button @-@ input combinations , most moves in Super Smash Bros. Melee can be accessed via one @-@ button presses and a joystick direction .
During battles , items related to Nintendo games or merchandise fall onto the game field . These items have purposes ranging from inflicting damage on the opponent to restoring health to the player . Additionally , most stages have a theme relating to a Nintendo franchise or a specific Nintendo game and are interactive to the player . Although the stages are rendered in three dimensions , players can only move on a two @-@ dimensional plane . Not all stages are available immediately ; some stages must be " unlocked " by achieving particular requirements . Some stages feature moving elements and platforms and hazards that harm players , while others lack these elements .
= = = Single @-@ player = = =
Single @-@ player mode provides the player with a variety of side @-@ scrolling fighting challenges . The applicable modes range from the " Classic mode " , which involves the player battling against opponents in multiple acts until he or she reaches the boss character , to the " Home Run Contest " , which is a minigame involving the player trying to launch a sandbag as far as possible with a Home Run Bat . Some of these modes are personalized for the character ; for example , the " Target Test " sets out a specialized area for a character in which they aim to destroy ten targets in the least amount of time they can . These areas may include references to that particular character 's past and legacy . The " Board the Platforms " minigame from the prequel was not included in Melee . Melee introduced " Adventure mode " , which takes the player to several predefined universes of characters in the Nintendo franchise . " All @-@ Star mode " is an unlockable feature of Melee , requiring the player to defeat every character in the game while having only three health supplements between battles .
= = = Multiplayer = = =
In the multiplayer mode , up to four players or computer @-@ controlled characters may fight , either in a free @-@ for @-@ all or in teams . The Central processing unit ( CPU ) characters ' Artificial intelligence ( AI ) difficulty is ranked from one to nine in ascending order of difficulty . Individual players can also be handicapped ; the higher the handicap , the stronger the player . There are five ways in which the victor can be determined , depending on the game type . The most common multiplayer modes are “ Time mode ” , where the player or team with the most KOs and least falls wins after a predetermined amount of time , and " Stock mode " , a battle in which the last player or team with lives remaining wins . This can be changed to less conventional modes like " Coin mode " , which rewards the richest player as the victor . Players must collect coins created by hitting enemies and try not to lose them by falling off the stage ; harder hits release higher quantities of coins . Other options are available , updating from Super Smash Bros. , such as determining the number and type of items that appear during the battle .
= = = Trophies = = =
Trophies ( known as " Figures " in the Japanese version ) of various Nintendo characters and objects can be collected throughout the game . These trophies include action figures of playable characters , accessories , and items associated with them as well as series and characters not otherwise playable in the game . The trophies range from the well @-@ known to the obscure , and even characters or elements that were only released in Japan . Some of the trophies include a description of the particular subject and detail the year and the game in which the subject first appeared . Super Smash Bros. had a similar system of plush dolls ; however , it only included the 12 playable characters . One trophy is exclusive to the Japanese version of the game .
= = Playable characters = =
Super Smash Bros. Melee features 25 ( 26 if Zelda and Sheik are considered different ) characters , 13 more than its predecessor . Fourteen are available initially , while the other characters require the completion of specific tasks to become available . Every character featured in the game is derived from a popular Nintendo franchise . All characters have a symbol that appears behind their damage meter during a fight ; this symbol represents what series they belong to , such as a Triforce symbol behind Link 's damage meter and a Poké Ball behind Pokémon species . Some characters represent popular franchises while others were less @-@ known at the time of the release ; Marth and Roy represent the Fire Emblem series , which had never been released outside Japan at the time . The characters ' appearance in Super Smash Bros. Melee led to a rise in the popularity of the series . References are made throughout the game to the relationship between characters of the same universe ; in one of the events from " Event mode " , Mario must defeat his enemy Bowser to rescue Princess Peach . Furthermore , each character has recognizable moves from their original series , such as Samus 's firearms from the Metroid series and Link 's arsenal of weapons .
= = Development and release = =
HAL Laboratory developed Super Smash Bros. Melee , with Masahiro Sakurai as the head of production . The game was one of the first games released on the GameCube and highlighted the advancement in graphics from the Nintendo 64 . The developers wanted to pay homage to the debut of the GameCube by making an opening FMV sequence that would attract people 's attention to the graphics . HAL worked with three separate graphic houses in Tokyo to make the opening sequence . On their official website , the developers posted screen shots and information highlighting and explaining the attention to physics and detail in the game , with references to changes from its predecessor . The game was in development for 13 months , and Sakurai called his lifestyle during this period " destructive " with no holidays and short weekends . Unlike the experimental first Super Smash Bros. , he felt great pressure to deliver a quality sequel , claiming it was the " biggest project I had ever led up to that point " . Despite the painful development cycle , Sakurai proudly called it " the sharpest game in the series ... it just felt really good to play " , even compared to its successor , Super Smash Bros. Brawl .
On the game 's official Japanese website , the developers explain reasons for making particular characters playable and explain why some characters were not available as playable characters upon release . Initially , the development team wanted to replace Ness with Lucas , the main character of Mother 3 , but retained Ness in consideration of delays . The game 's creators later included Lucas in the game 's sequel , Super Smash Bros. Brawl . Video game developer Hideo Kojima originally requested the inclusion of Solid Snake to Sakurai , but the game was too far into development . As with Lucas , development time allowed for his inclusion in Brawl . Marth and Roy were initially intended to be playable exclusively in the Japanese version of Super Smash Bros. Melee . However , they received favorable attention during the game 's North American localization , leading to the decision for the developers to include them in the Western version . Additionally , Sakurai stated that the development team had suggested characters from four other games to represent the Famicom or NES era until the developers decided that the Ice Climbers would be in the game . The developers have noted characters that have very similar moves to each other on the website ; such characters have been referred to as " clones " in the media .
Nintendo presented the game at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2001 as a playable demonstration . The next major exposition of the game came in August 2001 at Spaceworld , when Nintendo displayed a playable demo that updated from the previous demo displayed at E3 . Nintendo offered a playable tournament of the games for fans in which a GameCube and Super Smash Bros. Melee were prizes for the winner . Before the game 's release , the Japanese official website included weekly updates , including screenshots and character profiles . Nintendo followed this trend with Super Smash Bros. Brawl , in which there were daily updates by the game 's developer , Masahiro Sakurai . Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu reported that Nintendo advertised the game in between showings of the Pokemon the First Movie across movie theaters in Japan . In January 2003 , Super Smash Bros Melee became part of the Player 's Choice , a marketing label used by Nintendo to promote video games that have sold more than a million copies . In August 2005 , Nintendo bundled the game with the Nintendo GameCube for $ 99 @.@ 99 .
= = = Music = = =
Super Smash Bros. Melee features both new and re @-@ arranged music from many of Nintendo 's popular gaming franchises . In 2002 , Enterbrain released a soundtrack in Japan titled Dairantou Smash Brothers DX Orchestra Concert . The same soundtrack was released in 2003 as " Smashing ... Live ! " as a bonus for subscribing to Nintendo Power magazine in North America , and also as a free gift in an issue of the British Official Nintendo Magazine . The soundtrack does not include music taken directly from the game , but features many live orchestral arrangements performed by the New Japan Philharmonic . The game contains a number of unlockable tracks that can be obtained after making certain in @-@ game accomplishments . On the same website , the developers have posted discussions about the game 's music and voice acting between Masahiro Sakurai and the game 's composers .
= = Reception = =
Super Smash Bros. Melee received critical acclaim from reviewers , most of whom credited Melee 's expansion of gameplay features from Super Smash Bros. Focusing on the additional features , GameSpy commented that " Melee really scores big in the ' we 've added tons of great extra stuff ' department " . Reviewers compared the game favorably to Super Smash Bros. IGN 's Fran Mirabella III stated that it was " in an entirely different league than the N64 version " ; GameSpot 's Miguel Lopez praised the game for offering a more advanced " classic @-@ mode " compared to its predecessor , while detailing the Adventure Mode as " really a hit @-@ or @-@ miss experience " . Despite a mixed response to the single @-@ player modes , many reviewers expressed the game 's multiplayer mode as a strong component of the game . In their review of the game , GameSpy stated that " you 'll have a pretty hard time finding a more enjoyable multiplayer experience on any other console " .
Melee 's visuals garnered a positive reaction . GameSpot lauded the game 's character and background models , stating that " the character models are pleasantly full @-@ bodied , and the quality of their textures is amazing " . IGN 's Fran Mirabella III praised the game 's use of physics , animation and graphics , although his colleague Matt Casamassina thought that " some of the backgrounds lack the visual polish endowed upon the characters " when giving a second opinion about the game .
Critics praised the game 's orchestrated soundtrack ; while GameSpot 's Greg Kasavin commented that " it all sounds brilliant " . GameSpy praised the music for its nostalgic effect , with soundtracks ranging from multiple Nintendo series .
Reviewers have welcomed the simplistic controls , but its " hyper @-@ responsiveness " , with the characters easily dashing and precise movements being difficult to perform , was expressed as a serious flaw of the game by GameSpot . With a milder criticism of controls , Bryn Williams of GameSpy commented that " movement and navigation seems slightly too sensitive " . The basis of Melee 's gameplay system is the battles between Nintendo characters , which has been suggested as being overly hectic ; N @-@ Europe questioned whether the gameplay is " too Frantic ? " , even though they enjoyed the variety of modes on offer . Similarly , Nintendo Spin 's Clark Nielsen stated that " Melee was too fast for its own good " , and " skill was more about just being able to wrap your head around what was happening as opposed to really getting into the combat " . In regards to the pace of the game , Edge commented that it even made gameplay features such as " blocking " redundant , as the player is not given enough time to react to an attack .
Despite the new features added to the game , some reviews criticized Melee for a lack of originality and for being too similar to its predecessor , Super Smash Bros. Caleb Hale from GameCritics.com noted that while it was " every bit as good as its Nintendo 64 predecessor " he also felt " the game doesn 't expand much past that point " . On a similar note , Edge stated that " it 's not evolution ; it 's reproduction " , in reference to a perceived lack of innovation . The nostalgic nature of the game received a positive reaction , as well as the accompanying stages and items that allude to past Nintendo games . Gaming journalists have welcomed the roster of 25 Nintendo characters , as well as the trophy system , which Nintendo Spin labeled as " a great addition to this game " .
= = = Sales = = =
When released in Japan , it became the fastest selling GameCube game with 358 @,@ 525 units sold in the week ending November 25 , 2001 . This success continued as the game sold more than a million units only two months after its release , making it the first GameCube title to reach a million copies . The game also sold well in North America , where it sold 250 @,@ 000 @-@ copies in nine days . In the United States , Super Smash Bros. Melee was the 19th best @-@ selling video game in 2001 according to the NPD Group , and approximately 4 @.@ 06 million units have been sold in the country as of December 27 , 2007 . With a software @-@ to @-@ hardware ratio of 3 : 4 at one time , some have attributed the increasing sales of the Nintendo GameCube near the launch date to Melee . As of March 10 , 2008 , Super Smash Bros. Melee is the best @-@ selling GameCube game , with more than seven million copies sold worldwide .
= = = Awards and accolades = = =
Several publications have acknowledged Super Smash Bros. Melee in competitions and awards . In their " Best of 2001 " awards , GameSpy chose it as Best Fighting GameCube Game , IGN 's reader choice chose it as Game of the Year , Electronic Gaming Monthly chose it as Best Multiplayer and Best GameCube Game , and GameSpot chose it as the Best GameCube Game and tenth best game of the year .
GameFAQs placed it sixth in a poll of the 100 best games ever and was in the final four of the " Best . Game . Ever . " contest . In the 200th issue of Electronic Gaming Monthly , the editors selected Melee as the 92nd most influential game in their " Top 200 Games of Their Time " list , defining Melee as " Billions of things to unlock , plus Yoshi pummeling Pikachu with a bat " . In a similar competition , Nintendo Power named Super Smash Bros. Melee the 16th best game ever to appear on a Nintendo console , and selected it as the 2001 " Game of the Year " . IGN named it the third best GameCube game of all @-@ time in 2007 as a part of a feature reflecting on the GameCube 's long lifespan , citing it as " the grand stage of fighters , much like Mario Kart is for racing fans " . GameSpy chose it as fourth in a similar list , citing that it had " better graphics , better music , more characters , more gameplay modes , more secrets to discover " in comparison to its predecessor . The game was ranked 58th in Official Nintendo Magazine 's " 100 Greatest Nintendo Games Ever " feature .
= = Professional competition = =
Super Smash Bros. Melee is a widely played competitive video game and has been featured in several high @-@ profile tournaments . It is considered to be the most viable game in the series for competition . From 2004 to 2007 , Major League Gaming sponsored Melee on its Pro Circuit . Although dropping Melee from its 2007 Pro Circuit , MLG still sponsored a number of tournaments as part of the Underground Smash Series . Melee was also included in the Evolution Championship Series ( Evo ) in 2007 , a fighting game tournament held in Las Vegas and was hosted at Evo 2013 after a charity vote to decide the final game to be featured in its tournament lineup . Due to the large turnout and popularity that year , Evo again included Melee at their 2014 and 2015 events . In 2014 Melee was played at MLG Anaheim . Evo 2015 is currently one of the largest Melee tournaments with 1 @,@ 869 entrants and breaking 200 @,@ 000 live viewers .
Ken Hoang , considered to be the game 's best player from 2003 to 2006 , has won over $ 50 @,@ 000 from Smash tournaments . Several professional Melee players including Christopher " KillaOR " McKenzie , Isai Alvarado , and Ken were seen in the 2005 " I 'm a Professional Gamer " episode of the MTV reality series True Life . The competitive Smash community was featured in a 2013 crowd @-@ funded documentary called The Smash Brothers . The film detailed the history of the professional scene and profiled seven prominent Melee players including Hoang , Azen , Jason " Mew2King " Zimmerman , Isai , PC Chris , KoreanDJ , and Evo 2013 champion , Joseph " Mang0 " Marquez . Commentary footage from a Melee tournament is the origin of the Wombo combo internet meme .
= = Sequels = =
At the pre @-@ E3 conference of 2005 , Nintendo announced Melee 's sequel , 2008 's Super Smash Bros. Brawl . Nintendo 's president , Satoru Iwata requested Masahiro Sakurai to be the director of the game after the conference . The game retains some of the gameplay features of its predecessors while having major gameplay additions , such as a more substantial single @-@ player mode and online play via the Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection . Taking advantage of the Wii 's variety of controller options , the game allows the use of the Wii Remote , Nunchuk , GameCube controller , and the Classic Controller . Like Melee , the game makes references to games and franchises , including those that debuted after the release of Melee ; for example , Link , Zelda , and Ganondorf 's character designs are taken from The Legend of Zelda : Twilight Princess and a Nintendogs puppy is present as an Assist Trophy ( a new item that summons computer @-@ controlled characters from different games to briefly participate in the fight ) . Select stages and music from Melee are included in the sequel . In addition to Super Smash Bros. Brawl , a sequel to that game , Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS , was released for the Nintendo 3DS on October 3 , 2014 , and the console counterpart to that game , Super Smash Bros. for Wii U , was released on November 21 , 2014 .
= Thinis =
Thinis or This ( Egyptian : Tjenu ) was the capital city of the first dynasties of ancient Egypt . Thinis is , as yet , undiscovered but well attested to by ancient writers , including the classical historian Manetho , who cites it as the centre of the Thinite Confederacy , a tribal confederation whose leader , Menes ( or Narmer ) , united Egypt and was its first pharaoh . Thinis began a steep decline in importance from Dynasty III , when the capital was relocated to Memphis . Its location on the border of the competing Heracleopolitan and Theban dynasties of the First Intermediate Period , and its proximity to certain oases of possible military importance , ensured Thinis some continued significance in the Old and New Kingdoms . This was a brief respite and Thinis eventually lost its position as a regional administrative centre by the Roman period .
Due to its ancient heritage , Thinis remained a significant religious centre , housing the tomb and mummy of the regional deity . In ancient Egyptian religious cosmology , as seen ( for example ) in the Book of the Dead , Thinis played a role as a mythical place in heaven .
Although the precise location of Thinis is unknown , mainstream Egyptological consensus places it in the vicinity of ancient Abydos and modern Girga .
= = Name and location = =
The name Thinis is derived from Manetho 's use of the adjective Thinite to describe the pharaoh Menes . Although the corresponding Thinis does not appear in Greek , it is demanded by the Egyptian original and is the more popular name among Egyptologists . This is also suggested .
In correcting a passage of Hellanicus ( b . 490 BCE ) , Jörgen Zoega amended Τίνδων όνομα to Θιν δε οι όνομα . Maspero ( 1903 ) found that this revealed the name Thinis and also , from the same passage , a key geographic indicator : επιποταμίη ( English : on the river ) . Maspero used this additional detail to support the theory , which included among its followers Jean @-@ François Champollion and Nestor L 'Hôte , locating Thinis at modern @-@ day Girga or a neighbouring town , possibly El @-@ Birba . Other proposals for Thinis ' location have lost favour at the expense of the Girga @-@ Birba theory : Auguste Mariette , founder director of the Egyptian Museum , suggested Kom el @-@ Sultan ; A. Schmidt , El @-@ Kherbeh ; and Heinrich Karl Brugsch , Johannes Dümichen and others supported El @-@ Tineh , near Berdis . Mainstream Egyptological consensus continues to locate Thinis at or near to either Girga , or El @-@ Birba ( where an inscribed statue fragment mentioning Thinis is said to have been found ) .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ dynastic and Early Dynastic periods = = =
Although the archaeological site of Thinis has never been located , evidence of population concentration in the Abydos @-@ Thinis region dates from the fourth millennium BCE . Thinis is also cited as the earliest royal burial @-@ site in Egypt .
At an early point , the city of Abydos resigned its political rank to Thinis , and although Abydos would continue to enjoy supreme religious importance , its history and functions cannot be understood without reference to Thinis . The role of Thinis as centre of the Thinite Confederacy ( or Dynasty 0 ) and into the Early Dynastic Period ( specifically Dynasty I and Dynasty II ) is taken from Manetho , and , according to Wilkinson ( 2000 ) , seems to be confirmed by Dynasty I and late Dynasty II royal tombs at Abydos , the principal regional necropolis .
= = = Old Kingdom = = =
Such importance seems to have been short @-@ lived : certainly , the national political role of Thinis ended at the beginning of Dynasty III ( c . 2686 BCE ) , when Memphis became the chief religious and political centre . Nonetheless , Thinis retained its regional significance : during Dynasty V , it was the probable seat of the " Overseer of Upper Egypt " , an administrative official with responsibility for the Nile Valley south of the Delta , and throughout antiquity it was the eponymous capital of nome VIII of Upper Egypt and seat of its nomarch .
During the wars of the First Intermediate Period ( c . 2181 – c . 2055 BCE ) , Ankhtifi , nomarch of Hierakonpolis , demanded recognition of his suzerainty from the " overseer of Upper Egypt " at Thinis , and although the city walls , cited in Ankhtifi 's autobiography , seem to have left Ankhtifi capable of only a show of force , he appears to have purchased Thinis ' neutrality with grain .
Following Ankhtifi 's death , Thinis was the northernmost nome to fall under the sway of Intef II , pharaoh of the Theban Dynasty XI ( c . 2118 – c . 2069 BCE ) . Progress north by the Theban armies was halted by Kheti III , pharaoh of the Heracleopolitan Dynasty IX , in a battle at Thinis itself that is recorded in the Teaching for King Merykara , and , throughout Intef II 's later years , his war against the Heracleopolitans and their allies , the nomarchs of Assyut , was waged in the land between Thinis and Assyut .
As Thebes began to take the upper hand , Mentuhotep II ( c . 2061 – c . 2010 BCE ) , on his campaign of reunification , brought Thinis , which had been in revolt , possibly at Heracleopolitan instigation and certainly with the support of an army under the command of the nomarch of Assyut , firmly under his control .
During the Second Intermediate Period ( c. eighteenth century BCE ) , Thinis may have experienced resurgent autonomy : Ryholt ( 1997 ) proposes that the Abydos dynasty of kings might better be called the " Thinite Dynasty " and that , in any event , their royal seat was likely at Thinis , already a nome capital .
= = = New Kingdom and Late Period = = =
The city 's steady decline appears to have halted briefly during Dynasty XVIII ( c . 1550 – c . 1292 BCE ) , when Thinis enjoyed renewed prominence , based on its geographical connection to various oases of possible military importance . Certainly , the office of mayor of Thinis was occupied by several notable New Kingdom figures : Satepihu , who participated in the construction of an obelisk for Hatshepsut and was himself subject of an exemplary block statue ; the herald Intef , an indispensable member of the royal household and the travelling @-@ companion of Thutmose III ; and Min , tutor to the prince Amenhotep III .
Nonetheless , Thinis had declined to a settlement of little significance by the historic period . The misleading reference on a seventh @-@ century BCE Assyrian stele to " Nespamedu , king of Thinis " is nothing more than a reflection of Assyrian " ignorance of the subtlety of the Egyptian political hierarchy " .
Certainly , by the Roman period , Thinis had been supplanted as capital of its nome by Ptolemais , perhaps even as early as that city 's foundation by Ptolemy I.
= = Religion = =
As each nome was home to the tomb and mummy of its dead nome @-@ god , so at Thinis was the temple and last resting @-@ place of Anhur , whose epithets included " bull of Thinis " , worshipped after his death as Khenti @-@ Amentiu , and who , as nome @-@ god , was placed at the head of the local ennead .
The high priest of the temple of Anhur at Thinis was called the first prophet , or chief of seers , a title that Maspero ( 1903 ) suggests is a reflection of Thinis ' decline in status as a city .
One such chief of seers , Anhurmose , who died in the reign of Merneptah ( c . 1213 – c . 1203 BCE ) , broke with the tradition of his New Kingdom predecessors , who were buried at Abydos , and was laid to rest at Thinis itself .
The lion @-@ goddess Mehit was also worshipped at Thinis , and the restoration of her temple there during Merneptah 's reign was probably overseen by Anhurmose .
There is evidence that succession to the office of chief of seers of Anhur at Thinis was familial : in the Herakleopolitan period , one Hagi succeeded his elder brother , also called Hagi , and their father to the post ; and , in the New Kingdom , Wenennefer was succeeded in the priestly office by his son , Hori .
In ancient Egyptian religious cosmology , Thinis played a role as a mythical place in heaven . In particular , as set out in the Book of the Dead , its eschatological significance can be seen in certain rituals : when the god Osiris triumphs , " joy goeth its round in Thinis " , a reference to the celestial Thinis , rather than the earthly city .
= Ed Blake =
Edward James Blake ( December 23 , 1925 – April 15 , 2009 ) was an American right @-@ handed pitcher in Major League Baseball who played four seasons with the Cincinnati Reds and the Kansas City Athletics . In eight career games , Blake pitched 8 ⅔ innings and had an 8 @.@ 31 earned run average ( ERA ) .
After graduating high school in East St. Louis , Blake played in the farm system of the nearby St. Louis Cardinals before enlisting in the army . He returned to baseball after being wounded in the military service , pitching in the minors for five years before making his major league debut for the Cincinnati Reds . He pitched for them on and off for three years , then spent the next six years pitching for the Toronto Maple Leafs . His last major league appearance was a stint with the Athletics in 1957 , and two years later his professional baseball career ended . After retirement he became a plumber , and died in 2009 .
= = Early life = =
Born in St. Louis , Missouri to Edward and Katherine Blake , he attended Central Catholic High School in East St. Louis , where he was a baseball teammate of Hank Bauer , and graduated in 1943 . Blake pitched batting practice for the St. Louis Cardinals during the 1943 World Series after his high school graduation , in what he considered to be the highlight of his professional career . He signed with the Cardinals in 1944 and spent the season with three different minor league teams : the Columbus Red Birds of the American Association , the Allentown Cardinals of the Interstate League and the Mobile Bears of the Southern Association .
= = Military service and 1940s career = =
After the 1944 season ended , Blake enlisted in the Army and fought with the 40th Infantry Division in the Pacific Theater of Operations . While in the Philippines , Blake was wounded , and was out of action for nine months as he recovered . As the 1946 season began , he rejoined the Cardinals , now fully recovered , and spent the season with the Columbus Cardinals . Blake started the season losing his first three starts , but then won 13 straight and finished the season with a 16 wins , eight losses , and a 3 @.@ 51 earned run average . In February 1947 , Blake was among a group of 92 Cardinals players invited to a dinner for Cardinals minor leaguers , where accusations in regards to Cardinals players being paid poorly were brought up and discussed . He spent the following season playing for both Columbus teams , playing 29 games in total and finishing the season with a combined 4 @.@ 46 ERA . Before the 1948 season began , Blake was promoted to the Rochester Red Wings of the International League . He had a 7 – 6 record and a 3 @.@ 88 ERA in 34 games , seven of them starts . In 1949 , Blake spent most of the season playing for Rochester . On August 9 , 1949 he was traded by the Cardinals to the Cincinnati Reds in exchange for Mike Schultz , ending his career with the Cardinals . Blake finished the season with the Syracuse Chiefs and finished the season with a combined 5 – 4 record and a 4 @.@ 78 ERA .
= = Minor leagues and Reds career = =
Blake began the 1950 season with Syracuse Chiefs and spent most of the season as a starting pitcher instead of a reliever . He started in 23 games and finished the season with a 12 – 8 record and an ERA of 3 @.@ 51 . In 1951 , Blake was considered to have a small chance to make the major league roster . Nonetheless , Blake got his first taste of the major leagues that season . He made his major league debut on May 1 , 1951 against the Philadelphia Phillies . Blake played three games during his time on the Reds in 1951 , and finished two of those games . He pitched four innings , allowing five runs and three home runs , finishing the season with an ERA of 11 @.@ 25 . While on the Reds in 1951 , he was part of a Reds " bullpen union " led by Jim Blackburn , which drew up a series of humorous requests including a smoking lounge and sandwiches between double headers . He spent most of the 1951 season with the Columbus Red Birds , playing in 27 games for them . In 27 pitching appearances , 23 of them starts , Blake went 7 – 15 with a 5 @.@ 91 ERA . Despite the record , Blake led the Red Birds in innings pitched and finished tied for second in wins , though he did also lead the team , which went 53 – 101 , in losses .
Blake spent most of 1952 with the Milwaukee Brewers of the American Association , but he also pitched a few games for the Reds during the 1952 Cincinnati Reds season . He pitched in two games for the Reds in 1952 , coming in to finish both games for the Reds . He pitched three shutout innings , allowing three hits in these two games . During his time with the Brewers , he pitched in 21 games . He started 19 of the 21 games , won ten and lost three , and had a 3 @.@ 96 ERA . As the 1953 season began , Blake again had a stint with Cincinnati , but spent most of the season with the Indianapolis Indians . He pitched in one game for the Reds on April 17 , 1953 against the Milwaukee Brewers , allowing two earned runs on a hit and a walk without getting a batter out . During his time with the Indianapolis Indians , he pitched in 29 games , and was the workhorse of the Indians ' squad . He finished the season with a 14 – 7 record , a 3 @.@ 76 ERA , and 208 innings pitched , and led the team in wins , innings pitched , and starting appearances .
= = Maple Leafs and Athletics career = =
The 1953 season marked Blake 's last appearance with the Reds . On February 1 , 1954 , Blake was purchased from the Reds by the Toronto Maple Leafs , an unaffiliated team of the American Association . He played for the Maple Leafs for a total of six seasons , where he had some of his best professional career seasons . In 1954 , he teamed with Connie Johnson to lead the Maple Leafs to a 97 @-@ 57 record . He finished the 1954 season with a 15 – 9 record , a 3 @.@ 92 ERA , 30 games started , and 209 innings pitched , leading the team in the latter two categories . The following season , he combined with Johnson and Jack Crimian to help Toronto win 94 games . On July 10 , Blake was the first pitcher in the International League to win 13 games when he beat the Columbus squad 7 – 4 . He finished the season with 17 wins , 13 losses , and a 3 @.@ 94 ERA . In 1956 , Blake was a member of the " big three " for the Maple Leafs , along with Don Johnson and International League Most Valuable Player Lynn Lovenguth . The three combined for 750 innings pitched and 57 complete games while often working on two days ' rest . He finished the season with 17 wins , 11 losses , and a 2 @.@ 61 ERA . He also led the team in shutouts with six .
Blake was drafted at the end of the 1956 season by the Kansas City Athletics in the rule 5 draft . The day after being drafted , the Athletics planned to include him in an eight @-@ player deal with the Detroit Tigers involving Virgil Trucks and others , but his inclusion in the trade was vetoed by Commissioner Ford Frick , claiming his inclusion was " against the spirit of the draft . " Blake was replaced in the trade by former Toronto teammate Jack Crimian . While he spent most of the 1957 season with Toronto , he had one final major league stint with the Athletics , pitching in two games in April . His 1957 stint in Toronto was not as successful as previous seasons , as he finished with eight wins , nine losses , and a 5 @.@ 54 ERA . He spent five weeks of the 1958 season unable to play due to injury . Despite this , he was still able to pitch in 23 games , winning nine and bringing his ERA down to 3 @.@ 54 . In 1959 , Blake split time between Toronto and the Houston Buffs , winning three games and losing ten in his final professional season of baseball .
= = Personal and later life = =
After his playing career ended , Blake went on to become a plumber . He spent nearly 50 years in the plumbing business and was formerly the president of Plumbers Local 360 . Blake was married to his wife , Carol Jean , for 47 years before her death . With Carol , he had a son , Ed , and a daughter , Peggy . His son , also named Ed Blake , was a former pitcher who played in the Baltimore Orioles ' farm system from 1970 to 1973 , playing for the AA affiliate Asheville Orioles at the peak of his career . His grandson , Ed Blake III , has continued in the footsteps of his father and grandfather as a pitcher in high school . Blake died in Swansea , Illinois at the age of 83 after a long illness , and is interred at Mount Carmel Cemetery in Belleville , Illinois .
= Bristol Parkway railway station =
Bristol Parkway railway station , on the South Wales Main Line , is in the Stoke Gifford area in the northern suburbs of the Bristol conurbation . It is 112 miles ( 180 km ) from London Paddington . Its three @-@ letter station code is BPW . The station was opened in 1972 by British Rail , and was the first in a new generation of park and ride stations . It is the third @-@ most heavily used station in the West of England , after Bristol Temple Meads and Bath Spa . There are three platforms , and a well @-@ equipped waiting area . The station is managed by Great Western Railway , who provide most of the trains at the station , with CrossCountry providing the rest .
The line is not electrified , but will be by 2016 as part of the planned modernisation of the Great Western Main Line . A new platform will also be built , allowing increased services from London .
= = Description = =
Bristol Parkway is located in the unitary authority of South Gloucestershire , in the Stoke Gifford area of the Bristol conurbation . The immediate surrounding area is mostly residential , with farmland to the south east . The main road access is from the west , with the station situated close to the M4 , M5 and M32 motorways , the latter being the Bristol " Parkway " from which the station takes its name , as well as the A4174 Avon Ring Road . The station is on the South Wales Main Line from London to Swansea , 111 miles 68 chains ( 180 @.@ 01 km ) from the eastern terminus at London Paddington . It is also on the Cross Country Route from Bristol Temple Meads to York . Just to the west of the station is Stoke Gifford Junction , where the Henbury Loop Line to Avonmouth Docks and Cross Country Route to Bristol Temple Meads diverge from the line to South Wales . To the east is a Network Rail maintenance training centre . The next station north along the Cross Country Route is Yate , the next station south is Filton Abbey Wood . The next station east along the South Wales Main Line is Swindon , the next station west is Patchway , however there is only one train per day calling at both Bristol Parkway and Patchway .
The station is on an east / west alignment , with the main station building and car park to the north of the line . There is a goods yard adjacent to the station to the south , with two loops for trains to pass . The station has three platforms , numbered 2 , 3 and 4 . Platform 2 is to the south of the two main running lines , and serves westbound trains towards Wales and Bristol Temple Meads . Platforms 3 and 4 share an island to the north of the two main running lines , with a further two running lines between platform 4 and the car park . Platform 3 serves mainly inter @-@ city trains towards London and Birmingham New Street , while platform 4 is usually reserved for local services . There is a metal wall on platform 2 , fencing off the goods yard . An enclosed footbridge provides access to the platforms , approximately a third of the way along platforms 2 and 3 ( from west to east ) , and at the west end of platform 4 . Platforms 2 and 3 are opposite each other , while platform 4 is offset from platform 3 , starting at the footbridge and extending further to the east . Platform 2 is 257 metres ( 281 yd ) long , platform 3 is 255 metres ( 279 yd ) and platform 4 is 278 metres ( 304 yd ) . Platforms 3 and 4 are signalled for bidirectional running , while platform 2 is unidirectional . The footbridge can be accessed by both stairs and lifts .
The station building , a sweeping metal construction opened in 2001 , contains a booking office , waiting rooms , payphones , cash machines , shops , toilets and a café overlooking the tracks . There are waiting rooms on each platform , as well as vending machines and LED displays giving next train information . Ticket barriers are in use at the station . The pay @-@ and @-@ display car park , run by APCOA , has 1 @,@ 810 spaces .
Bristol Parkway was the first of a new generation of park and ride railway stations , and a large number of passengers use it for that purpose . Over the decade 2002 – 2012 , the number of passengers starting or ending a journey at Bristol Parkway grew by 1 million passengers per year to 2 @.@ 25 million , with a further 740 @,@ 000 passengers changing trains there , giving an annual footfall of just under 3 million passengers and making it the 216th busiest station in the country and the third busiest in the West of England ( after Bristol Temple Meads and Bath Spa ) as of the 2011 / 12 financial year . In the 2006 / 07 financial year , over 100 @,@ 000 passengers used Parkway to travel to or from Bristol Temple Meads , and a further 500 @,@ 000 used it to travel to or from London Paddington .
The line through Bristol Parkway has a linespeed of 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) on platforms 2 and 3 ( 40 miles per hour ( 64 km / h ) westbound on platform 3 ) , and 25 miles per hour ( 40 km / h ) on platform 4 . The loading gauge is W8 , and the line handles over 20 million train tonnes per year . It is not electrified , though it is planned that it will be electrified by 2016 as part of the 21st @-@ century modernisation of the Great Western Main Line .
= = Services = =
The station is managed by Great Western Railway , who operate most rail services from the station . As of the December 2013 timetable , the basic Great Western Railway weekday service consists of two trains per hour each way between London Paddington and Cardiff Central ( with one extended to Swansea ) , one terminating service to and from Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , and one service each way between Westbury and Gloucester via Bristol Temple Meads ( with one train every two hours extended to Great Malvern and Weymouth ) .
CrossCountry also operate trains from Bristol Parkway – as of the December 2013 timetable , the basic weekday service consists of one hourly train each way between Bristol Temple Meads and Manchester Piccadilly , and one hourly train each way between Plymouth , Bristol and Edinburgh Waverley via Leeds & Newcastle Central . Both these services run via Birmingham New Street .
Great Western Railway services between London and Wales are formed of High Speed Train ( HST ) sets , while other GWR services use a mix of Class 150 , 153 and 158 diesel multiple @-@ unit trains . Until 2012 , Class 143 Pacer units were a regular sight , but these have mostly been moved south to work in Devon and Cornwall following a cascade of Class 150 / 1 units from London Midland and London Overground . CrossCountry services are usually formed of Class 220 and 221 Voyager diesel @-@ electric multiple units , with some services between Scotland and the South West employing HST sets .
The standard journey time to London Paddington is 90 minutes , to Cardiff Central 40 minutes , to Birmingham New Street 75 minutes , and to Bristol Temple Meads 12 minutes .
Bristol Parkway is served by several bus routes linking it with the rest of Bristol and South Gloucestershire . These include
3B ( City centre to Aztec West )
X5 ( UWE to Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare )
18 ( Emersons Green to Henbury )
X18 ( Kingswood to Southmead Hospital
19 ( Bath to Cribbs Causeway )
73 ( City Centre to Cribbs Causeway )
X73 ( City Centre to Aztec West )
77 ( Thornbury to City Centre )
81 ( Longwell Green to Yate )
82 ( Southmead Hospital to Wotton @-@ under @-@ Edge )
501 ( Parkway Station – Avonmouth )
502 ( Parkway Station to Shirehampton )
625 ( Southmead Hospital to Severn Beach )
These routes are operated by First Bristol , First Somerset and Avon , Wessex Bus and Severnside Transport .
= = History = =
The line through Bristol Parkway was originally opened in 1903 as part of the Great Western Railway 's " Badminton Line " from Wootton Bassett to Patchway , a short @-@ cut for trains from London to South Wales , avoiding Bath and Chippenham . The station was built on the site of the Stoke Gifford marshalling yard , which closed on 4 October 1971 , having become surplus to requirements with the cessation of wagonload freight trains . The station 's development was seen as a response to the potential growth of housing and commercial developments in north Bristol , with proximity to the M4 and M5 motorway interchange at Almondsbury also important . The name " Parkway " came from proximity to the M32 motorway , known as the Bristol Parkway , although the term Parkway has since been applied to park and ride stations throughout the United Kingdom . When the station was built it was outside the developed urban area , but the growth of housing and commercial development in adjoining areas of the North Fringe has brought it within the conurbation , with many large office complexes opened nearby .
The station , owned by British Rail , opened on 1 May 1972 . Services were operated by the Western Region until British Rail was split into business @-@ led sectors in the 1980s , after which Parkway was served by the InterCity and Regional Railways divisions . The original structures , built by Stone & Co. of Bristol , were basic – two island platforms connected by an open metal footbridge , with a wood and brick building containing the booking facilities and waiting rooms . Platform 1 ( the modern platform 3 ) , on the north side of the tracks , was for trains towards London and Birmingham , and platform 2 was for trains towards Wales and Bristol Temple Meads . The station opened with a 600 @-@ space car park and a fastest journey to London of 95 minutes , which was subsequently reduced to 75 minutes with the introduction of the new High Speed Trains in the mid @-@ 70s . Platform canopies were added in 1973 , along with a cover for the footbridge . Further minor improvements were implemented over the next thirty years , including a new booking office and small extensions to the car park .
Following the privatisation of British Rail in 1997 , services at Bristol Parkway were franchised to several different train operating companies . South Wales Main Line services were provided by Great Western Trains , which was later rebranded as First Great Western ; services from Bristol to Birmingham and the north were operated by Virgin CrossCountry ; and local services were franchised to Wales & West , which was in turn succeeded in 2001 by Wessex Trains , a subsidiary of National Express . The Wessex franchise was amalgamated with the Great Western franchise into the Greater Western franchise from 2006 , and responsibility passed to First Great Western , which was later rebranded as Great Western Railway . Virgin CrossCountry services were taken over by Arriva CrossCountry in 2007 .
In the early 2000s , the Royal Mail began construction of the West of England Post Office Rail Depot just to the east of the station , taking over some of the station car park to provide a platform and warehouse for postal trains . The 12 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 100 m2 ) building opened in 2002 , with the Royal Mail stating it would save 250 @,@ 000 miles ( 400 @,@ 000 km ) of lorry journeys per year on local roads . However , the depot closed only two years later in 2004 , when the Post Office ceased to use the rail network . Royal Mail offered the terminal for use by freight companies , but there were no takers . In 2008 it was reopened as a Network Rail maintenance training centre in a £ 2 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 project which saw the construction of a mezzanine floor , a welding workshop and a 4 @,@ 000 square feet ( 370 m2 ) extension .
In 2000 , work began on a complete redevelopment of the station building . It opened on 1 July 2001 , and featured lifts and generally enhanced facilities . Local roads were enhanced to help speed passengers ' journeys to and from the station , and a new multi @-@ storey car park was built to replace the spaces lost to the Royal Mail facility . A dedicated bus interchange was opened in 2003 . In 2006 , construction started on a new platform face on the north side of platform 1 , to ease congestion for trains toward Birmingham and London . The new platform , platform 4 , was opened on 9 May 2007 by rail minister Tom Harris MP . As part of the reconstruction , the waiting room at the east end of platform 1 was demolished , and replaced with an extended waiting area and customer help desk . Platform 1 was subsequently redesignated platform 3 . The work cost £ 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , and was funded by Network Rail , with First Great Western contributing £ 100 @,@ 000 towards the new waiting room and help desk .
Despite the large car park , the increase in passenger numbers at Parkway in recent years has led to problems with on @-@ street parking , leading to the commissioning of a new 200 @-@ space car park 500 metres ( 550 yd ) east of the station . It opened in Spring 2011 , but was used by only 139 motorists in its first three months , and as of August 2012 was averaging only 10 motorists per day . It is expected that traffic will increase when a new bus link is opened to transfer drivers from the car park to the station . A new multi @-@ storey car park on the station site with 710 spaces was opened on 5 September 2014 by Baroness Kramer , Minister of State for Transport . Construction of the car park , which began in mid @-@ 2013 , caused a short @-@ term lack of spaces for commuters . The car park cost £ 13 million and was funded jointly by Network Rail and the Department for Transport under the Station Commercial Projects Fund .
Improved cycle facilities , including a bike hire scheme , were provided in the late 2000s .
= = Future = =
First Great Western declined a contractual option to continue the Greater Western passenger franchise beyond 2013 , citing a desire for a longer @-@ term contract due to the impending upgrade to the Great Western Main Line . The franchise was put out to tender , but the process was halted and later scrapped due to the fallout from the collapse of the InterCity West Coast franchise competition . A two @-@ year franchise extension until September 2015 was agreed in October 2013 , and subsequently extended until March 2019 . The CrossCountry franchise is also due to expire in 2019 .
The South Wales Main Line from London to Cardiff is due to be electrified by 2016 , as is the line to Bristol Temple Meads . However , the lines to Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare and Birmingham will not be electrified , so local and CrossCountry services will still be provided by diesel trains , with " Sprinter " units on local services to be replaced by Class 165 and 166 " Turbo " units . The group Friends of Suburban Bristol Railways supports the electrification continuing to Weston , as does MP for Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare John Penrose . The electrification scheme also includes the four @-@ tracking of Filton Bank , which will allow more services between Parkway and Bristol Temple Meads , and separate fast inter @-@ city services from local stopping services . New Intercity Express Trains will be introduced , and will be maintained at the Filton Triangle depot just west of Bristol Parkway . There will be a new platform at Parkway for westbound trains to allow new services to run from London Paddington to Bristol Temple Meads , calling only at Bristol Parkway , shaving 20 minutes off the journey time . The area will also be resignalled .
Bristol Parkway is on the Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare / Yate corridor , one of the main axes of the Greater Bristol Metro , a rail transport plan which aims to enhance transport capacity in the Bristol area . The scheme could see the reopening of the Henbury Loop Line to passengers , with the possibility of services from Bristol Temple Meads to Bristol Parkway via Clifton Down and Henbury .
= R1 – RG1 ( Rodalies de Catalunya ) =
The R1 is a line of Rodalies de Catalunya 's Barcelona commuter rail service , operated by Renfe Operadora . It runs northwards from the Barcelona area to the southern limits of the province of Girona , passing through the coastal Maresme region . Since 2014 , some services have been extended further north towards Portbou , near the French border . These services are designated RG1 and are considered part of the Girona commuter rail service . According to 2008 data , the line 's annual ridership is 39 @.@ 6 million , the highest on any line of the Barcelona commuter rail service , with an average weekday ridership of 102 @,@ 214 .
R1 – RG1 trains primarily run on the Barcelona – Mataró – Maçanet @-@ Massanes railway , the first railway line in the Iberian Peninsula . They use the Meridiana Tunnel in Barcelona , where they share tracks with Rodalies de Catalunya 's Barcelona commuter rail service lines R3 and R4 , as well as regional rail line R12 , calling at Sants , Plaça de Catalunya and Arc de Triomf stations . R1 services use Molins de Rei as their southernmost terminus and Maçanet @-@ Massanes as their northernmost one . On the other hand , no RG1 services run south of L 'Hospitalet de Llobregat , or north of Portbou .
Together with lines R2 , R3 , and R4 , the R1 ( then simply numbered line 1 ) started services in 1989 as one of the first lines of the Cercanías commuter rail system for Barcelona , known as Rodalies Barcelona . Originally , R1 services had two southern termini , L 'Hospitalet de Llobregat and Barcelona – El Prat Airport stations . In 2005 , all trains terminating at the airport moved their southern terminus to Molins de Rei . In the long @-@ term future , it is projected that the R1 will take over the southern section of line R2 , creating a major north – south axis that will extend along the coast of the Barcelona metropolitan area .
= = History = =
The current line scheme of the R1 started operating on 28 May 1989 ( 1989 @-@ 05 @-@ 28 ) , after the dismantling of the former route of the Barcelona – Mataró – Maçanet @-@ Massanes railway through the Barcelona neighborhood of Poblenou . Earlier , all the commuter rail services coming from Mataró used the route through Poblenou , terminating at Estació de les Rodalies , a terminus station that was located adjacent to the still existing Estació de França . All services coming from Mataró were then rerouted through the Sagrera rail complex and the Meridiana Tunnel to access Barcelona , terminating at L 'Hospitalet de Llobregat or Barcelona – El Prat Airport stations , depending on the station of origin . The services coming from Mataró terminated at the airport , whilst the services coming from north of Mataró terminated at L 'Hospitalet de Llobregat . Since the new through line scheme offered more stops within Barcelona and better connections with the city 's metro system , the line 's ridership doubled . Throughout 1989 , this new line scheme was incorporated as part of line 1 of Rodalies Barcelona ( predecessor of the R1 ) , the Cercanías commuter rail system for the Barcelona area , created in the same year .
On 4 December 2005 , the services between Mataró and the airport were suspended due to the construction works of the Madrid – Barcelona high @-@ speed rail line in Barcelona 's southern access , leaving the airport without any direct trains to Barcelona . These services moved their southern terminus from the airport to Molins de Rei , originating the line 's current termini . The R1 also started operating as a shuttle line between the airport and El Prat de Llobregat railway station until 22 July 2006 , when line R10 was created , providing a direct rail link between the airport and central Barcelona anew .
= = Infrastructure = =
Like the rest of Rodalies de Catalunya lines , the R1 – RG1 runs on the Iberian gauge mainline railway system , which is owned by Adif , an agency of the Spanish government . All of the railway lines carrying Rodalies de Catalunya services are electrified at 3 @,@ 000 volts ( V ) direct current ( DC ) using overhead lines . The R1 – RG1 operates on a total line length of 181 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 112 @.@ 6 mi ) , which is entirely double @-@ track , excepting for the single @-@ track section between Arenys de Mar and Maçanet @-@ Massanes stations . The trains on the line call at up to 48 stations , using the following railway lines , in order from south to north :
The entire length of the Barcelona – Mataró – Maçanet @-@ Massanes railway is solely used by the R1 – RG1 , though the rest of the infrastructure it uses is shared with other services . South of L 'Hospitalet de Llobregat , it shares tracks with Rodalies de Catalunya 's Barcelona commuter rail service line R4 . Between L 'Hospitalet de Llobregat and Arc de Triomf stations , R1 and RG1 trains share tracks with commuter rail lines R3 and R4 , and regional rail line R12 , using the Meridiana Tunnel through central Barcelona . After Arc de Triomf , they branch off to El Clot @-@ Aragó railway station , running on exclusive tracks from this point on to Maçanet @-@ Massanes . North of Maçanet @-@ Massanes , the R1 – RG1 shares tracks with regional line R11 and freight services .
In May 2015 , Adif announced that the R1 – RG1 would be the first Rodalies de Catalunya line to feature the European Rail Traffic Management System ( ERTMS ) signaling and security system . ERTMS Level 2 will be installed on the 56 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 35 mi ) section between L 'Hospitalet de Llobregat and Mataró , increasing capacity and reliability parameters .
= = Operation = =
There are no end @-@ to @-@ end services between Molins de Rei and Portbou stations on the R1 – RG1 , which means only partial services operate on the line . The services commencing or terminating at Molins de Rei do not usually run north of Mataró or Arenys de Mar. On the other hand , most services commencing or terminating at L 'Hospitalet de Llobregat run north of Arenys de Mar , using Calella , Blanes , Maçanet @-@ Massanes , Figueres or Portbou stations as their northern terminus , in order from south to north . Furthermore , since 31 January 2009 , there have been no limited services , so that the entirety of R1 and RG1 trains call at all stations . Previously , some R1 trains had operated limited services , skipping Montgat , Montgat Nord , and Cabrera de Mar @-@ Vilassar de Mar stations . The first trains run about 5 : 00 in the morning , with the latest arriving at about 1 : 00 at night .
The designation of the services operating on the line depends on the route they operate . The services between Molins de Rei and Maçanet @-@ Massanes are designated R1 in coordination with the rest of Barcelona commuter rail service lines , whilst the services between L 'Hospitalet de Llobregat and other stations located further north of Maçanet @-@ Massanes are designated RG1 ( the letter ' G ' stands for Girona ) to indicate that they are part of the Girona commuter rail service . RG1 services began operating on 20 March 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 03 @-@ 20 ) after former R1 services between L 'Hospitalet de Llobregat and Maçanet @-@ Massanes were extended northwards to Figueres . Since 20 June 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 06 @-@ 20 ) , some of these services have been extended further north to Portbou .
As of July 2015 , the service routes operating on the R1 – RG1 are as follows :
The line 's activity gathers on the section between L 'Hospitalet de Llobregat and Mataró , where a peak @-@ time frequency of 6 minutes has been offered since 26 June 2011 , that is the highest on any line of the Rodalies de Catalunya system . The service frequency reduces as the line moves away from Barcelona , especially on the section north of Maçanet @-@ Massanes , where only RG1 services operate on weekdays , and which is already served by regional rail line R11 . Moreover , the R1 does not operate south of L 'Hospitalet de Llobregat on weekends , when this section is solely served by Barcelona commuter rail service line R4 .
As of July 2015 , the approximate service frequencies on the R1 – RG1 are as follows :
The trains used on the R1 – RG1 are Civia — specifically , the 463 , 464 and 465 Series , which consist of three , four and five cars per set , respectively — and 447 Series electrical multiple units ( EMU ) . Civia trains have been running on the line since July 2006 , initially only operating services between Molins de Rei and Calella . On average , these trains operate a total of 216 services on the line every day on weekdays .
= = Future = =
The 2008 – 2015 Rail Infrastructure Master Plan for the Barcelona Commuter Rail Service , developed by the Spanish Ministry of Public Works and Transport , plans to establish a " coast @-@ to @-@ coast " and " inland @-@ to @-@ inland " line scheme . According to this project , the current R1 will be extended southwards from Barcelona Sants to Sant Vicenç de Calders stations , via Vilanova i la Geltrú , taking over the southern section of the present line R2 . The R1 will become the " coast @-@ to @-@ coast " line , creating a new major south – north axis along the coast of the Barcelona metropolitan area . R1 trains will continue to use the Meridiana Tunnel in central Barcelona with the new line scheme , which is currently not possible due to the configuration of the southern rail accesses to Barcelona Sants . A long @-@ term project with an uncertain completion date , the new configuration would require multi @-@ million euro investments since it is associated with the construction of a new underground route in L 'Hospitalet de Llobregat for the Rodalies de Catalunya lines running through the city as well as the new rail link for Barcelona – El Prat Airport .
As stated in the master plan , the proposed peak @-@ time service frequencies for the future R1 would be as follows :
= = List of stations = =
The following table lists the name of each station served by line R1 – RG1 in order from south to north ; the station 's service pattern offered by R1 and / or RG1 trains ; the transfers to other Rodalies de Catalunya lines , including both commuter and regional rail services ; remarkable transfers to other transport systems ; the municipality in which each station is located ; and the fare zone ( s ) each station belongs to according to the Autoritat del Transport Metropolità ( ATM Àrea de Barcelona ) and the Autoritat Territorial de la Mobilitat de l 'Àrea de Girona ( ATM Àrea de Girona ) fare @-@ integrated public transport systems , as well as Rodalies de Catalunya 's own fare zone system for Barcelona commuter rail service lines .
= Han Sai Por =
Han Sai Por ( simplified Chinese : 韩少芙 ; traditional Chinese : 韓少芙 ; pinyin : Hán Shào Fú ; born 19 July 1943 ) is a Singaporean sculptor . A graduate of the Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts ( NAFA ) , East Ham College of Art , Wolverhampton College of Art ( now the School of Art and Design of the University of Wolverhampton ) and Lincoln University , New Zealand , she worked as a teacher and later as a part @-@ time lecturer at NAFA , the LASALLE @-@ SIA College of the Arts , and the National Institute of Education , Nanyang Technological University , before becoming a full @-@ time artist in 1997 .
Han has participated in exhibitions locally and abroad , including events in China , Denmark , Japan , Malaysia , New Zealand and South Korea . Her first solo exhibition , entitled Four Dimensions , was held at the National Museum Art Gallery in 1993 . Her sculptures can be found around the world , in Osaka and Shōdoshima , Kagawa Prefecture , in Japan ; Kuala Lumpur and Sarawak in Malaysia ; and Washington , D.C. In Singapore , sculptures commissioned from her can be seen at Capital Tower , the Defence Science Organisation National Laboratories , the Esplanade – Theatres on the Bay , the National Museum of Singapore , Revenue House , Singapore Changi Airport Terminal 3 , Suntec City Mall , and Woodlands Regional Library . In 2001 , Han was the founding President of the Sculpture Society ( Singapore ) and remains its Honorary President . She was the first artist in residence at the Society 's Sculpture Pavilion at Fort Canning Park in 2009 , where she worked on sculptures made from the trunks of tembusu trees .
Han is probably best known for her stone sculptures with organic forms , examples of which include Growth ( 1985 ) , Spirit of Nature ( 1988 ) , Object C ( 1992 ) and Seeds ( 2006 ) . The last work , presently located in the grounds of the National Museum , consists of two large kernels carved from sandstone excavated from Fort Canning Hill during the Museum 's redevelopment . However , her oeuvre is broad , and includes Four Dimensions ( 1993 ) , a collection of geometrical structures ; and 20 Tonnes ( 2002 ) , also installed at the Museum , which consists of a row of six ridged monolithic blocks with a smaller block at either end , all hewn from a single granite rock .
For her contributions to art , Han was conferred the Cultural Medallion for Art in 1995 . She was also the winner of the sculpture and painting section at the 11th Triennale – India organized by the Lalit Kala Akademi ( National Academy of Art of India ) in 2005 , and the Outstanding City Sculpture Award in China the following year .
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coma . The character 's appearance and verbal style are based upon those of visual effects supervisor Jeffrey A. Okun , with whom Emmerich had worked on Stargate .
James Duval as Miguel Casse , the eldest of the Casse children and Russel 's stepson according to a novelization .
Lisa Jakub as Alicia Casse , Russell 's teenage daughter .
Giuseppe Andrews as Troy Casse , Russell 's young son .
Ross Bagley as Dylan Dubrow , Jasmine Dubrow 's son and later Steven Hiller 's stepson .
Mae Whitman as Patricia Whitmore , President Whitmore 's daughter .
Bill Smitrovich as Captain Watson .
Kiersten Warren as Tiffany , Jasmine 's exotic dancer friend .
Harry Connick Jr. as Captain Jimmy Wilder , Steve 's best friend and fellow pilot . Connick took over the part from Matthew Perry , originally cast in the role .
Corin Nemec as Connor Mcgrady , a fellow fighter pilot .
Frank Welker as Alien Vocal Effects
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The idea for the film came when Emmerich and Devlin were in Europe promoting their film Stargate . A reporter asked Emmerich why he made a film with content like Stargate if he did not believe in aliens . Emmerich stated he was still fascinated by the idea of an alien arrival , and further explained his response by asking the reporter to imagine what it would be like to wake up one morning and to discover 15 mile @-@ wide spaceships were hovering over the world 's largest cities . Emmerich then turned to Devlin and said , " I think I have an idea for our next film . "
Emmerich and Devlin decided to expand on the idea by incorporating a large @-@ scale attack , with Devlin saying he was bothered by the fact that " for the most part , in alien invasion movies , they come down to Earth and they 're hidden in some back field ... [ o ] r they arrive in little spores and inject themselves into the back of someone 's head . " Emmerich agreed by asking Devlin if arriving from across the galaxy , " would you hide on a farm or would you make a big entrance ? " The two wrote the script during a month @-@ long vacation in Mexico , and just one day after they sent it out for consideration , 20th Century Fox chairman Peter Chernin greenlit the screenplay . Pre @-@ production began just three days later in February 1995 . The U.S. military originally intended to provide personnel , vehicles , and costumes for the film ; however , they backed out when the producers refused to remove the script 's Area 51 references .
A then @-@ record 3 @,@ 000 @-@ plus special effects shots would ultimately be required for the film . The shoot utilized on @-@ set , in @-@ camera special effects more often than computer @-@ generated effects in an effort to save money and get more authentic pyrotechnic results . Many of these shots were accomplished at Hughes Aircraft in Culver City , California , where the film 's art department , motion control photography teams , pyrotechnics team , and model shop were headquartered . The production 's model @-@ making department built more than twice as many miniatures for the production than had ever been built for any film before by creating miniatures for buildings , city streets , aircraft , landmarks , and monuments . The crew also built miniatures for several of the spaceships featured in the film , including a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) destroyer model and a version of the mother ship spanning 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) . City streets were recreated , then tilted upright beneath a high @-@ speed camera mounted on a scaffolding filming downwards . An explosion would be ignited below the model , and flames would rise towards the camera , engulfing the tilted model and creating the rolling " wall of destruction " look seen in the film . A model of the White House was also created , covering 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) by 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) , and was used in forced @-@ perspective shots before being destroyed in a similar fashion for its destruction scene . The detonation took a week to plan and required 40 explosive charges .
The film 's aliens were designed by production designer Patrick Tatopoulos . The actual aliens in the film are diminutive and based on a design Tatopoulos drew when tasked by Emmerich to create an alien that was " both familiar and completely original " . These creatures wear " bio @-@ mechanical " suits that are based on another design Tatopoulos pitched to Emmerich . These suits were 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) tall , equipped with 25 tentacles , and purposely designed to show it could not sustain a person inside so it would not appear to be a " man in a suit " .
= = = Filming = = =
Principal photography began in July 1995 in New York City . A second unit gathered plate shots and establishing shots of Manhattan , Washington D.C. , an RV community in Flagstaff , Arizona , and the Very Large Array on the Plains of San Agustin , New Mexico . The main crew also filmed in nearby Cliffside Park , New Jersey before moving to the former Kaiser Steel mill in Fontana , California to film the post @-@ attack Los Angeles sequences . The production then moved to Wendover , Utah , and West Wendover , Nevada , where the deserts doubled for Imperial Valley , and the Wendover Airport doubled for the El Toro and Area 51 exteriors . It was here where Pullman filmed his pre @-@ battle speech . Immediately before filming the scene , Devlin and Pullman decided to add " Today , we celebrate our Independence Day ! " to the end of the speech . At the time , the production was nicknamed " ID4 " because Warner Bros. owned the rights to the title Independence Day , and Devlin had hoped that if Fox executives noticed the addition in dailies , the impact of the new dialogue would help them to win the rights to the title . The right to use the title was eventually won two weeks later .
The production team moved to the Bonneville Salt Flats to film three scenes , then returned to California to film in various places around Los Angeles , including Hughes Aircraft where sets for the cable company and Area 51 interiors were constructed at a former aircraft plant . Sets for the latter included corridors containing windows that were covered with blue material . The filmmakers originally intended to use the chroma key technique to make it appear as if activity was happening on the other side of the glass ; but the composited images were not added to the final print because production designers decided the blue panels gave the sets a " clinical look " . The attacker hangar set contained an attacker mock @-@ up 65 feet ( 20 m ) wide that took four months to build . The White House interior sets used had already been built for The American President and had previously been used for Nixon . Principal photography completed on November 3 , 1995 .
The film originally depicted Russell Casse being rejected as a volunteer for the July 4 aerial counteroffensive because of his alcoholism . He then uses a stolen missile tied to his red biplane to carry out his suicide mission . According to Dean Devlin , test audiences responded well to the scene 's irony and comedic value . However , the scene was re @-@ shot to include Russell 's acceptance as a volunteer , his crash course on flying modern fighter aircraft , and him flying an F / A @-@ 18 instead of the biplane . Devlin preferred the alteration because the viewer now witnesses Russell ultimately making the decision to sacrifice his life , and seeing the biplane keeping pace and flying amongst F / A @-@ 18s was " just not believable " . The film was officially completed on June 20 , 1996 .
= = = Music = = =
The Grammy Award @-@ winning score for the film was composed by David Arnold and recorded with an orchestra of 90 , a choir of 46 , and " and every last ounce of stereotypical Americana he could muster for the occasion " . The film 's producer Dean Devlin commented that " you can leave it up to a Brit to write some of the most rousing and patriotic music in the history of American cinema . " The soundtrack has received two official CD releases . RCA released a 50 @-@ minute album at the time of the film 's release , then in 2010 , La @-@ La Land Records released a limited edition 2 @-@ CD set that comprised the complete score plus 12 alternate cues . The premiere of Independence Day live will take place at the Royal Albert Hall in September 2016 , with the film 's score performed live to a screening of the film . This celebrates the twentieth anniversary of the film 's release , and the event will also feature a pre @-@ film talk by David Arnold .
= = Release = =
While the film was still in post @-@ production , Fox began a massive marketing campaign to help promote the film , beginning with the airing of a dramatic commercial during Super Bowl XXX , for which it paid $ 1 @.@ 3 million . The film 's subsequent success at the box office resulted in the trend of using Super Bowl air time to kick off the advertising campaign for potential blockbusters .
Fox 's Licensing and Merchandising division also entered into co @-@ promotional deals with Apple Inc . The co @-@ marketing project was dubbed " The Power to Save the World " campaign , in which the company used footage of David using his PowerBook laptop in their print and television advertisements . Trendmasters entered a merchandising deal with the film 's producers to create a line of tie @-@ in toys . In exchange for product placement , Fox also entered into co @-@ promotional deals with Molson Coors Brewing Company and Coca @-@ Cola .
The film was marketed with several taglines , including : " We 've always believed we weren 't alone . On July 4 , we 'll wish we were " , " Earth . Take a good look . It could be your last " , and " Don 't make plans for August " . The weekend before the film 's release , the Fox Network aired a half @-@ hour special on the film , the first third of which was a spoof news report on the events that happen in the film . Roger Ebert attributed most of the film 's early success to its teaser trailers and marketing campaigns , acknowledging them as " truly brilliant " .
The film had its official premiere held at Los Angeles ' now @-@ defunct Mann Plaza Theater on June 25 , 1996 . It was then screened privately at the White House for President Bill Clinton and his family before receiving a nationwide release in the United States on July 2 , 1996 , a day earlier than its previously scheduled opening .
After a six @-@ week , $ 30 million marketing campaign , Independence Day was released on VHS on November 22 , 1996 . It became available on DVD on June 27 , 2000 , and has since been re @-@ released , in several different versions of this format , with varying supplemental material , including one instance where it was packaged with a lenticular cover . Often accessible on these versions is a special edition of the film , which features nine minutes of additional footage not seen in the original theatrical release . Independence Day became available on Blu @-@ ray discs in the United Kingdom on December 24 , 2007 , and in North America on March 11 , 2008 and in Australia on March 5 , 2008 . The Blu @-@ ray edition does not include the deleted scenes . It was re @-@ released on Blu @-@ ray , DVD , and Digital HD on May 3 , 2016 and was released on 4K Ultra HD Blu @-@ ray on June 7 , 2016 for the 20th Anniversary Edition . The new Blu @-@ ray edition includes both the theatrical and special edition , unlike the original .
= = = Censorship = = =
In Lebanon , certain Jewish and Israel @-@ related content in the film was censored . One cut scene involved Judd Hirsch 's character donning a kippah , and leading soldiers and White House officials in a Jewish prayer . Other removed footage showed Israeli and Arab troops working together in preparation for countering the alien invasion . The Lebanese Shi 'a Islamist militant group Hezbollah called for Muslims to boycott the film , describing it as " propaganda for the so @-@ called genius of the Jews and their concern for humanity . " In response , Jewish actor Jeff Goldblum said : " I think Hezbollah has missed the point : the film is not about American Jews saving the world ; it 's about teamwork among people of different religions and nationalities to defeat a common enemy . "
= = = Twentieth anniversary release = = =
The film will have both its twentieth anniversary and premiere at a special live @-@ orchestral screening performance at the Royal Albert Hall on September 22 , 2016 . The Royal Philharmonic Orchestra , conducted by the original orchestrator Nicholas Dodd , will perform the score live during the film , and the film 's composer , David Arnold , will be a presenter at the event .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Independence Day was the highest @-@ grossing film of 1996 . In the United States , Independence Day earned $ 104 @.@ 3 million in its first full week , including $ 96 @.@ 1 million during its five @-@ day holiday opening , and $ 50 @.@ 2 million during its opening weekend . All three figures broke records set by Jurassic Park three years earlier . That film 's sequel , The Lost World : Jurassic Park , claimed all three records when it was released the following year . Independence Day stayed in the number @-@ one spot for three consecutive weeks , and grossed $ 306 @,@ 169 @,@ 268 in North America , and $ 511 @,@ 231 @,@ 623 in other territories during its theatrical run . The combined total of $ 817 @,@ 400 @,@ 891 once trailed only the worldwide earnings of Jurassic Park as the highest of all time . Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 69 @.@ 26 million tickets in the US . It has been surpassed by multiple 21st century films since , and currently holds the 51st @-@ highest worldwide gross of all time for a film . Hoping to capitalize on the film 's success , several studios released large @-@ scale disaster films , and the already rising interest in science fiction @-@ related media was further increased by the film 's popularity .
A month after the film 's release , jewelry designers and marketing consultants reported an increased interest in dolphin @-@ themed jewelry , as the character Jasmine ( Vivica A. Fox ) wears dolphin earrings , and is presented with a wedding ring featuring a gold dolphin .
= = = Critical response = = =
Upon its release , Independence Day received praise for its visuals and sense of fun , but criticism of its writing . Rotten Tomatoes reports a score of 61 % , based on 59 reviews , with the site 's critical consensus reading : " The plot is thin and so is character development , but as a thrilling , spectacle @-@ filled summer movie , Independence Day delivers . " On Metacritic , the film has a score of 59 out of 100 , based on 19 critics , indicating " mixed or average reviews " .
Critics noted that the film had " cardboard " and " stereotypical " characters , and weak dialogue . Yet the shot of the White House 's destruction has been declared a milestone in visual effects , and one of the most memorable scenes of the 1990s . In a 2010 poll , readers of Entertainment Weekly rated it the second @-@ greatest summer film of the previous 20 years , ranking only behind Jurassic Park .
Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle gave the film his highest rating , declaring it the " apotheosis " of Star Wars . Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly gave it a B + for living up to its massive hype , adding " charm is the foremost of this epic 's contemporary characteristics . The script is witty , knowing , cool . " Eight years later , Entertainment Weekly would rate the film as one of the best disaster films of all time . Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times felt that the film did an " excellent job conveying the boggling immensity of [ the ] extraterrestrial vehicles [ ... ] and panic in the streets " and the scenes of the alien attack were " disturbing , unsettling and completely convincing " .
However , the film 's nationalistic overtones were widely criticized by reviewers outside the U.S. Movie Review UK described the film as " a mish @-@ mash of elements from a wide variety of alien invasion movies and gung @-@ ho American jingoism . " The speech during which Whitmore states that victory in the coming war would see the entire world henceforth describe July 4 as its Independence Day , was described in a BBC review as " the most jaw @-@ droppingly pompous soliloquy ever delivered in a mainstream Hollywood movie . " In 2003 , readers of Empire , voted the scene that contained this speech as the " Cheesiest Movie Moment of All @-@ Time " . Conversely , Empire critic Kim Newman gave the film a five @-@ star rating in the magazine 's original review of the film .
Several prominent critics expressed disappointment with the quality of the film 's special effects . Newsweek 's David Ansen claimed the special effects were of no better caliber than those seen nineteen years earlier in Star Wars . Todd McCarthy of Variety felt the production 's budget @-@ conscious approach resulted in " cheesy " shots that lacked in quality relative to the effects present in films directed by James Cameron and Steven Spielberg . In his review , Roger Ebert took note of a lack of imagination in the spaceship and creature designs . Gene Siskel expressed the same sentiments on At the Movies review of the film .
American Film Institute lists
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Thrills – Nominated
AFI 's 10 Top 10 – Nominated Science Fiction Film
= = = Accolades = = =
= = = Legacy = = =
Disaster elements portrayed in Independence Day represented a significant turning point for Hollywood blockbuster films . With advancements in CGI special effects , events depicting mass destruction became commonplace in films that soon followed , such as 1998 's Armageddon and Deep Impact . The trend continued throughout the 2000s and 2010s , evident in films like 2004 's The Day After Tomorrow and 2012 's The Avengers .
= = In other media = =
= = = Books = = =
Author Stephen Molstad wrote a tie @-@ in novel to help promote the film shortly before its release . The novel goes into further detail on the characters , situations , and overall concepts not explored in the film . The novel presents the film 's finale as originally scripted , with the character played by Randy Quaid stealing a missile and roping it to his cropduster biplane .
Following the film 's success , a prequel novel entitled Independence Day : Silent Zone was written by Molstad in February 1998 . The novel is set in the late 1960s and early 1970s , and details the early career of Dr. Brackish Okun .
Molstad wrote a third novel , Independence Day : War in the Desert in July 1999 . Set in Saudi Arabia on July 3 , it centers around Captain Cummins and Colonel Thompson , the two Royal Air Force officers seen receiving the Morse code message in the film .
A Marvel comic book was also written based on the first two novelizations .
= = = Radio = = =
On August 4 , 1996 , BBC Radio 1 broadcast the one @-@ hour play Independence Day UK , written , produced , and directed by Dirk Maggs , a spin @-@ off depicting the alien invasion from a British perspective . None of the original cast was present . Dean Devlin gave Maggs permission to produce an original version , on the condition that he did not reveal certain details of the movie 's plot , and that the British were not depicted as saving the day . Independence Day UK was set up to be similar to the 1938 radio broadcast of The War of the Worlds - the first 20 minutes were live .
= = = Video games = = =
An Independence Day video game was released in February 1997 for the PlayStation , Sega Saturn , and PC , each version receiving mostly tepid reviews . The multi @-@ view shooter game contains various missions to perform , with the ultimate goal of destroying the aliens ' primary weapon . A wireless mobile version was released in 2005 . A computer game entitled ID4 Online was released in 2000 .
= = = Toys = = =
Trendmasters released a toy line for the film in 1996 . Each action figure , vehicle or playset came with a 3 1 ⁄ 2 " floppy disk that contained an interactive computer game .
= = Sequel = =
In June 2011 , Devlin confirmed that he and Emmerich had written a treatment for two sequels to form a trilogy ; both expressed the desire for Will Smith to return . In October 2011 , however , discussions over Smith returning were halted , due to Fox 's refusal to provide the $ 50 million salary demanded by Smith for the two sequels . Emmerich , however , made assurances that the films would be shot back @-@ to @-@ back , regardless of Smith 's involvement .
In March 2013 , Emmerich stated that the titles of the new films would be ID Forever Part I and ID Forever Part II . In November 2014 , the sequel was given the green light by 20th Century Fox , with a release date of June 24 , 2016 . This would be a stand @-@ alone sequel , that would not split into two parts as originally planned , with filming beginning in May 2015 and casting being done after the studio locked down Emmerich as the director of the film . In December 2014 , Devlin confirmed that Emmerich would indeed be directing the sequel . On June 22 , 2015 , Emmerich announced the official title , Independence Day : Resurgence .
With respect to Smith 's decision not to return to film a sequel , Emmerich told Screen Crush that : " In the very beginning , I wanted to work with him and he was excited to be in it but then after a while he was tired of sequels , and he did another science fiction film , which was his father @-@ son story [ After Earth ] , so he opted out . "
Independence Day : Resurgence was released on June 24 , 2016 .
= Marsh rice rat =
The marsh rice rat ( Oryzomys palustris ) is a semiaquatic North American rodent in the family Cricetidae . It usually occurs in wetland habitats , such as swamps and salt marshes . It is found mostly in the eastern and southern United States , from New Jersey and Kansas south to Florida and northeasternmost Tamaulipas , Mexico ; its range previously extended further west and north , where it may have been a commensal in corn @-@ cultivating communities . Weighing about 40 to 80 g ( 1 @.@ 4 to 2 @.@ 8 oz ) , the marsh rice rat is a medium @-@ sized rodent that resembles the common black and brown rat . The upperparts are generally gray @-@ brown , but are reddish in many Florida populations . The feet show several specializations for life in the water . The skull is large and flattened , and is short at the front .
John Bachman discovered the marsh rice rat in 1816 , and it was formally described in 1837 . Several subspecies have been described since the 1890s , mainly from Florida , but there is disagreement over their validity . The Florida Keys population is sometimes classified as a different species , the silver rice rat ( Oryzomys argentatus ) . Data from the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene indicate a deep divergence between populations east of Mississippi and those further west , which suggests that the western populations may be recognized as a separate species , Oryzomys texensis . The species is part of the genus Oryzomys , which also includes several others occurring further south in Mexico , Central America , and northwestern South America , some of which have previously been regarded as subspecies of the marsh rice rat . One , Oryzomys couesi , occurs with the marsh rice rat in Tamaulipas and southern Texas .
The marsh rice rat is active during the night , makes nests of sedge and grass , and occasionally builds runways . It has a diverse diet that includes plants , fungi , and a variety of animals . Population densities are usually below 10 per ha ( 4 per acre ) and home ranges vary from 0 @.@ 23 to 0 @.@ 37 ha ( 0 @.@ 57 to 0 @.@ 91 acres ) , depending on sex and geography . Litters of generally three to five young are born after a pregnancy of about 25 days , mainly during the summer . Newborns are helpless at birth , but are weaned after a few weeks . Several animals prey on the marsh rice rat , including the barn owl , and it usually lives for less than a year in the wild . It is infected by many different parasites and harbors a hantavirus that also infects humans . The species is not of conservation concern , but some populations are threatened .
= = Taxonomy = =
The marsh rice rat is classified as one of eight species in the genus Oryzomys , which is distributed from the eastern United States ( marsh rice rat ) into northwestern South America ( O. gorgasi ) . Oryzomys previously included many other species , which were reclassified in various studies culminating in contributions by Marcelo Weksler and coworkers in 2006 that removed more than 40 species from the genus . All are placed in the tribe Oryzomyini ( " rice rats " ) , a diverse assemblage of over 100 species , and on higher taxonomic levels in the subfamily Sigmodontinae of the family Cricetidae , along with hundreds of other species of mainly small rodents , most of which occur in South and Central America . In the United States , the marsh rice rat is the only oryzomyine rodent except for Oryzomys couesi in a small area of southern Texas ; the only other sigmodontines present are several species of cotton rats ( Sigmodon ) in the southern half of the country .
= = = Early history = = =
The marsh rice rat was discovered in 1816 in South Carolina by John Bachman . Bachman intended to describe the species as Arvicola oryzivora , but sent a specimen to Richard Harlan and Charles Pickering at the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia to confirm its identity . Another specimen , from New Jersey , was found in the Academy 's collection , and Harlan took it upon himself , against Pickering 's wishes , to describe the new species as Mus palustris , proclaiming it one of the few true rats of the United States . The specific name palustris is Latin for " marshy " and refers to the usual habitat of the species .
In 1854 , in The quadrupeds of North America , Bachman redescribed it as Arvicola oryzivora , considering it more closely related to the voles then placed in the genus Arvicola , and also recorded it from Georgia and Florida . Three years later , Spencer Fullerton Baird argued that the referral of the species to Arvicola was erroneous and introduced a new generic name for the marsh rice rat , Oryzomys . The name combines the Greek oryza " rice " and mys " mouse " and refers to the rat 's habit of eating rice . At the time , Oryzomys was recognized either as a full genus or as a subgenus of the now @-@ defunct genus Hesperomys , but since the 1890s , it has been universally recognized as a genus distinct from Hesperomys , with the marsh rice rat ( Oryzomys palustris ) as its type species .
= = = Species boundaries and subspecies = = =
In the 1890s , several subspecies of the marsh rice rat were described from the United States : O. p. natator from Florida in 1893 , O. p. texensis from Texas in 1894 , and O. p. coloratus from elsewhere in Florida in 1898 . Clinton Hart Merriam recognized O. p. natator as a separate species in 1901 and described a subspecies of it , O. p. floridanus , but considered O. p. texensis to be nearly identical to nominate O. p. palustris . In his 1918 revision of North American Oryzomys , Edward Alphonso Goldman again recognized all these as a single species , Oryzomys palustris . He distinguished four subspecies , which he said formed a " closely intergrading series " — O. p. palustris from New Jersey to southeastern Mississippi and eastern Missouri ; O. p. natator in central Florida ; O. p. coloratus ( including O. natator floridanus Merriam ) in southern Florida ; and O. p. texensis from western Mississippi and southeastern Kansas to eastern Texas . Two additional subspecies were described by William J. Hamilton in 1955 from southern Florida : O. p. planirostris from Pine Island and two miles ( 3 km ) north of Fort Myers and O. p. sanibeli from Sanibel Island . Also in 1955 , Claude W. Hibbard described a new species of Oryzomys , O. fossilis , from Pleistocene deposits in Kansas , on the basis of small differences in characters of the tooth with living marsh rice rats . In 1965 , Walter Dalquest demoted this species , later also found in Texas , to a subspecies , because it does not differ more from living marsh rice rats than the latter differ from each other .
Merriam and Goldman had recognized that a number of Central American species , including Oryzomys couesi and numerous forms with more limited distributions , are related to the marsh rice rat . O. couesi ranges north to southernmost Texas , where its distribution meets that of the marsh rice rat . In 1960 , Raymond Hall argued that specimens from the contact zone were intermediate between the local forms of O. couesi and the marsh rice rat , and accordingly included the former in the marsh rice rat . While reporting on the ecology of Texan O. couesi in 1979 , Benson and Gehlbach noted that populations of O. couesi and the marsh rice rat there were in fact distinct , with the latter being smaller and less brown and more gray in color ; their karyotypes were also distinct . Since then , the two have generally been retained as distinct species , as supported by further research ; a 1994 study even found the two to occur at some of the same places ( in sympatry ) in southern Texas and nearby Tamaulipas , Mexico .
In 1973 , rice rats were discovered at Cudjoe Key in the Florida Keys , and in 1978 Spitzer and Lazell described this population as a new species , Oryzomys argentatus . The status of this form — either a distinct species or not even subspecifically distinct from O. palustris natator — has remained controversial since ; the 2005 third edition of Mammal Species of the World does not recognize O. argentatus as a separate species , but acknowledges a need for further research . A 2005 study using microsatellite DNA found that Florida Keys rice rats exhibit low genetic variation and are significantly different from Everglades rice rats ; the study concluded in favor of classifying the Keys rice rat as a " distinct vertebrate population " . This population probably diverged from mainland rice rats about 2000 years ago .
Among the described subspecies , a 1989 morphometrical study by Humphrey and Setzer separated only two — O. p. natator from much of Florida ( including O. p. coloratus , O. p. planirostris , O. p. sanibeli , and O. p. floridanus , as well as O. p. argentatus ) and O. p. palustris from the rest of the range ( including O. p. texensis ) . However , Whitaker and Hamilton in their 1998 book on the Mammals of the Eastern United States recognized O. p. planirostris and O. p. sanibeli as separate subspecies , but merged all others into O. p. palustris , and placed O. argentatus as a separate species ; their classification was based on their emphasis of overwater gaps as agents of biological diversification and a critique of shortcomings in Humphrey and Setzer 's study , not on a reanalysis of the data .
In 2010 , Delton Hanson and colleagues published a study of the relationships among populations of Oryzomys on the basis of data from three genes — the mitochondrial gene cytochrome b ( Cytb ) and two nuclear markers , exon 1 of the interphotoreceptor retinoid @-@ binding protein gene ( Rbp3 ) and intron 2 of alcohol dehydrogenase gene 1 ( Adh1 @-@ I2 ) . The Cytb data placed all marsh rice rats studied sister to a clade containing various populations of O. couesi ; the mean genetic distance between the two groups was 11 @.@ 30 % . The marsh rice rats fell into two main groups , differing on average by 6 @.@ 05 % , one containing animals from Mississippi , southwestern Tennessee , and further west , and the other including specimens from Alabama and further east . Within the eastern group , variation was only about 0 @.@ 65 % , though examples of the putative subspecies O. p. palustris , O. p. coloratus , O. p. sanibeli , and O. p. planirostris were all included . Data from both of the slower @-@ evolving nuclear markers Rbp3 and Adh1 @-@ I2 also placed examples of Oryzomys in two main clades , but did not recover the western and eastern groups of the marsh rice rat as separate clades . In addition , Adh1 @-@ I2 placed a Costa Rican population within the marsh rice rat clade and some other southern Oryzomys specimens closer to the marsh rice rat than to the O. couesi group . The combined data supported the western and eastern clades within the marsh rice rat and placed the Costa Rican population marginally closer to the marsh rice rat than to O. couesi . Using the genetic species concept , the authors suggested that the western populations of the marsh rice rat be recognized as a separate species , Oryzomys texensis . They recommended further research in the Mississippi – Alabama – Tennessee region , where the ranges of the two meet .
= = = Common names = = =
Many common names have been proposed for the marsh rice rat . Early describers used " Rice Meadow @-@ Mouse " and " Rice @-@ field Mouse " and in the early 1900s , name such as " rice rat " , " marsh mouse " , and " swamp rice rat " came into use . Some of the subspecies received their own common names , such as " Florida Marsh Mouse " , " Swimming Rice Rat " , and " Central Florida Rice Rat " for O. p. natator ; " Bangs ' Marsh Mouse " , " Cape Sable Rice Rat " , and " Everglades Rice Rat " for O. p. coloratus ; and " Texas Rice Rat " for O. p. texensis . The species is now usually known as the " marsh rice rat " , although " marsh oryzomys " has also been in recent use . The Florida Keys form ( argentatus ) is known as the " silver rice rat " .
= = Description = =
The marsh rice rat is a medium @-@ sized rodent that looks much like the common black and brown rats , but has greater differences in color between the upper- and underparts . The fur is thick and short . The upperparts are generally gray to grayish brown , with the head a bit lighter , and are sharply delimited from the underparts , which are off @-@ white , as are the feet . There are small cheek pouches . The ears are about the same color as the upperparts , but there is a patch of light hairs in front of them . The tail is dark brown above and may be paler below . The guard hairs are long and have unpigmented , silvery tips . When rice rats swim , air is trapped in the fur , which increases buoyancy and reduces heat loss . As in most other oryzomyines , females have eight mammae .
The forefeet have four and the hindfeet five digits . On the forefeet , the ungual tufts ( tufts of hair on the digits ) are absent . The hindfeet are broad and have a short fifth digit . Many of the pads are reduced , as are the ungual tufts , but there are small interdigital webs . The Florida Keys form , argentatus , has even more reduced ungual tufts . Many of these traits are common adaptations to life in the water in oryzomyines .
There is some geographic variation in fur color : western populations ( texensis ) are lighter than those from the east ( nominate palustris ) , and Florida populations are generally more tawny or reddish than either , with those from southern Florida ( coloratus ) being brighter than those from the center of the state ( natator ) . The Florida Keys form ( argentatus ) is silvery , and the two other Florida forms — planirostris and sanibeli — lack the reddish tones of mainland Florida populations and are instead grayish , resembling nominate palustris ( planirostris ) , or brownish ( sanibeli ) . In 1989 , Humphrey and Setzer reviewed variation in color among Florida populations . They found argentatus to be substantially lighter and planirostris and sanibeli to be somewhat darker than mainland populations , and argentatus to have a less yellow fur , but found no significant differences in redness . There was also substantial variation within populations .
Total length is 226 to 305 mm ( 8 @.@ 9 to 12 @.@ 0 in ) , tail length 108 to 156 mm ( 4 @.@ 3 to 6 @.@ 1 in ) , hindfoot length 28 to 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 1 to 1 @.@ 5 in ) , and body mass 40 to 80 g ( 1 @.@ 4 to 2 @.@ 8 oz ) , with males slightly larger than females . The largest individuals occur in Florida and along the Gulf Coast east of the Mississippi River delta .
The stomach has the characteristic pattern of sigmodontines ( unilocular @-@ hemiglandular ) : it is not split in two chambers by an incisura angularis and the front part ( antrum ) is covered by a glandular epithelium . The gall bladder is absent , a synapomorphy ( shared @-@ derived character ) of Oryzomyini . The karyotype includes 56 chromosomes and a fundamental number of 60 chromosomal arms ( 2n
= 56 , FN =
60 ) . The form of the sex chromosomes has been used to distinguish the marsh rice rat from Oryzomys couesi , but may be too variable among Oryzomys to be useful in differentiating species . X chromosome inactivation occurs in the marsh rice rat , even though the animal lacks LINE @-@ 1 retrotransposons , which have been suggested as components of the inactivation process . Mutants with fused or additional molars and with light fur have been recorded in laboratory colonies ; the abnormal molars are apparently the result of a single autosomal recessive mutation . At about 50 % , hematocrit ( the proportion of red blood cells in the blood ) is high in the marsh rice rat compared to other rodents ; this may be an adaptation that enables the rice rat to increase oxygen capacity while swimming underwater .
= = = Male reproductive anatomy = = =
The glans penis is long and robust , averaging 7 @.@ 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 29 in ) long and 4 @.@ 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 18 in ) broad , and the baculum ( penis bone ) is 6 @.@ 6 mm ( 0 @.@ 26 in ) long . As is characteristic of Sigmodontinae , the marsh rice rat has a complex penis , with the distal ( far ) end of the baculum ending in three digits . The central digit is notably larger than those at the sides . The outer surface of the penis is mostly covered by small spines , but there is a broad band of nonspinous tissue . The papilla ( nipple @-@ like projection ) on the dorsal ( upper ) side of the penis is covered with small spines , a character the marsh rice rat shares only with Oligoryzomys and Oryzomys couesi among oryzomyines examined . On the urethral process , located in the crater at the end of the penis , a fleshy process ( the subapical lobule ) is present ; it is absent in all other oryzomyines with studied penes except O. couesi and Holochilus brasiliensis . The baculum is deeper than it is wide .
Some features of the accessory glands in the male genital region vary among oryzomyines . In the marsh rice rat , a single pair of preputial glands is present at the penis . As is usual for sigmodontines , there are two pairs of ventral prostate glands and a single pair of anterior and dorsal prostate glands . Part of the end of the vesicular gland is irregularly folded , not smooth as in most oryzomyines .
= = = Skull = = =
The marsh rice rat has a large , flattened skull with a short and broad rostrum ( front part ) . The nasal and premaxillary bones extend back beyond the point where the lacrimal , frontal , and maxillary bones meet . In planirostris , the rostrum is flatter than in mainland Florida forms , in which it is more convex , and the nasals are said to be relatively longer in argentatus . The zygomatic plate , the flattened front part of the zygomatic arch ( cheekbone ) , is broad and develops a notch at its front end . The arches themselves are robust and contain small but distinct jugal bones . The sphenopalatine foramen , a foramen ( opening ) in the side of the skull above the molars , is large ; it is much smaller in O. couesi . The narrowest part of the interorbital region ( located between the eyes ) is towards the front and the edges are lined by prominent shelves . The marsh rice rat has a narrow braincase lined by prominent ridges and a narrow interparietal bone . According to Goldman , Florida animals ( coloratus and natator ) generally have the largest and broadest skulls , and western specimens ( texensis ) have somewhat smaller and narrower skulls than those from the east outside Florida ( nominate palustris ) . In argentatus , the skull is also relatively narrow .
The incisive foramina , openings in the front part of the palate , reach backward between the molars . The palate is long , extending substantially beyond the third molars . The back part , near the third molars , is usually perforated by prominent posterolateral palatal pits , which are recessed into fossae ( depressions ) . The mesopterygoid fossa , the gap behind the end of the palate , is perforated by sphenopalatine vacuities , which are set far to the front . The condition of the arteries in the head is highly derived . The subsquamosal fenestra , an opening in the back part of the skull determined by the shape of the squamosal bone , is present . The squamosal lacks a suspensory process that contacts the tegmen tympani , the roof of the tympanic cavity , a defining character of oryzomyines . There are some openings in the mastoid bone .
In the mandible ( lower jaw ) , the mental foramen , an opening just before the first molar , opens sidewards , not upwards as in a few other oryzomyines . The upper and lower masseteric ridges , which anchor some of the chewing muscles , join at a point below the first molar and do not extend forward beyond that point . The capsular process , a raising of the bone of the back of the mandible that houses the back end of the incisor , is present , but not as large as in O. couesi .
= = = Teeth = = =
The dental formula is 1 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 @.@ 31 @.@ 0 @.@ 0 @.@ 3 × 2 = 16 ( one upper and one lower incisor and three upper and three lower molars ) , as usual in muroid rodents . The upper incisors are well @-@ developed and strongly opisthodont , with the chewing edge located behind the vertical plane of the teeth . The molars are bunodont , with the cusps higher than the connecting crests , and brachydont , low @-@ crowned , as in most other oryzomyines . Many accessory crests , including the mesoloph on the upper molars and the mesolophid on the lower molars , are present , another trait the marsh rice rat shares with most but not all other oryzomyines . The flexi and flexids ( valleys between the cusps and crests ) at the labial ( outer ) side of the molars are closed by cingula ( ridges ) .
The upper molars have two longitudinal rows of cusps , not three as in the black and brown rats . The first and second upper molar are oval in form and the flexi do not extend to the midline of the molars . The anterocone , the front cusp of the upper first molar , is not divided in two by an indentation at its front ( anteromedian flexus ) , but does display a hollow in the middle , the anteromedian fossette , which divides it into separate cuspules at the labial and lingual ( inner ) sides of the molar . A crest , the anteroloph , is present behind the labial cuspule , but in older animals , the cusps and the crest are united into a single structure by wear . In the third upper molar , the cusps at the back are reduced and scarcely distinguishable . As in most oryzomyines , the upper molars all have one root on the inner ( lingual ) side and two on the outer ( labial ) side ; in addition , the first upper molar usually has another small labial root .
The first lower molar is rounded at the front end and the labial and lingual conules of the anteroconid , the frontmost cusp , are barely distinct . The second lower molar is elongate and has a crest , the anterolophid , before the two cusps that form the front edge of the molar in some other oryzomyines , the protoconid and metaconid . There is a distinct ridge ( anterolabial cingulum ) at the outer front ( anterolabial ) edge of the molar , before the protoconid . The lower third molar is about as long as the second and also has an anterolophid , albeit a less well @-@ defined one . The first lower molar has large roots at the front and back of the tooth and usually one or two smaller ones in between , at the labial and lingual side . The second and third lowers molars have either two roots , one labial and one lingual , or only one at the front , and another large root at the back .
= = = Postcranial skeleton = = =
As usual in oryzomyines , there are twelve ribs . The first rib articulates with both the last cervical ( neck ) and first thoracic ( chest ) vertebrae , a synapomorphy of the Sigmodontinae . Anapophyses , processes at the back of a vertebra , are absent from the fifth lumbar . Between the second and third caudal vertebrae , hemal arches ( small bones ) are present with a spinous back border . The entepicondylar foramen is absent , as in all members of the Sigmodontinae ; if present , as in some other rodents , this foramen perforates the distal ( far ) end of the humerus ( upper arm bone ) .
= = = Physiology = = =
Studies have shown that in poor conditions the weight of the adrenal gland may increase up to 200 % , that rice rats are unable to conserve water well when dehydrated , and that in water contaminated with oil they swim less and their mortality increases . The median amount of radiation needed to kill a marsh rice rat is 5 @.@ 25 Gy and the lethal dose of potassium cyanide is 7 @.@ 20 mg / kg ; both values are relatively low for cricetid rodents . In one study , wild rice rats in radioactively contaminated areas did not show signs of disease . Experiments have found that exposure to more daylight and higher food availability cause increased development of the gonads in both adult and juvenile rice rats . When the pineal gland is removed or melatonin is administered in male rice rats , the testes are reduced and tend to regress into the body .
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In My City " talks about resonating with the party culture of urban cities . Chopra said that the song was not inspired by one city , since her father was an army doctor , and her family travelled all over India to cities like Jamshedpur , Lucknow , Delhi , Pune , Bareily , Chandigarh , Mumbai and Ladakh . Chopra told the Hindustan Times that the song was " about being proud of where I come from . It 's inviting the world to my city and my city could be anywhere . " The song pays homage to her nomadic childhood and her journey from being a small @-@ town girl to being a successful actor .
= = Release = =
" In My City " was released in India 12 hours before its US NFL launch because Chopra wanted her fans in India to hear it before the American release . A press release said that " Priyanka has always been very clear that India would hear her music first . So all plans have been worked out to ensure that . She will be in India for the launch when the song and special video will air during the TV telecast of NFL . " The song was showcased in an event on 13 September in Mumbai , which was transmitted live on the YouTube and Bollywood Hungama websites .
" In My City " debuted on 13 September 2012 , on the NFL Network 's sports programme Thursday Night Football . Chopra filmed a video that aired every Thursday night before and after Thursday Night Football on the NFL Network . The day after the NFL launch , the song was released on CD single as well as for digital download in India .
Nokia provided exclusive downloads of the song and was chosen as a key feature for Blenders Pride Fashion Tour . " In My City " was released to the iTunes Store of the United States on 2 October 2012 , for digital downloads . In an interview with The Economic Times , the singer expressed her nervousness about the single release , describing it as the culmination of a two @-@ year journey which " has been the toughest yet most enriching experience of my life while also marking the beginning of an exciting new chapter . "
= = Critical reception = =
Hindustan Times writer Robin Bansal was impressed with the song , and called it " [ e ] clectic , peppy , and electrifying from the start ... The song explodes after a point in its massiveness and stays in the head . The impeccable notes and pitch makes one wonder if it 's really Priyanka . " He added that the song had a high tempo and pitch , making it more like a track by The Black Eyed Peas . Chopra refuted the claims that her voice was digitally modulated , and said she has a high range in her voice , and that she always had an accent while speaking English . Perdy Mohindru from The Times of India described the lyrics as simple and beautiful , and complemented Chopra 's accent and voice .
Neha Mujumdar of The Hindu was extremely disappointed with the track , calling it " musically generic " and " lyrically filled with platitudes " . She gave a negative review of the production , and panned Chopra 's " auto @-@ tuned " vocals . Mujumdar wrote that will.I.am 's rapping " does little to relieve the monotony ; indeed , it manages to increase it , because of how predictable his exhortations are " , and that apart fulfilling a desire for " the sort of over @-@ produced music that typically fills up a fast @-@ food chain store " , the song is indistinguishable " from the large body of repetitive , unoriginal dance @-@ pop " . Writing for the US online news portal GlobalPost , Jason Overdorf did not agree with early reviews that said " In My City " sounded like the music of The Black Eyed Peas .
= = Commercial performance = =
" In My City " was a commercial success in India , and reached number @-@ one on the International downloads chart of Nokia Music Store India . The CD single debuted at the top of the pan @-@ India Planet M and Music World retail chain charts . According to the Los Angeles Times , the single broke records by selling more than 130 @,@ 000 copies within the first week of its release . The single was certified triple platinum by the Indian Music Industry ( IMI ) . In the United States the single was unsuccessful , with 5 @,@ 000 digital downloads in its first week on iTunes according to Nielsen SoundScan , and did not receive radio play .
Chopra expressed her amazement at the single 's success in India . She said , " I am so overwhelmed ! I can 't even begin to explain what I 'm feeling ... it 's so amazing that it 's been just a few days since launch and my debut single is now No. 1 on the charts . Thank you so much for the support and appreciation . This means the world to me . " At the fourth Nokia Music Connect video conference , Chopra said that the commercial numbers for " In My City " were all the more surprising , since the music sales in the Indian market is not that much . Universal Music MD , India , Saarc Devraj Sanyal said that the label was surprised with the instant sales of the song . " We have been in the non @-@ film music business for a while and I must admit to mounting engines across all platforms that have been fired like never before on Priyanka 's global single debut . But to see these results so quickly is beyond gratifying , " Sanyal said , before saying that the single debut would be followed by many promotional campaigns targeting different multimedia facets .
= = Promotions = =
" In My City " was first promoted during a TV spot for the NFL Network 's " Thursday Night Football " show , where the single was the music bed . The single was played every Thursday in pre @-@ game shows and began on 13 September . A different promo aired every week with Chopra wearing jerseys of each of the two teams playing that week . Chopra also said that 33 different looks were designed for the commercial based on the teams .
The single was also promoted at Blenders Pride Fashion Tour in cities across India , and was used as the anthem for the tour . On 26 October 2012 , Chopra promoted " In My City " by DJ @-@ ing in four clubs in the National Capital Region , including Hard Rock Cafe and Buzz in Delhi , and Striker and Seven Degrees in Gurgaon . Chopra mingled with the crowd as she MCed and DJed , followed by a playing her single . In Bangalore , Chopra visited several clubs with DJ Nash to promote " In My City " . At a Reliance Digital store in Mumbai , Chopra spent time with autistic children and played her song to them . The event was broadcast live on YouTube and on screens in Reliance Digital stores across India .
= = Music video = =
A promotional video documenting the recording of " In My City " debuted during an NFL game on 13 September 2012 . Later , Chopra posted on her Twitter account that she was in Los Angeles to shoot an official music video for the track . The video , directed by Joseph Kahn , was released on 29 January 2013 .
The video begins with Chopra coming out of a BMW and sending a message with her cellphone to her friends . They all get it , and join her in dancing the song . In the middle , there is an Indian @-@ African influenced drum beat with elaborate choreography . The song continues with more dancing , until it ends with Chopra and all her friends laughing .
= = In popular culture = =
" In My City " was played on 8 May 2013 broadcast of American Idol during a clip when the Top 3 visit their home towns .
" In My City " was selected as the theme song for 2013 season of the NFL ' network Thursday Night Football .
" In My City " was selected as the theme song for the 2016 Centennial Cup America .
= = Track listings and formats = =
Digital Download / CD single
" In My City " ( featuring will.i.am ) – 3 : 40
Digital Remixes EP
" In My City " ( R3hab and ZROQ Remix ) – 3 : 54
" In My City " ( Maestro Remix ) – 5 : 57
" In My City " ( LA Riots Remix ) – 5 : 28
" In My City " ( Mr. Morris Remix ) – 3 : 12
" In My City " ( Wideboys Remix ) – 6 : 34
" In My City " ( ANSOL Remix ) – 5 : 32
" In My City " ( DesiHits Rishi Rich Remix ) – 3 : 58
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the liner notes of the CD single .
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Emperor Norton =
Joshua Abraham Norton ( c.1818 – January 8 , 1880 ) , known as Emperor Norton , was a citizen of San Francisco , California , who in 1859 proclaimed himself " Norton I , Emperor of the United States " and subsequently " Protector of Mexico " .
Born in England , Norton spent most of his early life in South Africa . After the death of his mother in 1846 and his father in 1848 , he emigrated to San Francisco with an inheritance from his father 's estate , arriving in November 1849 aboard the Hamburg ship Franzeska with $ 40 @,@ 000 ( inflation adjusted to $ 1 @.@ 1 million in 2015 US Dollars ) . Norton initially made a living as a businessman , but he lost his fortune investing in Peruvian rice .
After losing a lawsuit in which he tried to void his rice contract , Norton became a less and less public figure . He reemerged in September 1859 , laying claim to the position of Emperor of the United States . Although he had no political power , and his influence extended only so far as he was humored by those around him , he was treated deferentially in San Francisco , and currency issued in his name was honored in the establishments he frequented .
Though some considered him insane or eccentric , citizens of San Francisco celebrated his regal presence and his proclamations , such as his order that the United States Congress be dissolved by force and his numerous decrees calling for a bridge crossing connecting San Francisco to Oakland , and a corresponding tunnel to be built under San Francisco Bay . Similar structures were built long after his death in the form of the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge and the Transbay Tube , and there have been campaigns to rename the bridge " The Emperor Norton Bridge " .
On January 8 , 1880 , Norton collapsed at the corner of California and Dupont ( now Grant ) streets and died before he could be given medical treatment . At his funeral two days later , nearly 30 @,@ 000 people packed the streets of San Francisco to pay homage . Norton has been immortalized as the basis of characters in the literature of writers Mark Twain , Robert Louis Stevenson , Christopher Moore , Maurice De Bevere , Selma Lagerlöf , and Neil Gaiman .
= = Early life = =
Genealogical and other research indicates that Norton 's parents were John Norton ( d . August 1848 ) and Sarah Norden , English Jews — John , a farmer and merchant ; Sarah , a daughter of Abraham Norden and a sister of Benjamin Norden , a successful Jewish merchant — who moved the family to South Africa in early 1820 as part of a government @-@ backed colonization scheme whose participants came to be known as the 1820 Settlers .
Most likely , Norton was born in the Kentish town of Deptford , today part of London .
Pinning down Norton 's exact date of birth has proved difficult . His obituary in the San Francisco Chronicle , " following the best information obtainable , " cited the silver plate on his coffin which said he was " aged about 65 , " suggesting that 1814 could be the year of his birth . But Norton 's biographer , William Drury , points out that " about 65 " was based on nothing more than the guess that Norton 's landlady offered to the coroner at the inquest following his death . In a 1923 essay published by the California Historical Society , Robert Ernest Cowan claimed that Norton was born on February 4 , 1819 . However , the passenger lists for the Belle Alliance , the ship that carried Norton and his family from England to South Africa , indicate he was two years old when the ship set sail in February 1820 . The February 4 , 1865 , edition of the Daily Alta California newspaper included an item in which the Alta wished Emperor Norton a happy 47th birthday , indicating that his birth date was February 4 , 1818 ( not 1819 , as Cowan claimed ) — a date that would line up with the Belle Alliance passenger listing from two years later . Moreover , it has been shown that Robert Ernest Cowan appears to have falsified the 1865 Alta item to advance his claim of an 1819 birth date and that persistent online claims for an 1819 birth date , which can be traced to the early years of the Internet , are of doubtful provenance .
Norton emigrated from South Africa to San Francisco in 1849 after receiving a bequest from his father 's estate . He enjoyed a good deal of success in the real estate market , and by the early 1850s had parlayed an initial nest egg of $ 40 @,@ 000 into a fortune of $ 250 @,@ 000 . Norton thought he saw a business opportunity when China , facing a severe famine , placed a ban on the export of rice , causing the price of rice in San Francisco to skyrocket from four to thirty @-@ six cents per pound ( 9 to 79 cents / kg ) . When he heard the Glyde , which was returning from Peru , was carrying 200 @,@ 000 pounds ( 91 @,@ 000 kg ) of rice , he bought the entire shipment for $ 25 @,@ 000 ( or twelve and a half cents per pound ) , hoping to corner the market .
Shortly after he signed the contract , several other shiploads of rice arrived from Peru , causing the price of rice to plummet to three cents a pound . Norton tried to void the contract , stating the dealer had misled him as to the quality of rice to expect . From 1853 to 1857 , Norton and the rice dealers were involved in a protracted litigation . Although Norton prevailed in the lower courts , the case reached the Supreme Court of California , which ruled against Norton . Later , the Lucas Turner and Company Bank foreclosed on his real estate holdings in North Beach to pay Norton 's debt . He filed for bankruptcy and by 1858 was living in reduced circumstances at a working class boarding house .
= = Declares himself emperor = =
By 1859 , Norton had become completely disgruntled with what he considered the inadequacies of the legal and political structures of the United States . On September 17 , 1859 , he took matters into his own hands and distributed letters to the various newspapers in the city , proclaiming himself " Emperor of these United States " :
At the peremptory request and desire of a large majority of the citizens of these United States , I , Joshua Norton , formerly of Algoa Bay , Cape of Good Hope , and now for the last 9 years and 10 months past of S. F. , Cal . , declare and proclaim myself Emperor of these U. S. ; and in virtue of the authority thereby in me vested , do hereby order and direct the representatives of the different States of the Union to assemble in Musical Hall , of this city , on the 1st day of Feb. next , then and there to make such alterations in the existing laws of the Union as may ameliorate the evils under which the country is laboring , and thereby cause confidence to exist , both at home and abroad , in our stability and integrity .
The announcement was first reprinted for humorous effect by the editor of the San Francisco Bulletin . Norton would later add " Protector of Mexico " to this title . Thus commenced his unprecedented and whimsical 21 @-@ year " reign " over America .
In his self @-@ appointed role of emperor , Norton issued numerous decrees on matters of the state . After assuming absolute control over the country , he saw no further need for a legislature , and on October 12 , 1859 , he issued a decree formally abolishing the United States Congress . In it , Norton observed :
... fraud and corruption prevent a fair and proper expression of the public voice ; that open violation of the laws are constantly occurring , caused by mobs , parties , factions and undue influence of political sects ; that the citizen has not that protection of person and property which he is entitled .
Norton ordered all interested parties to assemble at Platt 's Music Hall in San Francisco in February 1860 to " remedy the evil complained of " .
In an imperial decree the following month , Norton summoned the Army to depose the elected officials of the U.S. Congress :
WHEREAS , a body of men calling themselves the National Congress are now in session in Washington City , in violation of our Imperial edict of the 12th of October last , declaring the said Congress abolished ;
WHEREAS , it is necessary for the repose of our Empire that the said decree should be strictly complied with ;
NOW , THEREFORE , we do hereby Order and Direct Major @-@ General Scott , the Command @-@ in @-@ Chief of our Armies , immediately upon receipt of this , our Decree , to proceed with a suitable force and clear the Halls of Congress .
Norton 's orders were ignored by the Army , and Congress likewise continued without any formal acknowledgement of the decree . Further decrees in 1860 dissolved the republic and forbade the assembly of any members of the former Congress . Norton 's battle against the elected leaders of America persisted throughout his reign , though it appears he eventually , if grudgingly , allowed Congress to exist without his permission . Hoping to resolve the many disputes that had resulted in the Civil War , in 1862 Norton issued a mandate ordering both the Roman Catholic Church and the Protestant churches to publicly ordain him as " Emperor " .
His attempts to overthrow the elected government having been ignored , Norton turned his attention to other matters , both political and social . On August 12 , 1869 , " being desirous of allaying the dissensions of party strife now existing within our realm " , he abolished the Democratic and Republican parties . The failure to treat Norton 's adopted home city with appropriate respect is the subject of a particularly stern edict that often is cited as having been written by Norton in 1872 — although evidence for the authorship , date or source of this decree remains elusive :
Whoever after due and proper warning shall be heard to utter the abominable word " Frisco , " which has no linguistic or other warrant , shall be deemed guilty of a High Misdemeanor , and shall pay into the Imperial Treasury as penalty the sum of twenty @-@ five dollars .
Norton was occasionally a visionary , and some of his Imperial Decrees exhibited profound foresight . He issued instructions to form a League of Nations , and he explicitly forbade any form of conflict between religions or their sects . Norton saw fit to decree the construction of a suspension bridge or tunnel connecting Oakland and San Francisco , his later decrees becoming increasingly irritated at the lack of prompt obedience by the authorities :
WHEREAS , we issued our decree ordering the citizens of San Francisco and Oakland to appropriate funds for the survey of a suspension bridge from Oakland Point via Goat Island ; also for a tunnel ; and to ascertain which is the best project ; and whereas the said citizens have hitherto neglected to notice our said decree ; and whereas we are determined our authority shall be fully respected ; now , therefore , we do hereby command the arrest by the army of both the Boards of City Fathers if they persist in neglecting our decrees .
Given under our royal hand and seal at San Francisco , this 17th day of September , 1872 .
The intent of this decree , unlike many others , actually came to fruition ; construction of the San Francisco – Oakland Bay Bridge began on July 9 , 1933 and was completed on November 12 , 1936 . The construction of Bay Area Rapid Transit 's Transbay Tube was completed in 1969 , with Transbay rail service commencing in 1974 .
= = Norton 's Imperial acts = =
Norton spent his days inspecting San Francisco 's streets in an elaborate blue uniform with gold @-@ plated epaulettes , given to him by officers of the United States Army post at the Presidio of San Francisco . He also wore a beaver hat decorated with a peacock feather and a rosette . He frequently enhanced this regal posture with a cane or umbrella . During his inspections , Norton would examine the condition of the sidewalks and cable cars , the state of repair of public property , and the appearance of police officers . Norton would also frequently give lengthy philosophical expositions on a variety of topics to anyone within earshot .
During the 1860s and 1870s , there were occasional anti @-@ Chinese demonstrations in the poorer districts of San Francisco . Riots , sometimes resulting in fatalities , took place . During one incident , Norton allegedly positioned himself between the rioters and their Chinese targets ; with a bowed head , he started reciting the Lord 's Prayer repeatedly until the rioters dispersed without incident .
Norton was loved and revered by the citizens of San Francisco . Although penniless , he regularly ate at the finest restaurants in San Francisco ; restaurateurs took it upon themselves to add brass plaques in their entrances declaring " [ by ] Appointment to his Imperial Majesty , Emperor Norton I of the United States . " Norton 's self @-@ penned Imperial seals of approval were prized and a substantial boost to trade . No play or musical performance in San Francisco would dare to open without reserving balcony seats for Norton .
A rumor started by the devoted Norton caricaturist Ed Jump claims he had two dogs , Bummer and Lazarus , which were also San Francisco celebrities . Though he did not own the dogs , Norton ate at free lunch counters where he shared his meals with the dogs .
In 1867 , a policeman named Armand Barbier arrested Norton to commit him to involuntary treatment for a mental disorder . The Emperor 's arrest outraged the citizens and sparked scathing editorials in the newspapers . Police Chief Patrick Crowley ordered Norton released and issued a formal apology on behalf of the police force . Crowley wrote " that he had shed no blood ; robbed no one ; and despoiled no country ; which is more than can be said of his fellows in that line . " Norton magnanimously granted an Imperial Pardon to the errant policeman . All police officers of San Francisco thereafter saluted Norton as he passed in the street .
Norton did receive some tokens of recognition for his position . The 1870 U.S. census lists Joshua Norton as 50 years old and residing at 624 Commercial Street ; his occupation was listed as Emporer [ sic ] . It also noted he was insane . Norton also issued his own money to pay for his debts , and it became an accepted local currency in San Francisco . These notes came in denominations between fifty cents and ten dollars ; the few surviving notes are collector 's items . The city of San Francisco also honored Norton . When his uniform began to look shabby , the San Francisco Board of Supervisors bought him a suitably regal replacement . Norton sent a gracious thank you note and issued a " patent of nobility in perpetuity " for each supervisor .
= = Later years and death = =
During the later years of Norton 's reign , he was the subject of considerable speculation . One popular story suggested he was the son of Emperor Napoleon III , and that his claim of coming from South Africa was a ruse to prevent persecution . Another popular story suggested Norton was planning to marry Queen Victoria . While this claim is unsupported , Norton did write to the Queen on several occasions , and he is reported to have met Emperor Pedro II of Brazil . Rumors also circulated that Norton was supremely wealthy — only affecting poverty because he was miserly .
A number of decrees that were probably fraudulent were submitted and duly printed in local newspapers , and it is believed that in at least a few cases , newspaper editors themselves drafted fictitious edicts to suit their own agendas . The San Francisco Museum and Historical Society maintains a list of the decrees believed to be genuine .
On the evening of January 8 , 1880 , Norton collapsed on the corner of California Street and Dupont Street ( now Grant Avenue ) in front of Old St. Mary 's Church while on his way to a lecture at the California Academy of Sciences . His collapse was immediately noticed and " the police officer on the beat hastened for a carriage to convey him to the City Receiving Hospital . " Norton died before a carriage could arrive . The following day the San Francisco Chronicle published his obituary on its front page under the headline " Le Roi est Mort " ( " The King is Dead " ) . In a tone tinged with sadness , the article respectfully reported that , " [ o ] n the reeking pavement , in the darkness of a moon @-@ less night under the dripping rain ... , Norton I , by the grace of God , Emperor of the United States and Protector of Mexico , departed this life " . The Morning Call , another leading San Francisco newspaper , published a front @-@ page article using an almost identical sentence as a headline : " Norton the First , by the grace of God Emperor of these United States and Protector of Mexico , departed this life . "
It quickly became evident that , contrary to the rumors , Norton had died in complete poverty . Five or six dollars in small change had been found on his person , and a search of his room at the boarding house on Commercial Street turned up a single gold sovereign , then worth around $ 2 @.@ 50 ; his collection of walking sticks ; his rather battered saber ; a variety of headgear ( including a stovepipe , a derby , a red @-@ laced Army cap , and another cap suited to a martial band @-@ master ) ; an 1828 French franc ; and a handful of the Imperial bonds he sold to tourists at a fictitious 7 % interest . There were fake telegrams purporting to be from Emperor Alexander II of Russia , congratulating Norton on his forthcoming marriage to Queen Victoria , and from the President of France , predicting that such a union would be disastrous to world peace . Also found were his letters to Queen Victoria and 98 shares of stock in a defunct gold mine .
Initial funeral arrangements were for a pauper 's coffin of simple redwood . However , members of the Pacific Club , a San Francisco businessman 's association , established a funeral fund that provided for a handsome rosewood casket and arranged a suitably dignified farewell . Norton 's funeral on Sunday , January 10 , was solemn , mournful , and large . Paying their respects were members of " ... all classes from capitalists to the pauper , the clergyman to the pickpocket , well @-@ dressed ladies and those whose garb and bearing hinted of the social outcast . " Some accounts say as many as 10 @,@ 000 people lined the streets , and that the funeral cortège was two miles ( 3 km ) long . San Francisco 's total population at the time was 230 @,@ 000 . Norton was buried in the Masonic Cemetery , at the expense of the City of San Francisco .
In 1934 , Emperor Norton 's remains were transferred , as were all graves in the city , to a grave site of moderate splendor at Woodlawn Cemetery , in Colma . The grave is marked by a large stone inscribed " Norton I , Emperor of the United States and Protector of Mexico " .
= = Legacy = =
Although details of his life story may have been forgotten , Emperor Norton was immortalized in literature . Mark Twain , who resided in San Francisco during part of Emperor Norton 's public life , modeled the character of the King in Adventures of Huckleberry Finn on Joshua Norton .
Robert Louis Stevenson made Norton a character in his 1892 novel , The Wrecker . Stevenson 's stepdaughter , Isobel Osbourne , mentioned Norton in her autobiography , This Life I 've Loved . She said that Norton " was a gentle and kindly man , and fortunately found himself in the friendliest and most sentimental city in the world , the idea being ' let him be emperor if he wants to . ' San Francisco played the game with him . "
Since 1974 , there has been an annual memorial service at his grave in Colma , just outside San Francisco .
In January 1980 , ceremonies were conducted in San Francisco to honor the 100th anniversary of the death of " the one and only Emperor of the United States . "
The Emperor 's Bridge Campaign , a San Francisco @-@ based nonprofit launched in September 2013 , works to honor the life and advance the legacy of Emperor Norton .
He is considered a patron saint of Discordianism .
= = = Efforts to rename the San Francisco @-@ Oakland Bay Bridge = = =
In 1939 , the group E Clampus Vitus commissioned and dedicated a plaque commemorating Emperor Norton 's call for the construction of a suspension bridge between San Francisco and Oakland , via Yerba Buena Island ( formerly Goat Island ) . The group 's intention was that the plaque be placed on the newly opened San Francisco @-@ Oakland Bay Bridge itself . This was not approved by the bridge authorities , however ; and , sometime shortly after World War II , the plaque was installed at the Cliff House . In the 1990s , the plaque was moved to the Transbay Terminal . When the Terminal was closed and demolished in 2010 , as part of the project to construct a new Transbay Transit Center , the plaque was placed in storage , where it remains .
There have been two recent campaigns to name all , or parts , of the Bay Bridge for Emperor Norton .
In November 2004 , after a campaign by San Francisco Chronicle cartoonist Phil Frank , then @-@ San Francisco District 3 Supervisor Aaron Peskin introduced a resolution to the San Francisco Board of Supervisors calling for the entire bridge to be named for Emperor Norton . On December 14 , 2004 , the Board approved a modified version of this resolution , calling for only " new additions " — i.e. , the new eastern span — to be named " The Emperor Norton Bridge " . Neither the City of Oakland nor Alameda County passed any similar resolution , so the effort went no further .
In June 2013 , eight members of the California Assembly , joined by two members of the California Senate , introduced a concurrent resolution to name the western span of the bridge for former California state Speaker and San Francisco Mayor Willie Brown . In response , there have been public efforts seeking to revive the earlier Emperor Norton effort . One effort , an online petition , was started in August 2013 and calls for the entire bridge to be named for Emperor Norton . This petition has received coverage from local media .
The Emperor 's Bridge Campaign is carrying forward the bridge @-@ naming effort . The Campaign is using the example of numerous California state @-@ owned bridges that have multiple names to call for an " Emperor Norton " name simply to be added as a second name for the Bay Bridge , rather than for the bridge to be renamed altogether . The organization is exploring the possibility of offering state ballot proposition to this effect in 2018 , the 200th anniversary of Emperor Norton 's birth .
= Banded houndshark =
The banded houndshark ( Triakis scyllium ) is a species of houndshark , in the family Triakidae , common in the northwestern Pacific Ocean from the southern Russian Far East to Taiwan . Found on or near the bottom , it favors shallow coastal habitats with sandy or vegetated bottoms , and also enters brackish water . This shark reaches 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) in length . It has a short , rounded snout and mostly narrow fins ; the pectoral fins are broad and triangular , and the trailing margin of the first dorsal fin is almost vertical . It is gray above and lighter below ; younger sharks have darker saddles and dots , which fade with age .
Nocturnal and largely solitary , the banded houndshark preys on benthic invertebrates and bony fishes . It is aplacental viviparous , with the developing embryos sustained by yolk . After mating during summer , females bear as many as 42 pups following a gestation period of 9 – 12 months . The banded houndshark poses no danger to humans and adapts well to captivity . It is caught as bycatch off Japan , Taiwan , and likely elsewhere in its range ; it may be eaten but is not as well @-@ regarded as related species . Because fishing does not appear to have diminished this shark 's population , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed it under Least Concern .
= = Taxonomy = =
The first scientific description of the banded houndshark was authored by German biologists Johannes Peter Müller and Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle , based on a dried specimen from Japan , in their 1838 – 41 Systematische Beschreibung der Plagiostomen . They gave it the specific epithet scyllium , derived from the Ancient Greek skylion ( " dogfish " ) , and placed it in the genus Triakis . Within the genus , it is placed in the subgenus Triakis along with the leopard shark ( T. ( Triakis ) semifasciata ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Native to the northwestern Pacific Ocean , the banded houndshark occurs from the southern Russian Far East to Taiwan , including Japan , Korea , and eastern China ; records from the Philippines are questionable . This common , benthic shark is found over continental and insular shelves , mostly close to shore but also to a depth of 150 m ( 490 ft ) . It frequents sandy flats and beds of seaweed and eelgrass ; additionally it is tolerant of brackish water and enters estuaries and bays .
= = Description = =
The banded houndshark is a moderately slender @-@ bodied species growing up to 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) long . The snout is short , broad , and rounded ; the widely separated nostrils are each preceded by a lobe of skin that does not reach the mouth . The horizontally oval eyes are placed high on the head ; they are equipped with rudimentary nictitating membranes ( protective third eyelids ) and have prominent ridges underneath . The mouth forms a short , wide arch and bears long furrows at the corners that extend onto both jaws . Each tooth has an upright to oblique knife @-@ like central cusp flanked by strong cusplets . There are five pairs of gill slits .
Most of the fins are fairly narrow ; in adults the pectoral fins are broad and roughly triangular . The moderately tall first dorsal fin is placed about halfway between the pectoral and pelvic fins , and its trailing margin is nearly vertical near the apex . The second dorsal fin is about three @-@ quarters as high as the first and larger than the anal fin . The caudal fin has a well @-@ developed lower lobe and a prominent ventral notch near the tip of the upper lobe ; in young sharks the lower caudal fin lobe is much less distinct . This species is gray above , with darker saddles and scattered black spots that fade with age ; the underside is off @-@ white .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The banded houndshark is nocturnal and generally solitary , though several individuals may rest together , sometimes piled atop one another inside a cave . It feeds mainly on crustaceans ( including shrimps , crabs , hermit crabs , and mantis shrimps ) , cephalopods ( including octopus ) , and spoon worms ; polychaete worms , tunicates , peanut worms , and small , bottom @-@ living bony fishes ( including flatfishes , conger eels , herring , jacks , drums , and grunts ) are occasionally consumed . Shrimp and spoon worms are important prey for sharks up to 70 cm ( 28 in ) long ; cephalopods predominate in the diets of larger sharks .
Mating occurs during the summer , and involves the male swimming parallel to the female and gripping her pectoral fin with his teeth ; thus secured , he then twists the aft portion of his body to insert a single clasper into her cloaca for copulation . The banded houndshark is aplacental viviparous , in which the developing embryos are sustained to birth by yolk . Females bear litters of 9 – 26 pups after a gestation period of 9 – 12 months , though litters as large as 42 pups have been recorded . The newborns measure 18 – 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 – 7 @.@ 9 in ) long . Males mature sexually at 5 – 6 years old , when they are 93 – 106 cm ( 37 – 42 in ) long , and live up to 15 years . Females mature sexually at 6 – 7 years old , when they are 106 – 107 cm ( 42 – 42 in ) long , and live up to 18 years . Known parasites of this species include the tapeworms Callitetrarhynchus gracilis , Onchobothrium triacis , and Phyllobothrium serratum , the leech Stibarobdella macrothela , and the copepods Achtheinus impenderus , Caligus punctatus , Kroyeria triakos , and Pseudopandarus scyllii .
= = Human interactions = =
Harmless to humans , the banded houndshark is commonly displayed in public aquariums in China and Japan , and has reproduced in captivity . Individuals have survived in captivity for over five years . This species is often caught incidentally off Japan in gillnets and set nets ; the meat is sometimes sold , but is considered to be of poorer quality than that of other houndsharks in the region . It is caught in lesser numbers off Taiwan , and is probably also fished off Korea and northern China . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed the banded houndshark under Least Concern , as it remains abundant throughout its range . Off Japan , it can be found in rocky areas that provide refuge from fishing pressure .
= Morchella importuna =
Morchella importuna is a species of fungus in the family Morchellaceae described from North America in 2012 . It occurs in gardens , woodchip beds , and other urban settings of northern California and the Pacific Northwest region of the United States and Canada . The fungus has also been reported from Turkey , Spain , France , Switzerland , Canada and China , although it is unknown whether this is a result of accidental introductions . It is considered a choice edible mushroom . The fruit bodies develop a distinctive ladder @-@ like pattern of pits and ridges on the surface of their conical caps .
= = Taxonomy = =
Officially described in 2012 , Morchella importuna was one of 14 new North American species that resulted from the Morel Data Collection Project . The type locality was in King County , Washington . It was previously identified as phylogenetic species Mel @-@ 10 in a 2011 publication , and erroneously as the " Classic North American Black Morel " in 2005 , where it was lumped together with Morchella angusticeps , and what has since been described as M. brunnea . The specific epithet importuna , which means " inconsiderate " or " assertive " , refers to the morel 's habit of causing " consternation and distress among gardeners and homeowners whose territory has been invaded " .
As argued in a recent study by Richard et al. however , the name Morchella importuna is probably a later synonym of an old European taxon , such as Morchella elata , Morchella vaporaria or Morchella hortensis .
= = Description = =
The fruit bodies of M. importuna are 6 – 20 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 7 @.@ 9 in ) high . The cap is 3 – 15 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) high and measures 2 – 9 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 3 @.@ 5 in ) wide at its widest point . It is conical to widely conical or occasionally egg @-@ shaped . Its surface has pits and ridges , with 12 – 20 primary vertical ridges and numerous transecting horizontal ridges , creating a laddered appearance . The cap is attached to stipe with a sinus about 2 – 5 mm both deep and wide . The ridges are smooth or finely velvety and colored pale to dark gray when young , becoming dark grayish brown to nearly black in age . They are bluntly rounded when young , but later become sharpened or eroded . Pits are vertically elongated in all stages of development . They have a smooth or finely velvety texture . The pits open and deepen with development , progressing from gray to dark gray when immature to grayish brown , grayish olive or brownish yellow at maturity . The stipe measures 3 – 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) high and 2 – 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) wide , and is often somewhat thicker near the base . Its whitish to pale brownish surface is smooth or finely mealy with whitish granules . It develops longitudinal ridges and grooves ( particularly near the base ) as the fruit body matures . The flesh is whitish to watery tan , measuring 1 – 3 mm thick in the hollow cap ; in the stipe , this tissue is sometimes arranged as chambers or layers . The sterile inner surface of the cap is whitish and pubescent ( covered with short soft " hair " ) .
The ascospores are elliptical , smooth , and measure 18 – 24 by 10 – 13 µm . The cylindrical , hyaline ( translucent ) , asci are eight @-@ spored , measuring 220 – 300 by 12 – 25 µm . Paraphyses are septate , measuring 150 – 250 by 7 – 15 µm . They are cylindrical with variably shaped tips : rounded to roughly club @-@ shaped , pointy , or fuse @-@ shaped . Elements on the sterile ridges are septate and measure 25 – 300 by 10 – 30 µm . Terminal cells are cylindrical with a rounded tip that is variably shaped similar to the paraphyses . Both the paraphyses and the terminal cells are hyaline or brownish in dilute ( 2 % ) potassium hydroxide .
As a member of the Morchella elata group of black morels , M. importuna is sought after as a choice edible mushroom . Raw morels are poisonous and should always be cooked .
= = = Similar species = = =
The rare Pacific Northwest morel Morchella hotsonii , known only from its type collection , is quite similar in appearance to M. importuna . The former species is distinguished by its finely velvety surface .
= = Habitat , distribution , and ecology = =
A saprobic fungus , Morchella importuna fruit bodies grow in wood chips , gardens , and planters in urban areas . Kuo suggests that it has mycorrhizal tendencies when grown in an environment with trees . Known primarily from northern California and the Pacific Northwest region of the United States , it has been reported from British Columbia ( Canada ) , California , Washington , Nevada , and Oregon , although there have been a few isolated reports of the morel from the Midwestern United States and from eastern North America . Fruiting occurs in the spring , from March until May . Identified as phylogenetic species " Mel @-@ 10 " , Morchella importuna has also been found in Turkey and China , but it remains unclear whether dispersal between these distant locations occurred naturally or through accidental introduction by humans .
= Birth control =
Birth control , also known as contraception and fertility control , is a method or device used to prevent pregnancy . Planning , making available , and use of birth control is called family planning . Birth control methods have been used since ancient times , but effective and safe methods only became available in the 20th century . Some cultures limit or discourage access to birth control because they consider it to be morally , religiously , or politically undesirable .
The most effective methods of birth control are sterilization by means of vasectomy in males and tubal ligation in females , intrauterine devices ( IUDs ) , and implantable birth control . This is followed by a number of hormone based methods including oral pills , patches , vaginal rings , and injections . Less effective methods include physical barriers such as condoms , diaphragms and birth control sponges and fertility awareness methods . The least effective methods are spermicides and withdrawal by the male before ejaculation . Sterilization , while highly effective , is not usually reversible ; all other methods are reversible , most immediately upon stopping them . Safe sex practices , such as with the use of male or female condoms , can also help prevent sexually transmitted infections . Other methods of birth control do not protect against sexually transmitted diseases . Emergency birth control can prevent pregnancy if taken within the 72 to 120 hours after unprotected sex . Some argue not having sex as a form of birth control , but abstinence @-@ only sex education may increase teenage pregnancies if offered without birth control education , due to non @-@ compliance .
In teenagers , pregnancies are at greater risk of poor outcomes . Comprehensive sex education and access to birth control decreases the rate of unwanted pregnancies in this age group . While all forms of birth control can generally be used by young people , long @-@ acting reversible birth control such as implants , IUDs , or vaginal rings are more successful in reducing rates of teenage pregnancy . After the delivery of a child , a woman who is not exclusively breastfeeding may become pregnant again after as few as four to six weeks . Some methods of birth control can be started immediately following the birth , while others require a delay of up to six months . In women who are breastfeeding , progestin @-@ only methods are preferred over combined oral birth control pills . In women who have reached menopause , it is recommended that birth control be continued for one year after the last period .
About 222 million women who want to avoid pregnancy in developing countries are not using a modern birth control method . Birth control use in developing countries has decreased the number of deaths during or around the time of pregnancy by 40 % ( about 270 @,@ 000 deaths prevented in 2008 ) and could prevent 70 % if the full demand for birth control were met . By lengthening the time between pregnancies , birth control can improve adult women 's delivery outcomes and the survival of their children . In the developing world women 's earnings , assets , weight , and their children 's schooling and health all improve with greater access to birth control . Birth control increases economic growth because of fewer dependent children , more women participating in the workforce , and less use of scarce resources .
= = Methods = =
Birth control methods include barrier methods , hormonal birth control , intrauterine devices ( IUDs ) , sterilization , and behavioral methods . They are used before or during sex while emergency contraceptives are effective for up to a few days after sex . Effectiveness is generally expressed as the percentage of women who become pregnant using a given method during the first year , and sometimes as a lifetime failure rate among methods with high effectiveness , such as tubal ligation .
The most effective methods are those that are long acting and do not require ongoing health care visits . Surgical sterilization , implantable hormones , and intrauterine devices all have first @-@ year failure rates of less than 1 % . Hormonal contraceptive pills , patches or vaginal rings , and the lactational amenorrhea method ( LAM ) , if used strictly , can also have first @-@ year ( or for LAM , first @-@ 6 @-@ month ) failure rates of less than 1 % . With typical use first @-@ year failure rates are considerably high , at 9 % , due to incorrect usage . Other methods such as condoms , diaphragms , and spermicides have higher first @-@ year failure rates even with perfect usage . The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends long acting reversible birth control as first line for young people .
While all methods of birth control have some potential adverse effects , the risk is less than that of pregnancy . After stopping or removing many methods of birth control , including oral contraceptives , IUDs , implants and injections , the rate of pregnancy during the subsequent year is the same as for those who used no birth control .
In those with specific health problems , certain forms of birth control may require further investigations . For women who are otherwise healthy , many methods of birth control should not require a medical exam — including birth control pills , injectable or implantable birth control , and condoms . Specifically , a pelvic exam , breast exam , or blood test before starting birth control pills do not appear to affect outcomes and , therefore , are not required . In 2009 , the World Health Organization ( WHO ) published a detailed list of medical eligibility criteria for each type of birth control .
= = = Hormonal = = =
Hormonal contraception is available in a number of different forms , including oral pills , implants under the skin , injections , patches , IUDs and a vaginal ring . They are currently available only for women , although hormonal contraceptives for men have and are being clinically tested . There are two types of oral birth control pills , the combined oral contraceptive pills ( which contain both estrogen and progesterone ) and the progestogen @-@ only pills ( sometimes called minipills ) . If either is taken during pregnancy , they do not increase the risk of miscarriage nor cause birth defects . Both types of birth control pills prevent fertilization mainly by inhibiting ovulation and thickening cervical mucous . Their effectiveness depends on the user remembering to take the pills . They may also change the lining of the uterus and thus decrease implantation .
Combined hormonal contraceptives are associated with a slightly increased risk of venous and arterial blood clots . Venous clots , on average , increase from 2 @.@ 8 to 9 @.@ 8 per 10 @,@ 000 women years which is still less than that associated with pregnancy . Due to this risk , they are not recommended in women over 35 years of age who continue to smoke . The effect on sexual desire is varied , with increase or decrease in some but with no effect in most . Combined oral contraceptives reduce the risk of ovarian cancer and endometrial cancer and do not change the risk of breast cancer . They often reduce menstrual bleeding and painful menstruation cramps . The lower doses of estrogen released from the vaginal ring may reduce the risk of breast tenderness , nausea , and headache associated with higher dose estrogen products .
Progestin @-@ only pills , injections and intrauterine devices are not associated with an increased risk of blood clots and may be used by women with previous blood clots in their veins . In those with a history of arterial blood clots , non @-@ hormonal birth control or a progestin @-@ only method other than the injectable version should be used . Progestin @-@ only pills may improve menstrual symptoms and can be used by breastfeeding women as they do not affect milk production . Irregular bleeding may occur with progestin @-@ only methods , with some users reporting no periods . The progestins drospirenone and desogestrel minimize the androgenic side effects but increase the risks of blood clots and are thus not first line . The perfect use first @-@ year failure rate of the injectable progestin , Depo @-@ Provera , is 0 @.@ 2 % ; the typical use first failure rate is 6 % .
= = = Barrier = = =
Barrier contraceptives are devices that attempt to prevent pregnancy by physically preventing sperm from entering the uterus . They include male condoms , female condoms , cervical caps , diaphragms , and contraceptive sponges with spermicide .
Globally , condoms are the most common method of birth control . Male condoms are put on a man 's erect penis and physically block ejaculated sperm from entering the body of a sexual partner . Modern condoms are most often made from latex , but some are made from other materials such as polyurethane , or lamb 's intestine . Female condoms are also available , most often made of nitrile , latex or polyurethane . Male condoms have the advantage of being inexpensive , easy to use , and have few adverse effects . Making condoms available to teenagers does not appear to affect the age of onset of sexual activity or its frequency . In Japan about 80 % of couples who are using birth control use condoms , while in Germany this number is about 25 % , and in the United States it is 18 % .
Male condoms and the diaphragm with spermicide have typical use first @-@ year failure rates of 18 % and 12 % , respectively . With perfect use condoms are more effective with a 2 % first @-@ year failure rate versus a 6 % first @-@ year rate with the diaphragm . Condoms have the additional benefit of helping to prevent the spread of some sexually transmitted infections such as HIV / AIDS .
Contraceptive sponges combine a barrier with a spermicide . Like diaphragms , they are inserted vaginally before intercourse and must be placed over the cervix to be effective . Typical failure rates during the first year depend on whether or not a woman has previously given birth , being 24 % in those who have and 12 % in those who have not . The sponge can be inserted up to 24 hours before intercourse and must be left in place for at least six hours afterward . Allergic reactions and more severe adverse effects such as toxic shock syndrome have been reported .
= = = Intrauterine devices = = =
The current intrauterine devices ( IUD ) are small devices , often ' T ' -shaped , often containing either copper or levonorgestrel , which are inserted into the uterus . They are one form of long @-@ acting reversible contraception which are the most effective types of reversible birth control . Failure rates with the copper IUD is about 0 @.@ 8 % while the levonorgestrel IUD has a failure rates of 0 @.@ 2 % in the first year of use . Among types of birth control , they along with birth control implants result in the greatest satisfaction among users . As of 2007 , IUDs are the most widely used form of reversible contraception , with more than 180 million users worldwide .
Evidence supports effectiveness and safety in adolescents and those who have and have not previously had children . IUDs do not affect breastfeeding and can be inserted immediately after delivery . They may also be used immediately after an abortion . Once removed , even after long term use , fertility returns to normal immediately .
While copper IUDs may increase menstrual bleeding and result in more painful cramps hormonal IUDs may reduce menstrual bleeding or stop menstruation altogether . Cramping can be treated with NSAIDs . Other potential complications include expulsion ( 2 – 5 % ) and rarely perforation of the uterus ( less than 0 @.@ 7 % ) . A previous model of the intrauterine device ( the Dalkon shield ) was associated with an increased risk of pelvic inflammatory disease , however the risk is not affected with current models in those without sexually transmitted infections around the time of insertion .
= = = Sterilization = = =
Surgical sterilization is available in the form of tubal ligation for women and vasectomy for men . There are no significant long @-@ term side effects , and tubal ligation decreases the risk of ovarian cancer . Short term complications are twenty times less likely from a vasectomy than a tubal ligation . After a vasectomy , there may be swelling and pain of the scrotum which usually resolves in a week or two . With tubal ligation , complications occur in 1 to 2 percent of procedures with serious complications usually due to the anesthesia . Neither method offers protection from sexually transmitted infections .
This decision may cause regret in some men and women . Of women aged over 30 who have undergone tubal ligation , about 5 % regret their decision , as compared with 20 % of women aged under 30 . By contrast , less than 5 % of men are likely to regret sterilization . Men more likely to regret sterilization are younger , have young or no children , or have an unstable marriage . In a survey of biological parents , 9 % stated they would not have had children if they were able to do it over again .
Although sterilization is considered a permanent procedure , it is possible to attempt a tubal reversal to reconnect the fallopian tubes or a vasectomy reversal to reconnect the vasa deferentia . In women the desire for a reversal is often associated with a change in spouse . Pregnancy success rates after tubal reversal are between 31 and 88 percent , with complications including an increased risk of ectopic pregnancy . The number of males who request reversal is between 2 and 6 percent . Rates of success in fathering another child after reversal are between 38 and 84 percent ; with success being lower the longer the time period between the original procedure and the reversal . Sperm extraction followed by in vitro fertilization may also be an option in men .
= = = Behavioral = = =
Behavioral methods involve regulating the timing or method of intercourse to prevent introduction
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blocking the main access stairway from the Great Plaza . Structure 5D @-@ 28 was built very late in the Early Classic period ( around the 6th century ) .
= = = Terrace = = =
A trio of small Early Classic temples ( Temples 29 to 31 ) stand upon a common platform at the east end of the terrace , facing west . It is likely that the platform was purposely built to support the three temples that were built more @-@ or @-@ less simultaneously . Neither the platform nor the temples have been investigated ; it is therefore possible that an early version of the central temple ( Temple 30 ) was built first , then decommissioned with the platform being built to cover the early version , followed by the construction of a new version plus the two additional flanking temples .
Temple 29 ( Structure 5D @-@ 29 ) is located at the east end of the terrace of the North Acropolis , facing west . Stela 40 was excavated at its base in 1996 . Temple 29 is one of a trio of similar structures , with Temples 30 and 31 . Temple 29 has not been excavated ; the corbel vaulting and roof has collapsed to fill the three chambers of the superstructure with rubble . Of the trio of temples , Temple 29 is the only one to display traces of red paint . The basal platform of the temple stands 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 ft ) high and the superstructure walls measure 2 @.@ 3 metres ( 7 @.@ 5 ft ) high . The building is believed to date to the Early Classic period ( c . AD 250 – 600 ) .
Temple 30 ( Structure 5D @-@ 30 ) is at the east end of the terrace of the North Acropolis ; it is one of a trio of similar structures . The roof and vaulting has collapsed , filling the three summit chambers with rubble . Temple 30 is estimated to date from the Early Classic ( c . AD 250 – 600 ) , based upon a stylistic comparison with other structures at Tikal . As with the other temples of the trio , the basal platform of the temple stands 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 ft ) high and the superstructure walls measure 2 @.@ 3 metres ( 7 @.@ 5 ft ) high .
Temple 31 ( Structure 5D @-@ 31 ) is one of a trio of similar structures at the east end of the terrace , together with Temples 29 and 30 . As with the other two temples of the trio , the summit superstructure had three chambers ; these have been buried under the rubble resulting from the collapse of the vaulting and roof . The temple is believed to date to the Early Classic ( c . AD 250 – 600 ) . The height of the temple is identical to those of the other temples in the trio , with a basal platform measuring 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 ft ) high and superstructure walls standing 2 @.@ 3 metres ( 7 @.@ 5 ft ) high .
Temple 32 ( Structure 5D @-@ 32 ) stands immediately to the east of Temple 33 . It was partially investigated in the mid @-@ 1960s and dates to the first half of the 7th century AD . The temple shrine contained three large chambers , which were looted soon after the abandonment of the city in the 10th century . Archaeologists discovered a tomb cut into the bedrock under the pyramid , which contained a royal burial ( Burial 195 ) . The pyramid was built over the tomb soon after the king 's burial and consisted of a single construction phase .
Temple 33 ( Structure 5D @-@ 33 ) was the 33 @-@ metre @-@ high ( 108 ft ) funerary pyramid of 5th @-@ century king Siyaj Chan K 'awiil II . It was centrally situated between Temples 32 and 34 , in the front row of structures facing onto the Great Plaza ; it is one of the most thoroughly explored temples in the entire Maya area . Over the course of two centuries the temple underwent three construction phases ; the final phase of development took place during the Tikal Hiatus , which lasted from AD 562 to 692 . The last construction phase of Temple 33 served as a prototype for Temple I on the Great Plaza . This final version of Temple 33 was controversially dismantled by archaeologists in 1965 in order to arrive at the earlier stages of construction .
Temple 34 ( Structure 5D @-@ 34 ) was the first pyramid to be built along the front terrace of the North Acropolis ; it dates to the Early Classic period . The pyramid was built by Siyaj Chan K 'awiil II over the tomb of his father , Yax Nuun Ayiin I. It was topped by a three chambered shrine with the rooms situated one behind the other . Archaeologists cut a trench across Temple 34 in 1959 and discovered the tomb cut into the bedrock underneath , with two previous versions of the temple built over it . Stela 26 originally stood at the foot of this temple but was broken , probably at the beginning of the Late Classic period , and dragged up the temple steps to be places under a masonry altar within the summit shrine . The shrine was looted in the Postclassic period and the altar was broken at this time . Ceremonial fires for the burning of inanimate sacrifices were lit directly above Yax Nuun Ayiin 's tomb well into the Late Classic period and may be indicative of continued ancestor worship centuries after the king 's death .
Temple 35 ( Structure 5D @-@ 35 ) was a tall Late Classic temple backing against the southwest corner of the basal platform . It is the westernmost of the row of pyramids facing south onto the Great Plaza ; it has not been explored by archaeologists and is considered to be one of two likely locations for the tomb of 7th @-@ century king Nuun Ujol Chaak .
= = Monuments = =
A great many stelae were erected in the North Acropolis ; by the 9th century AD there were a total of 43 stelae and 30 altars . Eighteen of these monuments were sculpted with hieroglyphic texts and royal portraits .
Stela 4 was erected by king Yax Nuun Ayiin I to celebrate the k 'atun @-@ ending of AD 396 . It is one of two stelae from Yax Nuun Ayiin I 's reign and was re @-@ erected at the base of his funerary pyramid , Temple 34 . The stela displays a mix of Maya and Teotihuacan qualities , and deities from both cultures . It has a portrait of the king with the Underworld Jaguar God under one arm and the Mexican Tlaloc under the other . His helmet is a simplified version of the Teotihuacan War Serpent . Unusually for Maya sculpture , but typically for Teotihuacan , Yax Nuun Ayiin is depicted with a frontal face , rather than in profile .
Stela 18 was one of two stelae erected by Yax Nuun Ayiin I to celebrate the k 'atun @-@ ending of AD 396 . It was re @-@ erected at the base of Temple 34 , his funerary shrine .
Stela 26 was found in the summit shrine of Temple 34 , underneath a broken masonry altar . The monument had originally been erected at the base of the temple during the Early Classic period and was later broken , probably at the beginning of the Late Classic . Its remains were then interred within the temple shrine .
Stela 31 is the upper portion of a monument that was broken and interred above the tomb of Siyaj Chan K 'awiil II in Temple 33 . It was dedicated in AD 445 and bears images of Siyaj Chan K 'awiil II and his father Yax Nuun Ayiin I , who is depicted as a Teotihuacano warrior on the sides of the monument . The back of the stela is sculpted with a long hieroglyphic text legitimising Siyaj Chan K 'awiil II 's dynasty .
Stela 40 was found at the base of Temple 29 . It has been dated to AD 468 and depicts 5th @-@ century king K 'an Chitam . He is holding up a Teotihuacan @-@ style headdress in one hand . The sides of the monument are sculpted with depictions of his father , Siyaj Chan K 'awill II , and his mother , Lady Ayiin . A lengthy hieroglyphic text on the back details his birth in 415 , his promotion to a junior rank in 434 and his accession to the throne in 458 , as well as a brief description of his father 's reign .
Altar 19 was buried in the fill of the final version of Temple 33 , immediately in front of the second version of the summit shrine . It was badly damaged and was broken into several pieces , and the majority of a sculpture depicting a seated person was chipped away . The three fragments were buried together in a way that paired the altar with the buried Stela 31 ; this may have maintained a relationship between the monuments that existed when they were originally on public display . The altar was crafted from limestone and is now in the site museum at Tikal . It has been dated to approximately AD 445 .
= = Burials = =
Burial 10 was the tomb of late 4th @-@ century king Yax Nuun Ayiin I. The tomb consists of a large chamber carved out of the bedrock beneath Temple 34 . The remains of the king were interred upon a wooden bier and he was accompanied by nine human sacrifices and a headless caiman . The tomb contained a large quantity of grave goods , including an impressive array of ceramic vessels , many decorated with Teotihuacan @-@ linked imagery . One ceramic drinking vessel bore the writing " the drinking vessel of the son of Spearthrower Owl " . Five turtle shells of assorted sizes , some still attached to a rack , were the remains of a musical instrument similar to a marimba . A small jade ornament was also found , sculpted into the form of a caiman 's head with a curled snout . The skull of the king was dyed red . The association of caimans with the king 's remains related to an element of the king 's name ; ayiin means " crocodile " and the animal may have been the king 's way ( spirit companion ) .
Burial 23 was a royal tomb inserted by destroying the second version of the access stairway of Temple 33 . The individual interred within the tomb has not been identified but the tomb is one of two proposed locations for the burial of the late 7th @-@ century king Nuun Ujol Chaak . The tomb was cut into the bedrock under the temple , to the south of the burial of Siyaj Chan K 'awiil II . The king appears to have been hastily interred in a tomb that was still being prepared while the burial took place , since plaster from the walls was splashed on some of the grave goods and a flint pick was accidentally left behind by a workman . The body of the king was laid upon a litter painted with cinnabar and overlain with jaguar @-@ pelts ; the corpse was laid out on the pelts and covered in layers of marine shells .
Burial 24 was an elite status burial inserted into the rubble core of Temple 33 during the final phase of the pyramid 's construction . The tomb contained painted ceramic dishes that appear to name Nuun Ujol Chaak 's father and grandfather , who both preceded him as rulers of the city .
Burial 48 was carved from the bedrock under the terrace , upon the central north @-@ south axis of the North Acopolis directly under Temple 33 ; it has been identified as the tomb of king Siyaj Chan K 'awiil II . The remains of the king were flanked those of two juvenile human sacrifices ; one of these was a child and one was an adolescent . The walls of the tomb were coated in stucco , onto which were painted hieroglyphs indicating that the tomb was sealed in March 457 , a year after the king had died . The king was interred bundled in a seated position and his remains lacked the skull , hands , and femurs . Grave goods included 27 ceramic vessels of mixed of local and imported origin , stone and shell artefacts including a well @-@ used stone metate and accompanying handstone , a large quantity of jade artefacts , including jade discs and hundreds of beads that once formed a semicircular collar , two pairs of earspools and a great many more beads in small groups that did not form a part of the collar . Two obsidian blades also accompanied the burial .
Burial 85 dates to the 1st century AD , in the Late Preclassic , and was enclosed by a platform , with a primitive corbel vault . It was the first royal burial that characterised the shift in ceremonial focus from the Mundo Perdido complex to the North Acropolis . The tomb was centrally located upon the north @-@ south axis of the North Acropolis , under what would later become Temple 26 , and contained a single male skeleton , which lacked a skull and its thighbones . The dynastic founder of Tikal , Yax Ehb ' Xook , has been linked to this tomb , which lies deep in the heart of the North Acropolis . The deceased had probably died in battle with his body being mutilated by his enemies before being recovered and interred by his followers . The bones were wrapped carefully in textiles to form an upright bundle . The missing head was replaced by a small greenstone mask with shell @-@ inlaid teeth and eyes and bearing a three @-@ pointed royal headband . This head wears an emblem of rulership on its forehead and is a rare Preclassic lowland Maya portrait of a king . Among the contents of the tomb were a stingray spine , a spondylus shell and twenty @-@ six ceramic vessels .
Burial 125 is another tomb that has been tentatively identified as that of dynastic founder Yax Ehb ' Xook . It has been dated to around 90 AD . A cache was interred 6 metres ( 20 ft ) to the east that may contain the grave goods associated with this burial , since the remains themselves had no directly associated artefacts . The cache contained high status ceramics and jade , shell and bone artefacts . The interment of this burial established a new central axis for the acropolis that was used as a point of reference for most of the royal burials up to the 8th century AD .
Burial 195 was a corbel @-@ vaulted chamber cut into the bedrock under Temple 32 . It was the tomb of the ruler nicknamed " Animal Skull " by archaeologists , who ruled from the end of the 6th century AD through to at least 628 . The remains of the king had been wrapped in cloth that had been dyed red . The tomb was flooded soon after it was sealed , leaving a thick layer of mud that dried to preserve the hollow forms of the king 's burial offerings long after the wooden artefacts had rotted away . Archaeologists filled these hollows with plaster of Paris and were thus able to reconstruct many of the perishable items from the tomb , including four large carved panels depicting the king , a small throne decorated with hieroglyphs , a ballgame yoke and four stucco figurines of the deity K 'awiil .
Burial 200 was the 6th @-@ century tomb of king Wak Chan K 'awiil . It was a masonry tomb contained within Temple 22 .
= Martin Bucer =
Martin Bucer ( early German : Martin Butzer ) ( 11 November 1491 – 28 February 1551 ) was a German Protestant reformer based in Strasbourg who influenced Lutheran , Calvinist , and Anglican doctrines and practices . Bucer was originally a member of the Dominican Order , but after meeting and being influenced by Martin Luther in 1518 he arranged for his monastic vows to be annulled . He then began to work for the Reformation , with the support of Franz von Sickingen .
Bucer 's efforts to reform the church in Wissembourg resulted in his excommunication from the Roman Catholic Church , and he was forced to flee to Strasbourg . There he joined a team of reformers which included Matthew Zell , Wolfgang Capito , and Caspar Hedio . He acted as a mediator between the two leading reformers , Martin Luther and Huldrych Zwingli , who differed on the doctrine of the eucharist . Later , Bucer sought agreement on common articles of faith such as the Tetrapolitan Confession and the Wittenberg Concord , working closely with Philipp Melanchthon on the latter .
Bucer believed that the Catholics in the Holy Roman Empire could be convinced to join the Reformation . Through a series of conferences organised by Charles V , he tried to unite Protestants and Catholics to create a German national church separate from Rome . He did not achieve this , as political events led to the Schmalkaldic War and the retreat of Protestantism within the Empire . In 1548 , Bucer was persuaded , under duress , to sign the Augsburg Interim , which imposed certain forms of Catholic worship . However , he continued to promote reforms until the city of Strasbourg accepted the Interim , and forced him to leave .
In 1549 , Bucer was exiled to England , where , under the guidance of Thomas Cranmer , he was able to influence the second revision of the Book of Common Prayer . He died in Cambridge , England , at the age of 59 . Although his ministry did not lead to the formation of a new denomination , many Protestant denominations have claimed him as one of their own . He is remembered as an early pioneer of ecumenism .
= = Historical context = =
In the 16th century , the Holy Roman Empire was a centralised state in name only . The Empire was divided into many princely and city states that provided a powerful check on the rule of the Holy Roman Emperor . The division of power between the emperor and the various states made the Reformation in Germany possible , as individual states defended reformers within their territories . In the Electorate of Saxony , Martin Luther was supported by the elector Frederick III and his successors John and John Frederick . Philip I , Landgrave of Hesse — whose lands lay midway between Saxony and the Rhine — also supported the Reformation , and he figured prominently in the lives of both Luther and Bucer . The Emperor Charles V had to balance the demands of his imperial subjects . At the same time , he was often distracted by war with France and the Ottoman Empire and in Italy . The political rivalry among all the players greatly influenced the ecclesiastical developments within the Empire .
In addition to the princely states , free imperial cities , nominally under the control of the Emperor but really ruled by councils that acted like sovereign governments , were scattered throughout the Empire . As the Reformation took root , clashes broke out in many cities between local reformers and conservative city magistrates . It was in a free imperial city , Strasbourg , that Martin Bucer began his work . Located on the western frontier of the Empire , Strasbourg was closely allied with the Swiss cities that had thrown off the imperial yoke . Some had adopted a reformed religion distinct from Lutheranism , in which humanist social concepts and the communal ethic played a greater role . Along with a group of free imperial cities in the south and west of the German lands , Strasbourg followed this pattern of Reformation . It was ruled by a complex local government largely under the control of a few powerful families and wealthy guildsmen . In Bucer 's time , social unrest was growing as lower @-@ level artisans resented their social immobility and the widening income gap . The citizens may not have planned revolution , but they were receptive to new ideas that might transform their lives .
= = Early years ( 1491 – 1523 ) = =
Martin Bucer was born in Sélestat ( Schlettstadt ) , Alsace , a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire . His father and grandfather , both named Claus Butzer , were coopers ( barrelmakers ) by trade . Almost nothing is known about Bucer 's mother . Bucer likely attended Sélestat 's prestigious Latin school , where artisans sent their children . He completed his studies in the summer of 1507 and joined the Dominican Order as a novice . Bucer later claimed his grandfather had forced him into the order . After a year , he was consecrated as an acolyte in the Strasbourg church of the Williamites , and he took his vows as a full Dominican friar . In 1510 , he was consecrated as a deacon .
By 1515 , Bucer was studying theology in the Dominican monastery in Heidelberg . The following year , he took a course in dogmatics in Mainz , where he was ordained a priest , returning to Heidelberg in January 1517 to enroll in the university . Around this time , he became influenced by humanism , and he started buying books published by Johannes Froben , some by the great humanist Erasmus . A 1518 inventory of Bucer 's books includes the major works of Thomas Aquinas , leader of medieval scholasticism in the Dominican order .
In April 1518 , Johannes von Staupitz , the vicar @-@ general of the Augustinians , invited the Wittenberg reformer Martin Luther to argue his theology at the Heidelberg Disputation . Here Bucer met Luther for the first time . In a long letter to his mentor , Beatus Rhenanus , Bucer recounted what he learned , and he commented on several of Luther 's Ninety @-@ Five Theses . He largely agreed with them and perceived the ideas of Luther and Erasmus to be in concordance . Because meeting Luther posed certain risks , he asked Rhenanus to ensure his letter did not fall into the wrong hands . He also wrote his will , which contains the inventory of his books . In early 1519 , Bucer received the baccalaureus degree , and that summer he stated his theological views in a disputation before the faculty at Heidelberg , revealing his break with Aquinas and scholasticism .
The events that caused Bucer to leave the Dominican Order arose from his embrace of new ideas and his growing contact with other humanists and reformers . A fellow Dominican , Jacob van Hoogstraaten , the Grand Inquisitor of Cologne , tried to prosecute Johann Reuchlin , a humanist scholar . Other humanists , including the nobles Ulrich von Hutten and Imperial Knight Franz von Sickingen , took Reuchlin 's side . Hoogstraten was thwarted , but he now planned to target Bucer . On 11 November 1520 , Bucer told the reformer Wolfgang Capito in a letter that Hoogstraaten was threatening to make an example of him as a follower of Luther . To escape Dominican jurisdiction , Bucer needed to be freed of his monastic vows . Capito and others were able to expedite the annulment of his vows , and on 29 April 1521 he was formally released from the Dominican order .
For the next two years , Bucer was protected by Sickingen and Hutten . He also worked for a time at the court of Ludwig V , Elector Palatine , as chaplain to Ludwig 's younger brother Frederick . Sickingen was a senior figure at Ludwig 's court . This appointment enabled Bucer to live in Nuremberg , the most powerful city of the Empire , whose governing officials were strongly reformist . There he met many people who shared his viewpoint , including the humanist Willibald Pirckheimer and the future Nuremberg reformer Andreas Osiander . In September 1521 , Bucer accepted Sickingen 's offer of the position of pastor at Landstuhl , where Sickingen had a castle , and Bucer moved to the town in May 1522 . In summer 1522 , he met and married Elisabeth Silbereisen , a former nun .
Sickingen also offered to pay for Bucer to study in Wittenberg . On his way , Bucer stopped in the town of Wissembourg , whose leading reformer , Heinrich Motherer , asked him to become his chaplain . Bucer agreed to interrupt his journey and went to work immediately , preaching daily sermons in which he attacked traditional church practices and monastic orders . On the basis of his belief that the Bible was the sole source for knowledge to attain salvation ( sola scriptura ) , he preached that the mass should not be considered as the recrucifying of Christ , but rather the reception of God 's gift of salvation through Christ . He accused the monks of creating additional rules above what is contained in the Bible . He summarised his convictions in six theses , and called for a public disputation . His opponents , the local Franciscans and Dominicans , ignored him , but his sermons incited the townspeople to threaten the town 's monasteries . The bishop of Speyer reacted by excommunicating Bucer , and although the town council continued to support him , events beyond Wissembourg left Bucer in danger . His leading benefactor , Franz von Sickingen , was defeated and killed during the Knights ' Revolt , and Ulrich von Hutten became a fugitive . The Wissembourg council urged Bucer and Motherer to leave , and on 13 May 1523 they fled to nearby Strasbourg .
= = Reformer in Strasbourg ( 1523 – 1525 ) = =
Bucer , excommunicated and without means of subsistence , was in a precarious situation when he arrived in Strasbourg . He was not a citizen of the city , a status that afforded protection , and on 9 June 1523 he wrote an urgent letter to the Zürich reformer , Huldrych Zwingli , pleading for a safe post in Switzerland . Fortunately for Bucer , the Strasbourg council was under the influence of the reformer , Matthew Zell ; during Bucer 's first few months in the city he worked as Zell 's unofficial chaplain and was able to give classes on books of the Bible . The largest guild in Strasbourg , the Gärtner or Gardeners , appointed him as the pastor of St Aurelia 's Church on 24 August 1523 . A month later the council accepted his application for citizenship .
In Strasbourg , Bucer joined a team of notable reformers : Zell , who took the role of the preacher to the masses ; Wolfgang Capito , the most influential theologian in the city ; and Caspar Hedio , the cathedral preacher . One of Bucer 's first actions in the cause of reform was to debate with Thomas Murner , a monk who had attacked Luther in satires . While the city council vacillated on religious issues , the number of people supporting the Reformation and hostile towards the traditional clergy had grown .
The hostility reached a boiling point when Conrad Treger , the prior provincial of the Augustinians , denounced the reformist preachers and the burghers of Strasbourg as heretics . On 5 September 1524 , angry mobs broke into the monasteries , looting and destroying religious images . Many opponents of the Reformation were arrested , including Treger . After the council requested an official statement from the reformers , Bucer drafted twelve articles summarising the teachings of the Reformation , including justification by faith ( sola fide ) . He rejected the mass and Catholic concepts such as monastic vows , veneration of saints , and purgatory . He refused to recognise the authority of the pope and instead emphasised obedience to the government . Treger was released on 12 October and left Strasbourg . With his departure , overt opposition to the Reformation ended in the city .
The reformers ' first goal was the creation of a new order of service — at this time the Strasbourg reformers followed Zwingli 's liturgy . They presented proposals for a common order of service for the entire Reformation movement to the theologians of Wittenberg and Zürich . In Bucer 's booklet Grund und Ursach ( Basis and Cause ) , published in December 1524 , he attacked the idea of the mass as a sacrifice , and rejected liturgical garments , the altar , and any form of ritual . By May 1525 , reforms had been implemented in Strasbourg 's parish churches , but the city council decided to allow masses to continue in the cathedral and in the collegiate churches St. Thomas , Young St Peter , and Old St Peter .
= = Dialogue with Luther and Zwingli ( 1524 – 1530 ) = =
Beginning in 1524 , Bucer concentrated on the main issue dividing leading reformers , the eucharist . In this dispute , he attempted to mediate between Martin Luther and Huldrych Zwingli . The two theologians disagreed on whether the body and blood of Christ were physically present within the elements of bread and wine during the celebration of the Lord 's Supper . Luther believed in a corporeal or physical real presence of Christ ; and Zwingli believed Christ 's body and blood where made present by the Holy Spirit . By late 1524 , Bucer had abandoned the idea of corporeal real presence and , after some exegetical studies , accepted Zwingli 's interpretation . However , he did not believe the Reformation depended on either position but on faith in Christ , other matters being secondary . In this respect he differed from Zwingli .
In March 1526 , Bucer published Apologia , defending his views . He proposed a formula that he hoped would satisfy both sides : different understandings of scripture were acceptable , and church unity was assured so long as both sides had a " child @-@ like faith in God " . Bucer stated that his and Zwingli 's interpretation on the eucharist was the correct one , but while he considered the Wittenberg theologians to be in error , he accepted them as brethren as they agreed on the fundamentals of faith . He also published two translations of works by Luther and Johannes Bugenhagen , interpolating his own interpretation of the Lord 's Supper into the text . This outraged the Wittenberg theologians and damaged their relations with Bucer . In 1528 , when Luther published Vom Abendmahl Christi , Bekenntnis [ Confession Concerning Christ 's Supper ] ( in German ) , detailing Luther 's concept of the sacramental union , Bucer responded with a treatise of his own , Vergleichnung D. Luthers , und seins gegentheyls , vom Abendmal Christi [ Conciliation between Dr. Luther and His Opponents Regarding Christ 's Supper ] ( in German ) . It took the form of a dialogue between two merchants , one from Nuremberg who supported Luther and the other from Strasbourg who supported Bucer , with the latter winning over his opponent . Bucer noted that as Luther had rejected impanation , the idea that Christ was " made into bread " , there was no disagreement between Luther and Zwingli ; both believed in a spiritual presence of Christ in the eucharist . Luther harshly rejected Bucer 's interpretation .
During this time , Bucer and Zwingli remained in close touch , discussing other aspects of theology and practice such as the use of religious images and the liturgy . Bucer did not hesitate to disagree with Zwingli on occasion , although unity between Strasbourg and the Swiss churches took priority over such differences . In 1527 , Bucer and Capito attended a disputation in Bern to decide whether the city should accept reformed doctrines and practices . Bucer provided strong support for Zwingli 's leading role in the disputation , which finally brought the Reformation to Bern .
The last meeting between Zwingli and Luther was at the Marburg Colloquy of October 1529 , organised by Philip of Hesse and attended by various leading reformers , including Bucer . Luther and Zwingli agreed on 13 of the 14 topics discussed , but Zwingli did not accept the doctrine of the real presence , on which Luther would not compromise . After the discussion broke down between the two , Bucer tried to salvage the situation , but Luther noted , " It is obvious that we do not have one and the same spirit . " The meeting ended in failure . The following year , Bucer wrote of his disappointment at doctrinal inflexibility :
If you immediately condemn anyone who doesn 't quite believe the same as you do as forsaken by Christ 's Spirit , and consider anyone to be the enemy of truth who holds something false to be true , who , pray tell , can you still consider a brother ? I for one have never met two people who believed exactly the same thing . This holds true in theology as well .
= = Competing Protestant confessions ( 1530 – 1533 ) = =
The extent of the theological division among the reformers became evident when the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V asked them to present their views to him in 1530 at the Diet of Augsburg . Philipp Melanchthon , the main delegate from Wittenberg , quickly prepared the draft that eventually became the Augsburg Confession . The Wittenberg theologians rejected attempts by Strasbourg to adopt it without the article on the Lord 's Supper . In response , Bucer wrote a new confession , the Confessio Tetrapolitana ( Tetrapolitan Confession ) , so named because only four cities adopted it , Strasbourg and three other southern German cities , Konstanz , Memmingen , and Lindau . A copy of Melanchthon 's draft was used as the starting point and the only major change was the wording on the article on the eucharist . According to Eells , the article on the eucharist in the Tetrapolitan Confession stated , " In this sacrament his true body and true blood are truly given to eat and drink , as food for their souls , and to eternal life , that they may remain in him and he in them " . The ambiguous word " truly " was not defined .
Charles , however , decreed on 22 September that all reformers must reconcile with the Catholic faith , or he would use military force to suppress them . This prompted Melanchthon to call a meeting with Bucer and after lengthy discussions they agreed on nine theses , which they sent to Luther and to Strasbourg . The Strasbourg magistrates forwarded them to Basel and Zürich . Bucer met Luther in Coburg on 26 – 28 September . Luther still rejected Bucer 's theses , but he encouraged him to continue the search for unity . Bucer then travelled to several southern German cities , including Ulm , Isny , Konstanz , Memmingen , and Lindau , and to the Swiss cities of Basel and Zürich . In Zurich on 12 October , he presented the articles to Zwingli , who neither opposed him nor agreed with him .
In February 1531 , the evangelical princes and cities of the empire set up the Protestant Schmalkaldic League to defend the reformed religion . Strasbourg 's Jakob Sturm negotiated the city 's inclusion on the basis of the Tetrapolitan Confession . By this time , Bucer 's relationship with Zwingli was deteriorating . Strasbourg 's political ties with the Elector of Saxony , and Bucer 's partial theological support of Luther , became too much for Zwingli , and on 21 February 1531 , he wrote to Bucer ending their friendship . When representatives of the southern German cities convened in Ulm on 23 – 24 March 1532 to discuss their alliance with the Schmalkaldic League , Bucer advised them to sign the Augsburg Confession , if they were being pressured to do so . For Bucer to recommend the rival confession over his own version surprised the Swiss cities . Luther continued his polemical attacks on Bucer , but Bucer was unperturbed : " In any case , we must seek unity and love in our relationships with everyone , " he wrote , " regardless of how they behave toward us . " In April and May 1533 , he again toured the southern German cities and Swiss cities . The latter remained unconvinced and did not join the Protestant alliance .
= = Organising the Strasbourg church ( 1529 – 1534 ) = =
While these events unfolded , the reformers in Strasbourg were slowly making progress . Their pressure on the council to ban all masses finally succeeded . On 20 February 1529 , Strasbourg openly joined the Reformation when the practice of the mass was officially suspended . In its place , two preaching services ( Predigtgottesdienste ) per Sunday were held in all the parish churches . On 5 January 1530 , when Strasbourg joined the alliance of Swiss cities , the Christliches Burgrecht [ Christian Federation ] ( in German ) , the council systematically removed images and side altars from the churches . Bucer had at first tolerated images in places of worship as long as they were not venerated . He later came to believe they should be removed because of their potential for abuse , and he advocated in a treatise for their orderly removal . First the authority of the magistrates should be obtained , and then the people instructed on abandoning devotion to images .
Bucer 's priority in Strasbourg was to instil moral discipline in the church . To this end , special wardens ( Kirchenpfleger ) , chosen from among the laity , were assigned to each congregation to supervise both doctrine and practice . His concerns were motivated by the effects of a rapidly rising refugee population , attracted by Strasbourg 's tolerant asylum policies . Influxes of refugees , particularly after 1528 , had brought a series of revolutionary preachers into Strasbourg . These men were inspired by a variety of apocalyptic and mystical doctrines , and in some cases by hostility towards the social order and the notion of an official church . Significant numbers of refugees were Anabaptists and spiritualists , such as the followers of Melchior Hoffman , Caspar Schwenckfeld , and Clemens Ziegler . Bucer personally took responsibility for attacking these and other popular preachers to minimise their influence and secure their expulsion and that of their followers . On 30 November 1532 , the pastors and wardens of the church petitioned the council to enforce ethical standards , officially sanction the reformed faith , and refute the " sectarian " doctrines . The ruling authorities , who had allowed sectarian congregations to thrive among the refugees and lower orders , would only expel the obvious troublemakers . Bucer insisted that the council urgently take control of all Christian worship in the city for the common good .
In response to the petition , the council set up a commission that proposed a city synod . For this gathering , Bucer provided a draft document of sixteen articles on church doctrine . The synod convened on 3 June 1533 at the Church of the Penitent Magdalens to debate Bucer 's text , eventually accepting it in full . Sectarian leaders were brought before the synod and questioned by Bucer . Ziegler was dismissed and allowed to stay in Strasbourg ; Hoffmann was imprisoned as a danger to the state ; and Schwenckfeld left Strasbourg of his own accord .
Following the synod , the city council dragged its heels for several months . The synod commission , which included Bucer and Capito , decided to take the initiative and produced a draft ordinance for the regulation of the church . It proposed that the council assume almost complete control of the church , with responsibility for supervising doctrine , appointing church wardens , and maintaining moral standards . Still the council delayed , driving the pastors to the brink of resignation . Only when Hoffman 's followers seized power in Münster , in the Münster Rebellion , did the council act , fearing a similar incident in Strasbourg . On 4 March 1534 , the council announced that Bucer 's Tetrapolitan Confession and his sixteen articles on church doctrine were now official church statements of faith . All Anabaptists should either subscribe to these documents or leave the city . The decision established a new church in Strasbourg , with Capito declaring , " Bucer is the bishop of our church . "
= = Champion of Protestant unity ( 1534 – 1538 ) = =
By 1534 , Bucer was a key figure in the German Reformation . He repeatedly led initiatives to secure doctrinal agreement between Wittenberg , the south German cities , and Switzerland . In December 1534 , Bucer and Melanchthon held productive talks in Kassel , and Bucer then drafted ten theses that the Wittenberg theologians accepted . In October 1535 , Luther suggested a meeting in Eisenach to conclude a full agreement among the Protestant factions . Bucer persuaded the south Germans to attend , but the Swiss , led by Zwingli 's successor Heinrich Bullinger , were skeptical of his intentions . Instead they met in Basel on 1 February 1536 to draft their own confession of faith . Bucer and Capito attended and urged the Swiss to adopt a compromise wording on the eucharist that would not offend the Lutherans . The true presence of Christ was acknowledged while a natural or local union between Christ and the elements was denied . The result was the First Helvetic Confession , the success of which raised Bucer 's hopes for the upcoming meeting with Luther .
The meeting , moved to Wittenberg because Luther was ill , began on 21 May 1536 . To the surprise of the south Germans , Luther began by attacking them , demanding that they recant their false understanding of the eucharist . Capito intervened to calm matters , and Bucer claimed that Luther had misunderstood their views on the issue . The Lutherans insisted that unbelievers who partake of the eucharist truly receive the body and blood of Christ . Bucer and the south Germans believed that they receive only the elements of the bread and the wine . Johannes Bugenhagen formulated a compromise , approved by Luther , that distinguished between the unworthy ( indigni ) and the unbelievers ( impii ) . The south Germans accepted that the unworthy receive Christ , and the question of what unbelievers receive was left unanswered . The two sides then worked fruitfully on other issues and on 28 May signed the Wittenberg Concord . Strasbourg quickly endorsed the document , but much coaxing from Bucer was required before he managed to convince all the south German cities . The Swiss cities were resistant , Zürich in particular . They rejected even a mild statement suggesting a union of Christ with the elements of the eucharist . Bucer advised the Swiss to hold a national synod to decide on the matter , hoping he could at least persuade Bern and Basel . The synod met in Zürich from 28 May to 4 April 1538 , but Bucer failed to win over a single city . The Swiss never accepted or rejected the Wittenberg Concord .
Bucer 's influence on the Swiss was eventually felt indirectly . In summer 1538 , he invited John Calvin , the future reformer of Geneva , to lead a French refugee congregation in Strasbourg . Bucer and Calvin had much in common theologically and maintained a long friendship . The extent to which Bucer influenced Calvin is an open question among modern scholars , but many of the reforms that Calvin later implemented in Geneva , including the liturgy and the church organisation , were originally developed in Strasbourg .
= = Advice to Philip of Hesse ( 1538 – 1539 ) = =
When Philip of Hesse 's law on the protection of the Jews in his territory expired in 1538 , he commissioned Bucer to create a new policy . Philip gave him a draft that was tolerant in the regulation of their affairs . Bucer rejected the favourable conditions and recommended that Jews be prohibited from all trades except those providing minimum subsistence . His Judenratschlag also included his first use of negative stereotypes of the Jews . Philip 's ordinance of 1539 represented a compromise . He allowed the Jews to engage in trade and commerce but included strict rules on their association with Christians . The potential for an arbitrary enforcement of the new policy was frightening , and as a result many Jews chose to leave Hesse . For this Bucer must share part of the blame .
In November 1539 , Philip asked Bucer to produce a theological defence of bigamy , since he had decided to contract a bigamous marriage . Bucer reluctantly agreed , on condition the marriage be kept secret . Bucer consulted Luther and Melanchthon , and the three reformers presented Philip with a statement of advice ( Wittenberger Ratschlag ) ; later , Bucer produced his own arguments for and against bigamy . Although the document specified that bigamy could be sanctioned only under rare conditions , Philip took it as approval for his marriage to a lady @-@ in @-@ waiting of his sister . When rumours of the marriage spread , Luther told Philip to deny it , while Bucer advised him to hide his second wife and conceal the truth . Some scholars have noted a possible motivation for this notorious advice : the theologians believed they had advised Philip as a pastor would his parishioner , and that a lie was justified to guard the privacy of their confessional counsel . The scandal that followed the marriage caused Philip to lose political influence , and the Reformation within the Empire was severely compromised .
= = Doctrinal issues ( 1539 – 1542 ) = =
At the end of 1538 , shortly before the Catholic Duke Georg of Saxony died , a religious colloquy was convened in Leipzig to discuss potential reforms within the Duchy . The Electorate of Saxony sent Melanchthon , and Philip of Hesse sent Bucer . The Duchy itself was represented by Georg Witzel , a former Lutheran who had reconverted to Catholicism . In discussions from 2 to 7 January 1539 , Bucer and Witzel agreed to defer controversial points of doctrine , but Melanchthon withdrew , feeling that doctrinal unity was a prerequisite of a reform plan . Bucer and Witzel agreed on fifteen articles covering various issues of church life . Bucer , however , made no doctrinal concessions : he remained silent on critical matters such as the mass and the papacy . His ecumenical approach provoked harsh criticism from other reformers .
In the Truce of Frankfurt of 1539 , Charles and the leaders of the Schmalkaldic League agreed on a major colloquy to settle all religious issues within the Empire . Bucer placed great hopes on this meeting : he believed it would be possible to convince most German Catholics to accept the doctrine of sola fide as the basis for discussions on all other issues . Under various pseudonyms , he published tracts promoting a German national church . A conference in Haguenau began on 12 June 1540 , but during a month 's discussion the two sides failed to agree on a common starting point . They decided to reconvene in Worms . Melanchthon led the Protestants , with Bucer a major influence behind the scenes . When the colloquy again made no progress , the imperial chancellor , Nicholas Perrenot de Granvelle , called for secret negotiations . Bucer then began working with Johannes Gropper , a delegate of the archbishop of Cologne , Hermann von Wied . Aware of the risks of such apparent collusion , he was determined to forge unity among the German churches . The two agreed on twenty @-@ three articles in which Bucer conceded some issues toward the Catholic position . These included justification , the sacraments , and the organisation of the church . Four disputed issues were left undecided : veneration of the saints , private masses , auricular confession , and transubstantiation . The results were published in the " Worms Book " , which they confidentially presented to a prince on each side of the religious divide : Philip of Hesse and Joachim II , Elector of Brandenburg .
The Worms Book laid the groundwork for final negotiations at the Diet of Regensburg in 1541 . Charles created a small committee , consisting of Johannes Eck , Gropper , and Julius Pflug on the Catholic side and Melanchthon , Bucer , and Johann Pistorius on the Protestant side . The basis for discussion was the " Regensburg Book " — essentially the Worms Book with modifications by the papal legate , Gasparo Contarini , and other Catholic theologians . The two sides made a promising start , reaching agreement over the issue of justification by faith . But they could not agree on the teaching authority of the Church , the Protestants insisting it was the Bible , the Catholics the magisterium — in other words , the pope and his bishops . Into the article on the mass and the Lord 's Supper , Contarini had inserted the concept of transubstantiation , which was also unacceptable to the Protestants . As a result , the colloquy became deadlocked . To salvage some of the agreements reached , Charles and Granvelle had the Regensburg Book reprinted with additional articles in which the Protestants were allowed to present their views . However , Luther in Wittenberg and the papal court in Rome had by this time seen the book , and they both publicly rejected the article on justification by faith . The failure of the conference was a major setback for Bucer .
After Bucer 's return from Regensburg , the city of Strasbourg was struck by the plague . First , Bucer 's friend and colleague Wolfgang Capito succumbed to the disease ; then Bucer 's wife Elisabeth died on 16 November 1541 . How many children Elisabeth had borne is unknown ; several died during child @-@ birth or at a young age . One son , Nathanael , although mentally and physically handicapped , survived to adulthood and remained with the Bucer family throughout his life . During Elisabeth 's final hours , she urged Bucer to marry Capito 's widow , Wibrandis Rosenblatt , after her death . He married Rosenblatt on 16 April 1542 , as her fourth husband — she had outlived Ludwig Keller , Johannes Oecolampadius , and Wolfgang Capito . She brought with her four children from her previous marriages . The new couple produced a daughter , whom they named Elisabeth .
= = Reform in the Electorate of Cologne ( 1542 – 1547 ) = =
On 5 February 1542 , Bucer and Gropper met with Hermann von Wied , archbishop @-@ elector of Cologne , to discuss the introduction of church reform in his archdiocese . As one of the seven electors of the Holy Roman Empire , the archbishop of Cologne was a key political figure for both the emperor and the reformers . After consulting the territorial diet , the archbishop enlisted Bucer to lead the reform , and on 14 December Bucer moved to Bonn , the capital of the electorate . His selection caused consternation in the Cologne cathedral chapter , the clerics assisting the archbishop . The hostility of the clergy soon caused a rift between Bucer and Gropper . On 19 December , the chapter lodged a formal protest against Bucer 's appointment , but von Wied supported his new protégé and Bucer was allowed to stay . He led a small congregation at Bonn cathedral , where he preached three times a week , although his main responsibility was to plan reform .
In January 1543 , Bucer began work on a major document for von Wied , Einfältiges Bedenken , worauf eine christliche , im Worte Gottes gegründete Reformation ... anzurichten sei [ Simple Consideration Concerning the Establishment of a Christian Reformation Founded upon God 's Word ] ( in German ) . Melanchthon joined him in Bonn in May , and Caspar Hedio a month later , to help draft the document . At the beginning of July , Bucer discussed the draft with the archbishop , who , after studying it , submitted the document to the territorial diet on 23 July . Although the cathedral chapter flatly rejected it , the diet ruled in favour of the reform programme . The final document was over three hundred pages and covered a number of subjects on doctrine , church law , and liturgy . Some of the principles proposed include justification by faith , the acceptance of baptism and the Lord 's Supper as the only valid sacraments , the offering of the cup to the laity , the holding of worship services in the vernacular , and the authorisation of priests to marry .
These first steps toward reform were halted on 17 August 1543 when Charles V and his troops entered Bonn . The emperor was engaged in a harsh campaign to assert his claim over lands contested by Wilhelm , Duke of Jülich @-@ Cleves @-@ Berg . Bucer was forced to return to Strasbourg shortly afterwards . When the anti @-@ reformist Cologne cathedral chapter and the University of Cologne appealed to both emperor and pope for protection against their archbishop , Charles took their side . Bucer wrote several treatises defending von Wied 's reformation plan , including a six @-@ hundred @-@ page book , Beständige Verantwortung ( Steadfast Defence ) , but he was unable to influence the course of events . Von Wied was excommunicated on 16 April 1546 , and he formally surrendered his electoral titles on 25 February 1547 . Bucer 's congregation in Bonn wrote to him in dismay at this disaster . Bucer reassured them that Christians who humble themselves before God eventually receive his protection .
= = Rejecting the Augsburg Interim ( 1547 – 1549 ) = =
With the onset of the Schmalkaldic War in 1546 , Protestants began a gradual retreat within the Empire . On 21 March 1547 , Strasbourg surrendered to the imperial army , and the following month the decisive imperial victory at the Battle of Mühlberg ended most Protestant resistance . In Strasbourg , Bucer and his colleagues , including Matthew Zell , Paul Fagius and Johannes Marbach , continued to press the council to bring more discipline and independence to the church . Charles V overruled their efforts at the Diet of Augsburg , which sat from September 1547 to May 1548 . The Diet produced an imperial decree , the provisional Augsburg Interim , which imposed Catholic rites and ceremonies throughout the Empire , with a few concessions to the Reformation . To make the document acceptable to the Protestants , Charles needed a leading figure among the reformers to endorse it , and he selected Bucer .
Bucer arrived in Augsburg on 30 March 1548 of his own volition . On 2 April , after he was shown the document , he announced his willingness to ratify it if certain changes were made ; but the time for negotiations had passed , and Charles insisted on his signature . When he refused , he was placed under house arrest on 13 April , and shortly afterwards in close confinement . On 20 April , he signed the Interim and was immediately freed .
Despite this capitulation , Bucer continued to fight . On his return to Strasbourg , he stepped up his attacks on Catholic rites and ceremonies , and on 2 July published the Ein Summarischer vergriff der Christlichen Lehre und Religion [ Concise Summary of Christian Doctrine and Religion ] ( in German ) , a confessional statement calling on Strasbourg to repent and to defend reformed principles outlined in twenty @-@ nine articles . Charles ordered all copies destroyed . Tension grew in Strasbourg , as Bucer 's opponents feared he was leading the city to disaster . Many Strasbourg merchants left to avoid a potential clash with imperial forces . On 30 August , the guild officials voted overwhelmingly to begin negotiations to introduce the Interim . Bucer stood firm ; even after the city of Konstanz surrendered and accepted the Interim , he called for Strasbourg to reject it unconditionally . In January 1549 , with plans underway for the implementation of the Interim in Strasbourg , Bucer and his colleagues continued to attack it , producing a memorandum on how to preserve the Protestant faith under its directives . With no significant support left , Bucer and Fagius were finally relieved of their positions and dismissed on 1 March 1549 . Bucer left Strasbourg on 5 April a refugee , as he had arrived twenty @-@ five years earlier .
= = Exile in England ( 1549 – 1551 ) = =
Bucer received several offers of sanctuary , including Melanchthon 's from Wittenberg and Calvin 's from Geneva . He accepted Archbishop Thomas Cranmer 's invitation to come to England ; from his correspondence with several notable Englishmen , he believed that the English Reformation had advanced with some success . On 25 April 1549 Bucer , Fagius , and others arrived in London , where Cranmer received them with full honours . A few days later , Bucer and Fagius were introduced to Edward VI and his court . Bucer 's wife Wibrandis and his stepdaughter Agnes Capito ( daughter of Wolfgang Capito ) joined him in September . The following year , Wibrandis arranged for the rest of her children and her elderly mother to come to England .
Bucer took the position of Regius Professor of Divinity at the University of Cambridge . In June he entered a controversy when Peter Martyr , another refugee who had taken the equivalent Regius Professor position at Oxford University , debated with Catholic colleagues over the issue of the Lord 's Supper . Martyr asked Bucer for his support , but Bucer did not totally agree with Martyr 's position and thought that exposure of differences would not assist the cause of reform . Unwilling to see the eucharist conflict repeat itself in England , he told Martyr he did not take sides , Catholic , Lutheran , or Zwinglian . He said , " We must aspire with the utmost zeal to edify as many people as we possibly can in faith and in the love of Christ — and to offend no one . "
In 1550 , another conflict arose when John Hooper , the new bishop of Gloucester , refused to don the traditional clothes for his consecration . The vestments controversy pitted Cranmer , who supported the wearing of clerical garments , against Hooper , Martyr and Jan Laski , the pastor of the Stranger church in London . As it was known that Bucer had reformed the church services in Strasbourg to emulate the simplicity of the early church , Hooper expected Bucer 's support . However , Bucer tried to stay out of the fray , arguing that there were more important issues to deal with — lack of pastors and pastoral care , the need for catechismal instruction , and the implementation of church discipline . Hooper refused to be swayed , and was imprisoned in the Tower of London until he accepted Cranmer 's demand .
Bucer had ambitious goals in diffusing the Reformation throughout England . He was disappointed , therefore , when those in power failed to consult him in bringing about change . On learning about the custom of presenting a memorandum to the king every new year , he worked on a major treatise which he gave as a draft to his friend John Cheke on 21 October 1550 . The De Regno Christi [ On the Kingdom of Christ ] was the culmination of Bucer 's many years of experience , a summary of his thought and theology that he described as his legacy . In it he urged Edward VI to take control of the English Reformation , and proposed that Parliament introduce fourteen laws of reform , covering both ecclesiastical and civil matters . In his view the Reformation was not only concerned with the church , but in all areas of life . Noting the difficult social conditions in England , he promoted the role of deacons to care for the poor and needy . He described marriage as a social contract rather than a sacrament , hence he permitted divorce , a modern idea that was considered too advanced for its time . He advocated the restructuring of economic and administrative systems with suggestions for improving industry , agriculture , and education . His ideal society was distinctively authoritarian , with a strong emphasis on Christian discipline . The De Regno Christi was never to be the charter of the English Reformation that Bucer intended : it was finally printed not in England but in Basel , in 1557 .
Bucer 's last major contribution to the English Reformation was a treatise on the original 1549 edition of the Book of Common Prayer . Cranmer had requested his opinion on how the book should be revised , and Bucer submitted his response on 5 January 1551 . He called for the simplification of the liturgy , noting non @-@ essential elements : certain holidays in the liturgical calendar , actions of piety such as genuflections , and ceremonies such as private masses . He focused on the congregation and how the people would worship and be taught . How far Bucer 's critique influenced the 1552 second edition of the Prayer Book is unknown . Scholars agree that although Bucer 's impact on the Church of England should not be overestimated , he exercised his greatest influence on the revision of the Prayer Book .
= = Death and legacy = =
Bucer 's time in England was dogged by illnesses , including rheumatism , coughs , and intestinal ailments . Symptoms such as vomiting , shivering , and sweating suggest severe tuberculosis . In February 1551 , his health finally broke down , and on the 22nd he dictated an addition to his will . He named Walter Haddon and Matthew Parker as executors , commended his loved ones to Thomas Cranmer , and thanked his stepdaughter Agnes Capito for taking care of him . On 28 February , after encouraging those near him to do all they could to realise his vision as expressed in De Regno Christi , he died at the age of 59 . He was buried in the church of Great St Mary 's in Cambridge before a large crowd of university professors and students .
In a letter to Peter Martyr , John Cheke wrote a fitting eulogy :
We are deprived of a leader than whom the whole world would scarcely obtain a greater , whether in knowledge of true religion or in integrity and innocence of life , or in thirst for study of the most holy things , or in exhausting labour in advancing piety , or in authority and fulness of teaching , or in anything that is praiseworthy and renowned .
Bucer left his wife Wibrandis a significant inheritance consisting mainly of the household and his large collection of books . She eventually returned to Basel , where she died on 1 November 1564 at the age of 60 .
When Mary I came to the throne , she had Bucer and Fagius tried posthumously for heresy as part of her efforts to restore Catholicism in England . Their caskets were disinterred and their remains burned , along with copies of their books . On 22 July 1560 , Elizabeth I formally rehabilitated both reformers . A brass plaque on the floor of Great St Mary 's marks the original location of Bucer 's grave .
After Bucer 's death , his writings continued to be translated , reprinted , and disseminated throughout Europe . No " Buceran " denomination , however , emerged from his ministry , probably because he never developed a systematic theology as Melanchthon had for the Lutheran church and Calvin for the Reformed churches . Several groups , including Anglicans , Puritans , Lutherans , and Calvinists , claimed him as one of their own . The adaptability of his theology to each confessional point @-@ of @-@ view also led polemicists to criticise it as too accommodating . His theology could be best summarised as being practical and pastoral rather than theoretical . Bucer was not so concerned about staking a doctrinal claim per se , but rather he took a standpoint in order to discuss and to win over his opponents . At the same time his theological stand was grounded in the conditions of his time where he envisioned the ideal society to be one that was led by an enlightened , God @-@ centred government with all the people united under Christian fellowship . Martin Bucer is chiefly remembered for his promotion of doctrinal unity , or ecumenism , and his lifelong struggle to create an inclusive church .
= Chevrolet Volt =
The Chevrolet Volt is a plug @-@ in hybrid manufactured by General Motors , also marketed in rebadged variants as the Holden Volt in Australia and New Zealand , and with a different fascia as the Vauxhall Ampera in the United Kingdom and as the Opel Ampera in the remainder of Europe .
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= = Terminology = =
The Society of Automotive Engineers ' ( SAE ) definition of a hybrid vehicle states that the vehicle shall have " two or more energy storage systems both of which must provide propulsion power , either together or independently . " General Motors has avoided the use of the term " hybrid " when describing its Voltec designs , even after the carmaker revealed that in some cases the combustion engine provided some assist at high speeds or to improve performance . Instead General Motors describes the Volt as an electric vehicle equipped with a " range extending " gasoline powered internal combustion engine ( ICE ) as a genset and therefore dubbed the Volt an " Extended Range Electric Vehicle " or E @-@ REV . In a January 2011 interview , the Chevy Volt 's Global Chief Engineer , Pamela Fletcher , referred to the Volt as " an electric car with extended range . "
According to the Society of Automotive Engineers ( SAE ) definitions , the Volt is a plug @-@ in hybrid vehicle , due to the combination of an internal combustion engine and two electric motors , along with a battery that can accept off @-@ board energy . The Volt operates as a purely electric vehicle for the first 25 to 50 miles ( 40 to 80 km ) in charge @-@ depleting mode . When the battery capacity drops below a pre @-@ established threshold from full charge , the vehicle enters charge @-@ sustaining mode , and the Volt 's control system will select the most optimally efficient drive mode to improve performance and boost high @-@ speed efficiency .
= = History = =
= = = Concept vehicle = = =
The Chevrolet Volt concept car debuted at the January 2007 North American International Auto Show , becoming the first @-@ ever series plug @-@ in hybrid concept car shown by a major car manufacturer . The Volt concept vehicle had four doors with a rear liftgate and seating for four passengers . This was a significant change in design when compared to the General Motors EV1 of the 1990s , which only seated two to reduce weight and to make the necessary room for the lead @-@ acid battery pack . The top speed was also increased on the Volt , from the electronically limited 80 miles per hour ( 130 km / h ) to 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) . The battery pack size was reduced , from about 10 @.@ 6 cu ft ( 300 L ) in volume in the EV1 , to 3 @.@ 5 cu ft ( 100 L ) in the Volt .
General Motors ' then @-@ Vice @-@ Chairman Robert Lutz said the two @-@ seater sports car being developed by Tesla , the Tesla Roadster , and the rapid advancement of lithium @-@ ion battery technology inspired him to push the carmaker to develop the Volt after the 2006 Detroit Auto Show . Lutz 's initial idea was to develop an all @-@ electric car , but Jon Lauckner , General Motors Vice President for Global Vehicle Development , convinced him that to avoid an expensive battery , range anxiety concerns , and lack of public charging infrastructure , they could use a smaller battery pack with a small gasoline engine driving a generator acting as a backup to extend the range , but without a mechanical connection between the gasoline engine and the drive wheels , so it would be a pure electrically driven vehicle without many of the limitations General Motors learned from the EV1 experience .
Most of the Volt initial design parameters defined for the development of the concept car , then referred as the " iCar " in homage to the iPod , were kept throughout the process up to the final production version . A key design parameter was a target of 40 miles ( 64 km ) for the all @-@ electric range , selected to keep the battery size small and lower costs , and mainly because research showed that in the U.S. 78 percent of daily commuters travel 40 miles or less . This target range would allow most travel to be accomplished electrically driven and the assumption was made that charging will take place at home overnight . This requirement translated using a lithium @-@ ion battery pack with an energy storage capacity of 16 kWh considering that the battery would be used until the state of charge ( SOC ) of the battery reached 30 % . This limit to the SOC was necessary in order to maintain operational performance under a wide range of environments , and to minimize the battery degradation to allow at least a ten @-@ year life span . The initial target range for the gasoline engine / generator was set between 250 to 300 miles ( 400 to 480 km ) and the vehicle had to be family size for four or five passengers .
Another key design decision was to develop the concept car based on a new family of common powertrain components for electric propulsion , which initially was called the E @-@ Flex Systems , “ E ” stands for electric drive and “ Flex ” for the different sources of electricity , but later was renamed Voltec drive system . The E @-@ Flex or Voltec powertrain is an attempt to standardize many components of possible future electrically propelled vehicles , and to allow multiple interchangeable electricity @-@ generating systems . The E @-@ Flex powertrain has the potential to adapt the vehicles to pure battery electric , to fuel cell @-@ powered or to several other sources of energy to create electricity on board , such as engine @-@ generator sets ( genset ) fueled by gasoline , diesel , biodiesel , ethanol fuel ( E100 ) , or flex @-@ fuel ( E85 ) . Regenerative braking would also contribute to the on @-@ board electricity generation . On October 2006 the E @-@ flex powertrain was selected for the new propulsion architecture and the name Volt was chosen by General Motors .
The Volt concept car became the first application of the E @-@ Flex ( Voltec ) drive system with a combination of an electric motor , the same used in the Chevrolet Equinox Fuel Cell , a 16 kW · h ( 58 MJ ) lithium
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Oversight and Government Spending , U.S. Representative Jim Jordan held hearings on January 25 , 2012 , to investigate why the NHTSA opened a formal investigation only five months after the first postcrash battery fire occurred in June . The subcommittee of the House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform wanted to determine if government officials , including from NHTSA , purposely held back information on the Volt fire for political reasons . Both Daniel Akerson , General Motors CEO , and David L. Strickland , NHTSA administrator , denied any wrongdoing .
= = Reception = =
= = = Awards and recognition = = =
The Volt has received awards from multiple organizations :
U.S. organizations
2009 Green Car Vision Award by the Green Car Journal at the Washington Auto Show for " a bold and far @-@ reaching approach that promises to bring an exceptionally fuel efficient model to consumers at reasonable cost . "
2011 Car and Driver Ten Best Cars . For the first time ever Car and Driver magazine included an electrically powered car among its 10 best .
2011 Motor Trend Car of the Year . The magazine commented that " In the 61 @-@ year history of the Car of the Year award , there have been few contenders as hyped – or as controversial – as the Chevrolet Volt . "
2011 Green Car of the Year by Green Car Journal . The magazine editors explained that " This award welcomes a new genre of mass @-@ production electric vehicles to the consumer market , with the Volt as the first @-@ ever electric vehicle to take top prize . "
2011 Automobile of the Year by Automobile Magazine . The editors commented that the Volt " ... is genuinely an all @-@ new car , in the most simplistic sense as well as in the greater notion that the Volt is unlike any vehicle we have ever driven . "
2011 North American Car of the Year announced at the 2011 North American International Auto Show . Forty @-@ nine American and Canadian automobile writers chose the Volt . The nominees were judged based on " innovation , design , safety , handling , driver satisfaction and value " .
Listed among the 2011 Greenest Vehicles of the Year by the American Council for an Energy @-@ Efficient Economy .
Listed among the 2011 Best Green Cars by Mother Earth News .
2011 Edison Award - Gold in the Transportation Category , Personal Transportation Segment .
2012 Best Resale Value Award in the category of electric cars by Kelley Blue Book .
2011 The Volt ranked first in Consumer Reports ' list of owner @-@ satisfaction based on its 2011 Annual Auto Survey , with 93 % respondents who owned the Volt saying they definitely would purchase that same vehicle again . The magazine noted that the Volt had been on sale for just a few months at the time of the survey , and also clarified that the survey took place before the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration investigation regarding the Volt 's battery fire risk .
2012 Total Cost of Ownership Award in the electric car category , granted by Kelley Blue Book for the lowest projected costs during initial five @-@ year ownership period in its category .
2012 The Volt ranked first , for a second year in a row , in Consumer Reports ' list of owner @-@ satisfaction based on its 2012 Annual Auto Survey , with 92 % respondents who owned the Volt saying they definitely would purchase that same vehicle again .
2016 Green Car of the Year by Green Car Journal ( awarded to the second generation Volt ) . The Chevrolet Volt is the first model to receive this award more than once .
International organizations
2009 Festival Automobile International awarded the Grand Prize for Environment to the Volt .
2011 World Green Car announced at the 2011 New York Auto Show .
2012 International Engine of the Year Award in the category of Green Engine , shared by the Opel Ampera and the Chevrolet Volt for their 1 @.@ 4 L engine @-@ based extended @-@ range electric powertrain .
European organizations
2011 Overall Winner of What Car ? Green Awards , granted by the UK magazine to the Vauxhall Ampera .
2011 Top Gear 's " Green Car of the Year 2011 " to the Vauxhall Ampera .
2012 Car of the Year in Denmark . In October 2011 , 18 Danish motor journalists chose the Opel Ampera as " Car of the Year 2012 " by a wide margin , despite being more expensive than the family cars the award usually goes to .
2012 European Car of the Year , shared by the Chevrolet Volt and the Opel / Vauxhall . The Ampera / Volt became the first car developed in the U.S. to win this European award .
2013 Green Mobility Trophy . Readers of Auto Zeitung in Germany awarded the Opel Ampera the throphy and named the mid @-@ size sedan the best electric vehicle .
Rest of the world organizations
2012 Drive 's Green Innovation Award to the Holden Volt , as part of the Australia 's Drive Car of the Year Awards .
= = = Reviews and test drives = = =
The following tables summarize the results of long @-@ term tests reported by specialized media .
Notes :
1 . ^ The EPA run tests used a reproducible methodology to produce results that can be compared between vehicles and test sites . The remainder of the results were obtained using un @-@ controlled driving cycles and are comparable neither to each nor between different vehicles .
= A Passion for Churches =
A Passion for Churches is a 1974 BBC television documentary written and presented by the then Poet Laureate Sir John Betjeman and produced and directed by Edward Mirzoeff . Commissioned as a follow @-@ up to the critically acclaimed 1973 documentary Metro @-@ land , the film offers Betjeman 's personal poetic record of the goings @-@ on taking place throughout the Anglican Diocese of Norwich and its churches in the run @-@ up to Easter Sunday using the framing device of the Holy sacraments .
Created with the approval of the Bishop of Norwich , Maurice Wood , the 49 @-@ minute film was shot on location in Norfolk and parts of Suffolk throughout the spring of 1974 on 16 mm colour film by cameraman John McGlashan . For the film , John Betjeman wrote an original poetic commentary consisting of blank verse , free verse , and prose and he appeared on @-@ screen in several segments to describe features of ecclesiastical buildings and to reminisce about his lifelong " passion for churches " .
The programme was praised by critics upon its original BBC 2 screening in December 1974 and gained high audience appreciation figures . It has since been repeated on BBC Four in 2006 . It was released on a limited @-@ edition DVD in 2007 .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
Following the success of the 1973 film Metro @-@ land , which documented life in suburban London , Edward Mirzoeff was commissioned to create a new documentary with John Betjeman . Mirzoeff noticed that aside from suburban themes , the Church of England was the other major influence on Betjeman 's poetry . His proposal to the poet was for a study of the Church of England to be titled Failed in Divinity , a line derived from Betjeman 's poetic autobiography Summoned by Bells , in which the poet relates how was sent down from the University of Oxford after failing a compulsory examination on divinity . In Mirzoeff 's first treatment , Betjeman would have embarked on a journey around Britain studying fine cathedrals , churches and their congregations . Betjeman ruled against the title , but liked the idea , although he was keen that the film should be primarily about the Church and its people , and not himself .
Following this early proposal , Mirzoeff and Betjeman realised that a study of the whole Church would be too ambitious , and instead decided to set the film within one diocese . Betjeman initially suggested the Diocese of Southwark , owing to a friendship with the then @-@ Bishop of Southwark , Mervyn Stockwood . Mirzoeff was not keen , given that Southwark was primarily an urban diocese . A disastrous meeting with the bishop ( who was " high @-@ handed , arrogant and very , very rude " ) led to that idea being scrapped .
Film editor Ted Roberts suggested the Diocese of Norwich , as Norfolk is noted for the density of its medieval churches in a variety of urban , coastal and rural locations . In addition , Betjeman was close friends with Lady Wilhelmina " Billa " Harrod ( to whom he had once been engaged ) , who resided at The Old Rectory , Holt . She was greatly involved with saving redundant churches and was personal friends with the Bishop of Norwich , Maurice Wood , and was also able to provide the crew with accommodation . Early location @-@ scouting proved fruitful , and the production was bolstered by a meeting with Bishop Wood in March 1974 , during which the bishop , after initial reluctance , gave the production his blessing . Filming began in April 1974 .
= = = Filming = = =
The documentary was shot on 16 mm colour film by cameraman John McGlashan , who had also worked on the BBC 's M.R. James series of adaptations A Ghost Story for Christmas , of which the early installments were entirely filmed in Norfolk ( Betjeman was a fan of Jamesian ghost stories , and often read them to the crew while travelling to locations ) . McGlashan was also a part @-@ time priest for a Liberal Catholic church , and was able to bring to the production additional knowledge of the Sacraments .
After deciding against the original " Failed in Divinity " preface , it was decided to open the film with Betjeman remembering a Norfolk rowing holiday from his youth in which his father pointed out the tower of St Peter 's church in Belaugh . This moment , he said , led to his lifelong " passion for churches " , a phrase that would eventually form the title of the film . The crew decided to film Betjeman revisiting this location on the River Bure , although on several occasions the poet nearly capsized his rowing boat .
The production work was exhaustive , involving the filming of numerous churches in Norfolk , both ancient and more modern . Many of the clergymen featured in the programme were discovered by accident or by word @-@ of @-@ mouth . For example , the production researcher managed to find , on request , a vicar who had an extensive model railway in his rectory , another whose ministry was based on water ( the Chaplain of the Broads ) and a vicar whose congregation at the time numbered zero .
Several of the services featured in the film were one @-@ off events . For example , the wedding was shot at Lyng , where the bride 's father was the rector . The bridegroom , Nigel McCulloch , went on to become the Bishop of Manchester . The production encountered difficulties with obtaining some footage ; while filming a Seaman 's Mission from Great Yarmouth , a wave flooded the boat , ruining the sound @-@ recording equipment , and a sequence featuring an open @-@ air service taking place at daybreak on Easter Sunday at the most easterly point of the UK — at Ness Point , Lowestoft — was nearly missed after the sound recordist overslept .
= = = Poetry = = =
The commentary alternates between blank verse , free verse , and prose . Although Betjeman had accompanied the production on most of its shoots , his poetic commentary was only written in the weeks after the film had already been edited by Roberts . According to Mirzoeff , he would run sequences from the film for hours , searching for inspiration in the rhythm of the editing , sometimes sitting in a small cupboard to help himself concentrate . Mirzoeff notes that he found writing the text for A Passion for Churches more of a strain than for his previous film since he had to take into consideration both his own beliefs and those of his friends . Sometimes members of the crew would help him by writing their own verses for him to use or modify . One particular sequence proved so difficult to write that Betjeman flew into a rage after the director pressured him to hurry the composition along . Mirzoeff suggests that several sequences , such as the scene about redundancy and death , provoked verse of much greater " complexity and depth " than any heard in his previous screen appearances .
= = Synopsis = =
The film is roughly based on themes suggested by the Anglican sacraments . It opens with Betjeman 's recollection of how a boating holiday by Belaugh in Norfolk inspired his " Passion for Churches " . After a montage of church architecture with the musical accompaniment of the barrel organ of Bressingham , the focus shifts to St Margaret 's , Cley next the Sea , where Betjeman introduces the viewer to its features . The scene then switches to a baptism in Trunch and later a children 's service in Mattishall . Also seen are the restoration of the medieval screen at Ranworth and examples of surviving Norwich glass . Betjeman then journeys to Norwich , which has more surviving medieval churches than London , Bristol and York combined . At Norwich Cathedral , the centre of the diocese , he attends a Mothers ' Union meeting with the Bishop , and later the institution of a new rector to the living of Holt . Betjeman tells the viewer about the Elizabethan vicarage of Great Snoring . Later seen are a vicar busily writing his newsletter at Weston Longville , a parish meeting at Letheringsett and a fête at South Raynham . Betjeman presents the three @-@ storey pulpit of St Mary 's Bylaugh and the brass @-@ rubbing at Felbrigg . A wedding takes place in Lyng and in the tower , change ringers explain their addiction to bell @-@ ringing .
Betjeman explores the ruins of St Benet 's Abbey before seeing its modern equivalent at a convent of Anglican nuns at the Community of All Hallows , Ditchingham . Betjeman then takes the North Norfolk Railway to Walsingham to see the Anglican pilgrims going to the church of Our Lady of Walsingham . After a look at the Queen 's church in Sandringham and the unusual Victorian church at Booton , choir practices are seen in progress at Martham and Wymondham Abbey . Exulting the work of Sir Ninian Comper at Lound , Suffolk , Betjeman recalls that he looked like Colonel Sanders . As Easter Day approaches , Betjeman reflects on the furthest reaches of the diocese - water @-@ borne ministries , a parish church in Flordon that no one attends , as well as the fate of those churches declared redundant ; conversion into hospitals , an artists ' studio , a shoe store and dereliction . Easter Day breaks in Lowestoft , and the viewer sees traditionally dressed ladies from the Almshouses in Castle Rising . The film concludes back in Norwich as parishioners of St Peter Mancroft , and parishioners from churches all around the county summoned by bells , walk to worship .
= = Reception and release = =
Mirzoeff recalls that A Passion for Churches created a minor internal disagreement at the BBC since the film , produced by the General Features Department , discussed a subject considered to be the territory of the Religious Broadcasting Department . The head of the department insisted on a screening , but was placated by the presence of the poet and Prime Minister Harold Wilson 's wife , Mary , at a private showing held in November 1974 , and he gave the film his approval .
Critical reception to the film was generally very positive : the Times Literary Supplement named it " Sir John 's masterpiece to date " and the Financial Times described it as " extremely good " . Television playwright Dennis Potter was also highly complimentary , writing his New Statesman review in verse as a tribute . Only the Eastern Daily Press felt that the film was too short and lacking in detail . But it responded favourably to the repeat , claiming that its original criticisms had led to the film being much improved . In fact not one single frame had been changed . Audience response was recorded as " exceptionally enthusiastic " and Betjeman himself was pleased with the result , although of his films he still favoured Metro @-@ land .
A Passion for Churches was revived by BBC Four in 2006 to mark the centenary of the poet 's birth . It was subsequently released on a limited @-@ edition DVD in 2007 with notes by the producer and two additional short films by the poet .
= German destroyer Z14 Friedrich Ihn =
Z14 Friedrich Ihn was a Type 1934A @-@ class destroyer built for Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine in the mid @-@ 1930s . The ship was named after the First World War German naval officer Friedrich Ihn . At the beginning of World War II , the ship was initially deployed to blockade the Polish coast , but she was quickly transferred to the German Bight to lay defensive minefields in German waters . In late 1939 and early 1940 , the ship laid multiple offensive minefields off the English coast that claimed 18 merchant ships and a destroyer . Ihn was under repair during the Norwegian Campaign of early 1940 and was transferred to France later that year .
After a lengthy refit in Germany , she returned to France in early 1941 where she escorted returning warships , commerce raiders , and supply ships through the Bay of Biscay for several months . She remained in Germany for the rest of the year after returning in July . The ship was transferred to France in early 1942 to escort the capital ships as they sailed through the English Channel to return to Germany ( the Channel Dash ) . Ihn was then transferred to Norway where she participated in several unsuccessful attacks on convoys to the Soviet Union . Afterwards she returned to Germany and remained there for the rest of the year . The ship spent most of 1943 in the northern Norway although she was mostly inactive because of fuel shortages . Ihn was ordered home for a long refit late in the year and she was sent to southern Norway upon its completion in mid @-@ 1944 . The ship remained there for the rest of the war , although she made several trips to evacuate refugees from East Prussia in the last days of the war .
Ihn was eventually allocated to the Soviets when the surviving warships were divided between the Allies after the war . Little is known about her service with the Soviet Navy and she was probably scrapped sometime in the 1960s .
= = Design and description = =
Friedrich Ihn had an overall length of 119 meters ( 390 ft 5 in ) and was 114 meters ( 374 ft ) long at the waterline . The ship had a beam of 11 @.@ 30 meters ( 37 ft 1 in ) , and a maximum draft of 4 @.@ 23 meters ( 13 ft 11 in ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 239 long tons ( 2 @,@ 275 t ) at standard and 3 @,@ 165 long tons ( 3 @,@ 216 t ) at deep load . The Wagner geared steam turbines were designed to produce 70 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 51 @,@ 000 kW ; 69 @,@ 000 shp ) which would propel the ship at 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam was provided to the turbines by six high @-@ pressure Benson boilers with superheaters . Friedrich Ihn carried a maximum of 752 metric tons ( 740 long tons ) of fuel oil which was intended to give a range of 4 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 100 km ; 5 @,@ 100 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , but the ship proved top @-@ heavy in service and 30 % of the fuel had to be retained as ballast low in the ship . The effective range proved to be only 1 @,@ 530 nmi ( 2 @,@ 830 km ; 1 @,@ 760 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . The ship 's crew consisted of 10 officers and 315 sailors .
Friedrich Ihn carried five 12 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 34 guns in single mounts with gun shields , two each superimposed , fore and aft . The fifth gun was carried on top of the rear deckhouse . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of four 3 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 30 guns in two twin mounts abreast the rear funnel and six 2 cm C / 30 guns in single mounts . The ship carried eight above @-@ water 53 @.@ 3 @-@ centimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes in two power @-@ operated mounts . A pair of reload torpedoes were provided for each mount . Four depth charge throwers were mounted on the sides of the rear deckhouse and they were supplemented by six racks for individual depth charges on the sides of the stern . Sufficient depth charges were carried for either two or four patterns of sixteen charges each . Mine rails could be fitted on the rear deck that had a maximum capacity of sixty mines . ' GHG ' ( Gruppenhorchgerät ) passive hydrophones were fitted to detect submarines and an active sonar system was installed by February 1941 .
During the war the ship 's light anti @-@ aircraft armament was augmented several times . In April 1941 , improved 2 cm C / 38 guns replaced the original C / 30 guns and three additional guns were added . The two guns on the aft shelter deck were replaced at some point by a single 2 cm quadruple Flakvierling mount , probably in 1942 . Sometime in 1944 – 45 , Ihn received a partial " Barbara " anti @-@ aircraft refit where twin 2 cm mounts replaced her singles , giving her a total of 18 2 cm barrels .
= = Construction and career = =
Friedrich Ihn , named after the commander of the torpedo boat SMS S @-@ 35 killed during the Battle of Jutland in 1916 , was ordered on 19 January 1935 from Blohm & Voss . She was laid down at their shipyard in Hamburg on 30 May 1935 as yard number B503 , launched on 5 November 1935 and completed on 6 April 1938 . The ship participated in the August 1938 Fleet Review as part of the 3rd Destroyer Division . On 23 – 24 March 1939 , Friedrich Ihn was one of the destroyers escorting Adolf Hitler aboard the pocket battleship Deutschland as the Germans occupied Memel . She participated in the Spring fleet exercise in the western Mediterranean and made several visits to Spanish and Moroccan ports in April and May .
When World War II began , Friedrich Ihn was initially deployed in the Baltic to operate against the Polish Navy and to enforce a blockade of Poland , but she was soon transferred to the German Bight where she joined her sister ships in laying defensive minefields . She also patrolled the Skagerrak to inspect neutral shipping for contraband goods in October . The ship was scheduled to conduct a minelaying operation off the British coast in early November , but it was cancelled when one of the other destroyers assigned to participate suffered machinery problems from contaminated fuel oil .
On the night of 12 / 13 December , German destroyers sortied to lay minefields off the British coast . Under the command of Commodore ( Kommodore ) Friedrich Bonte in his flagship Hermann Künne , Friedrich Ihn , Bruno Heinemann , Richard Beitzen , and Erich Steinbrinck laid 240 mines off the mouth of the River Tyne , where the navigation lights were still lit . The British were unaware of the minefield 's existence and lost eleven ships totaling 18 @,@ 979 gross register tons ( GRT ) . The destroyers were later ordered to escort the crippled light cruisers Leipzig and Nürnberg which had been torpedoed by the submarine HMS Salmon while covering the destroyers ' withdrawal . Ihn and Steinbrinck had machinery problems en route and were forced to return to port before they reached the cruisers . Ihn and her sisters Friedrich Eckoldt and Steinbrinck sortied again on the night of 18 December , but the British had turned off the navigation lights off Orfordness and the German were forced to abandon the attempt because they could not locate themselves precisely enough to lay the minefield in the proper position .
= = = 1940 = = =
Another minefield of 170 magnetic mines was laid by Ihn , Eckolt , and her sister Steinbrinck on the night of 6 / 7 January 1940 off the Thames Estuary . The destroyer HMS Grenville and six merchant ships totalling 21 @,@ 617 GRT were lost to this minefield as well and another ship was damaged as well . Bonte led a destroyer minelaying sortie to the Newcastle area on the night of 10 / 11 January with Ihn , Heidkamp , Eckoldt , Anton Schmitt , Beitzen , and Karl Galster . Ihn had problems with her boilers that reduced her maximum speed to 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) and she had to be escorted back to Germany by Beitzen . This minefield only claimed one fishing trawler of 251 tons .
Ihn was under repairs during Operation Weserübung in April and did not leave the dockyard until May when she began working up as part of the 5th Destroyer Flotilla . The flotilla was transferred to the Atlantic Coast of France in early September and was attacked by Bristol Blenheim bombers of the Royal Air Force on 11 September while crossing the Baie de la Seine without result , although Ihn was near @-@ missed . Now based at Brest the flotilla laid a minefield in Falmouth Bay during the night of 28 / 29 September . Five ships totalling only 2 @,@ 026 GRT were sunk by this minefield . Led by Kapitän zur See Erich Bey , Ihn and four other destroyers sortied for the Southwest Approaches on 17 October and were intercepted by a British force of two light cruisers and five destroyers . The British opened fire at extreme range and were forced to disengage in the face of long @-@ range torpedo volleys and attacks by Luftwaffe bombers without having hit any of the German ships . Ihn returned home on 7 November for a refit in Stettin .
Her refit was completed in late January 1941 , but she was trapped by thick ice so that she could not reach Gotenhafen to work up until mid @-@ February . Ihn returned to France in April where she was based at La Pallice . There she was primarily occupied with escorting returning commerce raiders , warships and supply ships through the Bay of Biscay to bases in France . These included the raider Thor on 22 April , the supply ship Nordland , and the fleet oiler Ermland in late May . The heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen was escorted to Brest in early June after separating from the battleship Bismarck during Operation Rheinübung . Ihn sailed from Brest on 27 July for another refit and was ineffectually attacked by British motor torpedo boats ( MTB ) off Calais that same day .
= = = 1942 = = =
The ship remained in German waters for the rest of the year after completing her refit . She was sent to Brest in February 1942 to escort the battleships Gneisenau and Scharnhorst , as well as Prinz Eugen through the English Channel back to Germany ( Operation Cerberus ) . During the voyage , Ihn twice engaged British MTBs and shot down two Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers . Shortly afterwards , the ship joined four other destroyers in escorting Prinz Eugen and the heavy cruiser Admiral Scheer to Trondheim , Norway . Heavy weather forced Ihn and two other destroyers to return to port before reaching Trondheim and Prinz Eugen was badly damaged by a British submarine after their separation .
On 6 March , the battleship Tirpitz , escorted by Ihn and three other destroyers , sortied to attack the returning convoy QP 8 and the Russia @-@ bound PQ 12 as part of Operation Sportpalast ( Sports Palace ) . That night the weather worsened and Ihn suffered some damage to her bridge and forward gun mount from high waves . The following morning , Admiral Otto Ciliax , commanding the operation , ordered the destroyers to search independently for Allied ships and they stumbled across the 2 @,@ 815 @-@ GRT Soviet freighter Ijora , a straggler from QP 8 later that afternoon and sank her . Tirpitz rejoined them shortly afterwards and Ciliax ordered Ihn to Harstad to refuel . The destroyer rejoined the battleship in the morning and was able to shoot down one of five Fairey Albacore torpedo bombers from the aircraft carrier HMS Victorious that unsuccessfully attacked the German ships at 10 : 20 . Two hours later both ships arrived back in port .
By May , Ihn was flagship of Captain Fritz Berger of the 5th Destroyer Flotilla and she was assigned to escort Tirpitz during Operation Rösselsprung ( Knight 's Move ) , the attack on the Russia @-@ bound Convoy PQ 17 . The ships sailed from Trondheim on 2 July for the first stage of the operation , although all three of the other destroyers assigned to Tirpitz 's escort ran aground in the dark and heavy fog and were forced to return to port for repairs . Tirpitz , the heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper and Ihn arrived at Altafjord on 4 July , but they were recalled shortly after sortieing on the 5th and never engaged any Allied ships . She escorted Galster , one of the destroyers that had run aground , back to Germany on 12 July .
= = = 1943 – 45 = = =
Ihn was refitted after her arrival and remained in the Baltic Sea for the rest of the year . On 9 January 1943 , together with two other destroyers , she escorted Scharnhorst and Prinz Eugen as they attempted to return to Norway from Gotenhafen . The ships were spotted en route two days later by an aircraft from the Royal Air Force and the attempt was abandoned as the element of surprise was lost . Another attempt was made in March , although just with Scharnhorst , and Ihn joined her escort off Kristiansand , Norway , on 7 March . Heavy weather forced the destroyer to put in to Bergen , Norway , although the battleship reached Trondheim . Ihn was transferred to Narvik , Norway at the end of April , although the shortage of fuel severely limited her activities in the Arctic . She was ordered home to refit in November , a lengthy one that lasted until June 1944 . She was then stationed at Horten , Norway for the rest of the year , where she was employed on convoy escort and minelaying duties , mainly in the Skagerrak . The ship received a brief refit at Swinemünde in November that augmented her anti @-@ aircraft armament and returned to Horten where she remained until May 1945 . On 5 May , Ihn sailed from Denmark to Hela where she loaded refugees that she ferried to Copenhagen the following day . She immediately turned around and returned to Hela for another load that she delivered to Glücksburg , Germany , on the 8th . She surrendered at Flensburg by the next day .
= = = Post @-@ War = = =
The ship was moved to Wilhelmshaven over the summer under British control while the division of the surviving warships was decided among the victorious Allies . While this was being argued the ships were overhauled with a small maintenance crew aboard to preserve their value . The Allied Tripartite Commission allocated Ihn to the Soviet Union at the end of 1945 . By this time she had developed some problems with her boilers and the British proposed to swap her for Theodor Reidel to avoid forcing the Soviets to wait for her to be repaired . They refused and Ihn was repaired more quickly than had been estimated with additional spare boiler parts loaded aboard for the voyage . Commissioned into the Soviet Navy as Prytky ( Russian : Прыткий ) , the ship served in the Baltic fleet until she was struck from the list on 22 March 1952 and sold for scrap .
= Vermont Route 17 =
Vermont Route 17 ( VT 17 ) is a 40 @.@ 409 @-@ mile ( 65 @.@ 032 km ) long state highway in western Vermont in the United States . The western terminus of the route is at the New York state line in Addison , where it connects to New York State Route 185 ( NY 185 ) by way of the Lake Champlain Bridge . Its eastern terminus is at a junction with VT 100 in Waitsfield . VT 17 was initially much shorter than it is today , extending from the Champlain Bridge to Addison upon assignment . It was extended east through the Green Mountains to Waitsfield in 1965 .
= = Route description = =
The routing of VT 17 varies greatly on opposite sides of the Bristol town center . West of Bristol , the route passes through generally level terrain and connects multiple communities . East of Bristol , VT 17 is more mountainous and more rural in nature .
= = = West of Bristol = = =
VT 17 begins at the New York state line over Lake Champlain , where it connects to NY 185 at the midpoint of the Lake Champlain Bridge . The route heads northeastward from the state line , descending the eastern bridge approach and intersecting VT 125 adjacent to the Chimney Point State Historical Site at Chimney Point . It continues northward along the lakeshore of Addison County and the town of Addison for roughly 2 miles ( 3 km ) ( passing D.A.R. State Park ) before turning eastward toward the village of Addison .
In the center of Addison , situated 6 miles ( 10 km ) from Lake Champlain , VT 17 intersects VT 22A . VT 17 continues east from Addison , crossing over the Otter Creek and intersecting VT 23 near Weybridge prior to curving to the northeast toward Waltham . Midway between Waltham and New Haven , VT 17 briefly overlaps with U.S. Route 7 ( US 7 ) , before continuing eastward through New Haven to Bristol . As the route approaches the village of Bristol , it meets VT 116 at an intersection just west of the community . VT 116 turns east here , joining VT 17 through Bristol along Main Street .
= = = East of Bristol = = =
Outside Bristol , VT 17 and VT 116 are joined by the New Haven River , here marking the northern boundary of the Green Mountain National Forest . The roadway and waterway head east , following a winding route through the Green Mountains . When New Haven splits off to the southeast shortly afterward , VT 17 and VT 116 continue north along Baldwin Creek up to the point where VT 17 and VT 116 diverge . While VT 116 continues north along Beaver Brook , VT 17 remains in the vicinity of Baldwin Creek as it heads northeast through the Green Mountains .
Midway between Bristol and Waitsfield , VT 17 intersects Gore Road , a local road that leads to eastern Burlington 15 miles ( 24 km ) to the north . The route crosses into Chittenden County , as well as the Camel 's Hump State Park , shortly afterward . The route leaves Chittenden County and passes into Washington County 2 miles ( 3 km ) later upon traversing the Appalachian Gap , a mountain pass located to the north of Mount Ellen . East of the gap , VT 17 continues through the eastern Green Mountains for 6 miles ( 10 km ) to Waitsfield , where it terminates at VT 100 .
= = History = =
The road connecting the ferry landing at Chimney Point to the town center of Addison was designated as VT F @-@ 7 ca . 1927 . The ferry crossed Lake Champlain into Port Henry . VT F @-@ 7 was extended eastward to US 7 in New Haven by 1929 . In 1929 , the Champlain Bridge opened , connecting Chimney Point to Crown Point . By the following year , the segment of VT F @-@ 7 west of VT 30A ( now VT 22A ) in Addison was renumbered to VT 17 , which now began on the Champlain Bridge at the New York state line . In 1933 , all of VT 17 and the portion of VT F @-@ 7 's former routing between Addison and New Haven were added to the state highway system . Prior to this time , maintenance of both roads was performed by the towns through which they passed . VT 17 was subsequently extended eastward to New Haven along VT F @-@ 7 's former routing . As part of the 1935 state highway expansion , additional mileage was added to VT 17 , which was extended 4 @.@ 3 miles ( 6 @.@ 9 km ) to VT 116 in Bristol .
In 1936 , a 2 @.@ 7 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 3 km ) portion of the McCullough Turnpike in Fayston , which was chartered in 1933 but proved unprofitable , was deeded back to the state of Vermont and renamed to McCullough State Highway . The road , which extended eastward from the Chittenden – Washington county line , was paved during the period of 1936 and 1940 . The rest of the McCullough Turnpike to VT 100 in Waitsfield became part of the state highway system in 1956 . In 1965 , the state legislature authorized the extension of VT 17 from Bristol to the Addison – Chittenden county line , connecting it to the McCullough State Highway by way of Chittenden County 's section of the former McCullough Turnpike . The VT 17 designation was extended eastward through Chittenden County and along the McCullough State Highway at this time .
VT 17 's connection to the state of New York was temporarily severed in October 2009 when the Champlain Bridge was closed due to safety concerns . The bridge was demolished two months later , truncating VT 17 to the eastern shoreline of Lake Champlain until its replacement , the Lake Champlain Bridge , opened to traffic on November 7 , 2011 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Neil Hamilton Fairley =
Brigadier Sir Neil Hamilton Fairley KBE CStJ FRACP FRCP FRCPE FRS ( 15 July 1891 – 19 April 1966 ) was an Australian physician , medical scientist , and army officer ; who was instrumental in saving thousands of Allied lives from malaria and other diseases .
A graduate of the University of Melbourne , Fairley joined the Australian Army Medical Corps in 1915 . He investigated an epidemic of meningitis that was occurring in Army camps in Australia . While with the 14th General Hospital in Cairo , he investigated schistosomiasis ( then known as bilharzia ) and developed tests and treatments for the disease . In the inter @-@ war period he became renowned as an expert on tropical medicine .
Fairley returned to the Australian Army during the Second World War as Director of Medicine . He played an important role in the planning for the Battle of Greece , convincing the British Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , General Sir Archibald Wavell to alter his campaign plan to reduce the danger from malaria . In the South West Pacific Area , Fairley became responsible for co @-@ ordinating the activities of all allied forces in the fight against malaria and other tropical diseases . Fairley again sounded the alarm on the dangers of malaria , persuading authorities in the United States and United Kingdom to greatly step up production of anti @-@ malarial drugs . Through the activities of the LHQ Medical Research Unit , he fast @-@ tracked research into new drugs . Fairley convinced the Army of the efficacy of the new drug atebrin , and persuaded commanders to adopt a tough approach to administering the drug to the troops .
After the war Fairley returned to London where he became a consulting physician to the Hospital for Tropical Diseases and Wellcome Professor of Tropical Medicine at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine . A serious illness in 1948 forced him to resign his professorship , but he retained his practice and membership of numerous committees , becoming an " elder statesman " of tropical medicine .
= = Early life = =
Neil Hamilton Fairley was born in Inglewood , Victoria , on 15 July 1891 , as the third of six sons of James Fairley , a bank manager , and his wife Margaret Louisa , née Jones . All of their four sons who survived to adulthood took up medicine as a career . One qualified as a Doctor of Medicine at the University of Melbourne and an FRCS in England and became a surgeon ; he was later killed in action in the First World War . A second also qualified as a Doctor of Medicine at the University of Melbourne , and later as an FRACP and FRCP ; he became senior physician at Royal Melbourne Hospital . A third son became a general practitioner .
Neil was educated at Scotch College , Melbourne , where he was dux of his class . He attended the University of Melbourne , graduating with his Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery ( MBBS ) with first class honours in 1915 , and his Doctor of Medicine ( MD ) in 1917 . While there , he won the Australian inter @-@ varsity high jumping championship and represented Victoria in tennis .
= = First World War = =
Fairley joined the Australian Army Medical Corps with the rank of captain on 1 August 1915 and was posted to Royal Melbourne Hospital as a resident medical officer . He investigated an epidemic of meningitis that was occurring in local Army camps , and his first published paper was an analysis of this disease , documenting fifty cases . In 1916 , he co @-@ authored a monograph published by the Federal government detailing 644 cases , of which 338 ( 52 % ) were fatal , this being before the invention of antibiotic drugs .
Fairley enlisted in the First Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) on 24 August 1916 . On 5 September 1916 , he embarked for Egypt on RMS Kashgar , joining the 14th General Hospital in Cairo . There he encountered Major Charles Martin , formerly Professor of Physiology at the University of Melbourne and Director of the Lister Institute from 1903 to 1930 . At this time , Martin was working as a Consulting Physician to the AIF in Egypt and commanded the Anzac Field Laboratory .
While in Egypt , Fairley investigated schistosomiasis ( then known as bilharzia ) . The disease was known to be caused by contact with fresh water inhabited by certain species of snails , and orders had been issued that prohibited bathing in fresh water , but the troops were slow to appreciate the danger involved . In its toxic phase , the disease was easily confused with typhus , so Fairley developed a complement fixation test for the disease along the lines of the Wassermann test . He studied its pathology , confirming that the worms in the circulatory system could be cured by intravenous tartaric acid . Fairley also studied , and later published papers on typhus , malaria , and bacillary dysentery .
Fairley married Staff Nurse Violet May Phillips at the Garrison Church , Abbassia , Cairo on 12 February 1919 . They later divorced on 21 November 1924 . He was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 15 March 1919 and commanded the 14th General Hospital for a time before embarking for the United Kingdom in June 1919 . For his services in the First World War , Fairley was mentioned in despatches and made an Officer of the Military Division of the Order of the British Empire . His citation read :
Brilliant work in Pathology – the result of eighteen months of patient and skilful work in the laboratory of the 14th Australian General Hospital . His work on Bilharzia will be of untold value to the civilian population of Egypt .
= = Between the wars = =
Fairley was one of a number of AIF officers granted leave " to visit various hospitals in the United Kingdom so that they become conversant with the latest developments in the medical sciences " . For a time , he worked for Martin at the Lister Institute in London where he qualified for membership of the Royal College of Physicians of London . He also received a Diploma of Public Health from the University of Cambridge . He returned to Australia on the transport Orontes in February 1920 , to become a research assistant to Sydney Patterson , director of the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research , where Fairley worked on developing a test for echinococcosis along the lines of the test that he had already developed for bilharzia .
Fairley remained for less than a year before resigning to take up a five @-@ year appointment in Bombay as Chair of Clinical Tropical Medicine at a newly created School of Tropical Medicine , a post for which he had been nominated by the Royal Society . On arrival in India , he found that the scheme had been abandoned and that as his appointment could be terminated at six @-@ months ' notice , he would no longer be required after October 1922 . Fairley demanded and received an audience with the Governor of Bombay , Sir George Lloyd , the result of which was that the Secretary of State agreed to create a special five @-@ year post of Medical Officer of the Bombay Bacteriological Laboratory and Honorary Consulting Physician to the Sir Jamshedjee Jeejebhoy Hospital and St George Hospital .
In India , Fairley continued his research into schistosomiasis . The disease was unknown in India but snails were abundant and there was danger that troops returning from Egypt might introduce it . In the absence of human schistosoma , Fairley investigated bovine schistosoma , which infected water buffalo and other domesticated animals in the Bombay area . Experiments with monkeys proved that daily intravenous doses of tartaric acid were an effective treatment . Fairley also carried out pioneering work on Guinea worm disease ( dracunculiasis ) . However , his main interest was Tropical sprue . But he was unable to determine its cause or discover a cure ; in spite of contracting the disease himself and making some advances in its treatment . He was invalided out of India , travelling to the United Kingdom to recuperate in 1925 . While in India he had met Mary Evelyn Greaves , and they were married at the Presbyterian Church , Marylebone , on 28 October 1925 .
Fairley returned to Australia in 1927 and rejoined the Walter and Eliza Hall Institute . He worked there for two years , collaborating with the new director , Charles Kellaway in studies of snake venoms and with Harold Dew on the development of diagnostic tests for echinococcosis . Fairley dedicated most of 1928 to the snake venom programme , co @-@ ordinating an enormous body of epidemiological data – including a questionnaire to Australian clinicians – on the frequency and outcome of bites by Australian elapid snakes . This work involved numerous milkings to establish typical and maximal venom yields , innovative studies of snake dentition using wax moulds , and detailed dissections to describe each species ' biting apparatus . Fairley furthermore undertook in vivo studies of envenomation in a range of large animal species , to determine the efficacy of prevailing first @-@ aid measures . He concluded that at best , ligature and local venesection might slow time to death after a significant envenomation . This reinforced the need for effective antivenenes ( antivenoms ) for the more dangerous local species of snakes , notably the tiger snake ( Notechis scutatus ) , death adder ( Acanthophis antarcticus ) and copperhead ( Austrelaps superbus ) , although only the former was suitable for manufacture by the Commonwealth Serum Laboratories ( now CSL Limited ) .
In 1928 , Fairley received an appointment in London as Assistant Physician to the Hospital for Tropical Diseases and Lecturer at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine . Although he and Kellaway convinced the governors to delay Fairley 's commencement until their major venom work was completed , he departed for London by the end of that year . He also opened a consulting practice in Harley Street . In London he encountered patients with filariasis and devised a test to diagnose the disease at an early stage ; but when he went to write up his results he discovered that details of a similar test had already been published . In 1934 , a sewer worker was referred to his ward with acute jaundice which Fairley diagnosed as caused by filariasis . The disease was revealed to be an occupational hazard of sewer workers , and steps were taken to protect the workers . Perhaps his most important work in this period was research into blackwater fever . Since malaria cases were uncommon in the United Kingdom , he made annual visits to the Malaria Research Laboratory of the League of Nations at the Refugee Hospital in Salonika . In the process , he described methaemalbumin , a previously unknown blood pigment . For his scientific accomplishments in London , Fairley was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1942 .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Middle East = = =
With the outbreak of the Second World War , the Australian Army 's director general of medical services , Major General Rupert Downes tapped Fairley as consulting physician . Fairley was seconded to the Second Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) with the rank of colonel on 15 July 1940 and given the serial number VX38970 . He joined the AIF Headquarters in Cairo in September , taking advantage of the initial quiet period to familiarise himself with the AIF 's medical units and their commanders . As the British Army in the Middle East had no consulting physician in tropical diseases , Fairley accepted an offer to act in this capacity as well .
In January 1941 the British Army began planning for operations in Greece . Fairley and his British colleague , Colonel J. S. K. Boyd , the consulting pathologist , drafted a medical appreciation . Drawing on the experience of the Salonika front in the First World War , where very heavy casualties suffered from malaria , plus Fairley 's more recent experience in that part of the world , they painted a gloomy picture , emphasising the grave risks , and going so far as to suggest that the Germans might attempt to entice the allies into a summer campaign in which they could be destroyed by malaria . The British Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , General Sir Archibald Wavell decried their report as " typical of a very non @-@ medical and non @-@ military spirit " , but a face @-@ to @-@ face meeting with Boyd and Fairley convinced Wavell that they were serious and not merely uncooperative , and Wavell promised his assistance in mitigating the danger . The campaign plan was altered to position allied forces further south , away from the plains of Macedonia and the Vardar and Struma River basins , where malaria was hyper @-@ endemic and heavy casualties had been suffered from malaria by British troops during the First World War .
Fairley tackled an outbreak of bacilliary dysentery among the troops in Egypt . In most cases the patients recovered of their own accord but some cases of shigellosis became seriously ill and died . Fairley had some Shiga anti @-@ toxin with him , but it proved ineffective in serious cases , even when administered in large doses . However , he also had an experimental supply of sulphaguanidine that had been given to him by Dr E. K. Marshall of Johns Hopkins Hospital . The drug was administered to a patient with severe shigellosis who was not expected to live , and the patient soon recovered . Of the 21 @,@ 015 Australian soldiers who contracted bacilliary dysentery during the Second World War , only 21 died .
Malaria again became a concern in the Syria @-@ Lebanon Campaign . The Australian Army raised malaria control units for the first time and as soon as the operational situation permitted swamps and areas of open water were drained and mosquito breeding areas were sprayed . There were 2 @,@ 435 cases of malaria in the AIF in 1941 , a rate of 31 @.@ 8 per thousand per year . Quinine was used as a prophylaxis . On Fairley 's advice , patients with relapses were treated with intravenous quinine for three days followed by a course of atebrin and plasmoquine . For his services in the Middle East , Fairley was mentioned in despatches a second time , and made a Commander of the Military Division Order of the British Empire for his " immense and specialised knowledge of tropical diseases in the Middle East " .
= = = South West Pacific = = =
With the entry of Japan into the war , Fairley flew to Java in January 1942 . Fairley was well aware that Java produced 90 % of the world 's supply of quinine and that the implications would be serious if Java was lost . He arranged for the purchase of all available stocks of quinine , some 120 long tons ( 120 t ) . Fairley was informed that the quinine had been loaded on board two ships . One was never seen again . The other , the SS Klang , reached Fremantle in March . Although 20 long tons ( 20 t ) of quinine was loaded on board , it was apparently unloaded when the ship stopped at Tjilatjap , possibly due to fifth columnists . Thus , none of the shipment reached Australia . Fairley himself departed Java with the I Corps staff on the transport Orcades on 21 February 1942 shortly before Java fell .
In General Sir Thomas Blamey 's reorganisation of the Australian Army in April 1942 , Fairley was appointed director of medicine at Allied Land Forces Headquarters ( LHQ ) in Melbourne . Fairley was soon facing a series of medical emergencies caused by the Kokoda Track campaign . An epidemic of bacillary dysentery was headed off by Fairley 's decision to rush all available supplies of sulphaguanadine to New Guinea . On Fairley 's advice every man who complained of diarrhoea was given the drug and the epidemic was brought under control in ten days .
But Fairley 's main concern was malaria . Despite the experience with malaria in the Middle East , most of the troops had a poor understanding of anti @-@ malaria precautions and few medical officers had encountered the disease . In combination with critical shortages of drugs and anti @-@ malarial supplies such as netting , insecticides and repellents , the result was a medical disaster . In the 13 @-@ week period from 31 October 1942 to 1 January 1943 , the Army reported 4 @,@ 137 battle casualties , but 14 @,@ 011 casualties from tropical diseases , of which 12 @,@ 240 were from malaria . The government grimly contemplated disbanding divisions to replace malaria casualties . " Our worst enemy in New Guinea , " General Blamey declared , " is not the Nip — it ’ s the bite . "
This caused Blamey to despatch a medical mission headed by Fairley to the United States and the United Kingdom in September 1942 to present the Army 's case for a more adequate and equitable share of anti @-@ malarial supplies . The mission was successful . Fairley was able to secure supplies and expedite the delivery of those that were already on order but held up for lack of shipping or priority . In bringing the problem to the attention of the highest allied military and civil authorities overseas , he lifted the global profile and priority of malaria control measures .
It was calculated that Allied requirements for atebrin would be 200 long tons ( 200 t ) per annum , of which 50 long tons ( 51 t ) would be manufactured in the United Kingdom and 150 long tons ( 150 t ) in the United States . American production in 1942 was estimated at 60 tons but efforts were soon under way to increase production . The possibility of producing atebrin in Australia was considered , but the drug was complicated to synthesise and required little shipping space , although steps were taken to produce mosquito repellent . As in the Middle East , the Army relied on a combination of quinine , atebrin and plasmoquine ( QAP ) to cure malaria . The United States and United Kingdom agreed to each produce two tons of plasmoquine each per annum . The requested drugs and supplies began arriving in December 1942 .
As " one of the reasons for the lamentable record in malaria control in 1942 and early 1943 was the absence of medical authority at the level of the theatre commander 's headquarters " , Fairley suggested that there be a body responsible for co @-@ ordinating the activities of all allied forces in the South West Pacific Area . General Blamey took the matter up with the General Douglas MacArthur , the Supreme Commander . MacArthur , who had himself suffered an attack of malaria back in 1904 ( and a serious relapse the next year ) , created the Combined Advisory Committee on Tropical Medicine , Hygiene and Sanitation with Colonel Fairley as its chairman in March 1943 . After its first meeting , Fairley met with MacArthur , who emphasised that he did not wish the committee to concern itself with matters of academic interest but to make concrete recommendations on essential medical matters . The committee proceeded to make a series of recommendations regarding training , discipline , equipment , procedures and priorities , which then went out as GHQ orders to all commands .
Fairley 's proposed use of atebrin as a prophylactic agent was accepted and Fairley switched the Australian Army over to using atebrin as a prophylaxis instead of quinine in March 1943 . The most acute problem at this time was a shortage of atebrin . The Australian Army had only seven weeks ' stock was on hand in March 1943 and US forces in both the South West Pacific and South Pacific Area were drawing on Australian Army stocks as they had not yet received adequate stocks of their own . The drug is also a dye , and had the known side effect of making the skin and eyeballs of the user go yellow in colour after repeated use but this was an acceptable drawback in wartime . Prolonged use could cause lichen planus and psychosis in rare cases , but atebrin still turned out to be much safer than quinine . Blackwater fever — which had a mortality rate of 25 % — disappeared entirely .
Fairley was acutely aware that much remained unknown about malaria . In particular , he was interested in the possibility that sulphaguanidine ( or a related sulphonamide ) might be a causal prophylactic against malaria , as they could be manufactured in Australia , unlike atebrin and plasmoquine . Fairley decided to establish a unit in Cairns to investigate malaria . The LHQ Medical Research Unit commenced work in June 1943 .
Fairley travelled to New Guinea at the end of June 1943 and arranged for Plasmodium falciparum cases to be evacuated to Cairns for treatment . As the flight time from Port Moresby to Cairns was only a few hours , this was considered safe , but since the disease can be fatal if not treated promptly , Fairley was concerned lest the cases be delayed for some reason . Movement Control suggested that a special priority be allocated to such cases , and Major General Frank Berryman suggested calling it priority Neil after Fairley himself . Because movement priorities had to have five letters , an extra L was added on the end . Priority Neill soon came to be applied to the entire Cairns project .
The LHQ Medical Research Unit used human test subjects , all volunteers drawn from the Australian Army , including a small but notable group of ' Dunera Boys ' ( Jewish refugees ) from the 8th Employment Company . The volunteers were infected with strains of malaria from infected mosquitoes of from the blood of other test subjects , which was then treated with various drugs . The volunteers were rewarded with three weeks ' leave and a certificate of appreciation signed by General Blamey . The LHQ Medical Research Unit researched quinine , sulphonamides , atebrin , plasmoquine , and paludrine .
In June 1944 , a conference was held at Atherton , Queensland on " Prevention of Disease in Warfare " . Chaired by Lieutenant General Vernon Sturdee , the commander of the First Army , it was attended by key corps and division commanders . Fairley , who had been promoted to brigadier in February 1944 , described the results of the work at Cairns on anti @-@ malarial drugs ; other officers described practical measures that could be taken to reduce the toll of disease on the men . The Director General of Medical Services , Major General S. R. ( Ginger ) Burston , told the senior commanders " the ball is in your court " .
Using draconian drills that required officers to place atebrin tablets in their men 's mouths , the army attempted to reduce the incidence of malaria to zero . For the most part they were successful but in the Aitape @-@ Wewak campaign the 6th Division suffered an epidemic of malaria despite its best efforts . Fairley was urgently recalled from a tour of South East Asia Command and given orders by General Blamey to personally proceed to Wewak and investigate the situation . A special section was formed from the LHQ Medical Research Unit to assist the 6th Division and certain relapsing personnel were evacuated to Cairns . The epidemic was ultimately brought under control by doubling the dosage of atebrin . Fairley was forced to confront the fact — confirmed by research at Cairns — that an atebrin resistant strain of malaria had arisen . The ability of malaria to develop resistant strains would have profound implications in the post @-@ war world .
= = Later life = =
After the war Australian medical research was substantially reorganised , but Fairley joined the ranks of senior Australian medical scientists who spent the remainder of their professional lives in Britain . In London he became consulting physician to the Hospital for Tropical Diseases and Wellcome Professor of Tropical Medicine at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine . His early post war research was a continuation of his wartime work on malaria . He became seriously ill in 1948 and his health steadily declined thereafter , forcing him to resign his professorship . He retained his practice and membership of numerous committees , becoming an " elder statesman " of tropical medicine . In recognition of his service to tropical medicine , he was created a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire on 8 June 1950 .
Fairley 's declining health prompted him to leave London and move to The Grove , Sonning , Berkshire , where he died on 19 April 1966 , and was buried in the graveyard of St Andrew 's Church , Sonning . He was survived by his wife and their two sons , who were both medical doctors , and also by the son of his first marriage , who had become an Australian Army officer . His son Gordon Hamilton @-@ Fairley , a renowned oncologist , was killed by a Provisional Irish Republican Army bomb on 22 October 1975 .
Sir William Dargie painted a portrait of Fairley in 1943 , which is in the possession the Fairley family . A later 1960 portrait by Dargie , together with a 1945 one by Nora Heysen , is in the Australian War Memorial . Neither is on display , although the latter can be viewed online . A 1954 Dargie portrait of Queen Elizabeth II painted while Dargie was staying at Fairley 's home at 81 Duke Street , Grosvenor Square , in London , and subsequently given to Fairley , was sold at auction to the National Museum of Australia in 2009 for $ 120 @,@ 000 . Fairley 's papers are in the Basser Library at the Australian Academy of Science . He is commemorated by the Neil Hamilton Fairley Overseas Clinical Fellowship , which provides full @-@ time training in Australia and overseas in areas of clinical research including the social and behavioural sciences .
= = Medical awards and prizes = =
1920 Dublin Research Prize
1921 David Syme Research Prize and Medal
1931 Chalmers Memorial Medal for Research in Tropical Medicine
1945 Bancroft Memorial Medal
1946 Richard Pierson Strong Medal , American Foundation of Tropical Medicine
1948 Moxon Medal , Royal College of Physicians
1949 Mary Kingsley Medal , Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine
1950 Manson Medal , Royal Society of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene
1951 James Cook Medal , Royal Society of NSW
1957 Buchanan Medal , Royal Society of London
Source : Boyd 1966 , p . 141
= The Castle of Cagliostro =
The Castle of Cagliostro ( Japanese : ルパン三世 カリオストロの城 , Hepburn : Rupan Sansei : Kariosutoro no Shiro , Lupin the Third : Castle of Cagliostro ) is a 1979 Japanese animated adventure comedy film co @-@ written and directed by Hayao Miyazaki in his feature @-@ length directorial debut . It is the second film featuring Monkey Punch 's master thief Arsène Lupin III , from his manga series Lupin III . The film was Miyazaki 's first time directing a theatrical feature after having
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is cast as Emma , Rex 's girlfriend .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" That 's Not My Penguin " was originally broadcast on April 5 , 2012 in the United States on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) between 10 : 00 pm and 11 : 00 pm , preceded by Up All Night . Upon airing , the episode garnered 2 @.@ 56 million viewers in the United States despite airing simultaneously with The Mentalist on CBS , and the series premiere of the drama series Scandal on ABC . It acquired a 0 @.@ 9 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , meaning that it was seen by 0 @.@ 9 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode 's ratings dropped from the previous episode , " Oregon " . It was simultaneously broadcast on Global in Canada , and was subsequently aired on Sky Atlantic in the United Kingdom on June 8 , 2012 .
= = = Critical response = = =
" That 's Not My Penguin " was well received by television commentators . Matt Fowler of IGN gave an extremely positive review . He claimed that the story worked " either way " and that it was " awesome " , mainly because of the hallucinations . Fowler stated that he had his " mind blown " and that the best part of the episode was " when the show , for a little while , actually made me think that there was something to Gabriel 's Dr. Wild story " . Claiming that he was " hooked " to the show , Folwer concluded his review by giving the episode a " 9 out of 10 " classifying it as " amazing " . Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club enjoyed the episode . In his " A- " review , he noted that the episode " doesn 't show any signs of imminent immolation " . He thought that the morale of the episode was " wanting something to be real doesn 't make it easier to pretend , and the harder Michael has to work to keep this up , the better the odds that he ’ s going to lose his grip " . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix " loved " the episode . Nick McHatton of TV Fanatic gave the episode a " 5 out of 5 " as a perfect score and thought that the entry " really used Awake 's concept to its advantage " .
= The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man =
The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man is a motion @-@ based 3D dark ride located at the Islands of Adventure , Orlando and Universal Studios Japan , Osaka theme parks . Built for Islands of Adventure 's opening in 1999 , the attraction is a hybrid ride combining special roving motion vehicles with 3D projection , elaborate physical sets , and both practical and tactile effects .
The ride takes park guests @-@ turned @-@ last @-@ minute @-@ reporters into the world of Marvel Comics ' Spider @-@ Man , and after boarding a Daily Bugle vehicle known as the " Scoop " , the rider learns that the evil Sinister Syndicate has captured the Statue of Liberty with an anti @-@ gravity gun . This evil group is made up of many famous Spider @-@ Man villains , including Doctor Octopus , Scream , Electro , Hydro @-@ Man , and the Hobgoblin .
The attraction took three years to produce , with many new technologies and techniques being developed . The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man has been well received , winning several awards including the Golden Ticket Award for Best Dark Ride for twelve consecutive years .
= = History = =
On March 27 , 1999 , Islands of Adventure opened for technical rehearsals , with The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man being one of its debut attractions . On May 28 , 1999 , the attraction officially opened to the public . Due to the success of the attraction , Universal Studios Japan opened a clone of the ride on January 23 , 2004 .
On May 19 , 2011 , Islands of Adventure announced a major refurbishment of the attraction , with plans to re @-@ master the entire ride film in high definition as well as to update the ride 's mechanics and to replace the film projectors with Infitec digital projectors . The refurbished version of the attraction debuted on March 8 , 2012 . The ride was refurbished in time for the release of 2012 film , The Amazing Spider @-@ Man . In 2013 , the attraction at Universal Studios Japan underwent a similar refurbishment with 4KHD projections being deployed . The refurbished attraction opened on July 5 , 2013 .
= = Experience = =
= = = Queue = = =
Guests enter the Daily Bugle from Marvel Super Hero Island at Islands of Adventure or New York at Universal Studios Japan . Guests are shown a video in which the company 's good reputation is touted and a new newsgathering vehicle , the " Scoop " , is introduced . After walking though the empty office , guests are shown a " live " video feed of news coverage . Five supervillains led by Doctor Octopus have lain siege to the city by an experimental anti @-@ gravity cannon created by Doctor Octopus himself . The syndicate steals the Statue of Liberty and threatens to destroy it if the city does not surrender to them . As guests walk through the empty offices of the Bugle , it becomes apparent that all the reporters have fled , leaving The Bugle 's Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief J. Jonah Jameson with no choice but to send the tourists to cover the story using the Bugle 's new Scoop vehicle .
= = = Ride experience = = =
After donning night vision goggles ( 3D glasses ) the " cub reporters " get in the Scoop and leave the loading docks to a Manhattan back alley where they encounter Spider @-@ Man . He warns that he is in for the most dangerous night of his life and for the guests to be careful . In this scene , a series of synchronised effects are used to simulate Spider @-@ Man jumping on the Scoop . Nearly missing a trash truck driven by a Stan Lee cameo , the guests enter a warehouse where the Sinister Syndicate are holding the Statue of Liberty hostage . Once spotted , Electro , Scream , and Doctor Octopus attack and hurl the Scoop into the sewer , where Spider @-@ Man is waiting . After he fends off Hydro @-@ Man and Doctor Octopus there , the guests escape narrowly to the river where Hobgoblin attacks with exploding pumpkins and sends guests into the streets .
In the ride 's climax , Doctor Octopus lifts the Scoop up to a height of 400 feet ( 120 m ) using the anti @-@ gravity cannon . A number of synchronised effects help achieve this without the vehicle leaving the ground . These include a movable building set , lighting cues , simulator movements , projections and wind effects . Spider @-@ Man attempts to pull the Scoop down , but is attacked by all the supervillains . Spider @-@ Man thwarts them , but not before Doctor Octopus disengages the anti @-@ gravity device , sending the Scoop on a simulated freefall until it is rescued by Spider @-@ Man 's webbing right above the ground and another Stan Lee cameo . Spider @-@ Man manages to capture all of the supervillains by tying them with webs . As the vehicle pulls into the unload station , Spider @-@ Man thanks the guests for their help and sends them back to the Daily Bugle , where he has rigged the anti @-@ gravity cannon to lift Jameson up to the ceiling in his office . Guests unload while a modern rendition of the classic Spider @-@ Man theme song plays and a voiceover by Stan Lee instructs the riders on exiting properly .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Development of The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man at Islands of Adventure began in 1996 . Allen Ambrosini from At The Park Magazine stated theme park guests in the late 1990s were becoming more sophisticated , desiring rides that combined theming and thrills into a single immersive experience . As a result , the ride 's creators set out to develop a ride which would take the motion simulation elements of Back to the Future : The Ride , and combine them with a 3D film similar to that used on T2 3 @-@ D : Battle Across Time . The result was a prototype ride system combining a track @-@ mounted motion base vehicle with 3D projections and other special effects , with the aim of immersing guests inside a comic book . To develop the attraction , Universal Creative brought together a number of companies including the Oceaneering Entertainment Systems division of Oceaneering International , Birket Engineering , Moog , Soundelux , Kleizer Walczak , and Rinehart Manufacturing .
= = = Ride system = = =
The ride system used on The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man was originally prototyped for the attraction at Islands of Adventure , before being installed at Universal Studios Japan . It has since been utilised for Transformers : The Ride at Universal Studios Singapore , Universal Studios Hollywood and Universal Studios Florida . The ride vehicles , developed by Oceaneering International , are mounted to a track @-@ roaming platform that provides the forward motion to move the vehicle through each show scene . The yaw motor and a stewart platform with six degrees of freedom attaching it to the platform allows the vehicle to move 360 degrees at different angles along the track . The track switches were manufactured by Dynamic Structures . Each of the vehicles are themed as the Daily Bugle 's new " Scoop " vehicle for reporters , with each accommodating twelve riders . Each row of four riders is restrained by a single lapbar . This system was invented by Universal Creative employees Philip Hettema , William Mason , and Gary Goddard . A similar system has been patented by Oceaneering International and used on rides such as The Curse of DarKastle at Busch Gardens Williamsburg , Tokyo Panic Cruise at Tokyo Dome , and Speed of Magic at Ferrari World Abu Dhabi .
= = = Ride film and projections = = =
The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man was primarily developed by Universal Creative , the research and development division of Universal Parks & Resorts . Scott Trowbridge , who now works for Walt Disney Imagineering , was the ride 's producer . Thierry Coup , who has since worked on Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey and Transformers : The Ride , was the Director and production designer . Trowbridge and Coup helped develop the initial storyboards for the attraction . They travelled to Massachusetts several times to meet with the animation directors , Jeff Kleiser and Diana Walczak , and their team at Kleiser @-@ Walczak Construction Co . ( now Synthespian Studios ) who provided all the stereoscopic animation and custom software for squinching . Coup produced the film alongside Patrick Mooney and Mark Rhodes . Trowbridge is given writing credits alongside Ross Osterman and Scott Peterson . Peter Lehman provided the soundtrack with Soundelux .
The attraction features thirteen 30 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) projection screens , twelve of which use 3D projection . The ride uses a polarized 3D system where the two projectors have polarizers designed to interact with each lens of the 3D glasses . By blocking light from one projector with each lens , the 3D effect is achieved . With traditional 3D projections there is an ideal seating location , where an off @-@ center viewing location reduces the overall effect of the 3D . To allow the ride to effectively combine 3D projections with moving viewers , Kleiser @-@ Walczak and their head of software , Frank Vtiz , developed a process they called squinching . First , the amount of distortion is predicted from a particular viewing angle . This same amount of distortion is then added in the opposite direction in order to counteract the effects . Initially miniature models were used to determine the ride 's path and the vehicle 's point of view , with full @-@ scale prototypes being used later . Trowbridge and Coup are credited with inventing the concept of squinching , with Universal Studios holding a patent for the method .
= = = Special effects = = =
In addition to the ride 's motion base and 3D projections , special effects including fog machines , fire , wind , heat , mist , strobe lights , and water spray are also employed throughout the attraction . All of these effects , along with the ride system , 3D projections and soundtrack , are controlled by a central industrial control system which knows , to one thirtieth of a second , when they are to execute . Just shy of the ride 's debut , the director of show and ride engineering at Islands of Adventure , Steve Blum , described The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man as the " most technically complex of all of the attractions " at the park . Vice president of design and creative development Mark Woodbury stated that they " would not have been able to tell this particular story if it weren 't for the technical tools " .
= = Reception = =
Cited by many as one of the best amusement rides in the world , The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man has been well received . Howard Shaprio of The Philadelphia Inquirer stated the ride was " bound to become one of the all @-@ time attractions of theme parks anywhere " . He described the climax of the ride the " most amazing effect " . Bill Dean of The Ledger described the ride as the " most impressive " attraction at Islands of Adventure . Guests interviewed by Dean praised the ride with comments including " I loved it " , " I think this is better [ than Back to the Future : The Ride ] because of the 3 @-@ D effects " , and " it was so exciting and everything was happening all at once , so it was really , really good " . Fred Mawer of the Daily Mail described the rides at Islands of Adventure " as technologically sophisticated as any in the world " with The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man being " the most extraordinary few minutes " .
Arthur Levine of About.com gave the ride 5 stars describing the ride as " an incredibly sophisticated attraction " that " blurs the line between virtual and reality so well that you 'll emerge slack @-@ jawed and awe @-@ struck " . He stated the enhancements made to the film projections in 2012 and 2013 " make the attraction even more immersive and awe @-@ inspiring " . Brady MacDonald of the Los Angeles Times rated the ride his second favourite in the world , after Disneyland 's Indiana Jones Adventure . Following the opening of fellow Universal rides Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey and Transformers : The Ride in 2010 and 2012 , MacDonald bumped The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man to his fourth favourite . In an interview for Amusement Business , Mark Hansen Jr. of Theme Park Critic praised the ride in stating that their dream ride would combine The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man with a 4th Dimension roller coaster such as X at Six Flags Magic Mountain . Theme Park Insider rated the ride a 9 out of 10 , based on 250 reviews .
In April 2004 , just three months after the ride opened at Universal Studios Japan , Amusement Business reported the park was " benefiting greatly from the addition of the ride " . Figures released at the end of 2004 showed Universal Studios Japan 's attendance rose from 8 @.@ 8 million people in 2003 to 9 @.@ 9 million people in 2004 , ranking it the sixth most visited park worldwide .
= = = Awards = = =
The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man has been the recipient of many awards from the amusement park industry . It won Amusement Today 's Golden Ticket Award for Best Dark Ride for twelve consecutive years from 1999 through to 2010 . It has since placed second in that category , after fellow Islands of Adventure attraction , Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey , took the top spot in 2011 . In 2000 , the ride won a Thea Award from the Themed Entertainment Association for outstanding themed entertainment and experience design . It has also won numerous public @-@ voted Theme Park Insider Awards and Screamscape Ultimate Awards .
= Goliath ( La Ronde ) =
Goliath is a steel coaster roller coaster at the La Ronde located in Montreal , Quebec , Canada . Designed by Bolliger & Mabillard , it reaches a maximum height of 174 @.@ 8 feet ( 53 @.@ 3 m ) , a speed of 68 @.@ 4 miles per hour ( 110 @.@ 1 km / h ) , and a track length of 4 @,@ 038 @.@ 8 feet ( 1 @,@ 231 @.@ 0 m ) . Construction commenced in September 2005 , and the roller coaster opened to the public on May 13 , 2006 . Goliath was the tallest and fastest roller coaster in Canada until it was surpassed by Behemoth ( another Bolliger & Mabillard roller coaster ) , at Canada 's Wonderland 's in 2008 . Six Flags announced that Goliath would be hooked up with Virtual Reality for a New Revolution experience for the 2016 season , which was previously made as a world premiere in 2013 by a Montreal VR company .
= = History = =
Speculation that La Ronde would be building a new roller coaster began in the second half of 2004 . Rumors that the roller coaster would be manufactured by Bolliger & Mabillard emerged in September 2005 . Construction for the roller coaster by Martin & Vleminckx began in September 2005 with land clearing and foundation pouring . The $ 18 @.@ 7 million Goliath was announced on October 26 , 2005 . By mid @-@ November , the storage bay was constructed with track pieces for the brake run and station being installed soon after . Construction on the lift hill continued throughout December and was topped off ( the highest piece the lift hill ) on December 21 . The first drop was completed by mid @-@ January 2006 followed by the first camelback hill which was completed by the end of February . After the second and third camelback hills were installed , the turnaround was completed in mid @-@ March . The three camelback hills and banked turns leading back to the station were installed by the end of March marking the completion of installing track . The cars for the trains were also delivered in late March . After the cars were put on the track in April , testing began . Once testing was complete , Goliath opened to the public on May 13 , 2006 .
When Goliath opened , it was the tallest and fastest roller coaster in Canada . Two years later , when Behemoth opened at Canada 's Wonderland , Goliath lost both records .
= = Ride experience = =
After being dispatched from the station , the train immediately begins to climb the 174 @.@ 8 feet ( 53 @.@ 3 m ) lift hill . Once at the top , the train drops back down 170 @.@ 6 feet ( 52 @.@ 0 m ) at a 70 @-@ degree angle . The train then makes a banked right turn leading into the first of three consecutive camelback hills ; each at a height of 121 @.@ 4 feet ( 37 @.@ 0 m ) , 95 @.@ 2 feet ( 29 @.@ 0 m ) , and 78 @.@ 8 feet ( 24 @.@ 0 m ) ( every hill is smaller than the previous one ) . Following the third hill , the train enters a 75 @.@ 5 feet ( 23 @.@ 0 m ) left hand turnaround that makes the train face the opposite direction that it came . After dropping back down to the ground , the train goes over another three camleback hills ; each at a height of 68 @.@ 9 feet ( 21 @.@ 0 m ) , 59 @.@ 1 feet ( 18 @.@ 0 m ) , and 52 @.@ 5 feet ( 16 @.@ 0 m ) . Then , the train makes an upward 45 @.@ 9 feet ( 14 @.@ 0 m ) right banked turn , immediately followed by a downward left banked turn . After another 42 @.@ 7 feet ( 13 @.@ 0 m ) left banked turn , the train rises back up and goes over a small bump before entering the final brake run . The train then makes a 180 @-@ degree right turn leading back to the station . One cycle of the ride lasts about three minutes .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Track = = =
The steel track of Goliath is approximately 4 @,@ 038 @.@ 8 feet ( 1 @,@ 231 @.@ 0 m ) long , and the height of the lift is 174 @.@ 8 feet ( 53 @.@ 3 m ) high . It is made up of 150 foundations , 300 pilings , 106 supports , and 850 anchor bolts . The roller coasters has no inversions though it does feature seve camelback hills . The track is painted red with yellow rails while the supports are painted blue . It was manufactured by Clermont Steel Fabricators located in Batavia , Ohio .
Though Goliath is a B & M Hyper Coaster ( the model name for this type of B & M roller coaster ) , the roller coaster is technically not classified as a Hypercoaster . A Hypercoaster is any roller coaster that reaches a height over 200 feet ( 61 m ) ; Goliath reaches only 175 feet ( 53 m ) .
= = = Trains = = =
Goliath operates with two steel and fiberglass trains . Each train has nine cars which can seat four riders in a single row , for a total of 36 riders per train ; each seat has its own individual lap @-@ bar restraint . The structure of the trains are colored yellow , red and blue . The seats are blue and the restraints are yellow .
= = Awards = =
In Goliath 's opening year , it was voted the 37th best steel roller coaster in Amusement Today 's Golden Ticket Awards . The roller coaster peaked at position 23 in 2011 . It did not place in the top five new roller coasters for 2006 .
In Mitch Hawker 's Best Steel Roller Coaster Poll , Goliath was voted as the 25th best steel roller coaster in the world in its first year ; it peaked at position 14 in 2009 .
= Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis =
Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis ( CVST ) is the presence of acute thrombosis ( a blood clot ) in the dural venous sinuses , which drain blood from the brain . Symptoms may include headache , abnormal vision , any of the symptoms of stroke such as weakness of the face and limbs on one side of the body , and seizures . The diagnosis is usually by computed tomography ( CT / CAT scan ) or magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) employing radiocontrast to demonstrate obstruction of the venous sinuses by thrombus .
Treatment is with anticoagulants ( medication that suppresses blood clotting ) , and rarely thrombolysis ( enzymatic destruction of the blood clot ) . Given that there is usually an underlying cause for the disease , tests may be performed to look for these . The disease may be complicated by raised intracranial pressure , which may warrant surgical intervention such as the placement of a shunt .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Nine in ten people with sinus thrombosis have a headache ; this tends to worsen over the period of several days , but may also develop suddenly ( thunderclap headache ) . The headache may be the only symptom of cerebral venous sinus thrombosis . Many patients have symptoms of stroke : inability to move one or more limbs , weakness on one side of the face or difficulty speaking . This does not necessarily affect one side of the body as in the more common " arterial " stroke .
40 % of all patients have seizures , although it is more common still in women who develop sinus thrombosis peripartum ( in the period before and after giving birth ) . These are mostly seizures affecting only one part of the body and unilateral ( occurring on one side ) , but occasionally the seizures are generalised and rarely they lead to status epilepticus ( persistent or recurrent seizure activity for a long period of time ) .
In the elderly , many of the aforementioned symptoms may not occur . Common symptoms in the elderly with this condition are otherwise unexplained changes in mental status and a depressed level of consciousness .
The pressure around the brain may rise , causing papilledema ( swelling of the optic disc ) which may be experienced as visual obscurations . In severely raised intracranial pressure , the level of consciousness is decreased , the blood pressure rises , the heart rate falls and the patient assumes an abnormal posture .
= = Causes = =
Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis is more common in particular situations . 85 % of patients have at least one of these risk factors :
Thrombophilia , a tendency to develop blood clots due to abnormalities in coagulation , e.g. factor V Leiden , deficiency of protein C , protein S or antithrombin , or related problems
Nephrotic syndrome , a kidney problem causing protein loss in the urine
Chronic inflammatory diseases , such as inflammatory bowel disease , lupus and Behçet 's disease
Pregnancy and puerperium ( the period after giving birth )
Particular blood disorders , especially polycythemia vera and paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria
Use of estrogen @-@ containing forms of hormonal contraception
Meningitis and infections of the ear , nose and throat area such as mastoiditis and sinusitis
Direct injury to the venous sinuses
Medical procedures in the head and neck area
Sickle cell anemia
Dehydration , primarily in infants and children
Homocystinuria
= = Diagnosis = =
The diagnosis may be suspected on the basis of the symptoms , for example the combination of headache , signs of raised intracranial pressure and focal neurological abnormalities , or when alternative causes of headache and neurological abnormalities , such as a subarachnoid hemorrhage , have been excluded .
= = = Imaging = = =
There are various neuroimaging investigations that may detect cerebral sinus thrombosis . Cerebral edema and venous infarction may be apparent on any modality , but for the detection of the thrombus itself , the most commonly used tests are computed tomography ( CT ) and magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) , both using various types of radiocontrast to perform a venogram and visualise the veins around the brain .
Computed tomography , with radiocontrast in the venous phase ( CT venography or CTV ) , has a detection rate that in some regards exceeds that of MRI . The test involves injection into a vein ( usually in the arm ) of a radioopaque substance , and time is allowed for the bloodstream to carry it to the cerebral veins - at which point the scan is performed . It has a sensitivity of 75 @-@ 100 % ( it detects 75 @-@ 100 % of all clots present ) , and a specificity of 81 @-@ 100 % ( it would be incorrectly positive in 0 @-@ 19 % ) . In the first two weeks , the " empty delta sign " may be observed ( in later stages , this sign may disappear ) .
Magnetic resonance venography employs the same principles , but uses MRI as a scanning modality . MRI has the advantage of being better at detecting damage to the brain itself as a result of the increased pressure on the obstructed veins , but it is not readily available in many hospitals and the interpretation may be difficult .
Cerebral angiography may demonstrate smaller clots than CT or MRI , and obstructed veins may give the " corkscrew appearance " . This , however , requires puncture of the femoral artery with a sheath and advancing a thin tube through the blood vessels to the brain where radiocontrast is injected before X @-@ ray images are obtained . It is therefore only performed if all other tests give unclear results or when other treatments may be administered during the same procedure .
= = = D @-@ dimer = = =
A 2004 study suggested that the D @-@ dimer blood test , already in use for the diagnosis of other forms of thrombosis , was abnormal ( above 500 μg / l ) in 34 out of 35 patients with cerebral sinus thrombosis , giving it a sensitivity of 97 @.@ 1 % , a negative predictive value of 99 @.@ 6 % , a specificity of 91 @.@ 2 % , and a positive predictive value of 55 @.@ 7 % . Furthermore , the level of the D @-@ dimer correlated with the extent of the thrombosis . A subsequent study , however , showed that 10 % of patients with confirmed thrombosis had a normal D @-@ dimer , and in those who had presented with only a headache 26 % had a normal D @-@ dimer . The study concludes that D @-@ dimer is not useful in the situations where it would make the most difference , namely in lower probability cases .
= = = Further tests = = =
In most patients , the direct cause for the cerebral sinus thrombosis is not readily apparent . Identifying a source of infection is crucial ; it is common practice to screen for various forms of thrombophilia ( a propensity to form blood clots ) .
= = Pathogenesis = =
The veins of the brain , both the superficial veins and the deep venous system , empty into the dural venous sinuses , which carry blood back to the jugular vein and thence to the heart . In cerebral venous sinus thrombosis , blood clots usually form both in the veins of the brain and the venous sinuses . The thrombosis of the veins themselves causes venous infarction — damage to brain tissue due to a congested and therefore insufficient blood supply . This results in cerebral edema ( both vasogenic and cytotoxic edema ) , and leads to small petechial haemorrhages that may merge into large haematomas . Thrombosis of the sinuses is the main mechanism behind the increase in intracranial pressure due to decreased resorption of cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF ) . The condition does not lead to hydrocephalus , however , because there is no difference in pressure between various parts of the brain .
Any blood clot forms due to an imbalance between coagulation ( the formation of the insoluble blood protein fibrin ) and fibrinolysis . The three major mechanisms for such an imbalance are enumerated in Virchow 's triad : alterations in normal blood flow , injury to the blood vessel wall , and alterations in the constitution of blood ( hypercoagulability ) . Most cases of cerebral venous sinus thrombosis are due to hypercoagulability .
It is possible for the clot to break off and migrate ( embolise ) to the lungs , causing a pulmonary embolism . An analysis of earlier case reports concludes that this occurs in about 10 % of cases , but has a very poor prognosis .
= = Treatment = =
Various studies have investigated the use of anticoagulation to suppress blood clot formation in cerebral venous sinus thrombosis . Before these trials had been conducted , there had been a concern that small areas of hemorrhage in the brain would bleed further as a result of treatment ; the studies showed that this concern was unfounded . Clinical practice guidelines now recommend heparin or low molecular weight heparin in the initial treatment , followed by warfarin , provided there are no other bleeding risks that would make these treatments unsuitable . Some experts discourage the use of anticoagulation if there is extensive hemorrhage ; in that case , they recommend repeating the imaging after 7 – 10 days . If the hemorrhage has decreased in size , anticoagulants are started , while no anticoagulants are given if there is no reduction .
The duration of warfarin treatment depends on the circumstances and underlying causes of the condition . If the thrombosis developed under temporary circumstances ( e.g. pregnancy ) , three months are regarded as sufficient . If the condition was unprovoked but there are no clear causes or a " mild " form of thrombophilia , 6 to 12 months is advised . If there is a severe underlying thrombosis disorder , warfarin treatment may need to continue indefinitely .
Thrombolysis ( removal of the blood clot with " clot buster " medication ) has been described , either systemically by injection into a vein or directly into the clot during angiography . The 2006 European Federation of Neurological Societies guideline recommends that thrombolysis is only used in patients who deteriorate despite adequate treatment , and other causes of deterioration have been eliminated . It is unclear which drug and which mode of administration is the most effective . Bleeding into the brain and in other sites of the body is a major concern in the use of thrombolysis . American guidelines make no recommendation with regards to thrombolysis , stating that more research is needed .
Raised intracranial pressure , if severe or threatening vision , may require therapeutic lumbar puncture ( removal of excessive cerebrospinal fluid ) , medication ( acetazolamide ) , or neurosurgical treatment ( optic nerve sheath fenestration or shunting ) . In certain situations , anticonvulsants may be used to try to prevent seizures . These situations include focal neurological problems ( e.g. inability to move a limb ) and focal changes of the brain tissue on CT or MRI scan . Evidence to support or refute the use of antiepileptic drugs as a preventive measure , however , is lacking .
= = Prognosis = =
In 2004 the first adequately large scale study on the natural history and long @-@ term prognosis of this condition was reported ; this showed that at 16 months follow @-@ up 57 @.@ 1 % of patients had full recovery , 29 @.@ 5 % / 2 @.@ 9 % / 2 @.@ 2 % had respectively minor / moderate / severe symptoms or impairments , and 8 @.@ 3 % had died . Severe impairment or death were more likely in those aged over 37 years , male , affected by coma , mental status disorder , intracerebral hemorrhage , thrombosis of the deep cerebral venous system , central nervous system infection and cancer . A subsequent systematic review of nineteen studies in 2006 showed that mortality is about 5 @.@ 6 % during hospitalisation and 9 @.@ 4 % in total , while of the survivors 88 % make a total or near @-@ total recovery . After several months , two thirds of the cases has resolution ( " recanalisation " ) of the clot . The rate of recurrence was low ( 2 @.@ 8 % ) .
In children with CVST the risk of death is high . Poor outcome is more likely if a child with CVST develops seizures or has evidence of venous infarction on imaging .
= = Epidemiology = =
Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis is rare , with an estimated 3 @-@ 4 cases per million annual incidence in adults . While it may occur in all age groups , it is most common in the third decade . 75 % are female . Given that older studies show no difference in incidence between men and women , it has been suggested that the use of oral contraceptives in women is behind the disparity between the sexes . A 1995 report from Saudi Arabia found a doubled incidence at 7 cases per 100 @,@ 000 ; this was attributed to the fact that Behçet 's disease , which increases risk of CVST , is more common in the Middle East .
A 1973 report found that CVST could be found on autopsy ( examination of the body after death ) in nine percent of all people . Many of these were elderly and had neurological symptoms in the period leading up to their death , and many suffered from concomitant heart failure .
In children , a Canadian study reported in 2001 that CVST occurs in 6 @.@ 7 per million annually . 43 % occur in the newborn ( less than one month old ) , and a further 10 % in the first year of life . Of the newborn , 84 % were already ill , mostly from complications after childbirth and dehydration .
= = History = =
The first description of thrombosis of the cerebral veins and sinuses is attributed to the French physician Ribes , who in 1825 observed thrombosis of the saggital sinus and cerebral veins in a man who had suffered from seizures and delirium . Until the second half of the 20th century it remained a diagnosis generally made after death . In the 1940s , reports by Dr Charles Symonds and others allowed for the clinical diagnosis of cerebral venous thrombosis , using characteristic signs and symptoms and results of lumbar puncture .
Improvements on the diagnosis of cerebral venous sinus thrombosis in life were made with the introduction of venography in 1951 , which also aided in the distinction from idiopathic intracranial hypertension , which has similar presenting signs and symptoms in many cases .
The British gynecologist Stansfield is credited with the introduction , in 1942 , of the just recently introduced anticoagulant heparin in the treatment of CVST in 1942 . Clinical trials in the 1990s finally resolved the concern about using anticoagulants in most cases of CVST .
= = Notable cases = =
U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton was hospitalized on December 30 , 2012 , for anticoagulation treatment of venous thrombosis of the right transverse sinus , which is located at the base of the brain . Clinton 's thrombotic episode was discovered on an MRI scan done for follow @-@ up of a cerebral concussion she had suffered 2 @.@ 5 weeks before after she fell while suffering from gastroenteritis .
= Ununtrium =
Ununtrium ( symbol Uut ) is a temporary name for the chemical element with atomic number 113 . It is a synthetic element ( an element that can be created in a laboratory but is not found in nature ) and is extremely radioactive ; its most stable known isotope , ununtrium @-@ 286 , has a half @-@ life of 20 seconds . It is also known as eka @-@ thallium or simply element 113 . Ununtrium was first reported to have been created in 2003 by the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna , Russia , and in 2004 by a team of Japanese scientists at RIKEN . In December 2015 , the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) and the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics ( IUPAP ) recognized the element and assigned the priority of the discovery to RIKEN . In June 2016 , the IUPAC published a declaration proposing the name nihonium / nɪˈhoʊniəm / , symbol Nh . The name is set to be formally accepted in ( or after ) November 2016 . The name comes from one of the pronunciations of the Japanese word for Japan ( 日本 , nihon ) .
In the periodic table , it is a p @-@ block transactinide element . It is a member of the 7th period and is placed in the boron group , although it has not been confirmed to behave as the heavier homologue to thallium in the boron group . Ununtrium is calculated to have some similar properties to its lighter homologues , boron , aluminium , gallium , indium , and thallium , although it should also show several major differences from them . Unlike all the other p @-@ block elements , it is predicted to show some transition metal character .
= = History = =
= = = Dubna – Livermore collaboration = = =
The first report of ununtrium was in August 2003 , when it was identified as an alpha decay product of element 115 , ununpentium . These results were published on February 1 , 2004 , by a team composed of Russian scientists at Dubna ( Joint Institute for Nuclear Research ) , and American scientists at the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory :
243
95Am + 48
20Ca → 288
115Uup + 3 1
0n → 284
113Uut + α
243
95Am + 48
20Ca → 287
115Uup + 4 1
0n → 283
113Uut + α
The Dubna – Livermore collaboration has strengthened their claim for the discovery of ununtrium by conducting chemical experiments on 268Db , the final decay product of 288Uup . This was valuable as none of the nuclides in this decay chain were previously known , so that their claim was not supported by any previously obtained experimental data ( as none existed ) , and chemical experimentation would strengthen the case for their claim . In June 2004 and again in December 2005 , this dubnium isotope was successfully identified by extracting the final decay products , measuring spontaneous fission ( SF ) activities and using chemical identification techniques to confirm that they behave like a group 5 element ( as dubnium is known to be in group 5 of the periodic table ) . Both the half @-@ life and decay mode were confirmed for the proposed 268Db which lends support to the assignment of the parent and daughter nuclei to ununpentium and ununtrium respectively . Further experiments at Dubna in 2005 have fully confirmed the decay data for ununpentium and ununtrium , but in 2011 , the IUPAC / IUPAP Joint Working Party ( JWP ) did not recognize the two elements as having been discovered because current theory could not distinguish between group 4 and group 5 elements by their chemical properties with sufficient confidence , and the identification of the daughter dubnium isotope was the most important factor in confirming the discovery of ununpentium and ununtrium . Furthermore , the decay properties of all the nuclei in the decay chain of ununpentium had not been previously characterized before the Dubna experiments , a situation which the JWP generally considers " troublesome , but not necessarily exclusive " .
= = = RIKEN = = =
On July 23 , 2004 , a team of Japanese scientists at RIKEN bombarded a target of bismuth @-@ 209 with accelerated nuclei of zinc @-@ 70 and detected a single atom of the isotope ununtrium @-@ 278 . They published their results on September 28 , 2004 :
209
83Bi + 70
30Zn → 278
113Uut + 1
0n
Previously , in 2000 , a team led by P. A. Wilk identified the decay product 266Bh as decaying with identical properties to what the Japanese team had observed , thus lending support for their claim . However , they also observed the daughter of 266Bh , 262Db , undergo alpha decay instead of spontaneous fission ( the Japanese team observed the latter decay mode ) .
The RIKEN team produced a further atom on April 2 , 2005 , although the decay data were slightly different from the first chain , perhaps due to either the formation of a metastable state or an alpha particle escaping from the detector before depositing its full energy . Due to these inconsistencies in the decay data , the small number of ununtrium atoms produced , and the lack of unambiguous anchors to known isotopes , the JWP did not accept this as a conclusive discovery of ununtrium in 2011 .
Most recently , production and identification of another 278Uut nucleus occurred at RIKEN on August 12 , 2012 . In this case , a series of
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in Japan , claimed to have synthesised element 113 by colliding zinc nuclei ( with 30 protons each ) into a thin layer of bismuth ( which contains 83 protons ) . In December 2015 , IUPAC recognized the element and assigned the priority of the discovery to RIKEN . For the first time in history a team of Asian physicists will name a new element .
The following names were speculated before the June 2016 announcement of the proposed name " nihonium " :
On 8 June 2016 , IUPAC disclosed the name of ununtrium as nihonium . Prior to the formal approval by the IUPAC Council , a five @-@ month public review is now set , expiring 8 November 2016 .
= = Isotopes = =
Ununtrium has no stable or naturally @-@ occurring isotopes . Several radioactive isotopes have been synthesized in the laboratory , either by fusing two atoms or by observing the decay of heavier elements . Six different isotopes of ununtrium have been reported with atomic masses 278 and 282 – 286 ; they all decay through alpha decay .
= = = Stability and half @-@ lives = = =
All ununtrium isotopes are extremely unstable and radioactive ; however , the heavier ununtrium isotopes are more stable than the lighter . The most stable known ununtrium isotope , 286Uut , is also the heaviest known ununtrium isotope ; it has a half @-@ life of 20 seconds . The isotope 285Uut has been reported to also have a half @-@ life of over a second . The isotopes 284Uut and 283Uut have half @-@ lives of 0 @.@ 48 and 0 @.@ 10 seconds respectively . The remaining two isotopes have half @-@ lives between 0 @.@ 1 and 100 milliseconds : 282Uut has a half @-@ life of 70 milliseconds , and 278Uut , the lightest known ununtrium isotope , is also the shortest @-@ lived known ununtrium isotope , with a half @-@ life of just 0 @.@ 24 milliseconds . It is predicted that even heavier undiscovered ununtrium isotopes could be much more stable : for example , 287Uut is predicted to have a half @-@ life of around 20 minutes , close to two orders of magnitude more than that of 286Uut .
Theoretical estimates of alpha decay half @-@ lives of isotopes of ununtrium are in good agreement with the experimental data . The undiscovered isotope 293Uut has been predicted to be the most stable towards beta decay ; however , no known ununtrium isotope has been observed to undergo beta decay .
The stability of nuclei decreases greatly with the increase in atomic number after plutonium , the heaviest primordial element , so that all isotopes with an atomic number above 101 decay radioactively with a half @-@ life under a day , with the exception of dubnium @-@ 268 . Nevertheless , because of reasons not very well understood yet , there is a slight increased nuclear stability around atomic numbers 110 – 114 , which leads to the appearance of what is known in nuclear physics as the " island of stability " . This concept , proposed by University of California professor Glenn Seaborg , explains why superheavy elements last longer than predicted .
= = Predicted properties = =
Ununtrium is the first member of the 7p series of elements and the heaviest boron group element on the periodic table , below boron , aluminium , gallium , indium , and thallium . It is predicted to show many differences from its lighter homologues : a largely contributing effect is the spin – orbit ( SO ) interaction . It is especially strong for the superheavy elements , because their electrons move much faster than in lighter atoms , at velocities comparable to the speed of light . In relation to ununtrium atoms , it lowers the 7s and the 7p electron energy levels ( stabilizing the corresponding electrons ) , but two of the 7p electron energy levels are stabilized more than the other four . The stabilization of the 7s electrons is called the inert pair effect , and the effect " tearing " the 7p subshell into the more stabilized and the less stabilized parts is called the subshell splitting . Computation chemists see the split as a change of the second ( azimuthal ) quantum number l from 1 to 1 / 2 and 3 / 2 for the more stabilized and less stabilized parts of the 7p subshell , respectively . For many theoretical purposes , the valence electron configuration may be represented to reflect the 7p subshell split as 7s27p1 / 21 . These effects stabilize lower oxidation states : the first ionization energy of ununtrium is expected to be 7 @.@ 306 eV , the highest among the boron group elements . Hence , the most stable oxidation state of ununtrium is predicted to be the + 1 state , and ununtrium is expected to be less reactive than thallium . Differences for other electron levels also exist . For example , the 6d electron levels ( also split in halves , with four being 6d3 / 2 and six being 6d5 / 2 ) are both raised , so that they are close in energy to the 7s ones . Thus , the 6d electron levels , being destabilized , should still be able to participate in chemical reactions in ununtrium ( as well as in the next 7p element , flerovium ) , thus making it behave in some ways like transition metals and allow higher oxidation states . Ununtrium should hence also be able to show stable + 2 , + 3 and + 5 oxidation states . However , the + 3 state should still be less stable than the + 1 state , following periodic trends . Ununtrium should be the most electronegative among all the boron group elements : for example , in the compound UutUus , the negative charge is expected to be on the ununtrium atom rather than the ununseptium atom , the opposite of what would be expected from simple periodicity . The electron affinity of ununtrium is calculated to be around 0 @.@ 68 eV ; in comparison , that of thallium is 0 @.@ 4 eV . The high electron affinity and electronegativity of ununtrium are due to it being only one electron short of the closed @-@ shell valence electron configuration of flerovium ( 7s27p1 / 22 ) : this would make the − 1 oxidation state of ununtrium more stable than that of its lighter congener thallium .
The simplest possible ununtrium compound is the monohydride , UutH . The bonding is provided by the 7p1 / 2 electron of ununtrium and the 1s electron of hydrogen . However , the SO interaction causes the binding energy of ununtrium monohydride to be reduced by about 1 eV and the ununtrium – hydrogen bond length to decrease as the bonding 7p1 / 2 orbital is relativistically contracted . The analogous monofluoride ( UutF ) should also exist . Ununtrium should also be able to form the trihydride ( UutH3 ) , trifluoride ( UutF3 ) , and trichloride ( UutCl3 ) , with ununtrium in the + 3 oxidation state . Because the 6d electrons are involved in bonding instead of the 7s ones , these molecules are predicted to be T @-@ shaped and not trigonal planar . Although the polyfluoride anion UutF −
6 should be stable , the corresponding neutral fluoride UutF5 should be unstable , spontaneously decomposing into the trifluoride and elemental fluorine . Ununtrium ( I ) is predicted to be more similar to silver ( I ) than thallium ( I ) : the Uut + ion is expected to more willingly bind anions , so that UutCl should be quite soluble in an excess of hydrochloric acid or in ammonia while TlCl is not . Additionally , in contrast to the strongly basic TlOH , ununtrium ( I ) should instead form Uut2O , which would be weakly water @-@ soluble and readily ammonia @-@ soluble .
Ununtrium is expected to be much denser than thallium , having a predicted density of about 16 to 18 g / cm3 , due to the relativistic stabilization and contraction of its 7s and 7p1 / 2 orbitals . This is because calculations estimate it to have an atomic radius of about 170 pm , the same as that of thallium , even though periodic trends would predict it to have an atomic radius larger than that of thallium due to it being one period further down in the periodic table . The melting and boiling points of ununtrium are not definitely known , but have been calculated to be 430 ° C and 1100 ° C respectively , exceeding the values for gallium , indium , and thallium , following periodic trends .
= = Experimental chemistry = =
Unambiguous determination of the chemical characteristics of ununtrium has yet to have been established . The isotopes 284Uut , 285Uut , and 286Uut have half @-@ lives long enough for chemical investigation . It is theoretically predicted that ununtrium should have an enthalpy of sublimation around 150 kJ / mol and an enthalpy of adsorption on a gold surface around − 159 kJ / mol . From 2010 to 2012 , some preliminary chemical experiments were performed to determine the volatility of ununtrium . The reaction used was 243Am ( 48Ca , 3n ) 288Uup ; the isotope 288Uup has a short half @-@ life and would quickly decay to the longer @-@ lived 284Uut , which would be chemically investigated . Teflon capillaries at 70 ° C connecting the recoil chamber , where the ununtrium atoms were synthesized , and the gold @-@ covered detectors : the ununtrium atoms would be carried along the capillaries by a carrier gas . While about ten to twenty atoms of 284Uut were produced , none of these atoms were registered by the gold @-@ covered detectors , suggesting either that ununtrium was similar in volatility to the noble gases or , more plausibly , that pure ununtrium was not very volatile and thus could not efficiently pass through the Teflon capillaries at 70 ° C. Formation of the hydroxide UutOH would ease the transport , as UutOH is expected to be more volatile than elemental ununtrium , and this reaction could be facilitated by adding more water vapor into the carrier gas . However , it seems likely that this formation is not kinetically favored , so that one would need to use the longer @-@ lived isotope 286Uut in future experiments .
= William Johnson ( artist ) =
William Henry Johnson ( March 18 , 1901 – April 13 , 1970 ) was an African @-@ American painter born in Florence , South Carolina . He became a student at the National Academy of Design in New York City , working with Charles Webster Hawthorne . He later lived and worked in France , where he was exposed to modernism . After Johnson married Danish textile artist Holcha Krake , the couple lived for some time in Scandinavia . There he was influenced by the strong folk art tradition . The couple moved to the United States in 1938 . Johnson eventually found work as a teacher at the Harlem Community Art Center , through the Federal Art Project .
Johnson 's style evolved from realism to expressionism to a powerful folk style , for which he is best known . A substantial collection of his paintings , watercolors , and prints is held by the Smithsonian American Art Museum , which has organized and circulated major exhibitions of his works .
= = Education = =
William Henry Johnson was born March 18 , 1901 , in Florence , South Carolina , to Henry Johnson and Alice Smoot . He attended the first public school in Florence , the all @-@ black Wilson School on Athens Street . It is likely that Johnson was introduced to sketching by one of his teachers , Louise Fordham Holmes , who sometimes included art in her curriculum . Johnson practiced drawing by copying the comic strips in the newspapers , and considered a career as a newspaper cartoonist .
He moved from Florence , South Carolina , to New York City at the age of 17 . Working a variety of jobs , he saved enough money to pay for classes at the prestigious National Academy of Design . He took a preparatory class with Charles Louis Hinton , then studied with Charles Courtney Curran and George Willoughby Maynard , all of whom emphasized classical portraiture and figure drawing . Beginning in 1923 , Johnson worked with the painter Charles Webster Hawthorne , who emphasized the importance of color in painting . John studied with Hawthorne at the Cape Cod School of Art in Provincetown , Massachusetts during the summers , paying for his tuition , food and lodging by working as a general handyman at the school . Johnson received a number of awards at the National Academy of Design , and applied for a coveted Pulitzer Travel Scholarship in his final year . When another student was given the award , Hawthorne raised nearly $ 1000 to enable Johnson to go abroad to study .
= = Career = =
Johnson arrived in Paris , France in the fall of 1917 . He spent a year in Paris , and had his first solo exhibition at the Students and Artists Club in November 1927 . Next he moved to Cagnes @-@ sur @-@ Mer in the south of France , influenced by the work of expressionist painter Chaim Soutine . In France , Johnson learned about modernism .
During this time , Johnson met the Danish textile artist Holcha Krake ( April 6 , 1885 – January 13 , 1944 ) . Holcha was traveling with her sister Erna , who was also a painter , and Erna 's husband , the expressionist sculptor Christoph Voll . Johnson was invited to join them on a tour of Corsica . Johnson and Holcha were deeply attracted in spite of differences in race , culture , and age .
Johnson returned to the United States in 1929 . Fellow artist George Luks encouraged Johnson to enter his work at the Harmon Foundation to be considered for the William E. Harmon Foundation Award for Distinguished Achievement Among Negroes in the Fine Arts Field . As a result , Johnson received the Harmon gold medal in the fine arts . He was applauded as a " real modernist " , " spontaneous , vigorous , firm , direct " . Other winners of the fine art award include Palmer Hayden , May Howard Jackson and Laura Wheeler Waring .
While in the United States , Johnson also visited his family in Florence , where he painted a considerable number of new works . He was apparently almost arrested while painting the Jacobia Hotel , a once @-@ fashionable town landmark which had become a dilapidated house of ill @-@ repute . Whether Johnson 's actions or his choice of subject were at issue is unknown . During this visit , Johnson was able to publicly exhibit his paintings twice . The first occasion was at a meeting of the Florence County Teachers Institute on February 22 , 1930 . The second was at a local YMCA where Johnson 's mother worked . Her boss , Bill Covington , arranged for Johnson to exhibit 135 of his paintings for a single afternoon , on April 15 , 1930 . Although the Florence Morning News described Johnson condescendingly as a " humble ... Negro youth " , it also admitted that he had " real genius " .
Johnson returned to Europe in 1930 by working his way to France on a freighter . He went to Funen , a Danish island , to rejoin Holcha Krake . The couple signed a prenuptial agreement on May 28 , 1930 , and were married a few days later in the town of Kerteminde . Johnson and his wife spent most of the 1930s in Scandinavia , where his interest in folk art influenced his painting . However , as Nazi sentiments increased in Germany and Europe in the late 1930s , many artists were affected . Johnson 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Christoph Voll was fired from his teaching position , and his art was labelled " degenerate " . Johnson and Krake chose to move to the United States in 1938 .
With the help of Mary Beattie Brady , Johnson eventually found work as a teacher at the Harlem Community Art Center . There he and other teachers instructed about 600 students per week , as part of a local Federal Art Project supported by the Works Progress Administration . Through the center Johnson met important Harlem inhabitants such as Henry Bannarn and Gwendolyn Knight . He immersed himself in African @-@ American culture and traditions , producing paintings that were characterized by their folk art simplicity . Johnson was determined to " paint his own people " . He celebrated African American culture and imagery in the urban settings of pieces such as Street life - Harlem , Cafe , and Street Musicians , and in the rural settings of Farm Couple at Work , Sowing , and Going to Market . Harsher realities of Negro life were depicted in Chain Gang and Moon over Harlem , which was a response to the 1943 racial riots in New York . Another series of works showed war @-@ time soldiers and nurses . Johnson held a solo exhibition at Alma Reed Galleries in 1941 . However , although he enjoyed a degree of success as an artist during the 1940s and 1950s , he was never able to achieve financial stability .
On a personal level , the 1940s were difficult . Bad news came from Europe . Christoph Voll died in Karlsruhe , Germany , on June 16 , 1939 , after interrogation by Nazi officials . Holcha 's family endured the German occupation of Denmark at their home in Odense . In December 1942 , Johnson and Krake moved to a larger studio apartment in Greenwich Village . A week later , Johnson 's artwork , supplies , and personal possessions were destroyed when the building caught fire . On January 13 , 1944 , John suffered further loss when his wife Holcha died from breast cancer . To deal with his grief , he revisited his family in Florence , and painted works with religious themes , such as Mount Calvary . Mount Calvary and Booker T. Washington Legend ( from Johnson 's Fighters for Freedom series of 1945 ) were included in the show The Negro Artist Comes of Age : A National Survey of Contemporary American Artists at the Albany Institute of History and Art in 1945 .
In 1946 Johnson left for Denmark to be with his wife 's family . However , his behavior became increasingly erratic . At Ullevål Hospital in Oslo in spring 1947 , he was diagnosed as suffering from syphilis which had impaired both mental and motor function . As a U.S. citizen who was no longer considered mentally competent , he was sent back to New York by the U.S. Embassy in Oslo . An attorney was appointed by the court as his legal guardian , and his belongings were put into storage . He entered the Central Islip State Hospital on Long Island on December 1 , 1947 , where he was treated for syphilis @-@ induced paresis . He spent the last twenty @-@ three years of his life there . He no longer painted after 1955 and died on April 13 , 1970 of hemorrhaging of the pancreas .
= = Recognition = =
In 1956 , Johnson 's life 's work was almost destroyed when his legal guardian declared him unable to pay further storage fees . Instead , Helen Harriton , Mary Beattie Brady , and others arranged with the court to have Johnson 's belongings delivered to the Harmon Foundation with unconditional rights over all works . The foundation would use the works to advance interracial understanding and support African American achievements in the fine arts . On April 19 , 1967 , the Harmon Foundation gave more than 1 @,@ 000 paintings , watercolors , and prints by Johnson to the Smithsonian American Art Museum .
In 1991 , the Smithsonian American Art Museum organized and circulated a major exhibition of his artwork , Homecoming : The Art and Life of William H. Johnson , and in 2006 , they organized and circulated William H. Johnson 's World on Paper . An expanded version of this exhibition traveled to the Amon Carter Museum in Fort Worth , Texas , the Philadelphia Museum of Art , and the Montgomery Museum of Fine Arts in Montgomery , Alabama in 2007 .
The William H. Johnson Foundation for the Arts was established in 2001 in honor of the 100th birthday of William Johnson . Beginning with Laylah Ali in 2002 , the Foundation has awarded the William H. Johnson Prize annual to an early career African American artist .
In 2012 , the U.S. Postal Service issued a stamp in Johnson 's honor , recognizing him as one of the nation 's foremost African @-@ American artists and a major figure in 20th @-@ century American art . The stamp , the 11th in the " American Treasures " series , showcases his painting Flowers ( 1939 – 1940 ) , which depicts brightly colored blooms on a small red table .
= SS Kentuckian =
SS Kentuckian was a cargo ship built in 1910 for the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company . During World War I she was known as USAT Kentuckian in service for the United States Army and USS Kentuckian ( ID @-@ 1544 ) in service for the United States Navy . After her Navy career , she reverted to her original name of SS Kentuckian .
She was built by the Maryland Steel Company as first of three ships ordered by the American @-@ Hawaiian Steamship Company , and was employed in inter @-@ coastal service via the Isthmus of Tehuantepec and the Panama Canal after it opened . In World War I , USAT Kentuckian carried cargo and animals to France under charter to the U.S. Army . When transferred to the U.S. Navy in December 1918 , a month after the Armistice , USS Kentuckian was converted to a troop transport and returned almost 8 @,@ 900 American troops from France . Returned to American @-@ Hawaiian in 1919 , Kentuckian resumed inter @-@ coastal cargo service .
Shortly before World War II , Kentuckian was requisitioned by the War Shipping Administration and sailed between Trinidad and African ports , between New York and Caribbean ports , and in transatlantic convoys through mid 1944 . In mid @-@ July 1944 , the ship was scuttled as part of the breakwater for one of the Mulberry artificial harbors built to support the Normandy Invasion .
= = Design and construction = =
In the second quarter of 1909 , American @-@ Hawaiian , looking to expand its fleet , placed an order with the Maryland Steel Company of Sparrows Point , Maryland , for three new cargo ships — Kentuckian , Georgian , and Honolulan . The contract for the ships required that American @-@ Hawaiian pay $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in cash and a further $ 650 @,@ 000 in twelve monthly notes at 5 % interest . Provisions of the deal allowed that the monthly notes could be converted into longer @-@ term mortgages at 6 % interest , and secured by the ships themselves . The final cost of Kentuckian , including financing costs , was $ 58 @.@ 33 per deadweight ton , which came out to just under $ 579 @,@ 000 .
Kentuckian ( Maryland Steel yard no . 104 ) was the first ship built under the contract . She was launched on 19 March 1910 , by Miss Nancy Johnson , the daughter of U.S. Representative Ben Johnson ( D @-@ KY ) , who christened the ship with sparkling spring water from the Kentucky farms of Abraham Lincoln and Jefferson Davis . The completed ship , delivered to American @-@ Hawaiian on 1 June , was 6 @,@ 479 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 414 feet 2 inches ( 126 @.@ 24 m ) in length ( between perpendiculars ) and 53 feet 6 inches ( 16 @.@ 31 m ) abeam . She had a deadweight tonnage of 9 @,@ 925 LT DWT , and her cargo holds had a storage capacity of 428 @,@ 145 cubic feet ( 12 @,@ 123 @.@ 7 m3 ) . Kentuckian had a single quadruple @-@ expansion steam engine powered by oil @-@ fired boilers that drove a single screw propeller at a speed of 11 knots ( 20 km / h ) .
= = Early career = =
When Kentuckian began sailing for American @-@ Hawaiian , the company shipped cargo from East Coast ports via the Tehuantepec Route to West Coast ports and Hawaii , and vice versa . Shipments on the Tehuantepec Route would arrive at Mexican ports — Salina Cruz , Oaxaca , for eastbound cargo , and Coatzacoalcos , Veracruz , for westbound cargo — and would traverse the Isthmus of Tehuantepec on the Tehuantepec National Railway . Eastbound shipments were primarily sugar and pineapple from Hawaii , while westbound cargoes were more general in nature . Kentuckian sailed in this service but it is not clear from sources whether on the east or west side of North America .
After the United States occupation of Veracruz on 21 April 1914 ( which found six American @-@ Hawaiian ships in Mexican ports ) , the Huerta @-@ led Mexican government closed the Tehuantepec National Railway to American shipping . This loss of access coupled with the fact that the Panama Canal was not yet open , caused American @-@ Hawaii to return in late April to its historic route of sailing around South America via the Straits of Magellan . With the opening of the Panama Canal on 15 August , American @-@ Hawaiian ships switched to taking that route .
In October 1915 , landslides closed the Panama Canal and all American @-@ Hawaiian ships , including Kentuckian , returned to the Straits of Magellan route again . Kentuckian 's exact movements from this time through early 1918 are unclear . She may have been in the half of the American @-@ Hawaiian fleet that was chartered for transatlantic service . She may also have been in the group of American @-@ Hawaiian ships chartered for service to South America , delivering coal , gasoline , and steel in exchange for coffee , nitrates , cocoa , rubber , and manganese ore .
= = World War I = =
At some point after the United States declared war on Germany in April 1917 , the United States Army chartered Kentuckian for transporting animals to Europe in support of the American Expeditionary Force . Although there is no information about the specific conversion of Kentuckian , for other ships this typically meant that any passenger accommodations had to be ripped out and replaced with ramps and stalls for the horses and mules carried .
Details about Kentuckian 's first animal transport journey are not known , but her second trip began 14 March 1918 when she sailed from Newport News , Virginia , with 848 animals for Saint @-@ Nazaire , where she unloaded all but the four animals that had died or were destroyed during the voyage . On 24 April , during a convoy crossing in Army service , Naval Armed Guardsmen on Kentuckian sighted a torpedo heading towards the second ship behind her in the column . Opening fire on the torpedo , the gun crew claimed the hit that caused the torpedo to explode short of its intended target . Further details of Kentuckian 's Army service are not available .
With the signing of the Armistice on 11 November , the fighting came to an end and the task of bringing home American soldiers began almost immediately . To that end , Kentuckian was acquired by the United States Navy on 16 December , and commissioned on 28 January 1919 with Lieutenant Commander Carrol E. Higgins , NAR , in command . Before she could begin returning troops , though , Kentuckian had to undergo conversion from a cargo and animal ship . Though sources do not indicate the specific modifications Kentuckian underwent , typical conversions for other ships included the installation of berths for troops , and adding greatly expanded cooking and toilet facilities to handle the large numbers of men aboard . Similar modifications on a fellow American @-@ Hawaiian cargo ship , the two @-@ years @-@ younger Minnesotan , took three months , but it is not known how long Kentuckian 's refit took .
Kentuckian departed New York for her first trooping voyage on 2 March , picking up nearly 2 @,@ 000 soldiers at Saint @-@ Nazaire — among them some 1 @,@ 500 men of the 363rd Infantry Regiment of the U.S. 91st Infantry Division , and a number from the U.S. 33rd Infantry Division — before returning to New York on 1 April . Her arrival on another trooping run in June returned 1 @,@ 860 men , including over 1 @,@ 500 members of the 345th Field Artillery Regiment of the U.S. 90th Infantry Division . An officer of that unit brought back a black police dog named Pat , who , purportedly , had been the personal dog of Germany 's Crown Prince Wilhelm . Another trip in July returned another 1 @,@ 852 men from Saint @-@ Nazaire . In all , Kentuckian made a total of five trooping runs from France , bringing back 8 @,@ 895 men by the time she completed her last trip on 31 August at Norfolk , Virginia . She was decommissioned on 15 September and returned to American @-@ Hawaiian the same day .
= = Interwar years = =
Kentuckian resumed cargo service with American @-@ Hawaiian after her return from World War I service . Though the company had abandoned its original Hawaiian sugar routes by this time , Kentuckian continued inter @-@ coastal service through the Panama Canal with a few incidents that interrupted what was a mostly uneventful twenty years . In September 1928 , a day after sailing from San Francisco , Kentuckian was rammed by the General Petroleum tanker Los Alamos near Point Sur , California , in a thick fog . Kentuckian had a leak in her number two cargo hold and damage to her port bilge keel and returned to San Francisco for repairs . In early April 1933 , a fire broke out in Kentuckian 's number two cargo hold , which resulted in the delay of the ship at Panama from 8 to 14 April . Kentuckian made her way to Los Angeles over the next ten days , where surveyors examined the ship and her general cargo .
For the most part , Kentuckian primarily carried general cargoes whose contents were not noteworthy . One exception occurred in July 1929 , when The New York Times reported that Kentuckian was carrying , Pirate , an R @-@ class racing yacht to races at Larchmont and Marblehead . The newspaper reported that Pirate was the first West Coast designed and built yacht to race in the East .
Unlike SS Minnesotan , a fellow American @-@ Hawaiian ship that was plagued with labor difficulties , Kentuckian seems to have escaped much of the maritime labor turmoil of the mid @-@ 1930s . One incident was reported by the Los Angeles Times in August 1936 . The news item reported that a portion of Kentuckian 's crew went on strike in protest against unsafe working conditions . The ship 's master had ordered the deckhands to rig one of the cargo booms after the ship docked in Los Angeles , but they refused because the deck was slippery and therefore , in their opinion , unsafe .
= = World War II = =
Shortly before the United States entered World War II , Kentuckian was requisitioned by the War Shipping Administration ( WSA ) , but continued to be operated by American @-@ Hawaiian . On 19 November 1941 , Kentuckian sailed from New York for Durban , where she arrived on 21 December . Kentuckian spent the next two months sailing between ports in South Africa and Mozambique , calling at Port Elizabeth , Cape Town , and East London in the former , and Lourenco Marques , and Beira in the latter , before heading to Trinidad from Cape Town on 28 February 1942 . Arriving at Trinidad three weeks later , she made her way up to Boston by early April , before putting in at New York for about six weeks . Sailing from New York in late May , Kentuckian joined a southbound Hampton Roads , Virginia – Key West , Florida convoy . She left the convoy before Key West and headed back across the Atlantic to Cape Town , where she arrived on 7 July . Kentuckian spent the next month sailing between Cape Town , East London , and Durban . Kentuckian concluded her second trip to Africa when she sailed for South America on 1 August .
After a three @-@ week crossing of the South Atlantic , Kentuckian arrived at Paramaribo on 22 August , where she took on a load of bauxite and made her way to New York , where she docked on 20 September . The cargo ship slowly made her way south , calling at Charleston , Key West , and Guantánamo Bay along her way to Trinidad , where she arrived on 5 November . Sailing 11 November , Kentuckian began her third and final trip to Africa . She arrived at Freetown on 25 November and called at Bathurst and Takoradi over the next two months before returning to Trinidad on 31 January 1943 . Sailing from Trinidad on 4 February , she called at Guantánamo Bay and Baltimore on her way to New York , where , arriving in late March , she prepared to begin transatlantic convoy sailings to the United Kingdom .
On 1 April , Kentuckian , loaded with grain and general cargo , departed as a part of Convoy HX @-@ 232 , the 232nd New York – Halifax – Liverpool convoy . Developing some unreported problem , she returned to New York on 3 April . The problem must have been minor , because she sailed as part of Convoy HX @-@ 233 three days later . This convoy was attacked by no fewer than eight German submarines , which resulted in the loss of only one ship , the British cargo ship Fort Rampart , and the sinking of 175 by convoy escorts . There is no evidence that Kentuckian played any direct part in the sinking of the German submarine , but , nevertheless , members of her Naval Armed Guard were awarded a battle star for actions in the convoy from 16 – 18 April . Kentuckian arrived at Liverpool on 21 April . Over the next ten months , Kentuckian made nine more convoy crossings between the UK — where she called at Liverpool , Swansea , Milford Haven , Methil , Loch Ewe , Immingham , and Belfast Lough — and New York . She ended her tenth North Atlantic crossing when she arrived at New York on 16 February 1944 .
Sailing from New York on 26 February , Kentuckian made two circuits between that port and the Caribbean , calling at Nuevitas , Cuba , and Manatí , Puerto Rico , and making stops at Key West and Philadelphia along the way , before putting in at New York on 15 April . Kentuckian departed the United States for the final time on 19 May and headed for Milford Haven . After arriving there on 3 June , the cargo ship arrived at Barry via Plymouth , Belfast Lough , and Falmouth , on 27 June . Departing Barry on 8 July as a part of Convoy EBC @-@ 35 , Kentuckian arrived at Arromanches on 10 July and was scuttled there as part of a breakwater protecting the mulberry harbor constructed there in support of the Normandy invasion .
In March 1945 , the WSA offered a payment of $ 565 @,@ 910 to American @-@ Hawaiian for Kentuckian as part of a $ 7 @.@ 2 million settlement for eleven requisitioned American @-@ Hawaiian ships that had either been sunk , scuttled ( like Kentuckian ) , or were to be retained by the government .
= Chaco Culture National Historical Park =
Chaco Culture National Historical Park is a United States National Historical Park hosting the densest and most exceptional concentration of pueblos in the American Southwest . The park is located in northwestern New Mexico , between Albuquerque and Farmington , in a remote canyon cut by the Chaco Wash . Containing the most sweeping collection of ancient ruins north of Mexico , the park preserves one of the most important pre @-@ Columbian cultural and historical areas in the United States .
Between AD 900 and 1150 , Chaco Canyon was a major center of culture for the Ancient Pueblo Peoples . Chacoans quarried sandstone blocks and hauled timber from great distances , assembling fifteen major complexes that remained the largest buildings in North America until the 19th century . Evidence of archaeoastronomy at Chaco has been proposed , with the " Sun Dagger " petroglyph at Fajada Butte a popular example . Many Chacoan buildings may have been aligned to capture the solar and lunar cycles , requiring generations of astronomical observations and centuries of skillfully coordinated construction . Climate change is thought to have led to the emigration of Chacoans and the eventual abandonment of the canyon , beginning with a fifty @-@ year drought commencing in 1130 .
Comprising a UNESCO World Heritage Site located in the arid and sparsely populated Four Corners region , the Chacoan cultural sites are fragile – concerns of erosion caused by tourists have led to the closure of Fajada Butte to the public . The sites are considered sacred ancestral homelands by the Hopi and Pueblo people , who maintain oral accounts of their historical migration from Chaco and their spiritual relationship to the land . Though park preservation efforts can conflict with native religious beliefs , tribal representatives work closely with the National Park Service to share their knowledge and respect the heritage of the Chacoan culture .
The park is on the Trails of the Ancients Byway , one of the designated New Mexico Scenic Byways .
= = Geography = =
Chaco Canyon lies within the San Juan Basin , atop the vast Colorado Plateau , surrounded by the Chuska Mountains to the west , the San Juan Mountains to the north , and the San Pedro Mountains to the east . Ancient Chacoans drew upon dense forests of oak , piñon , ponderosa pine , and juniper to obtain timber and other resources . The canyon itself , located within lowlands circumscribed by dune fields , ridges , and mountains , is aligned along a roughly northwest @-@ to @-@ southeast axis and is rimmed by flat massifs known as mesas . Large gaps between the southwestern cliff faces — side canyons known as rincons — were critical in funneling rain @-@ bearing storms into the canyon and boosting local precipitation levels . The principal Chacoan complexes , such as Pueblo Bonito , Nuevo Alto , and Kin Kletso , have elevations of 6 @,@ 200 to 6 @,@ 440 feet ( 1 @,@ 890 to 1 @,@ 960 m ) .
The alluvial canyon floor slopes downward to the northwest at a gentle grade of 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) per mile ( 6 meters per kilometer ) ; it is bisected by the Chaco Wash , an arroyo that rarely bears water . The canyon 's main aquifers were too deep to be of use to ancient Chacoans : only several smaller and shallower sources supported the small springs that sustained them . Today , aside from occasional storm runoff coursing through arroyos , substantial surface water — springs , pools , wells — is virtually nonexistent .
= = Geology = =
After the Pangaean supercontinent sundered during the Cretaceous period , the region became part of a shifting transition zone between a shallow inland sea — the Western Interior Seaway — and a band of plains and low hills to the west . A sandy and swampy coastline oscillated east and west , alternately submerging and uncovering the area atop the present Colorado Plateau that Chaco Canyon now occupies .
The Chaco Wash flowed across the upper strata of what is now the 400 @-@ foot ( 120 m ) Chacra Mesa , cutting into it and gouging out a broad canyon over the course of millions of years . The mesa comprises sandstone and shale formations dating from the Late Cretaceous , which are of the Mesa Verde formation . The canyon bottomlands were further eroded , exposing Menefee Shale bedrock ; this was subsequently buried under roughly 125 feet ( 38 m ) of sediment . The canyon and mesa lie within the " Chaco Core " — which is distinct from the wider Chaco Plateau , a flat region of grassland with infrequent stands of timber . As the Continental Divide is only 15 @.@ 5 miles ( 25 km ) east of the canyon , geological characteristics and different patterns of drainage differentiate these two regions both from each other and from the nearby Chaco Slope , the Gobernador Slope , and the Chuska Valley .
= = Climate = =
An arid region of high xeric scrubland and desert steppe , the canyon and wider basin average 8 inches ( 200 mm ) of rainfall annually ; the park averages 9 @.@ 1 inches ( 230 mm ) . Chaco Canyon lies on the leeward side of extensive mountain ranges to the south and west , resulting in a rainshadow effect that fosters the prevailing lack of moisture in the region . The region sees four distinct seasons . Rainfall is most likely between July and September , while May and June are the driest months . Orographic precipitation , which results from moisture wrung out of storm systems ascending the mountain ranges around Chaco Canyon , is responsible for most of the summer and winter precipitation , and rainfall increases with higher elevation . Occasional aberrant northward excursions of the intertropical convergence zone may boost precipitation in some years .
Chaco endures remarkable climatic extremes : temperatures range between − 38 to 102 ° F ( − 39 to 39 ° C ) , and may swing 60 ° F ( 33 ° C ) in a single day . The region averages fewer than 150 frost @-@ free days per year , and the local climate swings wildly from years of plentiful rainfall to prolonged drought . The heavy influence of the El Niño @-@ Southern Oscillation contributes to the canyon 's fickle climate .
= = Flora and fauna = =
Chacoan flora typifies that of North American high deserts : sagebrush and several species of cactus are interspersed with dry scrub forests of piñon and juniper , the latter primarily on the mesa tops . The canyon is far drier than other parts of New Mexico located at similar latitudes and elevations , and it lacks the temperate coniferous forests plentiful to the east . The prevailing sparseness of plants and wildlife was echoed in ancient times , when overpopulation , expanding cultivation , overhunting , habitat destruction , and drought may have led the Chacoans to strip the canyon of wild plants and game . It has been suggested that even during wet periods the canyon was able to sustain only 2 @,@ 000 people .
Among Chacoan mammals are the plentiful coyote ( Canis latrans ) ; mule deer , elk , and pronghorn also live within the canyon , though they are rarely encountered by visitors . Important smaller carnivores include bobcats , badgers , foxes , and two species of skunk . The park hosts abundant populations of rodents , including several prairie dog towns . Small colonies of bats are present during the summer . The local shortage of water means that relatively few bird species are present ; these include roadrunners , large hawks ( such as Cooper 's hawks and American kestrels ) , owls , vultures , and ravens , though they are less abundant in the canyon than in the wetter mountain ranges to the east . Sizeable populations of smaller birds , including warblers , sparrows , and house finches , are also common . Three species of hummingbirds are present : one is the tiny but highly pugnacious rufous hummingbird , which compete intensely with the more mild @-@ tempered black @-@ chinned hummingbirds for breeding habitat in shrubs or trees located near water . Western ( prairie ) rattlesnakes are occasionally seen in the backcountry , though various lizards and skinks are far more abundant .
= = History = =
= = = Archaic – Early Basketmakers = = =
The first people in the San Juan Basin were hunter @-@ gatherers : the Archaic – Early Basketmaker people . These small bands descended from nomadic Clovis big @-@ game hunters who arrived in the Southwest around 10 @,@ 000 BC . More than 70 campsites from this period , carbon @-@ dated to the period 7000 – 1500 BC and mostly consisting of stone chips and other leavings , were found in Atlatl Cave and elsewhere within Chaco Canyon , with at least one of the sites located on the canyon floor near an exposed arroyo . The Archaic – Early Basketmaker people were nomadic or semi @-@ nomadic hunter @-@ gatherers who over time began making baskets to store gathered plants . By the end of the period , some people cultivated food . Excavation of their campsites and rock shelters has revealed that they made tools , gathered wild plants , and killed and processed game . Slab @-@ lined storage cists indicate a change from a wholly nomadic lifestyle .
= = = Ancestral Puebloans = = =
By 900 BC , Archaic people lived at Atlatl Cave and like sites . They left little evidence of their presence in Chaco Canyon . By AD 490 , their descendants , of the Late Basketmaker II Era , farmed lands around Shabik 'eshchee Village and other pit @-@ house settlements at Chaco .
A small population of Basketmakers remained in the Chaco Canyon area . The broad arc of their cultural elaboration culminated around 800 , during the Pueblo I Era , when they were building crescent @-@ shaped stone complexes , each comprising four to five residential suites abutting subterranean kivas , large enclosed areas reserved for rites . Such structures characterize the Early Pueblo People . By 850 , the Ancient Pueblo population — the " Anasazi " , from a Ute term adopted by the Navajo denoting the " ancient ones " or " enemy ancestors " — had rapidly expanded : groups resided in larger , more densely populated pueblos . Strong evidence attests to a canyon @-@ wide turquoise processing and trading industry dating from the 10th century . Around then , the first section of Pueblo Bonito was built : a curved row of 50 rooms near its present north wall .
The cohesive Chacoan system began unravelling around 1140 , perhaps triggered by an extreme fifty @-@ year drought that began in 1130 ; chronic climatic instability , including a series of severe droughts , again struck the region between 1250 and 1450 . Poor water management led to arroyo cutting ; deforestation was extensive and economically devastating : timber for construction had to be hauled instead from outlying mountain ranges such as the Chuska mountains , which are more than 50 miles ( 80 km ) to the west . Outlying communities began to depopulate and , by the end of the century , the buildings in the central canyon had been neatly sealed and abandoned .
Some scholars suggest that violence and warfare , perhaps involving cannibalism , impelled the evacuations . Hints of such include dismembered bodies — dating from Chacoan times — found at two sites within the central canyon . Yet Chacoan complexes showed little evidence of being defended or defensively sited high on cliff faces or atop mesas . Only several minor sites at Chaco have evidence of the large @-@ scale burning that would suggest enemy raids . Archaeological and cultural evidence leads scientists to believe people from this region migrated south , east , and west into the valleys and drainages of the Little Colorado River , the Rio Puerco , and the Rio Grande . Anthropologist Joseph Tainter deals at length with the structure and decline of Chaco civilization in his 1988 study The Collapse of Complex Societies .
= = = Athabaskan succession = = =
Numic @-@ speaking peoples , such as the Ute and Shoshone , were present on the Colorado Plateau beginning in the 12th century . Nomadic Southern Athabaskan @-@ speaking peoples , such as the Apache and Navajo , succeeded the Pueblo people in this region by the 15th century . In the process , they acquired Chacoan customs and agricultural skills . Ute tribal groups also frequented the region , primarily during hunting and raiding expeditions . The modern Navajo Nation lies west of Chaco Canyon , and many Navajo live in surrounding areas .
= = = Excavation and protection = = =
The first documented trip through Chaco Canyon was an 1823 expedition led by New Mexican governor José Antonio Vizcarra when the area was under Mexican rule . He noted several large ruins in the canyon . The American trader Josiah Gregg wrote about the ruins of Chaco Canyon , referring in 1832 to Pueblo Bonito as " built of fine @-@ grit sandstone " . In 1849 , a U.S. Army detachment passed through and surveyed the ruins , following United States acquisition of the Southwest with its victory in the Mexican War in 1848 . The canyon was so remote , however , that it was scarcely visited over the next 50 years . After brief reconnaissance work by Smithsonian scholars in the 1870s , formal archaeological work began in 1896 when a party from the American Museum of Natural History based in New York City — the Hyde Exploring Expedition — began excavating Pueblo Bonito . Spending five summers in the region , they sent over 60 @,@ 000 artifacts back to New York and operated a series of trading posts in the area .
In 1901 Richard Wetherill , who had worked for the Hyde expedition , claimed a homestead of 161 acres ( 65 ha ) that included Pueblo Bonito , Pueblo del Arroyo , and Chetro Ketl . While investigating Wetherill 's land claim , federal land agent Samuel J. Holsinger detailed the physical setting of the canyon and the sites , noted prehistoric road segments and stairways above Chetro Ketl , and documented prehistoric dams and irrigation systems . His report went unpublished and unheeded . It urged the creation of a national park to safeguard Chacoan sites .
The next year , Edgar Lee Hewett , president of New Mexico Normal University ( later renamed New Mexico Highlands University ) , mapped many Chacoan sites . Hewett and others helped enact the Federal Antiquities Act of 1906 , the first U.S. law to protect relics ; it was , in effect , a direct consequence of Wetherill 's controversial activities at Chaco . The Act also authorized the President to establish national monuments : on March 11 , 1907 , Theodore Roosevelt proclaimed Chaco Canyon National Monument . Wetherill relinquished his land claims .
In 1920 , the National Geographic Society began an archaeological examination of Chaco Canyon and appointed Neil Judd , then 32 , to head the project . After a reconnaissance trip that year , Judd proposed to excavate Pueblo Bonito , the largest ruin at Chaco . Beginning in 1921 , Judd spent seven field seasons at Chaco . Living and working conditions were spartan at best . In his memoirs , Judd noted dryly that " Chaco Canyon has its limitations as a summer resort " . By 1925 , Judd 's excavators had removed 100 @,@ 000 short tons of overburden , using a team of " 35 or more Indians , ten white men , and eight or nine horses " . Judd 's team found only 69 hearths in the ruin , a puzzling discovery as winters are cold at Chaco . Judd sent A. E. Douglass more than 90 specimens for tree @-@ ring dating , then in its infancy . At that time , Douglass had only a " floating " chronology. it was not until 1929 that a Judd @-@ led team found the " missing link " . Most of the beams used at Chaco were cut between 1033 and 1092 , the height of construction there .
In 1949 , the University of New Mexico deeded over adjoining lands to form an expanded Chaco Canyon National Monument . In return , the university maintained scientific research rights to the area . By 1959 , the National Park Service had constructed a park visitor center , staff housing , and campgrounds . As a historic property of the National Park Service , the National Monument was listed on the National Register of Historic Places on October 15 , 1966 . In 1971 , researchers Robert Lister and James Judge established the " Chaco Center , " a division for cultural research that functioned as a joint project between the University of New Mexico and the National Park Service . A number of multi @-@ disciplinary research projects , archaeological surveys , and limited excavations began during this time . The Chaco Center extensively surveyed the Chacoan roads , well @-@ constructed and strongly reinforced thoroughfares radiating from the central canyon .
The richness of the cultural remains at park sites led to the expansion of the small National Monument into the Chaco Culture National Historical Park on December 19 , 1980 , when an additional 13 @,@ 000 acres ( 5 @,@ 300 ha ) were added to the protected area . In 1987 , the park was designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO . To safeguard Chacoan sites on adjacent Bureau of Land Management and Navajo Nation lands , the Park Service developed the multi @-@ agency Chaco Culture Archaeological Protection Site program . These initiatives have identified more than 2 @,@ 400 archeological sites within the current park 's boundaries ; only a small percentage of these have been excavated .
= = Management = =
Chaco Culture National Historical Park is managed by the National Park Service , a federal agency within the Department of the Interior ; neighboring federal lands hosting Chacoan roads are controlled by the Bureau of Land Management . In the 2002 – 03 fiscal year , the park 's total annual operating budget was $ 1 @,@ 434 @,@ 000 . The park has a visitor center , which features the " Chaco Collection Museum " , an information desk , a theater , a book store , and a gift shop . Prior to the 1980s , archeological excavations within current park boundaries were intensive : compound walls were dismantled or demolished , and thousands of artifacts were extracted . Starting in 1981 , a new approach , informed by traditional Hopi and Pueblo beliefs , stopped such intrusions . Remote sensing , anthropological study of Indian oral traditions , and dendrochronology — which left Chacoan relics undisturbed — were pursued . In this vein , the " Chaco American Indian Consultation Committee " was established in 1991 to give Navajo , Hopi , Pueblo , and other Indian representatives a voice in park oversight .
Current park policy mandates partial restoration of excavated sites . " Backfilling " , or re @-@ burying excavated sites with sand , is one such means . Other measures attempt to safeguard the area 's ancient ambiance and mystique , such as the " Chaco Night Sky Program " , which seeks to eliminate the effect of light pollution on the park 's acclaimed night skies ; under the program , some 14 @,@ 000 visitors make use of the Chaco Observatory ( inaugurated in 1998 ) , park telescopes , and astronomy @-@ related programs . The park was named a Gold @-@ tier Dark Sky Park by the International Dark @-@ Sky Association in 2013 . Chacoan relics outside the current park 's boundaries have been threatened by development : an example was the proposed competitive leasing of federal lands in the San Juan Basin for surface coal mining beginning in 1983 . As ample coal deposits abut the park , this strip mining threatened the web of ancient Chacoan roads . The year @-@ long " Chaco Roads Project " thus documented the roads , which were later protected from mining .
= = Sites = =
The Chacoans built their complexes along a 9 @-@ mile ( 14 km ) stretch of canyon floor , with the walls of some structures aligned cardinally and others aligned with the 18 @.@ 6 @-@ year cycle of minimum and maximum moonrise and moonset .
= = = Central canyon = = =
The central portion of the canyon contains the largest Chacoan complexes . The most studied is Pueblo Bonito . Covering almost 2 acres ( 0 @.@ 81 ha ) and comprising at least 650 rooms , it is the largest great house ; in parts of the complex , the structure was four stories high . The builders ' use of core @-@ and @-@ veneer architecture and multi @-@ story construction necessitated massive masonry walls up to 3 feet ( 91 cm ) thick . Pueblo Bonito is divided into two sections by a wall precisely aligned to run north @-@ south , bisecting the central plaza . A great kiva was placed on either side of the wall , creating a symmetrical pattern common to many Chacoan great houses . The scale of the complex , upon completion , rivaled that of the Colosseum . Nearby is Pueblo del Arroyo , which was founded between AD 1050 and 1075 and completed in the early 12th century ; it sits at a drainage outlet known as South Gap .
Casa Rinconada , isolated from the other central sites , sits to the south side of Chaco Wash , adjacent to a Chacoan road leading to a set of steep stairs that reached the top of Chacra Mesa . Its sole kiva stands alone , with no residential or support structures whatsoever ; it did once have a 39 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) passageway leading from the underground kiva to several above @-@ ground levels . Chetro Ketl , located near Pueblo Bonito , bears the typical ' D ' -shape of many other central complexes . Begun between 1020 and 1050 , its 450 – 550 rooms shared one great kiva . Experts estimate that it took 29 @,@ 135 man @-@ hours to erect Chetro Ketl alone ; Hewett estimated that it took the wood of 5 @,@ 000 trees and 50 million stone blocks .
Kin Kletso ( " Yellow House " ) was a medium @-@ sized complex located 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 800 m ) west of Pueblo Bonito . It shows strong evidence of construction and occupation by Pueblo peoples from the northern San Juan Basin . Its rectangular shape and design is related to the Pueblo II cultural group , rather than the Pueblo III style or its Chacoan variant . It contains 55 rooms , four ground @-@ floor kivas , and a two @-@ story cylindrical tower that may have functioned as a kiva or religious center . Evidence of an obsidian @-@ processing industry was discovered near the village , which was erected between 1125 and 1130 .
Pueblo Alto is a great house of 89 rooms located on a mesa top near the middle of Chaco Canyon , 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 1 km ) from Pueblo Bonito ; it was begun between AD 1020 and 1050 during a wider building boom throughout the canyon . Its location made the community visible to most of the inhabitants of the San Juan Basin ; indeed , it was only 2 @.@ 3 miles ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) north of Tsin Kletzin , on the opposite side of the canyon . The community was the center of a bead- and turquoise @-@ processing industry that influenced the development of all villages in the canyon ; chert tool production was common . Research at the site conducted by archaeologist Tom Windes suggests only a handful of families , perhaps as few as five to twenty , lived in the complex ; this may imply that Pueblo Alto served a primarily non @-@ residential role . Another great house , Nuevo Alto , was built on the north mesa near Pueblo Alto ; it was founded in the late 12th century , a time when the Chacoan population was declining .
= = = Outliers = = =
Another cluster of great houses lies in Chaco 's northern reaches ; among the largest is Casa Chiquita ( " Small House " ) , a village built in the
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is revealed to be Darkseid , arrives on Earth to enslave all of humanity . Clark realizes that his entire life has been one big trial by Jor @-@ El ; accepting his true destiny , the Blur saves Earth from Darkseid 's coming Apokolips . The series ends by moving seven years into the future , where Clark and Lois are finally getting married , and Clark has embraced his new identity as " Superman " .
Throughout the series , Clark gains and adjusts to new abilities , including X @-@ ray vision in season one , heat vision in season two , and super hearing in season three . Clark unofficially flew in the season four premiere , when he was reprogrammed as " Kal @-@ El " by his biological father , but upon regaining his memory he forgot how to use the ability . In season six , Clark gained his super breath . By the series finale , Clark learns to fly . Clark also discovers new vulnerabilities as the series progresses , including " green meteor rocks " or ( kryptonite ) , which he learns can weaken and potentially kill him . Various other forms of kryptonite appeared as the show continued , each with a different effect . Red kryptonite removed Clark 's inhibitions . Black kryptonite separated Clark 's Kryptonian personality from his human self , creating two distinct physical forms , and blue kryptonite stripped him of all supernatural abilities as long as it was in contact with him . Subsequent seasons also revealed that Clark could be vulnerable to alien weapons and magic .
= = Portrayal = =
In October 2000 , producers Al Gough and Miles Millar began their search for the three lead roles , and had casting directors in ten different cities looking at actors . After months of scouting , Tom Welling was cast as Clark Kent . Jensen Ackles , the runner up for the role of Clark Kent , would go on to play Jason Teague as a season four regular . Besides Welling , four other actors have portrayed Clark as young boy / teenager : Malkolm Alburquenque portrayed a three @-@ year @-@ old Clark in the pilot , and season two episode " Lineage " ; Brandon Fonseca played young Clark in the season five episode " Vengeance " ; and in the season eight episode " Abyss " , Jackson Warris would fill the role . In addition , in an alternate reality in the seventh season episode " Apocalypse " , a teenaged Clark Kent was portrayed by Brett Dier .
The pilot director , David Nutter , was looking through pictures of actors and stumbled on Tom Welling 's image . When he asked about Welling , the casting director said Welling 's manager did not want him to do the role because it could hurt his feature film career . After a conversation with Welling 's manager , Nutter got Welling to read the script for the pilot , which convinced him to do the part . Welling 's initial fears were quelled after reading the script , when he realized that the show was not about Clark " ... being a super hero ... , " but more about the character attempting to live a normal life as a teenager .
When Tom Welling auditioned for the role he was not sure how to prepare . While waiting for his turn , he realized that the character is one thing above all else : " ... a high school kid .... " To Welling , simply acting like he was a normal teenager , instead of like a super hero , was the perfect way to embody the character . Welling realized that by doing that , the special effects and other production elements would fill in the holes and perfect the character on screen . For one of his auditions , he read the graveyard scene with Kristin Kreuk ( the first actor to be cast for the show ) , and the network thought they had " ... great chemistry " .
Welling was generally unfamiliar with the Superman mythology , so much so that when an episode of Lois & Clark : The New Adventures of Superman aired on television , which featured Clark learning about his Kryptonian heritage , Welling immediately turned the show off . According to Welling , he wanted to learn about Clark 's heritage simultaneously to Clark learning about it on Smallville . Welling believed that it was important for him to learn with the character , to help him be the Clark Kent envisioned by Al Gough and Miles Millar . The actor believed his lack of knowledge of the Superman mythology helped his performance , because Gough and Millar set up the series so that the previous mythology was not as important . Welling also enjoyed that he was in the same predicament as Clark with neither knowing the future of the character , beyond the fact that he will be Superman . When Welling landed the role of Clark Kent he was sent various Superman @-@ related gifts , including books and toys , which Welling planned to leave unopened until the show was over . Welling was adamant from the beginning that he did not sign on to play Superman , and had no intention of wearing the costume . While filming , Welling was allowed input into how his character responded in certain situations , including moving the scene between rooms , or requesting the director film particular mannerisms to emphasize a specific emotion .
= = Character development = =
= = = Storyline progression = = =
Early in the series , Clark was still learning how to handle his life , by learning to control his powers and find the best solution for everyone . His main priority was to fit in with his friends at school and be an average guy . Initially , Clark 's biggest problem was the fact that he could not share his secret with anyone he cared about . According to Welling , " He is burdened with a lot of responsibility . He hasn 't been able to choose whether or not he has these abilities . All this responsibility has just been thrust on him , and he has to deal with it . There have got to be times when he goes home and thinks to himself , ‘ Why me ? ' He wishes it could all go away and he could just be normal . That 's part of the character dilemma which makes him interesting to play . " Welling noted that the show was not about Clark always saving the day , but more about how using his powers " ... alienate [ s ] him from others " . Welling reasoned that by the end of season three , Clark had decided that leaving Smallville and going with Jor @-@ El was something that would save everyone a lot of pain in the long run . Welling described why Clark finally gave in to Jor @-@ El at the end of season three :
" If you can 't fight them , you might as well join them [ ... ] he was choosing the lesser of two evils to go with Jor @-@ El . I think a combination of those two things would probably sum it up . A lot of times in your life , you get to a point where you go , ' I just can 't fight this anymore . There 's nothing I can do about it , so I better get up out of bed and go to work ! ' And in a sense , that 's what Clark had to do . Somehow he had to try to face what it was that was causing him so much pain — and everyone else so much pain — and maybe he reasoned that by causing everyone else a little bit of pain , he could save them a lot of pain in the long run . "
A significant moment in the character 's story came when Clark decided to play football in season four , providing conflict between him and his father . Writer Darren Swimmer refers to this moment as a " ... callback to [ Hothead ] ... " in season one . To him , when Clark defies Jonathan and joins the team anyway , it signified the moment where Jonathan finally decided that he can trust Clark to not hurt anyone . Writer Todd Slavkin viewed it as Clark finally emerging from his father 's shadow . Two more significant moments came during the following season . First , Clark lost his powers when he failed to return to Jor @-@ El to finish his training ; leaving him human and vulnerable . According to Welling , " ... [ Clark ] learned a little bit more about what it 's like to be human , physically . Emotionally , he 's pretty close to trying to understand that . It added more weight to his abilities once he got them back , and it made him realize his responsibilities for what he has . " The second moment came in the show 's 100th episode , with the death of Clark 's adoptive father . The decision to kill Jonathan was made so that Clark could finally step into his destiny , allowing Clark the boy to become Clark the man , as explained by Gough . In order to do that he needed his mentor to die , so that no one would buffer him from the world any longer . Welling saw the series ' 100th episode as the chance for his character to evolve and grow . John Schneider saw the same catalyst for Clark 's evolution . According to Schneider , Jonathan 's death inspired Clark to make the move toward his eventual destiny . Jonathan provided such an example of sacrifice that it leaves a void in Clark . To fill that void Clark would have to become Superman . It was Schneider 's contention that had Jonathan not been the man he was , when the time came that the world needed Superman , Clark would have been unable to take on that persona , because he would not realize that the world needed him .
Writer Holly Harold noted that the introduction of Green Arrow ( Justin Hartley ) allowed Clark to mature more in the sixth season . Clark was able to see how others achieved the same goals , but used alternative routes that perhaps crossed moral lines . This taught Clark to start thinking about things from his opponents ' perspectives . Ultimately , in season six Clark learned it would be his human side that allowed him to become the hero he needed to be , summed up by writer Turi Meyer as " ... soon @-@ to @-@ be Man of Steel " . Each season , Clark gained insight into how not to misuse his abilities from the kryptonite @-@ mutated villains that used them for crime . In later seasons , Clark saw how even those that used their abilities for good might still have questionable actions , specifically Arthur Curry ( Alan Ritchson ) and Andrea Rojas ( Denise Quiñones ) , though Clark did help them take the high road . Those episodes reiterated the effect Clark 's parents had on how he used his abilities . Clark also learned that he cannot do everything alone , even though he chose not to join Oliver 's team of superheroes at the end of the episode " Justice " . For Meyer , season six showed that Clark was still struggling to accept his destiny , but did take steps toward the day that he would put on the cape and become Superman .
= = = Characterization = = =
The idea Gough and Millar came up with for their show 's version of Clark Kent was to strip him down to his " ... bare essence ... " , discovering the reasons why Clark became Superman . In Smallville , Clark is fallible , as Gough explains :
The thing that we 've tried to portray ... is that Clark doesn 't always make the right decisions , and by not making the right decisions , he brings further consequences on himself . Whether it 's running away from Jor @-@ El at the end of season two , or choosing humanity over some sort of Kryptonian mission , those decisions get him in more trouble , and cause more people to suffer , or in Jonathan Kent 's case , to die .
Welling agreed with Gough 's opinion of Clark 's fallibility , stating that the mistakes Clark made showed his humanity .
Even though Clark could make the wrong choices , season five 's " Aqua " helped illustrate the concept that Clark was " ... good to the core " . The episode showed how protective he could be over someone , even when that person annoyed him . In this case , he was trying to warn Lois that Arthur Curry may not have been the man she believed him to be . This concept was echoed by the Seattle Times ' Julia Waterhous , who noted that Clark , despite all his flaws , always put others before himself . Welling 's fellow actors also had their own insights into the character . Kristin Kreuk saw Clark as a kindred spirit who was sad , lonely , but also endearing ; whereas John Schneider classified Clark as a special needs child .
Just like his comic book counterpart , Smallville 's Clark Kent was a symbolic representation of Jesus Christ . Established early on , the pilot episode contained a moment when Clark was crucified on a scarecrow post during a high school hazing . The Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette 's Rob Owen noted the Christ @-@ like imagery of the scene , stating , " Is it any wonder Clark gets tied up there since Superman , too , was ' sent to save us ' ? " Echoing Owen , Judge Byun identified the same symbolism : " Superman is , in a way , the secular pop culture stand @-@ in for Jesus Christ , a messiah figure for our generation . The series makes this theme explicit in its pilot episode , in which Clark is symbolically ' crucified ' in a cornfield . That striking bit of symbolism becomes the central preoccupation of the series ; Clark is the savior who sacrifices all for the greater good of humanity , and Smallville shows us how he comes to accept and embrace that role . "
This was extended to the end of season nine , where Clark sacrificed his own life in the finale , in order to send General Zod and the rest of the Kandorians to their own world . In doing so , Clark fell off a building " ... in full crucifixion pose , driving home the point that he is sacrificing himself for the good of the planet " . To this point , Cinefantastique 's Tom Powers suggested that these images and metaphorical emphasis through dialogue exchanges came across so heavy @-@ handed that a very devout individual might have found them offensive .
In addition to religious allusions , the crew used color schemes and camera movements to create their own themes for the characters . Since the show was told from Clark 's point of view , particular visual elements were utilized to illustrate a particular characteristic . When he was safe at home the colors used to illustrate the environment were warm and gentle , with an earth tone , while the camera movement was gentle as well . When Clark was keeping his secret , but there was no danger around , the lighting was more neutral , with greater camera movement . When there was danger , the lighting became colder with more grays and blues , and the camera shifted to a handheld , allowing more extreme angles .
= = = Relationships = = =
Clark 's relationships with the other characters evolved over the course of the show . Clark 's relationship with Lex Luthor was symbolic , as the two shared a yin and yang type of relationship . In the pilot , Clark first saved Lex from drowning after a car accident ; at the end of the episode , Lex saved Clark when he was strung up in the cornfield and immobilized by kryptonite . His relationship with Lex was tested by his lack of honesty , just like it was with Lana for the first six seasons ; the same could be said for Lex 's dishonesty with Clark . Both characters wanted to be completely honest with each other , but knew they could not , which inhibited their friendship .
His relationship with Lana Lang was one of Smallville 's central relationships . When Clark and Lana met in the cemetery , Clark realized that he had found someone who understood him , who he could talk to , even though it was not in as strong a way as he would have liked . Although Clark felt close to Lana , his fear that she would " ... kick him out of her life ... " if she learned his secret — that he came in the meteor shower that killed her parents — was strong enough to keep him from becoming as close to her as he wished . The lack of honesty caused issues between them . Judge Byun wondered how this Clark Kent would have room in his heart for Lois Lane later in life , as the he bounced back and forth between Lana and Chloe in the first season .
With Lana 's boyfriend gone by season two , the door opened for Clark , but Welling stated he understood why the producers continued to keep Clark and Lana apart , even after Whitney 's departure : " There 's the cliché that television shows with a main lover interest fail once they get it together . " After briefly being together at the beginning of the fifth season , Clark 's upbringing was not enough to help him cope with the loss of Lana to Lex toward the end of season five . Welling admits that Clark had learned to let Lana make her own choices and not stand in her way , but his problem with her relationship with Lex was that Lex is a dangerous individual and it put Lana 's safety in jeopardy . Apart from that , Clark had learned to walk the lonely road of a hero . His inability to cope with Lana moving on with Lex was carried over to season six . This season was the time the writers put Clark through an emotional wringer when they had Lana accept Lex 's marriage proposal . For writer Kelly Souders , this presented Clark 's worst fear : the woman he loved was marrying his worst enemy .
Apart from Lana , Clark had a growing relationship with Lois . Season five saw the melting of the ice between the two characters , who continued to butt heads . Executive producer Darren Swimmer believed that the audience could finally start to see a growing attraction between the two , and the fact that both would be there for the other in a time of need . Erica Durance believed that Lois in season five , because of her self @-@ imposed walls , laughed off any notion that she had a romantic interest in Clark , even if that notion was true . In season six , Durance described the relationship between Lois and Clark as something neither character wanted to put an official label on . Instead , Durance believed that , by that point in the series , Clark and Lois were satisfied with identifying with a " brother and sister friendship " label , rather than trying to discover how each truly feels . By season eight , Durance noted that Lois was starting to accept the idea that she may be in love with Clark more than she had been with anyone else in her life . His relationship with Lois was included in TV Guide 's list of the best TV couples of all time .
= = = Costume = = =
For most of the series , Clark did not wear any sort of costume when in his superhero persona . From seasons one through eight , Clark was typically dressed in either red , yellow and blue ( the traditional colors of the Superman costume ) , or in the All @-@ American colors of red , white , and blue . This included the primary usage of either a blue t @-@ shirt underneath a red jacket , or a red t @-@ shirt worn under a blue jacket . In season nine , the producers decided to design an actual costume for Clark to wear while patrolling the streets of Metropolis . Abandoning the theme of red , blue , and yellow , the producers chose to keep the costume completely black , save for a silver Superman " S " shield painted on the front . Instead of the traditional cape , Clark 's red jacket is traded for a black trenchcoat . This drew comparison to the character of Neo from The Matrix film series . It was also compared to the black suit Superman wore after being resurrected , following his death at the hands of Doomsday in the comic books .
In the season ten premiere , the audience got its first glimpse of the traditional Superman costume , which was left for Clark by Martha in the season nine finale . Although the suit was briefly seen through a reflection in Clark 's eyes in the season nine finale , the suit that appeared in the season ten premiere was a different design . The producers , working alongside Warner Bros. and DC Comics , procured the costume worn by Brandon Routh in Superman Returns , which the team chose over the Christopher Reeve suit of the 1980s . DC Comics offered the suit worn by Reeve , but Peterson explained that it " ... just didn 't quite fit with our world . " According to producer Kelly Souders , " Well , the process was really a group effort . We worked with DC , and we have Alicia Louis , who does a lot of stuff for us at the studio , and who was really instrumental . It took quite a bit to get that costume . There 's a lot of sign @-@ offs , it really was Warner Bros. and DC and us working to make it happen . " Peterson stated that the costume plays a more prominent role in the final season , with the last scene of Smallville ending with Clark wearing it . Before then , Clark began wearing a new costume in the season ten episode " Shield " . Here , Clark replaced the black trenchoat with a red leather jacket , and the " S " shield now embossed onto the chest of that jacket .
= = Reception = =
In 2002 , Welling was nominated for his first Saturn Award for Best Actor in a Television series , for his portrayal of Clark Kent in Smallville . Following that , Welling was nominated another four consecutive years , 2003 to 2006 , for the Saturn Award for Best Actor in a Television series . The same year he was nominated for his first Saturn Award , Welling won a Teen Choice Award for Choice Breakout TV Star , Male . Although he has not won a Teen Choice Award since , just like with the Saturn Awards , he has been nominated for Choice Actor in television for the four consecutive years after his win , 2003 to 2006 , Although not nominated in 2007 , he did receive a nomination in 2008 and 2009 for Choice Male in an Action / Adventure series . Welling was also nominated for the 2006 Teen Choice Awards for Most Beautiful Couple ( TV — Choice Chemistry ) , with his co @-@ star Kristin Kreuk . In the 2009 Teen Choice Awards , Tom Welling received the award for Choice TV Actor — Action Adventure . Welling was included in TV Guide 's list of " TV 's Sexiest Crime Fighters " .
Bryan Byun , of DVD Verdict , believes that Welling was the perfect choice for Clark Kent : " I can 't imagine a more ideal actor to play this superpowered farm boy than Tom Welling , with his wholesome , honest face and heroic good looks — Welling not only resembles Christopher Reeve physically , but has all of the earnest charm that made Reeve the quintessential Superman . " The Free Lance – Star 's Ron Hedelt likened Welling 's performances as Clark Kent to that of Christopher Reeve 's performances in the Superman films , stating that Welling manages to portray a " ... sweet , unassuming teenager ... " while showing Clark struggle with the truth about himself . Comics2Film 's Rob Worley also wrote of the physical resemblance Welling has to Christopher Reeve , noting that the actor gave the character depth with his convincing portrayal of Clark 's longing to fit in . When comparing Smallville 's Clark Kent to Bryan Singer 's Superman ( Brandon Routh ) in Superman Returns , Seattle Times ' Julia Waterhous found Smallville 's Clark Kent to be the more intriguing character . Waterhous explained that this was due to the inner turmoil of Clark — not being able to tell those he loved his secret — and the fact that no matter what his faults were he continued to put others before himself , remaining " ... pure and good ... " . She explained that this allowed the audience to become intimate with the character , something lacking in the film version . According to the Associated Press , Welling 's popularity as Clark Kent on Smallville had fans of the show wishing he would take the role Routh received in Superman Returns .
= = Other media appearances = =
= = = Young Adult novels = = =
Smallville 's Clark Kent has also appeared in two series of young adult novels . The first was published by Aspect publishing ; consisting of eight novels , which began in October 2002 and ended in March 2004 . The second series was published by Little , Brown Young Readers , also beginning in October 2002 , with a total of ten young adult novels published through April 2004 .
In Aspect 's first novel , Smallville : Strange Visitors , written by Roger Stern , Clark attempted to stop two religious con @-@ men from robbing the town with their kryptonite @-@ enhanced spiritual seminars . Little 's first novel , Arrival , chronicled the events of the show 's pilot as written by author Michael Teitelbaum , and their second book , See No Evil , also published in October 2002 and was written by Cherie Bennett and Jeff Gottesfeld — who have also written episodes of the show — featured Clark trying to stop Dawn Mills , a young actress , from hurting people who speak badly about her , by using her power to turn invisible .
On November 1 , 2002 , Aspect published Alan Grant 's book , Smallville : Dragon , which had Clark being hypnotized into believing that he was a normal , human teenager , with no abilities . Little 's Flight featured Clark trying to lend emotional support to a young girl who has full @-@ sized wings . The next Aspect novel , Hauntings , followed Clark and his friends as they investigate a ghostly presence in one of Smallville 's haunted houses . Animal Rage followed Clark as he tries to stop an animal rights activist when she tries to hurt the people harming animals in Smallville . Aspect brought in Dean Wesley Smith for their next novel , Whodunit , which involved Clark , Chloe , Lana and Pete investigating the murder of a boy and his sister .
Little published their next two books in April and June 2003 . The first , Speed , had Clark fighting hate crimes in Smallville . The second , Buried Secrets , followed Clark and Lex as they both fell in love with a mind @-@ reading , substitute Spanish teacher . In the novel , Clark and Lex 's friendship was put in jeopardy as the two competed for the teacher 's love . On September 9 , 2004 , Aspect published Shadows , where Clark must stop a girl 's scientist father , who has created a monster that is killing people . Runaway featured Clark leaving Smallville and living on the streets of Metropolis with other homeless teenagers . Clark fell in love with one of the girls before eventually returning home . Smallville : Silence has Clark and his friends investigating the appearance of zombies . Little 's Greed followed Clark and his friends as they took jobs as summer counselors to disadvantaged youths . Pete tried to abuse Clark 's abilities by tricking him into playing in a basketball game , and then betting on the outcome .
Alan Grant returned for a second outing to write Curse , about a grave digger who unleashed a 150 @-@ year @-@ old curse onto Smallville , and Clark 's attempt to put everything back the way it was . In Temptation , Clark used red kryptonite to try and impress Lana and Chloe after they become infatuated with a new , French foreign exchange student . Aspect released their final novel on March 1 , 2004 ; written by Devin K. Grayson , City chronicled Clark and Lex 's trip to Metropolis . While in the city , the pair got caught between the Japanese mafia and a secret agent who believed he has found an alien . In Little , Brown Young Readers ' final novel , written by Cherie Bennett and Jeff Gottesfeld , Sparks featured Clark trying to save Chloe after she was exposed to a kryptonite fireworks display that makes her the desire of every man . For one of the men , when the desire wears off he decides that he really does want Chloe and kidnaps her .
= = = Comic books = = =
In 2012 , the series was continued in Smallville : Season 11 , a comic book available both in digital and print formats . Every Friday for three weeks in a row , the stories which follow the primary story arcs , were released online and were referred to as episodes . The following week , the preceding three episodes were released as a print comic . Parallel to the main story arc , other story arcs featuring other characters ( many of which were part of the future " Justice League America " ) were released online every fourth Friday , and collected and printed in special editions by themselves , separate from the main story . Written by Bryan Q. Miller , who wrote for the television series , the comic took up the story of the Smallville characters six months after The Blur saved Earth from the Apokolips . Clark no longer fights crime by the alias The Blur , but has been dubbed Superman by the masses .
During the season Clark continued his battles with Lex Luthor , who had lost his memory . New characters were introduced , such as Commander Hank Henshaw , a participant in LexCorp 's project , Guardian Defense Platforms . In the third issue , Clark confronted Lex , during which Clark inadvertently implied that he knew Lex before his amnesia . Superman and Batman met and battled , but declared a truce , and began working together , eventually becoming friends . Clark also reunited with Bart Allen , who was seeking Clark 's aid in battling the Black Flash , who , ended up killing Bart during an ensuing battle .
At one point , Clark and Michael Jon Carter ( Booster Gold ) inadvertently traveled to the 31st century , where they found themselves caught in a war between New Krypton , led by Kara , and an army of xenophobes , during which Doomsday is reawakened , then defeated when all the belligerents form an alliance . While in the future , Clark met a child named Bartholomew Allen , causing Clark to suspect he was a descendant of Bart and giving him hope that he was still alive . After meeting Diana Prince , with whom he teamed to defeat Hades and Felix Faust , Clark , as Superman , chose to reveal to the President that he was not a meteor @-@ infected individual as the public believed but was from another planet . Later , Clark attempted to rally the heroes and the world to make a stand against the Monitors .
= = Merchandise = =
DC Direct has released action figures for Clark Kent , along with other Smallville characters . The first set of action figures was released on October 2 , 2002 , and was modeled after Clark 's appearance in the first season . The second series was released on May 7 , 2008 and was designed after Clark 's appearance in the season six episode " Justice " .
= Saido Berahino =
Saido Berahino ( born 4 August 1993 ) is an English professional footballer who plays as a striker for Premier League club West Bromwich Albion .
Having fled his native Burundi as a child , he received political asylum in Birmingham , and credits football with helping him integrate into English society . Berahino joined West Bromwich Albion at the age of 11 and turned professional seven years later . He spent time out on loan at Football League clubs Northampton Town , Brentford and Peterborough United ; the latter two spells were ended prematurely by a feud with his manager Uwe Rösler , and a knee injury , respectively .
Berahino made his first starts for West Bromwich Albion in the 2013 – 14 season , with highlights of that campaign including a hat @-@ trick against Newport County , and the winning goal at Old Trafford against Manchester United . In his second full season , he recorded 20 goals in 45 games across all competitions . Following that successful campaign , Berahino became involved in a lengthy transfer saga involving Tottenham Hotspur , straining his relationships with manager Tony Pulis and West Bromwich Albion chairman Jeremy Peace .
Berahino represented England at all youth levels from under @-@ 16 to under @-@ 21 , and was part of their under @-@ 17 team which won the 2010 European Championship . He was called up for the first time to the senior team in November 2014 .
= = Early life = =
Born in Bujumbura , the capital of Burundi , Berahino played football as a child with a ball of plastic bags tied up with laces . His father was killed in 1997 during the Burundian Civil War . He travelled to England alone at the age of 10 , fleeing the ongoing war to join his mother , brother and sisters who had already been granted asylum in Newtown , Birmingham . He could not locate his family on arrival , and was put in a care home . After his mother Liliane was traced , immigration officials had to administer a DNA test to confirm their relationship .
Berahino attended Aston Manor School , where he gained ten GCSE certificates and competed in basketball and athletics in addition to football . His childhood friends included Ateeq Javid and Recordo Gordon , both of whom went on to play County Championship cricket for Warwickshire . Initially speaking only French and having played street football in his native Burundi , Berahino attributed his love for the sport with helping him integrate quickly into English society .
= = Club career = =
= = = West Bromwich Albion = = =
Berahino signed for the West Bromwich Albion Centre of Excellence in 2004 at under @-@ 12 level , joining from inner @-@ city team Phoenix United . He progressed through the youth system of the Baggies and in summer 2011 , he signed a professional contract with them .
= = = = Loans = = = =
On 20 October 2011 , Berahino joined League Two side Northampton Town on a one @-@ month loan deal . He made his professional debut for the Cobblers two days later in 2 – 1 defeat to Bradford City at Valley Parade , playing the full 90 minutes . Three days after that , he scored his first senior goal against Hereford United , albeit in a 1 – 3 home loss at Sixfields . His loan was extended twice , on 3 November and on 5 January 2012 . Two days after his first extension , Berahino scored twice away to Gillingham , a goal in each half of a 4 – 3 loss . He ended his spell with 6 league goals in 14 appearances for Northampton , although they were struggling in League Two .
On 9 February 2012 , Berahino went out on loan again , this time at a higher level than before , by joining League One side Brentford through to the end of the season . He made his debut five days later , replacing Marcus Bean at the end of a 2 – 1 loss at Colchester United . In the next game , at Griffin Park on the 20th , he came on for Gary Alexander in the 28th minute and scored in each half of a 4 – 0 win against Carlisle United . He also scored both goals in a 2 – 0 win over Exeter City on 6 March , after which the club 's caretaker manager Alan Kernaghan praised him by saying : " Saido got the nod and he did well , but this was win [ sic ] built on a strong defensive performance as shown by another clean sheet . " Due to arguments with new manager Uwe Rösler , the loan spell with Brentford ended early and he returned to West Bromwich Albion on 3 April , having scored 4 goals in 8 appearances .
Berahino made his debut for West Brom as a substitute against Yeovil Town in a League Cup second round tie on 28 August 2012 , replacing Shane Long for the final six minutes of a 4 – 2 away win .
He signed on loan for Championship club Peterborough United on 1 October , in a deal until 2 January 2013 . The following day , he made his debut in a 2 – 0 win at Barnsley , replacing Emile Sinclair after 65 minutes . On 27 October , Berahino scored twice in a 3 – 0 win over Derby County . At Peterbrough United , manager Darren Ferguson said that Berahino would play more regularly . He played ten matches on his loan spell , which was cut short by a knee injury .
= = = = 2013 – 14 season = = = =
At the start of the 2013 – 14 season , manager Steve Clarke suggested that Berahino should become West Bromwich Albion 's main centre forward , instead of the club signing a new one . Of their strikers from the previous season , Romelu Lukaku had left for Everton and Peter Odemwingie had fallen out of favour at the club .
On 27 August 2013 he made his first start for West Brom in a League Cup tie against Newport County and scored a hat @-@ trick in a 3 – 0 home win . He made his first league appearance for the Baggies when he came on as a substitute in a 2 – 0 home defeat against Swansea City on 1 September 2013 , replacing Scott Sinclair for the last 15 minutes of the match . On 28 September , he replaced the injured Sinclair in the first half and scored his first Premier League goal , the winner in a 2 – 1 win against Manchester United at Old Trafford . He scored again on 2 November , opening a 2 – 0 home win over Crystal Palace . Berahino extended his contract with West Bromwich Albion on 2 December , committing him to the club until June 2017 .
Berahino scored the last goal of a 3 – 3 draw away to West Ham United at the Boleyn Ground on 28 December . His penalty four days later won the match against Newcastle United , ending a 10 @-@ match streak without a win for the team , and on 26 April he again netted the only goal , to defeat West Ham at home .
= = = = 2014 – 15 season = = = =
Berahino scored both of West Brom 's goals in their first game of the 2014 – 15 Premier League season , a draw against Sunderland on 16 August 2014 . He scored twice more for the Baggies on 28 September , netting in either side of the half @-@ time whistle as West Brom defeated Burnley 4 – 0 . He equalled his league tally from the previous season with a penalty in a 2 – 1 loss to Liverpool on 4 October , having won the penalty after being fouled by Dejan Lovren .
On 20 October 2014 Berahino again scored against Manchester United , netting West Brom 's second in a home Premier League fixture which ended 2 – 2 . He converted an added @-@ time penalty at The Hawthorns against Crystal Palace on 1 November to secure a draw with the same score . His good start to the season prompted the club to consider a new contract worth over £ 50 @,@ 000 per week , but discussion of it was put on hold in late November due to his arrest on suspicion of drink driving .
On 3 January 2015 in the FA Cup third round , Berahino scored four goals in a 7 – 0 win against Gateshead . He did not celebrate any of these goals , which brought questions to new manager Tony Pulis who explained " you should go and see him in the dressing room , he 's more happy in there " . Berahino later stated " I was just handling business and acting professionally and that 's it " .
In February 2015 , West Bromwich Albion abandoned their contract talks with Berahino , and said they would consider offers above £ 20 million to sell him at the end of the season . The club had been put off by his conduct , as well as an unauthorised interview with Sky Sports in which he declared that he was playing in order to get a transfer to a " bigger " club . On 11 February , Berahino scored his 10th goal of the Premier League season , and fifteenth overall , concluding a 2 – 0 home win over Swansea City . Three days later , he scored the team 's final goal in a 4 – 0 defeat of West Ham United to put the Baggies into the quarter @-@ finals of the FA Cup for the first time since 2008 . On 28 February , Berahino netted his 17th goal of the season across all competitions , scoring the only goal of the game after 72 seconds for a league victory against Southampton .
Away at Manchester United on 2 May , he conceded a penalty by handling Antonio Valencia 's cross , but Boaz Myhill saved from Robin van Persie and West Bromwich Albion won 1 – 0 . Sixteen days later , Berahino scored twice in a 3 – 0 win over recently crowned league champions Chelsea , the second goal was his 20th of the season , a penalty after he was fouled by John Terry . He finished the season with the club 's Player 's Player of the Year Award .
= = = = 2015 – 16 season = = = =
In August 2015 , West Bromwich Albion rejected a bid estimated at £ 15 million for Berahino to sign for Tottenham Hotspur , with the club valuing him at £ 25 million . After the bids , Pulis left Berahino out of his squad for the game against Chelsea on 23 August , replacing him with new record signing José Salomón Rondón . When interviewed after the match , Pulis stated that Berahino was left out because previous events in the transfer market had been " disruptive " . The following day , the club rejected Berahino 's transfer request . After they rejected a fourth bid for the player on transfer deadline day , Berahino stated he was unhappy with the conduct of his club and wrote on Twitter that he would never play for the club again under chairman Jeremy Peace ; he was fined for these comments . On 7 September , Pulis told the press that all parties had reconciled , and that Berahino was training again as normal .
Berahino returned as a substitute for Albion in 0 – 0 draw against Southampton on 12 September , receiving a mixed reception . He started a week later against local rivals Aston Villa , scoring the only goal of the game by deflecting James Morrison 's shot into the net . The following week against Everton , he opened the scoring and Albion went on to lead 2 – 0 before eventually losing 2 – 3 . After the international break , Berahino scored the only goal in home win against Sunderland on 17 October , exploiting a fumble by their goalkeeper Costel Pantilimon . From 31 October until the end of the calendar year , Berahino did not start a single game , with Pulis saying that " He 's lucky to be on the bench , never mind starting . He 's a smashing kid but lets himself down at times . "
In January 2016 , Berahino scored in a 2 – 2 draw against Bristol City in the third round of the FA Cup , but did not appear in the squad for the replay . Pulis attributed this to an infection , and re @-@ stated that he wanted to keep the player at West Bromwich Albion by the end of the month 's transfer window . He returned for the next round on 30 January , scoring both goals in a 2 – 2 home draw against former loan team Peterborough . The next day , Newcastle made a £ 21 million bid for the player . However , Berahino remained at West Bromwich Albion ; on 26 February he apologised for having threatened to strike . On 16 April , Berahino had two penalty kicks saved by Heurelho Gomes in a 1 – 0 home loss to Watford .
Stoke City tabled an offer of £ 17 million , potentially rising to £ 20 million , for Berahino in July 2016 . West Bromwich Albion rejected that bid and an equal one from Crystal Palace .
= = International career = =
Regarding his allegiance in international football , Berahino said in 2013 :
Berahino made appearances at various youth levels for England . He represented England under @-@ 17 as they won the 2010 European Championship in Liechtenstein , scoring the equaliser in the final group game as they came from behind to defeat Turkey 2 – 1 . In 2012 , he represented the under @-@ 19 team at the European Championship in Estonia , helping them reach the semi @-@ finals before losing in extra time to Greece .
He was called up to the England under @-@ 21 squad for the first time for the match against Scotland on 13 August 2013 . He scored on his England under @-@ 21 debut on 6 September , a European qualifier against Moldova in his side 's 1 – 0 win , this game was also Gareth Southgate 's first game in charge . Four days later , Berahino equalised for a 1 – 1 draw against Finland in the next qualifier away in Tampere . On 15 October , Berahino scored twice in a 4 – 0 qualifying win against Lithuania , taking his tally for the team to 4 goals in 3 games .
Berahino was yellow @-@ carded after the first of his two goals in a 3 – 0 win against Finland under @-@ 21 in a European qualifier on 15 November 2013 , for lifting his shirt to reveal a message to his late father , who died in the Burundian Civil War . He was voted the 2014 Under @-@ 21 Player of the Year by fans , finishing ahead of Harry Kane with 16 % of the vote after a year in which he scored at a rate of a goal every other game , including three to help the team qualify for the European Championship . Berahino has the all @-@ time third @-@ highest goal tally for the England under @-@ 21 side with 10 goals in 13 appearances , behind Francis Jeffers and Alan Shearer .
On 6 November 2014 , England manager Roy Hodgson — who promoted Berahino to the West Bromwich Albion first team in 2011 — named Berahino in his squad for the first time , ahead of a UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying match against Slovenia at W
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= Washington State Route 531 =
State Route 531 ( SR 531 ) is a short Washington state highway in Snohomish County . It extends east 9 @.@ 88 miles ( 15 @.@ 90 km ) , from Wenberg County Park in the community of Lake Goodwin , to SR 9 in southeast Arlington . SR 531 intersects Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) , and passes the Arlington Airport . The route connects I @-@ 5 to SR 9 , Smokey Point , and Wenberg County Park . The Washington State Legislature approved SR 531 's current route in 1991 . Since then , construction projects , arranged by the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) , have turned this small road into an arterial street . Even though the Washington State Legislature and WSDOT approved SR 531 in 1991 , they erected no signs until April 1 , 1992 , when the law creating the road took effect .
The road now used by SR 531 has existed as a separate route since at least 1911 . A map dating from 1911 shows that 172nd Street , then known simply as Lakewood Road and Edgecomb Road , extended east from its current intersection with SR 9 to the banks of the South Fork Stillaguamish River .
= = Route description = =
State Route 531 runs about 9 @.@ 88 miles ( 15 @.@ 90 km ) , from Wenberg County Park to State Route 9 south of Arlington . The route links the communities of Lake Goodwin , North Lakewood ( also known as Lakewood ) , Smokey Point , and Edgecomb . It also passes four schools in the Lakewood School District , as well as Weston High School in the Arlington School District . The road intersects four major arteries : Forty @-@ Five Road , Interstate 5 , Smokey Point Boulevard ( formerly known as U.S. Route 99 ) , and 67th Avenue , before ending at SR 9 . WSDOT found that , based on average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) data , about 35 @,@ 000 motorists utilize the road daily at the I @-@ 5 interchange .
Starting at Wenberg County Park , the route runs north along East Lake Goodwin Road until it intersects Lakewood Road . From there , SR 531 travels east along Lakewood Road around Lake Ki before reaching Forty @-@ Five Road . Here , Lakewood Road becomes the main artery of North Lakewood and Smokey Point , 172nd Street . Continuing east , SR 531 intersects 11th Avenue .
After intersecting 11th Avenue , SR 531 becomes the northern boundary of the Lakewood High School campus . SR 531 continues east from 11th Avenue to 16th Drive , shortly after entering Marysville city limits . Soon thereafter , the road intersects 19th Drive , which connects the southeastern section of North Lakewood with SR 531 . Continuing east across a double track , the highway intersects 27th Avenue , which connects the road with Lakewood Crossing , a shopping center in Lakewood . SR 531 then continues further east to the interchange with I @-@ 5 .
After leaving the interchange with I @-@ 5 , along with North Lakewood and Marysville city limits , SR 531 continues east to Smokey Point Boulevard ( formerly U.S. Route 99 ) in Smokey Point . The road then maintains straight east , passing Weston High School and Arlington Municipal Airport before intersecting 67th Avenue . From 67th Avenue , SR 531 travels east to a suburban community of Edgecomb . The road curves northeast and then southeast while on a hill . SR 531 travels east past the Arlington Gun Range and Gleneagle , a large housing area , before ending at an intersection with SR 9 .
= = History = =
The whole stretch highway from Wenberg County Park to current SR 9 has been known to exist earlier than 1911 . 172nd Street NE , now SR 531 , once extended from what is currently SR 9 to the banks of the South Fork Stillaguamish River . This part of the highway has been removed .
SR 531 became a state highway in 1991 , but the highway designation did not take effect until April 1 , 1992 . In 2006 , WSDOT announced it would complete three more projects over about five years to improve SR 531 . The first , to improve the bridge and interchange between I @-@ 5 and SR 531 , began immediately . The Tulalip , Stillaguamish , Samish and Kikiallus Tribes helped fund the construction of the project . On April 30 , 2005 , the old two @-@ lane SR 531 bridge was demolished during the night . WSDOT redirected traffic on SR 531 to the completed north side of the new bridge , while the northbound lanes of Interstate 5 were closed to all traffic and rerouted on ramps from I @-@ 5 to SR 531 . During construction , eastbound SR 531 left @-@ turn lanes were closed ; a detour on Smokey Point Boulevard and SR 530 provided direct drivers access to northbound I @-@ 5 . The other half of the bridge was later demolished in May 2005 . All of the temporary structures on the bridge were subsequently removed in December 2005 . Partly finished in June 2006 , WSDOT plans to complete the project after adding a loop ramp in 2011 . In August 2007 , WSDOT completed a project to add sidewalks along SR 531 to the adjacent schools of the Lakewood School District .
An upcoming project , adding a loop ramp onto the I @-@ 5 interchange , started in March 2009 and will end in 2011 . WSDOT has awarded the contract for the project to Northwest Construction , Inc . Part of the project includes widening the main entry point to Lakewood Crossing , by adding turn pockets . Widening SR 531 between 43rd Avenue NE and 67th Avenue NE from its current two to five lanes near the Arlington Airport is another planned project . The project is currently in planning stages and WSDOT has set up a webpage for the project .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Snohomish County .
= HMS Diana ( H49 ) =
HMS Diana was a D @-@ class destroyer of the Royal Navy . Ordered in 1931 , the ship was constructed by Palmers Shipbuilding and Iron Company , and entered naval service in 1932 . Diana was initially assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet before she was transferred to the China Station in early 1935 . She was temporarily deployed in the Red Sea during late 1935 during the Abyssinia Crisis , before returning to her duty station where she remained until mid @-@ 1939 . Diana was transferred back to the Mediterranean Fleet just before the Second World War began in September 1939 . She served with the Home Fleet during the Norwegian Campaign . The ship was transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy in 1940 and renamed HMCS Margaree . She served for just over a month with the Canadians before being sunk in a collision with a large freighter she was escorting on 22 October 1940 .
= = Design and construction = =
Diana displaced 1 @,@ 375 long tons ( 1 @,@ 397 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 890 long tons ( 1 @,@ 920 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Diana carried a maximum of 473 long tons ( 481 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 870 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 870 km ; 6 @,@ 760 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 145 officers and men .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mark IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Diana had a single 12 @-@ pounder AA gun between her funnels and two QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk II AA guns mounted on the side of her bridge . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began .
Diana was ordered under the 1930 Naval Estimates on 2 February 1931 from the yards of Palmers Shipbuilding and Iron Company , Hebburn @-@ on @-@ Tyne . She was laid down on 12 June 1931 , launched on 16 June 1932 and finally commissioned into the Navy on 21 December 1932 . She cost a total of £ 229 @,@ 502 , excluding the weapons and the communications equipment which were supplied by the Admiralty .
= = Operational history = =
= = = With the Royal Navy = = =
The ship was initially assigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla in the Mediterranean and made a brief deployment to the Persian Gulf and Red Sea in September – November 1933 . While in the Mediterranean , Diana was commanded by Geoffrey Oliver for a time . The ship was refitted at Sheerness Dockyard between 3 September and 23 October 1934 for service on the China Station with the 8th ( later the 21st ) Destroyer Flotilla and arrived there in January 1935 . She was attached to the Mediterranean Fleet in the Red Sea from September 1935 to May 1936 during the Abyssinian Crisis and made port visits in Bombay and East Africa before returning to Hong Kong on 7 August . On one occasion in 1937 Diana investigated why a lighthouse near Amoy was not lit and discovered that it had been attacked by pirates . She remained in the Far East until the rise in tensions before World War II began prompted her recall in August 1939 .
With the outbreak of war , Diana and her sisters Duncan , Daring , and Dainty , were assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet , arriving there in October . She was repaired at Malta during November and rejoining the fleet in December where she was briefly placed on contraband control duties before she was transferred to the Home Fleet 's 3rd Destroyer Flotilla . Diana arrived in Home waters in January 1940 , and was assigned to the 3rd Destroyer Flotilla . Here her duties included screening units of the Home Fleet and carrying out patrols . On 15 February , the ship escorted HMS Duncan as she towed by tugs from Invergordon to the Forth for permanent repairs , after the latter had been damaged in a collision whilst escorting a convoy .
During the Norwegian Campaign , Diana escorted the aircraft carrier HMS Furious as she returned to Scapa Flow on 25 April to replenish her aircraft . On 1 May , she screened the light cruisers HMS Manchester and HMS Birmingham of the 18th Cruiser Squadron as they covered the evacuations from Åndalsnes and the ship transported the Norwegian Commander @-@ in @-@ chief Major General Otto Ruge from Molde to Tromsø . The ship escorted the carriers HMS Glorious and Furious as the latter flew off RAF Gloster Gladiators fighters to Bardufoss airfield on 21 May . Ten days later Diana escorted the carriers HMS Ark Royal and Furious during Operation Alphabet , the Allied withdrawal from Norway .
= = = Transfer to Canada = = =
The ship was taken in hand for refit and repair in London in July . After their completion , Diana was transferred to the Royal Canadian Navy to replace HMCS Fraser which had been sunk in a collision on 25 June 1940 with the British anti @-@ aircraft cruiser HMS Calcutta . The ship was formally commissioned into the Royal Canadian Navy as HMCS Margaree on 6 September 1940 . On 17 October , she escorted Convoy OL8 bound for Canada , but the ship was sunk five days later when she collided with the freighter MV Port Fairy . Of the 176 men aboard Margaree at the time , six officers and 28 ratings were rescued by Port Fairy , but the other 142 were lost .
= Twelfth Siege of Gibraltar =
The Twelfth Siege of Gibraltar was fought between September 1704 and May 1705 during the War of the Spanish Succession . It followed the capture in August 1704 of the fortified town of Gibraltar , at the southern tip of Spain , by an Anglo – Dutch naval force led by Sir George Rooke and Prince George of Hesse @-@ Darmstadt . The members of the Grand Alliance , Holy Roman Empire , England , the Netherlands , Pro @-@ Habsburg Spain , Portugal and the Savoy , had allied to prevent the unification of the French and Spanish thrones by supporting the claim of the Habsburg pretender Archduke Charles VI of Austria as Charles III of Spain . They were opposed by the rival claimant , the Bourbon Philip , Duke of Anjou , ruling as Philip V of Spain , and his patron and ally , Louis XIV of France . The war began in northern Europe and was largely contained there until 1703 , when Portugal joined the confederate powers . From then , English naval attentions were focused on mounting a campaign in the Mediterranean to distract the French navy and disrupt French and Bourbon Spanish shipping or capture a port for use as a naval base . The capture of Gibraltar was the outcome of that initial stage of the Mediterranean campaign .
At the start of the siege , Gibraltar was garrisoned by around 2 @,@ 000 Dutch , English , Austrian and pro @-@ Habsburg Spanish troops facing a besieging force of up to 8 @,@ 000 French , pro @-@ Bourbon Spanish and Irish troops . The defenders were able to hold off the numerically superior besieging force through exploiting Gibraltar 's geography and the small town 's fortifications , though they were frequently short of manpower and ammunition . The besiegers were undermined by disputes between the French and Spanish officers and terrible conditions in their trenches and bastions , which led to outbreaks of epidemic disease and undermined morale . Sea power proved crucial , as the French navy sought unsuccessfully to prevent the Grand Alliance shipping in fresh troops , ammunition and food . Three naval battles were fought during the siege , two of which were clear defeats for the French and the last of which resulted in the siege being abandoned as hopeless after nine months of fruitless shelling . The outcome was disastrous for the French and Bourbon Spanish side , which was said to have lost 10 @,@ 000 men against only 400 for the Grand Alliance .
= = Aftermath of the capture of Gibraltar = =
The loss of Gibraltar in August 1704 posed a strategic threat to the rule of the Bourbon claimant to the Spanish throne , Philip V of Spain . It was not only , as a later Spanish writer put it , " the first town in Spain to be dismembered from the domination of King Philip and forced to recognise Charles , " but it also potentially had great value as an entry point for the Grand Alliance armies . Its possibilities were recognised immediately by the Alliance forces ' leader Prince George of Hesse @-@ Darmstadt , who told Charles in a letter of September 1704 , that Gibraltar was " a door through which to enter Spain " . An army landed at Gibraltar could advance rapidly along the coast to Cadiz , supported by naval forces , and capture the major port . From there , it was a relatively short distance to Seville , where the Habsburg claimant Charles could be proclaimed king , following which the Alliance could march to Madrid and finish the war .
Gibraltar itself had been largely emptied of its population , most of whom left the town after its capture and had moved to temporary accommodation elsewhere in the Campo de Gibraltar . Only a few dozen Spaniards and a small community of neutral Genoese remained . The town was garrisoned by a motley assortment of Alliance forces , consisting of around 2 @,@ 000 British and Dutch marines , 60 gunners and several hundred Spanish , mostly Catalans , followers of Charles of Austria . They were supported by Sir George Rooke 's Anglo @-@ Dutch fleet consisting of 51 ships of the line operating in the Strait of Gibraltar . The Alliance had two significant disadvantages – limited supplies and a pressing need for their ships , which had already been at sea for six months , to be repaired and reprovisioned .
As soon as Gibraltar was captured , the Alliance set about preparing for a Bourbon counter @-@ attack . The Alliance fleet sailed a short distance across the strait to Tetuan in Morocco , where it took on fresh water . On 22 August , a French fleet was sighted in the strait but began to withdraw after being spotted . Rooke caught up with the French off Málaga on 24 August and attacked , in a bid to prevent the French from slipping past him and attacking Gibraltar . The two fleets were evenly matched but the French ships were faster and had more ammunition than the confederates . They did not manage to make this advantage count , however , and the Battle of Vélez @-@ Málaga was effectively fought to a draw . No ships were sunk but both fleets took very heavy casualties with around 3 @,@ 000 killed or wounded on each side , including the French commander . The Anglo @-@ Dutch fleet was hampered by a shortage of shot and gunpowder , much of which had already been used in bombarding Gibraltar during the operation to capture it , and Sir George Byng 's squadron was forced to pull back when it ran out of ammunition . The rest of the fleet was dangerously low on ammunition but fortunately for the confederates , the French withdrew the following day , leaving the Anglo @-@ Dutch fleet to limp back to Gibraltar .
Having dealt with the French naval threat , Rooke left as many men , guns and supplies at Gibraltar as he could before sailing for home . He split off part of his fleet , leaving Admiral Sir John Leake with 18 ships to patrol the strait and the Portuguese coast . The Spanish had already mobilised their forces and at the start of September the Marquis of Villadarias , the captain @-@ general of Andalusia , arrived in the vicinity of Gibraltar with an army of 4 @,@ 000 men . Villadarias planned to increase his force to 12 @,@ 000 , consisting of 9 @,@ 000 Spaniards and 3 @,@ 000 Frenchmen . The Two Crowns force was also supplemented by many of the civilian refugees from Gibraltar .
= = Start of the siege = =
Hesse set about improving Gibraltar 's defences to make it as difficult as possible for the enemy to mount a frontal attack . The town is set on the western side of a rocky peninsula connected to the Spanish mainland by a narrow sandy isthmus . The north side of the Rock of Gibraltar presents a vertical cliff ; the only access to the town was via a narrow strip , only about 400 feet ( 120 m ) wide , which was blocked by the heavily fortified curtain wall known as the Muralla de San Bernardo ( later the Grand Battery ) . The prince sought to reduce this strip even further by flooding it , forcing any attackers to use a narrow path between the Rock and the inundated area or to advance along the narrow shoreline . He set up cannon in five batteries along the north side of Gibraltar : on the Old Mole , to provide flanking fire from the west ; on the Baluarte de San Pablo ( later North Bastion ) and on the Landport curtain walls , to provide direct fire onto the isthmus ; on the Baluarte de San Pedro ( later Hesse 's Demi Bastion ) , to provide flanking fire from the east ; and in a Round Tower , on a clifftop spur overlooking the isthmus ( later the site of Forbes ' Batteries ) , from where fire could be directed onto enemy troops on the far side of the inundated area . A " bomb ship " was also installed off the Old Mole , carrying a heavy mortar to provide additional flanking fire from the west .
Although Hesse was confident that he would be able to hold Gibraltar against the numerically superior Franco @-@ Spanish force , he was undermined by political disputes between the Habsburg and English commanders . There was widespread resentment among the English marines that they had not been allowed to return with Rooke 's fleet . There was a particularly poisonous relationship between the English Colonel of Marines Edward Fox and the Irish Colonel Henry Nugent , whom Hesse had appointed as Governor of Gibraltar . The two men had fought on opposite sides during the Irish campaign of William III ; the Protestant Fox had gone on to serve Queen Anne , while the Catholic Nugent had joined the service of Charles of Austria . Hesse wrote that Fox was " furious at being under my orders and at not being allowed to leave for England . His respect for the Governor I have appointed is even less . There is confusion everywhere . Orders are not carried out , and the officers are the first to make trouble . . . "
The besieging French and Spanish forces were reinforced on 4 October when 19 French warships " great and small of the line of battle " escorted troop ships carrying 3 @,@ 000 men with heavy guns and supplies of ammunition to a landing point near the ruined Roman town of Carteia at the head of the Bay of Gibraltar . This brought the number of soldiers under Villadarias 's command to some 7 @,@ 000 , which Hesse estimated consisted of eight Spanish and six French battalions of foot plus nine cavalry squadrons . Most of the French ships left on 24 October , to the surprise of the defenders , though six remained behind to blockade Gibraltar .
After the reinforcements had settled in , the Spanish began digging siege lines and trenches towards the confederate positions . The first attack came on 26 October when Spanish guns opened fire on the confederate defences around the Round Tower , causing considerable damage . A French force carried out a simultaneous raid of Gibraltar 's harbour , burning the bomb ship . Villadarias then carried out a heavy bombardment of the San Pablo bastion using 27 guns and 16 mortars , which managed to breach it . Among the casualties were the two feuding colonels , Fox and Nugent , who were killed on successive days . At the same time , an epidemic disease broke out among the Gibraltar garrison , reducing their effective numbers to about 1 @,@ 300 men .
The position of the garrison looked increasingly precarious . Hesse sent a message to Admiral Leake at Lisbon requesting his urgent assistance after the appearance of French ships in the bay . After receiving the message on 21 October , Leake set sail at once , bringing more supplies for the defenders . In the meantime , Hesse had to deal with an internal threat – a plot by some Habsburg Spanish officers , aided by some clergymen and British officers , to betray the garrison . He wrote to Charles in mid @-@ October to inform the Archduke of what had happened :
I 've discovered a tremendous plot . . . I 've had a man hanged who communicated with the enemy . Clergymen persuaded him , though he had been convinced and had confessed under torture , to take everything back . . . assuring him I would not have him hanged . They went so far as to give the delinquent poison so that he would reveal nothing more . . . It 's all very confused and difficult to sort out . [ Colonels ] Gonzalez and Husson and some clergymen are the principals . . . though against the two named I have taken no action . . . for lack of definite proof . Friar Santa Maria will give you personally a long account of the business . . . I will not confront Gonzalez and Husson unless it becomes a matter of absolute necessity . . .
Charles wrote back advising Hesse to carry out a court @-@ martial with independent judges to avoid any suspicion of prejudice . As the accused were Habsburg subjects , a court @-@ martial consisting of British and Dutch officers – who did not owe allegiance to Charles – was convened to adjudicate the case . The British officers who were implicated in the plot appear to have been sent back to England ; their fate is not recorded . Gonzalez was convicted and on 23 February 1705 , " being guilty of high treason [ he ] was shot in the face of the whole garrison . "
= = Assault on the east side = =
The Bourbon Spanish , meanwhile , were planning to carry out a surprise attack . Simón Susarte , a Spanish goatherd who had fled Gibraltar after its capture by Rooke a few months earlier , told Villadarias that there was a secret route by which the east side of the Rock of Gibraltar could be scaled . It required a climb of around 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) , of which the upper section was near @-@ vertical , but was passable with the use of rope and ladders via the Great Sand Dune . As the east side was considered virtually impregnable , only the west side was fortified ; if the Rock could be climbed from the east , an attacker could evade the fortifications and descend directly into the town . The route was reconnoitred and found to be passable by a lightly armed force .
Villadarias decided to send a force of 2 @,@ 000 men – nearly a third of his entire army – divided into two groups : an initial force of 500 to seize the heights at night , followed by a further 1 @,@ 500 the following daybreak . The first 500 set off at dusk on 11 November , led by a Colonel Figueroa and guided by Simón Susarte . They made it to the top of the Rock , reaching its southernmost peak near where O 'Hara 's Battery stands today , and descended part @-@ way down the west side where they sheltered overnight in St. Michael 's Cave . At daybreak they climbed the Philip II Wall , which extends up the west side of the Rock , and killed the English sentries in the lookout point at Middle Hill . A drummer boy bringing food to the lookout saw the invaders and raised the alarm .
Hesse had anticipated some kind of attack from the rear and had kept a mobile force in reserve to guard against such an eventuality . It was formed by an English company , and two Spanish companies : a regular company under captain Francisco de Sandoval and a Catalan company of miquelets under Jaume Burguy , numbering 300 men , all of them led by Hesse 's brother Heinrich . This reserve immediately responded and engaged the Spanish Bourbons at Middle Hill . Although the Bourbons had the advantage of height , they were effectively trapped against the precipice of the Rock and only had three rounds of ammunition each , as a result of travelling light ; they had not come prepared for a pitched battle .
The Spanish Habsburg force led by Captain Burguy , made up of miquelets and regulars , marched ahead and dislodged the Spanish Bourbon grenadiers from the top of the hill . At the same time , Sandoval , with his remaining regulars and miquelets , charged upon the bulk of the assaulting force from one flank , while Heinrich von Hesse attacked from the other side . Around a hundred of the Bourbon force , including their colonel , were captured . Hundreds more were killed , either by defending fire or by falling off the Rock while attempting to flee . Only a few , including Simón Susarte , made it back to the Bourbon lines . The English subsequently ensured that there would be no repeat of this episode by blasting away the path used by the Spanish .
The other 1 @,@ 500 members of the Spanish force did not even set off to support the attack because , after the first 500 had left , Admiral Leake 's squadron was sighted entering the bay with 20 ships . In the subsequent naval engagement , six French frigates were destroyed and a seventh ship was captured intact . Villadarias had apparently intended to carry out a multi @-@ pronged attack but Leake 's timely arrival meant that it fell apart . The French naval support for an assault on the moles evaporated , and a frontal assault via the isthmus – reinforced with the 1 @,@ 500 men originally earmarked for the climb on the eastern side – failed entirely . Hesse 's relief at Leake 's timely arrival was evident in the letter that he sent the admiral after the battle , thanking him for turning up just as " the enemy were attacking us that very night of your entrance in many places at once with a great number of men . "
Leake had not brought many supplies to Gibraltar but provided what he could , and loaned Hesse the fleet 's skilled manpower , of which the confederate garrison was desperately short . A labour force of some 500 men was assembled from the ships ' companies and was put to work repairing the fortifications , remounting guns dislodged by Spanish fire and hauling cannon up the Rock to increase the fire being directed onto the Spanish batteries . One of those involved , Captain Willis , played such a prominent role that the track he used was renamed ( and is still known as ) Willis ' Road , and he also gave his name to Willis ' Battery ( now Princess Royal 's Battery ) , Magazine and Guard .
The siege settled down into a routine of bombardment and counter @-@ bombardment . This proved increasingly trying for the defenders , who were running short of manpower , ammunition and supplies . Captain Joseph Bennett , an engineer whom Leake had brought with him , helped to bolster the fortifications but earned the wrath of some in the garrison , who felt that Gibraltar should be abandoned . He wrote to a friend on 6 December to tell him that " many officers had a design to quit the place and blow up the works but I always opposed them , and mentioned the garrison could be kept with the number of 900 men we had , and no more , as I believe you will have an [ account ] of . Some was for cuting ( sic ) my Throat and others for cuting ( sic ) off my Ears & c . "
Many members of the garrison tried to sneak aboard Leake 's ships to escape the siege . The situation was precarious and was only worsened when a storm damaged many of Leake 's ships on 4 – 5 December . By this time , the garrison was critically short of medicines and supplies . Many were sick or injured and too few remained to carry out repairs to the shell @-@ damaged fortifications . Only 1 @,@ 300 were healthy enough to man the defences . Their living conditions were increasingly grim ; their shoes had worn out and many men wore makeshift sandals made from hay and straw .
= = Reinforcements and the end of the siege = =
A few days later , Leake received the news that a convoy of 20 transport ships carrying supplies and reinforcements was on its way from Lisbon , escorted by four men @-@ of @-@ war . Adverse winds and currents meant that he was unable to sail to assist it against a French naval force that had left Cadiz , and he was forced to wait to see if the convoy would reach its destination . On 18 December , nine of the transports reached the bay , accompanied by two men @-@ of @-@ war , with another seven arriving on 20 December . Four were missing , having been intercepted by the French ; three of them had been sunk or captured while the last one eventually made it to Gibraltar at the end of December . They brought with them 2 @,@ 200 men from the Grenadier Guards , Donegal 's Foot and Barrymore 's Foot , plus some Dutch troops , guns and supplies of powder , tools and food . Further reinforcements arrived between 16 – 18 January . With Gibraltar safe for the moment , Leake left for Lisbon on 3 January with sick and wounded members of the garrison aboard his ships .
The Bourbon Spanish and French land force continued to bombard Gibraltar , inflicting further damage on the town 's somewhat weak fortifications but were unable to make any progress against the reinforced garrison . They were being vigorously opposed with counter @-@ bombardments , which killed many of their number , and by sallies , two of which were carried out successfully by the confederates on 23 and 31 December . Relations steadily worsened between the Spanish and French components of the besieging force , a trend that was exacerbated by the lack of progress they were making , the appalling conditions they were enduring in the open and the steady stream of casualties being caused by the counter @-@ bombardment and outbreaks of epidemic disease . The weather , too , was terrible , with storms and heavy rain making life a misery . By the New Year of 1705 , the besieging force was disintegrating and had dropped in numbers from around 7 @,@ 000 men to only 4 @,@ 000 , the remainder having either become casualties or simply deserting .
The situation was sufficiently alarming that King Louis XIV of France despatched Marshal René de Froulay de Tessé along with 4 @,@ 500 French and Irish reinforcements to recover the situation . Villadarias , however , was determined to make one more effort to take Gibraltar before Tessé arrived . On 7 February , he sent 1 @,@ 500 French , Spanish and Irish troops to seize the Round Tower , an outlying fortification on the cliff face above the present Laguna Estate . The attackers captured the tower but a confederate counter @-@ attack drove them out , leaving 200 of them dead . The Spanish accused the French of fleeing the battlefield and leaving their flank unprotected .
Tessé arrived in mid @-@ February but was appalled to find how badly the siege was being run . His criticism of the Spanish officers led some to quit the siege in the face of what they saw as his insults . Their morale improved somewhat when Admiral Bernard Desjean , Baron de Pointis sailed into the bay on 26 February with a force of 18 men @-@ of @-@ war from Cadiz . Gibraltar 's garrison immediately went on alert , expecting a landing at the south end of the peninsula , but this did not materialise . The reason soon became clear ; Leake had returned with a combined English , Dutch and Portuguese force of 35 ships . In the subsequent battle in the Strait of Gibraltar , the French lost five of their ships , including Pointis ' flagship , and Pointis himself was fatally wounded . Leake 's fleet sailed into the bay on 31 March , bringing with it fresh troops from Mountjoy 's Grenadiers and units of the Portuguese army . Hesse rejoiced at the admiral 's arrival :
I expected with great impatience this good opportunity to express my hearty joy of your great and good success you had at your second appearing off this place ; which I hope hath been the final stroke towards our relief ; the enemy since five days have begun to withdraw their cannon . . . I in particular cannot enough express my hearty thanks and obligations I lie under .
Leake 's arrival was " the final stroke " , as the French abandoned the siege as hopeless following an order from Louis XIV on 12 April . Tessé wrote bitterly to the king to blame the Spanish , telling him that " we have failed before Gibraltar for want of method and planning . . . the ill @-@ fate of your vessels was due to lack of competence at Madrid . . . " With the French having gone home , Villadarias resumed command and began to convert the siege into a blockade by pulling back from the isthmus and removing his cannon . On 2 May , an Alliance scouting party found that the Spanish trenches had been abandoned . Later that day , Hesse accompanied a demolition party to destroy the Bourbon Spanish works , but some members of the party ventured out too far and were captured or killed by the Spanish cavalry . The following day , a larger party , protected by grenadiers , resumed the work of demolishing the Spanish batteries without further opposition , marking the end of the siege .
= Young Modern =
Young Modern is the fifth and final studio album by Australian alternative rock band Silverchair , released on 30 March 2007 . Young Modern entered the Australian albums chart at No. 1 on 15 April 2007 , their fifth consecutive album to do this , making them the first band to accomplish this feat in Australia . The album opened at No. 8 on the New Zealand albums chart .
Young Modern received four ARIA Awards at the 2007 ARIA Awards , including Single of the Year ( for " Straight Lines " ) and Album of the Year .
= = Recording and production = =
Silverchair spent five weeks in the Australian Hunter Region in late 2005 to practice and sharpen material that Daniel Johns had previously written . Following this , the band recorded intermediate full band demo versions of the songs . To record the final versions of these songs , the band travelled to Los Angeles to record with record producer Nick Launay at Seedy Underbelly Studios . Johns co @-@ produced the album alongside Launay . During the L.A. sessions , additional songs were written and recorded . Van Dyke Parks was hired to compose orchestral arrangements for three songs : " If You Keep Losing Sleep " , " All Across The World " and the 3 part epic " Those Thieving Birds / Strange Behaviour " . Johns and Parks travelled to Prague to have the orchestral arrangements recorded by The City of Prague Philharmonic Orchestra .
Unlike previous Silverchair albums , Young Modern was funded independently by the band , rather than by a record label . This was done to " remove the added label pressures " , according to Billboard . The name Young Modern comes from a nickname given to Silverchair 's lead singer , Johns , by Van Dyke Parks during their time working together on Diorama in 2002 . The album features various guest appearances from Australian and international musicians such as Luke Steele , Julian Hamilton and Paul Mac , the latter of whom performed with Johns as The Dissociatives .
= = Album and single releases = =
Young Modern was released on 30 March 2007 in Australia , and 24 July 2007 in the United States of America . The album was released in several versions — the original contained 11 songs , while the iTunes version contained an extra song , " English Garden " . A limited edition DVD was also released , which contained a documentary entitled " The making of Young Modern " , as well as the " Straight Lines " music video .
The first single from Young Modern , " Straight Lines " , was released on 20 March 2007 , a week before the album 's release . " Straight Lines " entered the ARIA Charts at No. 1 on 25 March 2007 , and held that rank for four weeks . It also peaked at No. 11 on the RMNZ charts . " Straight Lines " was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association . On 28 October 2007 , " Straight Lines " won Best Selling Australian Single at the ARIA Music Awards of 2007 , as well as Single of the Year .
A second single , " Reflections of a Sound " , was released on 14 July 2007 as a digital single . The music video for " Reflections of a Sound " was first screened on 8 June 2007 , and was produced by Damon Escott and Stephen Lance of Head Pictures .
The third single from Young Modern was " If You Keep Losing Sleep " , released on 9 October 2007 . The song spent one week on the ARIA charts at No. 16 , before dropping out of the charts . The music video for " If You Keep Losing Sleep " was orchestrated by Van Dyke Parks , and was produced by Damon Escott and Stephen Lance , who also created the " Reflections of a Sound " video . The video was described by Molly Meldrum as " the best video I ’ ve seen from Australia ever " . Young Modern 's fourth single , " Mind Reader " , was released as an internet @-@ only single on 23 February 2008 . It had first appeared on radio in January that year .
= = = Artwork = = =
Young Modern front cover is a tribute to Dutch painter Piet Mondrian 's Composition II in Red , Blue , and Yellow .
= = Response = =
Young Modern was received with high acclaim from reviewers . Allmusic 's review said the album contained " catchy melodic hooks , inspired lyrical themes , and stunning string arrangements " , and called it the " pinnacle of the band 's fascinating development " . Reviewer Clayton Bolger heaped praise on most of the songs on the album , calling " Straight Lines " an " instant rock classic " .
Rolling Stone reviewer David Fricke called Silverchair 's members " young ( in their late twenties ) ... [ and ] aggressively modern " , and Entertainment Weekly called the album a " polished glam @-@ rock suite " . Sputnikmusic reviewer Tyler Fisher also approved of the album , although he did not think it was as good as it was made out to be , commenting " It is not as good as the ARIA awards will undoubtedly make it out to be but still one of the better mainstream listens of the year . "
During his weekly entertainment segment on the popular Australian breakfast show Sunrise , Australian music personality Molly Meldrum made a sincere comparison of the album to the classic Beatles album Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band .
Nick Pearson of PopMatters , meanwhile , was critical of the album . He began his review with the statement " Once you reach the level of intellectual maturity where you can tell the difference between cryptic but poetic lyrics and nonsensical crap , you have outgrown Silverchair " , and continued in the same fashion throughout . Pearson likened Johns to Kurt Cobain , saying they share a common inability ; " his inability to write lyrics " . His only praise was for the third single released from the album , " If You Keep Losing Sleep " , stating " ' If You Keep Losing Sleep ' is proof that Silverchair are capable of recording interesting music " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Daniel Johns unless otherwise noted .
" Young Modern Station " – 3 : 11 ( Johns , Julian Hamilton )
" Straight Lines " – 4 : 18 ( Johns , Hamilton )
" If You Keep Losing Sleep " – 3 : 20
" Reflections of a Sound " – 4 : 09
" Those Thieving Birds ( Part 1 ) / Strange Behaviour / Those Thieving Birds ( Part 2 ) " – 7 : 26
" The Man That Knew Too Much " – 4 : 19
" Waiting All Day " – 4 : 28 ( Johns , Hamilton )
" Mind Reader " – 3 : 07 ( Johns , Hamilton )
" Low " – 3 : 48
" Insomnia " – 3 : 06
" All Across the World " – 4 : 01
iTunes Store bonus tracks
" English Garden " – 4 : 23
" Straight Lines " ( The Presets Remix ) – 3 : 53 ( iTunes special edition )
Bonus DVD
The making of Young Modern documentary .
" Straight Lines " music video
A vinyl version of the album has been made limited to 1000 copies worldwide ( 400 Available in Australia and 600 elsewhere )
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= Rugby union =
Rugby union , or simply rugby , is a contact team sport which originated in England in the first half of the 19th century . One of the two codes of rugby football , it is based on running with the ball in hand . In its most common form , a game is between two teams of 15 players ( two more than rugby league ) using an oval @-@ shaped ball on a rectangular field with H @-@ shaped goalposts on each try line .
In 1845 , the first football laws were written by Rugby School pupils ; other significant events in the early development of rugby include the Blackheath Club 's decision to leave the Football Association in 1863 and the split between rugby union and rugby league in 1895 . Historically an amateur sport , in 1995 restrictions on payments to players were removed , making the game openly professional at the highest level for the first time .
World Rugby , originally the International Rugby Football Board ( IRFB ) and from 1998 to 2014 the International Rugby Board ( IRB ) , has been the governing body for rugby union since 1886 . Rugby union spread from the Home Nations of Great Britain and Ireland , and was absorbed by many of the countries associated with the British Empire . Early exponents of the sport included Australia , New Zealand , South Africa and France . Countries that have adopted rugby union as their de facto national sport include Fiji , Georgia , Madagascar , New Zealand , Samoa , Tonga and Wales . Rugby union is played in over 100 countries across six continents ; there are 101 full members and 18 associate members of World Rugby .
The Rugby World Cup , first held in 1987 , takes place every four years with the winner of the tournament receiving the Webb Ellis Cup . The Six Nations Championship in Europe and The Rugby Championship in the Southern Hemisphere are major annual competitions .
Major domestic competitions include the English Premiership in England , Top 14 in France , the Mitre 10 Cup in New Zealand and the Currie Cup in South Africa . Other transnational competitions include the Pro12 , involving Irish , Italian , Scottish and Welsh teams ; the European Rugby Champions Cup , involving the top European teams from their respective domestic competitions ; and Super Rugby , launched in 1996 with Australian , New Zealand and South African teams and since 2016 also including teams in Argentina and Japan .
= = History = =
The origin of rugby football is reputed to be an incident during a game of English school football at Rugby School in 1823 , when William Webb Ellis is said to have picked up the ball and run with it . Although the evidence for the story is doubtful , it was immortalised at the school with a plaque unveiled in 1895 . Despite the doubtful evidence , the Rugby World Cup trophy is named after Webb Ellis . Rugby football stems from the form of game played at Rugby School , which former pupils then introduced to their university . Old Rugbeian Albert Pell , a student at Cambridge , is credited with having formed the first " football " team . During this early period different schools used different rules , with former pupils from Rugby and Eton attempting to carry their preferred rules through to their universities .
A significant event in the early development of rugby football was the production of the first written laws of the game at Rugby School in 1845 , which was followed by the ' Cambridge Rules ' drawn up in 1848 . Other important events include the Blackheath Club 's decision to leave the Football Association in 1863 and the formation of the Rugby Football Union in 1871 . The code was originally known as " rugby football " ; it was not until after the schism in England in 1895 , which resulted in the separate code of rugby league , that the sport took on the name " rugby union " to differentiate it from the league game . Despite the sport 's full name of rugby union , it is known simply as rugby throughout most of the world .
= = = First internationals = = =
The first rugby football international was played on 27 March 1871 between Scotland and England . Scotland won the game 1 @-@ 0 . By 1881 both Ireland and Wales had representative teams , and in 1883 the first international competition , the Home Nations Championship had begun . 1883 is also the year of the first rugby sevens tournament , the Melrose Sevens , which is still held annually .
Two important overseas tours took place in 1888 : a British Isles team visited Australia and New Zealand — although a private venture , it laid the foundations for future British and Irish Lions tours ; and the 1888 – 89 New Zealand Native football team brought the first overseas team to British spectators .
During the early history of rugby union , a time before commercial air travel , teams from different continents rarely met . The first two notable tours both took place in 1888 — the British Isles team touring New Zealand and Australia , followed by the New Zealand team touring Europe . Traditionally the most prestigious tours were the Southern Hemisphere countries of Australia , New Zealand and South Africa making a tour of a Northern Hemisphere , and the return tours made by a joint British and Irish team . Tours would last for months , due to long traveling times and the number of games undertaken ; the 1888 New Zealand team began their tour in Hawkes Bay in June and did not complete their schedule until August 1889 , having played 107 rugby matches . Touring international sides would play Test matches against international opponents , including national , club and county sides in the case of Northern Hemisphere rugby , or provincial / state sides in the case of Southern Hemisphere rugby .
Between 1905 and 1908 , all three major Southern Hemisphere rugby countries sent their first touring teams to the Northern Hemisphere : New Zealand in 1905 , followed by South Africa in 1906 and Australia in 1908 . All three teams brought new styles of play , fitness levels and tactics , and were far more successful than critics had expected .
The New Zealand 1905 touring team performed a haka before each match , leading Welsh Rugby Union administrator Tom Williams to suggest that Wales player Teddy Morgan lead the crowd in singing the Welsh National Anthem , Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau , as a response . After Morgan began singing , the crowd joined in : the first time a national anthem was sung at the start of a sporting event . In 1905 France played England in its first international match .
Rugby union was included as an event in the Olympic Games four times during the early 20th century . No international rugby games and union @-@ sponsored club matches were played during the First World War , but competitions continued through service teams such as the New Zealand Army team . During the Second World War no international matches were played by most countries , though Italy , Germany and Romania played a limited number of games , and Cambridge and Oxford continued their annual University Match .
The first officially sanctioned international rugby sevens tournament took place in 1973 at Murrayfield , one of Scotland 's biggest stadiums , as part of the Scottish Rugby Union centenary celebrations .
= = = World Cup and professionalism = = =
In 1987 the first Rugby World Cup was held in Australia and New Zealand , and the inaugural winners were New Zealand . The first World Cup Sevens tournament was held at Murrayfield in 1993 . Rugby Sevens was introduced into the Commonwealth Games in 1998 and has been added to the Olympic Games of 2016 .
Rugby union was an amateur sport until the IRB declared the game " open " in 1995 , removing restrictions on payments to players . However , the pre @-@ 1995 period of rugby union was marked by frequent accusations of " shamateurism " , including an investigation in Britain by a House of Commons Select committee . Following the introduction of professionalism trans @-@ national club competitions were started , with the Heineken Cup in the Northern Hemisphere and Super Rugby in the Southern Hemisphere . The Tri Nations , an annual international tournament involving Australia , New Zealand and South Africa , kicked off in 1996 . In 2012 , this competition was extended to include Argentina , a country whose impressive performances in international games ( especially finishing in third place in the 2007 Rugby World Cup ) was deemed to merit inclusion in the competition . As a result of the expansion to four teams , the tournament was renamed The Rugby Championship .
= = Teams and positions = =
Each team starts the match with 15 players on the field and seven or eight substitutes . Players in a team are divided into eight forwards ( two more than in rugby league ) and seven backs .
= = = Forwards = = =
The main responsibilities of the forward players are to gain and retain possession of the ball . Players in these positions are generally bigger and stronger and take part in the scrum and line @-@ out . The forwards are often collectively referred to as the ' pack ' , especially when in the scrum formation .
Front row
The front row consists of three players : two props ( the loosehead prop
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and the tighthead prop ) and the hooker . The role of the two props is to support the hooker during scrums , to provide support for the jumpers during line @-@ outs and to provide strength and power in rucks and mauls . The third position in the front row is the hooker . The hooker is a key position in attacking and defensive play and is responsible for winning the ball in the scrum . Hookers normally throw the ball in at line @-@ outs .
Second row
The second row consists of two locks or lock forwards . Locks are usually the tallest players in the team , and specialise as line @-@ out jumpers . The main role of the lock in line @-@ outs is to make a standing jump , often supported by the other forwards , to either collect the thrown ball or ensure the ball comes down on their side . Locks also have an important role in the scrum , binding directly behind the three front row players and providing forward drive .
Back row
The back row , not to be confused with ‘ Backs ’ , is the third and final row of the forward positions , they are often referred to as the loose forwards . The three positions in the back row are the two flankers and the number 8 . The two flanker positions , called the blindside flanker and openside flanker , are the final row in the scrum . They are usually the most mobile forwards in the game . Their main role is to win possession through ' turn overs ' . The number 8 packs down between the two locks at the back of the scrum . The role of the number 8 in the scrum is to control the ball after it has been heeled back from the front of the pack and the position provides a link between the forwards and backs during attacking phases .
= = = Backs = = =
The backs ' role is to create and convert point @-@ scoring opportunities . They are generally smaller , faster and more agile than the forwards . Another distinction between the backs and the forwards is that the backs are expected to have superior kicking and ball handling skills , especially the fly @-@ half , scrum @-@ half and full @-@ back .
Half @-@ backs
The half @-@ backs consist of two positions , the scrum @-@ half and the fly @-@ half . The fly @-@ half is crucial to a team 's game plan , orchestrating the team 's performance . They are usually the first to receive the ball from the scrum @-@ half following a breakdown , lineout , or scrum , and need to be decisive with what actions to take and be effective at communicating with the outside backs . Many fly @-@ halfs are also their team 's goal kickers . The scrum @-@ half is the link between the forwards and the backs . They receive the ball from the lineout and remove the ball from the back of the scrum , usually passing it to the fly @-@ half . They also feed the scrum and sometimes have to act as a fourth loose forward .
Three quarters
There are four three quarter positions , the inside centre , outside centre and left and right wings . The centres will attempt to tackle attacking players ; whilst in attack they should employ speed and strength to breach opposition defences . The wings are generally positioned on the outside of the backline . Their primary function is to finish off moves and score tries . Wings are usually the fastest players in the team and are elusive runners who use their speed to avoid tackles .
Fullbacks
The fullback normally positions himself several metres behind the back line . He fields any opposition kicks and is often the last line of defence should an opponent break through the back line . Two of the most important attributes of a good fullback are dependable catching skills and a good kicking game .
= = Laws = =
= = = Scoring = = =
Rugby union is played between two teams – the one that scores more points wins the game . Points can be scored in several ways : a try , scored by grounding the ball in the in @-@ goal area ( between the goal line and the dead @-@ ball line ) , is worth 5 points and a subsequent conversion kick scores 2 points ; a successful penalty kick or a drop goal each score 3 points . The values of each of these scoring methods have been changed over the years .
= = = Playing field = = =
The field of play on a rugby pitch is as near as possible to a maximum of 144 metres ( 157 yd ) long by 70 metres ( 77 yd ) wide . In actual gameplay there should be a maximum of 100 metres ( 109 yd ) between the two try @-@ lines , with anywhere between 10 and 22 metres behind each try line to serve as the in @-@ goal area . Several lines cross the field , notably the half way line and the " twenty two " , which is 22 metres ( 24 yd ) from the goal line .
Stricter rules apply to the pitch size for matches between national representative teams . The same maximums apply in this case , but the distance between the two try @-@ lines must also be at least 94 metres ( 103 yd ) and the pitch must be at least 68 metres ( 74 yd ) wide .
Rugby goalposts are H @-@ shaped , and consist of two poles , 5 @.@ 6 metres ( 6 @.@ 1 yd ) apart , connected by a horizontal crossbar 3 metres ( 3 @.@ 3 yd ) above the ground .
= = = Match structure = = =
At the beginning of the game , the captains and the referee toss a coin to decide which team will kick off first . Play then starts with a drop kick , with the players chasing the ball into the opposition 's territory , and the other side trying to retrieve the ball and advance it . If the ball does not reach the opponent ’ s 10 @-@ metre line the opposing team has two choices : to have the ball kicked off again , or to have a scrum at the centre of the half @-@ way line . If the player with the ball is tackled , frequently a ruck will result .
Games are divided into 40 @-@ minute halves , with a break in the middle . The sides exchange ends of the field after the half @-@ time break . Stoppages for injury or to allow the referee to take disciplinary action do not count as part of the playing time , so that the elapsed time is usually longer than 80 minutes . The referee is responsible for keeping time , even when — as in many professional tournaments — he is assisted by an official time @-@ keeper . If time expires while the ball is in play , the game continues until the ball is " dead " , and only then will the referee blow the whistle to signal half @-@ time or full @-@ time ; but if the referee awards a penalty or free @-@ kick , the game continues .
In the knockout stages of rugby competitions , most notably the Rugby World Cup , two extra time periods of 10 minutes periods are played ( with an interval of 5 minutes in between ) if the game is tied after full @-@ time . If scores are level after 100 minutes then the rules call for 20 minutes of sudden @-@ death extra time to be played . If the sudden @-@ death extra time period results in no scoring a kicking competition is used to determine the winner . However , no match in the history of the Rugby World Cup has ever gone past 100 minutes into a sudden @-@ death extra time period .
= = = Passing and kicking = = =
Forward passing ( throwing the ball ahead to another player ) is not allowed ; the ball can be passed laterally or backwards . The ball tends to be moved forward in three ways — by kicking , by a player running with it or within a scrum or maul . Only the player with the ball may be tackled or rucked . When a ball is knocked forward by a player with his / her arms , a " knock @-@ on " is committed , and play is restarted with a scrum .
Any player may kick the ball forward in an attempt to gain territory . When a player anywhere in the playing area kicks indirectly into touch so that the ball first bounces in the field of play , the throw @-@ in is taken where the ball went into touch . If the player kicks directly into touch ( i.e. without bouncing in @-@ field first ) from within one 's own 22 @-@ metre line , the lineout is taken by the opposition where the ball went into touch , but if the ball is kicked into touch directly by a player outside the 22 @-@ metre line , the lineout is taken level to where the kick was taken .
= = = Breakdowns = = =
The aim of the defending side is to stop the player with the ball , either by bringing them to ground ( a tackle , which is frequently followed by a ruck ) , or by contesting for possession with the ball @-@ carrier on their feet ( a maul ) . Such a circumstance is called a breakdown and each is governed by a specific law .
Tackling A player may tackle an opposing player who has the ball by holding them while bringing them to ground . Tacklers cannot tackle above the shoulder ( the neck and head are out of bounds ) , and the tackler has to attempt to wrap their arms around the player being tackled to complete the tackle . It is illegal to push , shoulder @-@ charge , or to trip a player using feet or legs , but hands may be used ( this being referred to as a tap @-@ tackle or ankle @-@ tap ) . Tacklers may not tackle an opponent who has jumped to catch a ball until the player has landed .
Rucking Mauls occur after a player with the ball has come into contact with an opponent but the handler remains on his feet ; once any combination of at least three players have bound themselves a maul has been set . A ruck is similar to the maul , but in this case the ball has gone to ground with at least three attacking players binding themselves on the ground in an attempt to secure the ball .
= = = Set pieces = = =
= = = = Lineout = = = =
When the ball leaves the side of the field , a line @-@ out is awarded against the team which last touched the ball . Forward players from each team line up a metre apart , perpendicular to the touchline and between 5 m and 15 m from the touchline . The ball is thrown from the touchline down the centre of the lines of forwards by a player ( usually the hooker ) from the team that did not play the ball into touch . The exception to this is when the ball went out from a penalty , in which case the side who gained the penalty throws the ball in .
Both sides compete for the ball and players may lift their teammates . A jumping player cannot be tackled until they stand and only shoulder @-@ to @-@ shoulder contact is allowed ; deliberate infringement of this law is dangerous play , and results in a penalty kick .
= = = = Scrum = = = =
A scrum is a way of restarting the game safely and fairly after a minor infringement . It is awarded when the ball has been knocked or passed forward , if a player takes the ball over his own try line and puts the ball down , when a player is accidentally offside or when the ball is trapped in a ruck or maul with no realistic chance of being retrieved . A team may also opt for a scrum if awarded a penalty .
A scrum is formed by the eight forwards from each team binding together in three rows . The front row consists of the two props ( loosehead and tighthead ) either side of the hooker . The second row consists of two locks and the two flankers . Behind the second row is the number 8 . This formation is known as the 3 – 4 – 1 formation . Once a scrum is formed the scrum @-@ half from the team awarded the feed rolls the ball into the gap between the two front @-@ rows known as the tunnel . The two hookers then compete for possession by hooking the ball backwards with their feet , while each pack tries to push the opposing pack backwards to help gain possession . The side that wins possession transfers the ball to the back of the scrum , where it is picked up either by the number 8 or by the scrum @-@ half .
= = = Officials and offences = = =
There are three match officials : a referee , and two assistant referees . The latter , formerly known as touch judges , had the primary function of indicating when the ball had gone into " touch " ; their role has been expanded and they are now expected to assist the referee in a number of areas , such as watching for foul play and checking offside lines . In addition , for matches in high level competitions , there is often a television match official ( TMO ; popularly called the " video referee " ) , to assist with certain decisions , linked up to the referee by radio . The referees have a system of hand signals to indicate their decisions .
Common offences include tackling above the shoulders , collapsing a scrum , ruck or maul , not releasing the ball when on the ground , or being offside . The non @-@ offending team has a number of options when awarded a penalty : a " tap " kick , when the ball is kicked a very short distance from hand , allowing the kicker to regather the ball and run with it ; a punt , when the ball is kicked a long distance from hand , for field position ; a place @-@ kick , when the kicker will attempt to score a goal ; or a scrum . Players may be sent off ( signalled by a red card ) or temporarily suspended ( " sin @-@ binned " ) for ten minutes ( yellow card ) for foul play or repeated infringements , and may not be replaced .
Occasionally , infringements are not caught by the referee during the match and these may be " cited " by the citing commissioner after the match and have punishments ( usually suspension for a number of weeks ) imposed on the infringing player .
= = = Replacements and substitutions = = =
During the match , players may be replaced ( for injury ) or substituted ( for tactical reasons ) . A player who has been replaced may not rejoin play unless he was temporarily replaced to have bleeding controlled ; a player who has been substituted may return temporarily , to replace a player who has a blood injury or has suffered a concussion , or permanently , if he is replacing a front @-@ row forward . In international matches , eight replacements are allowed ; in domestic or cross @-@ border tournaments , at the discretion of the responsible national union ( s ) , the number of replacements may be nominated to a maximum of eight , of whom three must be sufficiently trained and experienced to provide cover for the three front row positions .
Prior to 2016 , all substitutions , no matter the cause , counted against the limit during a match . In 2016 , World Rugby changed the law so that substitutions made to replace a player deemed unable to continue due to foul play by the opposition would no longer count against the match limit . This change was introduced in January of that year in the Southern Hemisphere and June in the Northern Hemisphere .
= = Equipment = =
The most basic items of equipment for a game of rugby union are the ball itself , a rugby shirt ( also known as a " jersey " ) , rugby shorts , socks and boots . The rugby ball is oval in shape , ( technically a prolate spheroid ) , and is made up of four panels . The ball was historically made of leather , but in the modern era most games use a ball made from a synthetic material . The WR lays out specific dimensions for the ball , 280 @-@ 300mm in length , 740 @-@ 770mm in circumference of length and 580 @-@ 620mm in circumference of width . Rugby boots have soles with studs to allow grip on the turf of the pitch . The studs may be either metal or plastic but must not have any sharp edges or ridges .
Protective equipment is optional and strictly regulated . The most common items are mouthguards , which are worn by almost all players , and are compulsory in some rugby @-@ playing nations . Other protective items that are permitted include head gear ; thin ( not more than 10 mm thick ) , non @-@ rigid shoulder pads and shin guards ; which are worn underneath socks . Bandages or tape can be worn to support or protect injuries ; some players wear tape around the head to protect the ears in scrums and rucks . Female players may also wear chest pads . Although not worn for protection , some types of fingerless mitts are allowed to aid grip .
It is the responsibility of the match officials to check players ' clothing and equipment before a game to ensure that it conforms to the laws of the game .
= = Governing bodies = =
The international governing body of rugby union ( and associated games such as sevens ) is World Rugby ( WR ) . The WR headquarters are in Dublin , Ireland . WR , founded in 1886 , governs the sport worldwide and publishes the game 's laws and rankings . As of February 2014 , WR ( then known as the IRB , for International Rugby Board ) recorded 119 unions in its membership , 101 full members and 18 associate member countries . According to WR , rugby union is played by men and women in over 100 countries . WR controls the Rugby World Cup , the Women 's Rugby World Cup , Rugby World Cup Sevens , HSBC Sevens Series , HSBC Women 's Sevens Series , World Under 20 Championship , World Under 20 Trophy , Nations Cup and the Pacific Nations Cup . WR holds votes to decide where each of these events are be held , except in the case of the Sevens World Series for men and women , for which WR contracts with several national unions to hold individual events .
Six regional associations , which are members of WR , form the next level of administration ; these are :
Rugby Africa , formerly Confederation of African Rugby ( CAR )
Asia Rugby , formerly Asian Rugby Football Union ( ARFU )
Rugby Americas North , formerly North America Caribbean Rugby Association ( NACRA )
Rugby Europe , previously Fédération Internationale de Rugby Amateur – Association Européenne de Rugby ( FIRA @-@ AER )
Oceania Rugby , formerly Federation of Oceania Rugby Unions ( FORU )
Sudamérica Rugby , formerly Confederación Sudamericana de Rugby ( South American Rugby Confederation , or CONSUR )
SANZAAR ( South Africa , New Zealand , Australia and Argentina Rugby ) is a joint venture of the South African Rugby Union , the New Zealand Rugby Union , the Australian Rugby Union and the Argentine Rugby Union ( UAR ) that operates Super Rugby and The Rugby Championship ( formerly the Tri Nations before the entry of Argentina ) . Although UAR initially had no representation on the former SANZAR board , it was granted input into the organisation 's issues , especially with regard to The Rugby Championship , and became a full SANZAAR member in 2016 ( when the country entered Super Rugby ) .
National unions oversee rugby union within individual countries and are affiliated to WR . The WR Council has 26 seats . Each of the eight foundation unions – Scotland , Ireland , Wales , England , Australia , New Zealand , South Africa and France – have two seats , and Argentina , Canada , Italy , Japan and the six regional associations each have one seat .
= = Global reach = =
The earliest countries to adopt rugby union were England , the country of inception , and the other three Home Nations , Scotland , Ireland and Wales . The spread of rugby union as a global sport has its roots in the exporting of the game by British expatriates , military personnel and over @-@ seas university students . The first rugby club in France was formed by British residents in Le Havre in 1872 , while the next year Argentina recorded its first game : ' Banks ' v ' City ' in Buenos Aires .
At least six countries have adopted rugby union as their de facto national sport ; they are Fiji , Georgia , New Zealand , Samoa , Tonga and Wales .
= = = Oceania = = =
A rugby club was formed in Sydney , New South Wales , Australia in 1864 ; while the sport was said to have been introduced to New Zealand by Charles Monro in 1870 , who played rugby while a student at Christ 's College , Finchley .
Several island nations have embraced the sport of rugby . Rugby was first played in Fiji circa 1884 by European and Fijian soldiers of the Native Constabulary at Ba on Viti Levu island . Fiji then sent their first overseas team to Samoa in 1924 , who in turn set up their own union in 1927 . Along with Tonga , other countries to have national rugby teams in Oceania include the Cook Islands , Niue , Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands .
= = = North America and Caribbean = = =
In North America a club formed in Montreal in 1868 , Canada 's first club . The city of Montreal also played its part in the introduction of the sport in the United States , when students of McGill University played against a team from Harvard University in 1874 .
Although the exact date of arrival of rugby union in Trinidad and Tobago is unknown , their first club Northern RFC was formed in 1923 , a national team was playing by 1927 and due to a cancelled tour to British Guiana in 1933 , switched their venue to Barbados ; introducing rugby to the island . Other Atlantic countries to play rugby union include Jamaica and Bermuda .
= = = Europe = = =
The growth of rugby union in Europe outside the 6 Nations countries in terms of playing numbers has been sporadic . Historically , British and Irish home teams played the Southern Hemisphere teams of Australia , New Zealand , and South Africa , as well as France . The rest of Europe were let to play amongst themselves . During a period when it had been isolated by the British and Irish Unions , France , lacking international competition , became the only European team from the top tier to regularly play the other European countries ; mainly Belgium , the Netherlands , Germany , Spain , Romania , Poland , Italy and Czechoslovakia . In 1934 , instigated by the French Rugby Federation , FIRA ( Fédération Internationale de Rugby Amateur ) was formed to organise rugby union outside the authority of the IRFB . The founding members were Italy , Romania , Netherlands , Portugal , Czechoslovakia , and Sweden . Other European rugby playing nations of note include Russia , whose first officially recorded match is marked by an encounter between Dynamo Moscow and the Moscow Institute of Physical Education in 1933 . Rugby union in Portugal also took hold between the First and Second World Wars , with a Portuguese National XV set up in 1922 and an official championship started in 1927 .
In 1999 , FIRA agreed to place itself under the auspices of the IRB , transforming itself into a strictly European organising body . Accordingly , it changed its name to FIRA – AER ( Fédération Internationale de Rugby Amateur – Association Européenne de Rugby ) . It adopted its current name of Rugby Europe in 2014 .
= = = South America = = =
Although Argentina is the best @-@ known rugby playing nation in South America , founding the Argentine Rugby Union in 1899 , several other countries on the continent have a long history . Rugby had been played in Brazil since the end of the 19th century , but the game was played regularly only from 1926 , when São Paulo beat Santos in an inter @-@ city match . It took Uruguay several aborted attempts to adapt to rugby , led mainly by the efforts of the Montevideo Cricket Club ; these efforts succeeded in 1951 with the formation of a national league and four clubs . Other South American countries that formed a rugby union include Chile ( 1948 ) , and Paraguay ( 1968 ) .
= = = Asia = = =
Many Asian countries have a tradition of playing rugby dating from the British Empire . India began playing rugby in the early 1870s , the Calcutta Football Club forming in 1873 . However , with the departure of a local British army regiment , interest in rugby diminished in the area . In 1878 , The Calcutta Football Club was disbanded , and rugby in India faltered . Sri Lanka claims to have founded their union in 1878 , and although little official information from the period is available , the team won the All @-@ India cup in Madras in 1920 . The first recorded match in Malaysia was in 1892 , but the first confirmation of rugby is the existence of the HMS Malaya Cup which was first presented in 1922 and is still awarded to the winners of the Malay sevens .
Rugby union was introduced to Japan in 1899 by two Cambridge students : Ginnosuke Tanaka and Edward Bramwell Clarke . The Japan RFU was founded in 1926 and its place in rugby history was cemented with the news that Japan will host the 2019 World Cup . It will be the first country outside the Commonwealth , Ireland and France to host the event , and this is viewed by the IRB as an opportunity for rugby union to extend its reach , particularly in Asia . Other Asian playing countries of note include Singapore , South Korea , China and The Philippines , while the former British colony of Hong Kong is notable within rugby for its development of the rugby sevens game , especially the Hong Kong Sevens tournament which was founded in 1976 .
Rugby in the Middle East and the Gulf States has its history in the 1950s , with clubs formed by British and French Services stationed in the region after the Second World War . When these servicemen left , the clubs and teams were kept alive by young professionals , mostly Europeans , working in these countries . The official union of Oman was formed in 1971 . Bahrain founded its union a year later , while in 1975 the Dubai Sevens , the Gulf 's leading rugby tournament , was created . Rugby remains a minority sport in the region with Israel , as of 2011 , being the only member union from the Middle East to be included in the IRB World Rankings .
= = = Africa = = =
In 1875 , rugby was introduced to South Africa by British soldiers garrisoned in Cape Town . During the late 19th and early 20th century , the sport in Africa was spread by settlers and colonials who often adopted a " whites @-@ only " policy to playing the game . This resulted in rugby being viewed as a bourgeois sport by the indigenous people with limited appeal . The earliest countries to see the playing of competitive rugby include South Africa , and neighbouring Rhodesia ( modern @-@ day Zimbabwe ) , which formed the Rhodesia Rugby Football Union in 1895 .
In more recent times the sport has been embraced by several African nations . In the early 21st century Madagascar has experienced crowds of 40 @,@ 000 at national matches , while Namibia , whose history of rugby can be dated from 1915 , have qualified for the final stages of the World Cup four times since 1999 . Other African nations to be represented in the World Rugby Rankings as Member Unions include Côte d 'Ivoire , Kenya , Uganda and Zambia . South Africa and Kenya are among the 15 " core teams " that participate in every event of the men 's Sevens World Series .
= = Women 's rugby union = =
Records of women 's rugby football date from the late 19th century , with the first documented source being Emily Valentine 's writings , stating that she set up a rugby team in Portora Royal School in Enniskillen , Ireland in 1887 . Although there are reports of early women 's matches in New Zealand and France , one of the first notable games to prove primary evidence was the 1917 war @-@ time encounter between Cardiff Ladies and Newport Ladies ; a photo of which shows the Cardiff team before the match at the Cardiff Arms Park . In the past 30 years the game has grown in popularity among female athletes , and , according to WR , is now played in over 100 countries .
The English @-@ based Women 's Rugby Football Union ( WRFU ) , responsible for women 's rugby in England , Scotland Ireland and Wales , was founded in 1983 , and is the oldest formally organised national governing body for women 's rugby . This was replaced in 1994 by the Rugby Football Union for Women ( RFUW ) in England with each of the other Home Nations governing their own countries . The premier international competition in rugby union for women is the Women 's Rugby World Cup , first held in 1991 . Since 1994 it has been held every four years .
= = Major international competitions = =
= = = Rugby World Cup = = =
The most important tournament in rugby union is the Rugby World Cup , a men 's tournament that has taken place every four years since 1987 among national rugby union teams . New Zealand has won the Rugby World Cup the most ( 3 times ) and is the current cup holder , winning the 2015 Rugby World Cup held at Twickenham , beating Australia in the final . England ( 2003 ) were the first team from the Northern Hemisphere to win , the previous champions being New Zealand ( 1987 , 2011 and 2015 ) , Australia ( 1991 and 1999 ) , and South Africa ( 1995 and 2007 ) .
The Rugby World Cup has continued to grow since its inception in 1987 . The first tournament , in which 16 teams competed for the title , was broadcast to 17 countries with an accumulated total of 230 million television viewers . Ticket sales during the pool stages and finals of the same tournament was less than a million . The 2007 World Cup was contested by 94 countries with ticket sales of 3 @,@ 850 @,@ 000 over the pool and final stage . The accumulated television audience for the event , then broadcast to 200 countries , was 4 @.@ 2 billion .
= = = Regional tournaments = = =
Major international competitions are the Six Nations Championship and The Rugby Championship , held in Europe and the Southern Hemisphere respectively .
The Six Nations is an annual competition involving the European teams England , France , Ireland , Italy , Scotland and Wales . Each country plays the other five once . After the initial internationals between England and Scotland , Ireland and Wales began competing in the 1880s , forming the Home International Championships . France joined the tournament in the 1900s and in 1910 the term Five Nations first appeared . However , the Home Nations ( England , Ireland , Scotland , and Wales ) excluded France in 1931 amid a run of poor results , allegations of professionalism and concerns over on @-@ field violence . France then rejoined in 1939 – 1940 , though World War II halted proceedings for a further eight years . France has played in all the tournaments since WWII , the first of which was played in 1947 . In 2000 , Italy became the sixth nation in the contest and Rome 's Stadio Olimpico has replaced Stadio Flaminio , as the venue for their home games since 2013 . The current Six Nations champions are England .
The Rugby Championship is the Southern Hemisphere 's annual international series for that region 's top national teams . From its inception in 1996 through 2011 , it was known as the Tri Nations , as it featured the hemisphere 's traditional powers of Australia , New Zealand and South Africa . These teams have dominated world rankings in recent years , and many considered the Tri Nations to be the toughest competition in international rugby . The Tri Nations was initially played on a home and away basis with the three nations playing each other twice . In 2006 a new system was introduced where each nation plays the others three times , though in 2007 and 2011 the teams played each other only twice , as both were World Cup years . Since Argentina 's strong performances in the 2007 World Cup , after the 2009 Tri Nations tournament , SANZAR ( South Africa , New Zealand and Australian Rugby ) invited the Argentine Rugby Union ( UAR ) to join an expanded Four Nations tournament in 2012 . The competition has been officially rechristened as The Rugby Championship beginning with the 2012 edition . The competition reverted to the Tri Nations ' original home @-@ and @-@ away format , but now involving four teams . In 2015 , the first World Cup year after the entry of Argentina , an abbreviated tournament was held in which each team played the others only once . Australia are the current champions .
= = = Rugby within international tournaments = = =
Rugby union was played at the Olympic Games in 1900 , 1908 , 1920 and 1924 . As per Olympic rules , the nations of Scotland , Wales and England were not allowed to play separately as they are not sovereign states . In 1900 , France won the gold , beating Great Britain 27 points to 8 and defeating Germany 27 points to 17 . In 1908 , Australia defeated Great Britain , claiming the gold medal , the score being 32 points to three . In 1920 , the United States , fielding a team with many players new to the sport of rugby , upset France in a shock win , eight points to zero . In 1924 , the United States again defeated France 17 to 3 , becoming the only team to win gold twice in the sport . In 2009 the International Olympic Committee voted with a majority of 81 to 8 that rugby union be reinstated as an Olympic sport in at least the 2016 and 2020 games , but in the sevens , 4 @-@ day tournament format . This is something the rugby world has aspired to for a long time and Bernard Lapasset , president of the International Rugby Board , said the Olympic gold medal would be considered to be " the pinnacle of our sport " ( Rugby Sevens ) .
Rugby sevens has been played at the Commonwealth Games since the 1998 Games in Kuala Lumpur . The most gold medal holders are New Zealand who have won the competition on four successive occasions until South Africa beat them in 2014 . Rugby union has also been an Asian Games event since the 1998 games in Bangkok , Thailand . In the 1998 and 2002 editions of the games , both the usual fifteen @-@ a @-@ side variety and rugby sevens were played , but from 2006 onwards , only rugby sevens was retained . In 2010 , the women 's rugby sevens event was introduced . The event is likely to remain a permanent fixture of the Asian Games due to elevation of rugby sevens as an Olympic sport from the 2016 Olympics onwards . The present gold medal holders in the sevens tournament , held in 2010 , are Japan in the male event and Kazakhstan in the women 's .
= = = Women 's international rugby = = =
Women 's international rugby union began in 1982 , with a match between France and Netherlands played in Utrecht . As of 2009 over six hundred women 's internationals have been played by over forty different nations .
The first Women 's Rugby World Cup was held in Wales in 1991 , and was won by the United States . The second tournament took place in 1994 , and since that date the competition has been held every four years . The New Zealand Women 's team then won four straight World Cups ( 1998 , 2002 , 2006 , 2010 ) before England won in 2014 .
As well as the Women 's Rugby World Cup there are also other regular tournaments , including a Six Nations , run in parallel to the men 's competition . The Women 's Six Nations , first played in 1996 has been dominated by England , who have won the tournament on 13 occasions , including a run of seven consecutive wins from 2006 to 2012 . However , England have failed to win the tournament since ; Ireland and France have alternated titles in the last four editions , with France as the current holders .
= = Professional rugby = =
Rugby union has been professionalized since 1995 . The following table shows fully professional rugby competitions . ( Semi @-@ professional competitions are excluded ) .
= = Variants = =
The game of rugby union has spawned several variants of the full @-@ contact , 15 @-@ a @-@ side code . The two more common differences applied to the variants of the sport lie in either fewer players or reduced player contact . Of the variants , the oldest is Rugby sevens ( 7 's , or VIIs ) , a fast @-@ paced variant which originated in Melrose , Scotland in 1883 . In rugby sevens , there are only seven players per side , and each half is normally seven minutes . Major tournaments include the Hong Kong Sevens and Dubai Sevens , both held in areas not normally associated with the highest levels of the 15 @-@ a @-@ side game . A more recent variant of the sport is Rugby tens ( 10 's or Xs ) , a Malaysian variant with ten players per side .
Due to the physical nature of playing rugby , several variants have been created to introduce the sport to children with a reduced level of physical contact . Of these versions , Touch rugby , in which " tackles " are made by simply touching the ball carrier with two hands , is popular as a mixed sex version of the sport played by both children and adults . Tag Rugby , is a version in which the participants wear a belt with two hook @-@ and @-@ loop fastener tags , the removal of either counting as a ' tackle ' . Tag Rugby also varies in the fact that kicking the ball is not allowed . Mini rugby is another variant of rugby union aimed at fostering the sport in children . It is played with only eight players and on a smaller pitch . Similar to Tag Rugby , American Flag Rugby , ( AFR ) , is a mixed gender , non @-@ contact imitation of rugby union designed for American children entering grades K @-@ 9 . Both American Flag Rugby and Mini Rugby differ to Tag Rugby in that they introduce more advanced elements of rugby union as the participants age .
Other less formal variants include beach rugby and snow rugby .
= = Influence on other sports = =
Rugby union football , and its immediate ancestor rugby football , has had a strong influence on several other sports . Most obviously rugby league which originally was formed as an administrative break from the English union before changing its laws , becoming a code in its own right . The two sports continue to influence each other to this day .
The Gridiron codes , American football and Canadian football , are derived from early forms of rugby . Confusingly , in Canada , Canadian football has also frequently been referred to as " rugby football " , and a number of national and provincial bodies were called " Rugby Football Unions " or " Rugby Unions " , such as the Ontario and Quebec Rugby Football Unions . For example , in the Encyclopedia Canadiana , the entry Rugby Football begins by referring to " the Canadian development of rugby union or " English rugger " introduced into Canada in the third quarter of the nineteenth century " , but later states that " the Canadian game is a radical departure from rugby union " .
The primary influence on early Australian rules football was rugby football and other games originating in English public schools . Tom Wills , who is recognised as the principal founder of Australian football , also attended Rugby School .
James Naismith took aspects of many sports including rugby to invent basketball . The most obvious contribution is the jump ball 's similarity to the line @-@ out as well as the underhand shooting style that dominated the early years of the sport . Naismith played many years of rugby at McGill University .
Swedish football was a code whose rules were a mix of the association football rules and the rugby football rules . Some played the game with a round ball , while others played with an oval ball . It is no longer played .
Rugby lends its name to wheelchair rugby ( also known as " quad rugby " or " murderball " ) , and although the sport takes from wheelchair basketball , ice hockey and handball , it contains elements of rugby such as crossing a try line with the ball to score and the central theme of it being a full contact sport .
= = Statistics and records = =
According to a 2011 report by the Centre for the International Business of Sport , over four and a half million people play rugby union or one of its variants organised by the IRB . This is an increase of 19 percent since the previous report in 2007 . The report also claimed that since 2007 participation has grown by 33 percent in Africa , 22 percent in South America and 18 percent in Asia and North America . In 2014 the IRB published a breakdown of the total number of players worldwide by national unions . It recorded a total of 6 @.@ 6 million players globally , of those , 2 @.@ 36 million were registered members playing for a club affiliated to their country 's union .
The most capped international player from the tier 1 nations is New Zealand openside flanker and captain Richie McCaw who has played in 145 internationals . While the top scoring tier 1 international player is New Zealand 's Dan Carter , who has amassed 1442 points during his career . In April 2010 Lithuania broke the record of consecutive international wins previously held by New Zealand and South Africa , which was 17 consecutive wins against tier 1 nations , with their 18th win in tier 2 in a match against Serbia . The highest scoring international match between two recognised unions was Hong Kong 's 164 – 13 victory over Singapore on 27 October 1994 While the largest winning margin of 152 points is held by two countries , Japan ( a 155 – 3 win over Chinese Taipei ) and Argentina ( 152 – 0 over Paraguay ) both in 2002 .
The record attendance for a rugby union game was set on 15 July 2000 in which New Zealand defeated Australia 39 – 35 in a Bledisloe Cup game at Stadium Australia in Sydney before 109 @,@ 874 fans . The record attendance for a match in Europe of 104 @,@ 000 ( at the time a world record ) was set on 1 March 1975 when Scotland defeated Wales 12 – 10 at Murrayfield in Edinburgh during the 1975 Five Nations Championship .
= = In culture = =
Thomas Hughes 1857 novel Tom Brown 's Schooldays , set at Rugby School , includes a rugby football match , also portrayed in the 1940s film of the same name . James Joyce mentions Irish team Bective Rangers in several of his works , including Ulysses ( 1922 ) and Finnegans Wake ( 1939 ) , while his 1916 semi @-@ autobiographical work A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man has an account of Ireland international James Magee . Sir Arthur Conan Doyle , in his 1924 Sherlock Holmes tale The Adventure of the Sussex Vampire , mentions that Dr Watson played rugby for Blackheath .
Henri Rousseau 's 1908 work Joueurs de football shows two pairs of rugby players competing . Other French artists to have represented the sport in their works include Albert Gleizes ' Les Joueurs de football ( 1912 ) , Robert Delaunay 's Football . L 'Equipe de Cardiff ( 1916 ) and André Lhote 's Partie de Rugby ( 1917 ) . The 1928 Gold Medal for Art at the Antwerp Olympics was won by Luxembourg 's Jean Jacoby for his work Rugby .
In film , Ealing Studios ' 1949 comedy A Run for Your Money and the 1979 BBC Wales television film Grand Slam both centre on fans attending a match . Films that explore the sport in more detail include independent production Old Scores ( 1991 ) and Forever Strong ( 2008 ) . Invictus ( 2009 ) , based on John Carlin 's book Playing the Enemy , explores the events of the 1995 Rugby World Cup and Nelson Mandela 's attempt to use the sport to connect South Africa 's people post @-@ apartheid .
In public art and sculpture there are many works dedicated to the sport . There is a 27 ft bronze statue of a rugby line @-@ out by pop artist Gerald Laing at Twickenham and one of rugby administrator Sir Tasker Watkins at the Millennium Stadium . Rugby players to have been honoured with statues include Gareth Edwards in Cardiff and Danie Craven in Stellenbosch .
= = = Printed sources = = =
= = = Electronic sources = = =
" Laws of Rugby Union " . IRB . 2010 . Retrieved 16 January 2011 .
" IRB Regulations " . IRB . Retrieved 16 January 2011 .
Scrum.com Rugby guide
= Mixco Viejo =
Mixco Viejo ( / ˈmisko ˈβieχo / ) ( " Old Mixco " ) , occasionally spelt Mixcu Viejo , is an archaeological site in the north east of the Chimaltenango department of Guatemala , some 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) to the north of Guatemala City and 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) from the junction of the rivers Pixcaya and Motagua . It is a moderate sized ruined city of the Postclassic Maya civilization .
The archaeological site and tourist attraction of Mixco Viejo was named after being erroneously associated with the Postclassic Poqomam capital referred to in colonial records by that name . The archaeological site has now been identified as Jilotepeque Viejo , the capital of the Chajoma Kaqchikel kingdom . To distinguish between the two , the ruins of the Chajoma capital are now referred to as Mixco Viejo ( Jilotepeque Viejo ) while the former Poqomam capital is referred to as Mixco Viejo ( Chinautla Viejo ) .
This confusion in the identification of the site has hindered study . The Chajoma capital has been investigated archaeologically , under the assumption that it was the Poqomam capital . Although the Chajoma ruins of Jilotepeque Viejo have been well described archaeologically , the archaeological data has been associated with the history of a different site entirely . Doubts about the identification of the archaeological site were first raised by Robert M. Carmack , who realised that the supposed Poqomam capital was not located within the Poqomam linguistic area but rather within the linguistic area of the Kaqchikels . The Poqomam who were settled in the new colonial settlement of Mixco by the Spanish had a long history of fine polychrome ceramic production , but no evidence of such production had been recovered during archaeological investigations , and the ruins were considered too distant from colonial Mixco .
Chinautla Viejo was attacked by the invading Spanish in 1525 ; the first two attacks against the heavily fortified city were unsuccessful . The besieged city received Poqomam reinforcements that were comprehensively defeated on an open field of battle , with the Spanish cavalry being decisive . The capture of Poqomam prisoners allowed the Spanish to discover the location of a cave providing a secret entrance to the city . A third assault broke the month @-@ long siege , allowing the Spanish to take the city . The surviving inhabitants were moved to another settlement and Pedro de Alvarado ordered the city to be burned .
Jilotepeque Viejo was settled by the Chajoma in order to provide a capital that was safer from attack from the hostile Iximche Kaqchikel kingdom than their previous capital . In spite of this , the city fell under the domination of Iximche and the city 's architecture , spread in a number of fortified groups along a ridge surrounded by deep ravines , shows a mixture of Chajoma and Kaqchikel styles . At the time of the Spanish conquest , the Chajoma of Jilotepeque Viejo may have initially allied themselves with the Spanish together with Iximche and have joined in the general Kaqchikel uprising against the Spanish in 1524 . The site was abandoned after the conquest and never reoccupied .
= = Mixco Viejo in history : Chinautla Viejo = =
The historical Mixco Viejo has been identified as Chinautla Viejo ( " Old Chinautla " ) , near the modern town of Mixco . Mixco Viejo ( " Old Mixco " ) was the capital of the Poqomam Maya kingdom , and was founded on a defensive mountain @-@ top location in the 12th century AD . The peak population in the early 16th century may have been around 10 @,@ 000 people .
In 1525 Pedro de Alvarado sent a small company to conquer Mixco Viejo ( Chinautla Viejo ) , the capital of the Poqomam . At the Spanish approach , the inhabitants remained enclosed in the fortified city . The Spanish attempted an approach from the west through a narrow pass but were forced back with heavy losses . Alvarado himself launched the second assault with 200 Tlaxcalan allies but was also beaten back . The Poqomam then received reinforcements , possibly from Chinautla , and the two armies clashed on open ground outside of the city . The battle was chaotic and lasted for most of the day but was finally decided by the Spanish cavalry , forcing the Poqomam reinforcements to withdraw . The leaders of the reinforcements surrendered to the Spanish three days after their retreat and revealed that the city had a secret entrance in the form of a cave leading up from a nearby river , allowing the inhabitants to come and go .
Armed with the knowledge gained from their prisoners , Alvarado sent 40 men to cover the exit from the cave and launched another assault along the ravine from the west , in single file owing to its narrowness , with crossbowmen alternating with soldiers bearing muskets , each with a companion sheltering him from arrows and stones with a shield . This tactic allowed the Spanish to break through the pass and storm the entrance of the city . The Poqomam warriors fell back in disorder in a chaotic retreat through the city , and were hunted down by the victorious conquistadors and their Mesoamerican allies . Those who managed to retreat down the neighbouring valley were ambushed by Spanish cavalry who had been posted to block the exit from the cave , the survivors were captured and brought back to the city . The siege had lasted more than a month and because of the defensive strength of the city , Alvarado ordered it to be burned and moved the inhabitants to the new colonial village of Mixco .
= = Archaeological site : Jilotepeque Viejo = =
Although the site now known as Mixco Viejo was traditionally considered the Poqomam capital , recent investigations have instead identified the ruins as the capital of the Kaqchikel @-@ speaking Chajoma Maya , and have suggested that its identification as the historical Mixco Viejo is the result of confusion in the interpretation of colonial records . The site was apparently known to the Chajoma by a variety of names , including Chuapec Kekacajol Nima Abaj ( also spelt Chuwa Pek Q 'eqak 'ajol Nima Ab 'aj ) , meaning " Great stone in front of the Cave of the Children of Night " , Zakicajol and Nimcakajpec . Jilotepeque Viejo is estimated to have had a population of approximately 1 @,@ 500 inhabitants . Jilotepeque was close to the San Martín Jilotepeque obsidian source , giving the inhabitants ready access to the resource .
The site is open to the public and has a small museum . The site was declared a protected archaeological zone by Ministerial Accord 1210 of the Guatemalan Ministry of Education on 12 June 1970 .
= = = Location = = =
The ruins are situated at the northeastern extreme of the department of Chimaltenango within the municipality of San Martín Jilotepeque ; they are strung out over 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) along a 880 @-@ metre ( 2 @,@ 890 ft ) high ridge approximately 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) from the point where the Pixcaya River flows into the Motagua River , which drains into the Caribbean Sea . The ruins are surrounded by deep ravines dropping off sharply into a tributary of the Pixcaya River . The site is 53 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 33 @.@ 1 mi ) from Guatemala City by road .
= = = History = = =
= = = = Known rulers = = = =
All dates are approximate .
= = = = Postclassic = = = =
Around 1450 the Chajoma , led by their king Lajuj No 'j , moved to Mixco Viejo ( Jilotepeque Viejo ) from Ochal to make their capital more inaccessible to their hostile neighbours . In spite of this , Iximche defeated the Chajoma and Jilotepeque Viejo became subject to the Kaqchikel kingdom . Groups C and E show Kaqchikel influence in their architectural styles , while groups A and B have a purer Chajoma architectural style . Both ballcourts appear to have been remodelled after the Kaqchikel fashion , with thick coatings of stucco .
Around the 13th century , Group A underwent a major remodelling , including the construction of a new retaining wall and the infilling of the 12 @-@ metre ( 39 ft ) wide area between the old and new walls , creating a much expanded terrace for the construction of the group 's architecture . Owing to its possession of two ballcourts , it is possible that Jilotepeque Viejo served as a regional centre for the Mesoamerican ballgame during the Postclassic ; no other Postclassic ballcourt has been identified in the area of San Martín Jilotepeque although three of four Classic period ballcourts at other sites appear to have continued in use . Shortly before the Spanish Conquest , the Chajoma under their lord Achi Q 'alel rebelled against the Kaqchikels of Iximche .
It is possible that the Chajoma of Mixco Viejo ( Jilotepeque Viejo ) initially allied themselves with the Spanish together with the Kaqchikel kingdom of Iximche , and that they also rebelled against the Spanish in 1524 . It is known that when the lords of Iximche broke their alliance with the conquistadors , they took refuge in Jilotepeque . The site was abandoned after the Spanish conquest and the inhabitants were moved by the Spanish to San Martín Jilotepeque , after which the area was never reoccupied .
= = = = Modern history = = = =
German geographer Karl Sapper visited the ruins in 1896 and published a brief description of the ruins together with a site map two years later in a 6 @-@ page pamphlet by the Internationales Archiv für Ethnographie of Leyden in the Netherlands , entitled Die Ruinen von Mixco , Guatemala . It was Sapper who labelled each of the archaeological groups and their attendant structures . American archaeologist A. Ledyard Smith visited the ruins in 1949 and wrote a chapter about the site in his Archaeological Reconnaissance in Central America , published by the Carnegie Institution of Washington in 1955 . Archeological excavations were carried out from 1954 through 1967 by the Musée de l 'Homme of Paris under the direction of archaeologist Henri Lehmann , who certainly believed that he was excavating the Pocomam capital as described in Colonial records .
Although the site was restored during the archaeological investigations , it suffered considerable damage in the 1976 Guatemala earthquake . This resulted in destruction of some of the restoration work , although some of the damage has now been repaired .
= = = Site description = = =
The ruins consist of 15 groups containing the remains of over 120 major structures , including temples , palaces , and courts for playing the Mesoamerican ballgame . When the site was excavated , the surface was found to be littered with abundant obsidian blades and arrowheads . Originally the city had its main entrance on the western side , a modern road has now been cut through to the ruins from the west along a similar route .
The relatively short period of occupation at Mixco Viejo ( Jilotepeque Viejo ) led to an unusual unity of architectural styles for a Mesoamerican city . Almost all archaeological finds at the city , including both artefacts and earlier versions of later structures , date to the last few hundred years before the Spanish conquest . The architecture was built with mica and pumice slabs , in some cases this was coated with stucco . Stone sculpture is almost totally absent from the city , the only example being a ballcourt marker in the form of a serpent 's head with jaws agape and a human head emerging from its mouth . Originally some buildings were decorated with painted stucco but this is so poorly preserved that only a few fragments remain .
A population estimate derived from the number of residential remains suggests that the city had approximately 1450 to 1600 inhabitants .
= = = = Architectural groups = = = =
The architecture is divided into a number of groups and subgroups , labelled by archaeologists as Groups A through to L ; those subgroups belonging to Groups A , B , C and E that fall outside the city walls are indicated with the addition of an X or an apostrophe after the group name , to give Group A @-@ X , Group B @-@ X , Group C ' and Group E ' .
= = = = = Group A = = = = =
Group A is located on the northern end of the ridge . The group was extended during major remodelling work that included the building of the final versions of Platforms A2 and A3 on the north side ; this involved building a new retaining wall some 12 metres ( 39 ft ) further north , east and southeast and filling in the area between the new and old walls to create a greatly expanded terrace . Traces of charcoal at the base of the old retaining wall have been radiocarbon dated to the 13th century , indicating that the expansion of Group A took place no earlier than that .
Pyramid A1 is one of the principal structures of Group A , together with the ballcourt . The pyramid is 6 @.@ 9 metres ( 23 ft ) high and measures 15 @.@ 4 by 7 @.@ 25 metres ( 50 @.@ 5 by 23 @.@ 8 ft ) at the base . It was built using cut stone and has four stepped levels , each of which terminates in a cornice . The pyramid faces west onto the plaza and has two access stairways with 27 steps each . The stairways are flanked by smooth balustrades built from well @-@ fitted slabs . The summit of the pyramid supports a 60 @-@ centimetre ( 24 in ) high platform that once formed the base for the summit temple . The pyramid was built over another structure , a stucco platform with two levels , the upper of which terminated in a cornice .
Platform A2 is built along the edge of the retaining wall behind Pyramid A1 . It faces west towards the pyramid and has two access stairways . Three successive versions of the platform were built , each overlying the previous . The earliest version sat upon the early retaining wall , as did the second version . The final version was much larger and was built after the new retaining wall had extended the available area for Group A.
Platform A3 encloses the north side of the eastern part of the Group A plaza . It faces south onto the plaza and was accessed via two stairways on that side . The platform was built over an earlier structure that was built on top of an early tiered retaining wall ; the earlier structure extended 1 @.@ 27 metres ( 4 @.@ 2 ft ) above the retaining wall . The final version extended 4 metres ( 13 ft ) further to the west and 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) further to the north . It had two levels , each terminating in a cornice . On the north side a 1 @-@ metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) wide bench extends along the base of the wall .
Platform A4 divides the Group A plaza in two . It was a later addition to Group A during the reorganisation of the group that involved the destruction of the earlier building under Platform A5 . When excavated it was very poorly reserved but was able to be reliably restored . There was no earlier version of the structure ; it consists of a platform with two levels that faces east towards the principal architecture of Group A. The upper level is topped with a cornice and access was via two stairways flanked by balustrades .
Platform A5 closes the north side of the Group A plaza . The platform has two levels upon a base and a cornice terminating the walls . The platform faces south towards the plaza and ballcourt . The platform was accessed via four stairways , each with nine steps ; they were flanked by steep ramps or balustrades . The visible version of Platform A5 covers the remains of an earlier structure . The earlier building was a large platform with a north @-@ south orientation as opposed to the east @-@ west orientation of Platform A5 . The surviving parts were investigated by archaeologists and consist of the north wall and parts of the west facade . The north wall was 9 @.@ 1 metres ( 30 ft ) wide , suggesting that the earlier platform was very large and probably extended south almost as far as the ballcourt . Two funerary urns were excavated from the earlier platform .
Platform A6 encloses the western extreme of the Group A plaza . The platform has two levels , the upper of which has a vertical cornice . The platform faces east onto the plaza ; access was via two stairways flanked by balustrades terminating in vertical cornices . Platform A6 was built over an older version of the same building ; this earlier construction phase was smaller and its stairways were destroyed in order to build the stairways of the final version . During restoration work carried out by archaeologists the back wall and a section of the facade were left exposed . Four funerary urns were found associated with the platform , mostly interred under the front of the building .
Structure A7 is a small square altar in the middle of the eastern part of the Group A plaza . It faces west with steps on that side .
Platform A8 is to the east of Pyramid A1 , on the eastern side of the Group A plaza . It faces northwest towards the pyramid and had two access stairways . Behind the platform was a finely paved terrace extending along the edge of the retaining wall .
Platform A9 is to the east of the ballcourt ( A11 ) and faces towards it . It had four access stairways set between corniced balustrades ; each stairway had nine steps .
Ballcourt A11 encloses the west side of the Group A plaza , separating it from the retaining wall dropping off to the ravine behind the ballcourt . It is a sunken ballcourt with a north @-@ south orientation and is entirely enclosed . A short sunken stairway leads from the plaza to the top of the south wall . Another stairway descends the south wall to the southern end zone of the ballcourt . A matching stairway in the northern end zone provides access from that direction . The interior of the ballcourt playing area measures 37 @.@ 21 metres ( 122 @.@ 1 ft ) north @-@ south and the playing alley is 9 @.@ 46 metres ( 31 @.@ 0 ft ) wide between the side benches . The walls were built of small stone slabs and have a slight slope ; as is common with the architecture of Mixco Viejo ( Jilotepeque Viejo ) , the walls were topped with vertical cornices . However , the end zone walls are all completely vertical . Fragments of stucco recovered around the ballcourt indicate that it was at least partly coated .
Structure A12 was a residential structure on the southwest side of the Group A plaza between the ballcourt and Platform A6 . All that remains of this structure is its outline marked in stones .
Structure A14 was a residential structure immediately northeast of Platform A5 .
Structures A31 and A32 were residential structures near platform A5 on the north side of the Group A plaza .
= = = = = Group A @-@ X = = = = =
Group A @-@ X defines a number of structures in two subgroups lying outside the walls of Group A , to the northeast and northwest of the main group .
= = = = = Group B = = = = =
Group B is near the centre of the site , roughly equidistant between Group A ( to the northeast ) and Group C ( to the southwest ) . The main plaza of Group B was at the northern end of the group and was enclosed by the ballcourt on the south side , a double pyramid on the east side and three platforms . A stairway with 28 steps descends the Group B retaining wall behind the northeast corner of the double pyramid , providing an access route towards Group D. On the north side of the group another stairway , with 18 steps divided into two flights , descends towards Group A.
Ballcourt B1 is immediately south of the Group B plaza , with the northern entrance to the ballcourt directly accessing the plaza itself . It is an enclosed sunken ballcourt , as was common in the Maya highlands during the Late Postclassic . The ballcourt is aligned north @-@ south with two transverse end zones forming a capital I shape . The ballcourt has two entrances in the form of inset stairways in the end zones , in the centre of the ballcourt 's north and south walls . The side walls of the playing alley are slightly sloped and are topped by a cornice ; the playing alley is flanked by two low benches set against the east and west walls . The end zones also possess sloping walls . All the ballcourt walls were built of large stones . The ballcourt playing area measures 44 @.@ 5 metres ( 146 ft ) north @-@ south and is 9 metres ( 30 ft ) wide between the benches . The end zones measure 17 @.@ 46 metres ( 57 @.@ 3 ft ) east @-@ west . The ballcourt was originally coated in stucco painted in a variety of colours ; very little of this coating now remains . A drain opening empties runoff rainwater from the east side of the northern end zone ; the drain continues under Platform B 2 and empties outside the retaining wall of Group B.
During archaeological investigation of the ballcourt a well @-@ preserved tennoned ballgame marker was found placed on the western bench . Its original placement was indicated by a hole in the upper part of the ballcourt wall . The second marker that would have been placed directly opposite the first has never been found and the area of the ballcourt wall where it would have been had collapsed prior to excavations . Replicas of the ballcourt marker have been placed in both walls ; the original is in the Museo Nacional de Arqueología y Etnología in Guatemala City .
Platform B2 is aligned northeast to southwest and faces northwest onto the Group B plaza . It had two access stairways flanked by steep balustrades topped with vertical cornices . Behind the platform two stairways descend Group B 's retaining wall towards Group B @-@ X.
Pyramid B3 is actually two pyramids built upon a single basal platform . Together they comprise the most important architectural unit in Group B. The northern pyramid of the pair is denominated B3a ; the southern is B3b . The two pyramids each have five stepped levels and face west onto the plaza . Each pyramid was accessed by a single stairway flanked by wide balustrades ; each had a small altar at the base of its stairway . Both stairways had nineteen steps and the pyramids stand 6 @.@ 17 metres ( 20 @.@ 2 ft ) high . Low platforms on their summits indicate where the temple buildings once stood . The double form of the twin pyramids had its origin in the Valley of Mexico and indicates foreign influences at the city . A broken stela was excavated from within the fill of Pyramid B3a ; it was a plain monument broken in two parts . The bottom section still stood , while the upper section was lying beside it . It is one of very few such monuments raised in the Maya highlands and such stelae are characteristic of the Classic Period ( c . 250 – 900 ) . It is possible that it stands where originally erected before the pyramid was built over it . A funerary urn was excavated from underneath the rear of Pyramid B3b .
A drain near the northeast corner of Pyramid B3 carries runoff rainwater from the Group B plaza and channels it outside the retaining wall to the area between Groups B and D.
Platform B4 encloses the north side of the Group B plaza . The platform consists of a single level set upon a base and possesses corniced walls . Access was via an inset stairway in the centre of the south side . The platform top was floored with slabs and possessed a low double terrace at the rear .
Platform B5 possesses two stepped levels with cornices and encloses the northern
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part of the west side of the Group B plaza . The lower level possesses a single inset stairway , while the upper terrace has two stairways flanked by balustrades , with a third balustrade dividing the two . The platform provides a broad view across the Pancaco River valley to the west . Structure B5 was built on top of an earlier construction phase , which is exposed along the upper portion of the back wall because restoration of the building only rebuilt the lower portion . It was built from stone slabs and was originally taller than the final version of the platform but was cut back to the reduced height of the new building .
Pyramid B6 enclosed the southern portion of the west side of the Group B plaza . It is very poorly preserved and the top of the pyramid has collapsed , leaving only the lower walls . Archaeological investigation revealed that the final version of the pyramid had been build over a preceding version .
Structure B7 was a small , well @-@ proportioned rectangular structure south of the main Group A plaza , between the north end of the ballcourt ( B1 ) to the east and Structure B9 to the west . This structure was likely to have been an altar shrine .
Platform B8 is a range structure on the west side of Group B. It consists of a basal platform supporting inward @-@ sloping walls that terminate in a cornice . The building faces east and possesses four access stairways separated by near @-@ vertical balustrades . The retaining wall of Group B drops away into the neighbouring ravine 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) behind Platform B8 . A great number of funerary urns were excavated around the base of this platform .
= = = = = Group B @-@ X = = = = =
Group B @-@ X includes a number of structures in three subgroups outside the walls of Group B ; they are to the northwest , northeast and east of Group B itself .
Structure B @-@ X3 is a step pyramid with sides so steep that it is almost cubic in shape . This temple platform would originally have supported a perishable superstructure but no trace of this now remains . The pyramid faces west and was accessed by an extremely steep stairway with fifteen steps that faces directly onto the massive 13 @-@ metre ( 43 ft ) high retaining wall of Group B. The stairway is flanked by wide balustrades that form the western facade of the temple platform . Structure B @-@ X3 has been restored .
Structure B @-@ X4 has also been restored . It is a south @-@ facing range structure with four inset access stairways .
= = = = = Group C = = = = =
Group C lies to the southwest of Group B and east of Group E. Group C is arranged around two large structures ( C1 and C2 ) . It possesses two small plazas ; the East Plaza is the larger of the two , enclosing an area to the east of the main temple , Pyramid C1 . The East Plaza was accessed via a narrow alley that ran between a large , low platform and a high @-@ status residential structure with a patio ( C8 ) . An inset stairway climbed outside of the retaining wall of Group C and accessed the East Plaza between the high @-@ status residence and a platform to its east . The West Plaza is located behind Platform C2 and is enclosed to the north by three platforms ( C9 , C10 and C17 ) .
Pyramid C1 is the principal structure in Group C. Archaeological investigation uncovered three versions of the pyramid , each built over the last . The archaeologists restored the pyramid in such a way as to make a part of each of the three construction phases visible . The first phase of construction consisted of a platform of cut pumice blocks . This was buried under the second construction phase , which consisted of a five @-@ level stepped pyramid . It had a double stairway on the west side ; each stairway had 16 steps . The stairways were flanked and separated by ramps that terminated in sizeable masonry blocks at the top . The top of the pyramid stood 6 @.@ 1 metres ( 20 ft ) high and was topped by a temple , parts of which survive and have been restored . The walls were built from packed earth coated with stucco ; a section of the northern portion of the rear wall still stands to a height of 1 @.@ 1 metres ( 3 @.@ 6 ft ) . A wide stucco bench was built against the rear wall and a concave hollow in the floor was proably designed for the burning of incense . The roof of the temple was likely to have been thatched . The third and final construction phase was considerably larger than the preceding versions of the pyramid . In its final form the pyramid base measured 18 @.@ 25 by 9 @.@ 75 metres ( 59 @.@ 9 by 32 @.@ 0 ft ) ; it had five corniced levels and only possessed a single stairway in place of the earlier two.The stairway was flanked by two wide ramps , only the lower portion of the stairway and ramps survive . The top of the pyramid stood almost 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) higher than the preceding version and preserved parts of the earlier temple building in its infill ; the upper platform has largely collapsed and no trace remains of the final version of the temple superstructure . Both the second and third versions of the pyramid were originally coated in stucco , parts of which were preserved . New stucco was applied during restoration work to match the original coating . Although the pyramid was restored after it was excavated , the 1976 Guatemala earthquake caused considerable damage and the upper portion of the pyramid was reduced to rubble .
A burial was excavated from in front of the wall of the earliest version of the pyramid . The associated offerings included a number of clay vessels , a necklace of small gold bells and a copper axe . The earliest metal artefacts in the Maya region have been dated to the Terminal Classic period ( c.800 @-@ 900 ) ; the presence of metal artefacts associated with the earliest construction phase at Mixco Viejo ( Jilotepeque Viejo ) demonstrates the short span of the site and suggests that all three construction phases succeeded each other relatively rapidly . Further ceramic offerings were deposited under both of the latter two phases and an artificially deformed skull was interred under the central axis of the final version .
Platform C2 faces Pyramid C1 and borders the Group C Plaza . The platform is a long rectangular structure measuring 47 @.@ 3 by 14 metres ( 155 by 46 ft ) ( north @-@ south by east @-@ west ) and occupies the highest location of any structure at Mixco Viejo ( Jilotepeque Viejo ) . The platform has two levels and has a total height of 4 @.@ 4 metres ( 14 ft ) , the lower of which has a prominent cornice . The east side of the lower level has an inset stairway accessing the upper level . The upper level of the platform is recessed against the rear of the lower level and possesses an elaborate facade with four access stairways separated by corniced ramps . The entire platform was originally coated in stucco , of which only a few traces remain . On the upper level the stucco traces outline where walls once stood , leading archaeologists to conclude that several residential structures once stood on top . Platform C2 was built upon an earlier , shorter platform that possessed a facade composed of thin slabs . It is likely that Platform C2 provided restricted access to Pyramid C1 . A number of funerary urns were excavated from the base of Platform C2 .
Structure C6 was an observation platform that formed the south side of the East Plaza . It faced out southwards across the neighbouring valley .
Platform C7 is an L @-@ shaped platform that closes the east side and northeast corner of the East Plaza . Steps run the entire length of the platform .
Structure C8 is a residential compound that was accessed from the alley running to the East Plaza from behind Pyramid C1 . The entrance opened onto the alley from a patio situated in the southern portion of the compound . This patio was surrounded on the east , west and north sides by rooms , with the alley to the south . It was floored with stucco and Structure C8 was the only stuccoed residential building in the whole of the city . The north range of rooms backed directly onto the ravine immediately to the north of Group C ; the lower portion of the walls of the west room and of half of the north room still stand . The west room was square while the north room was narrow and probably extended the entire width of the patio . Wear marks in the stucco floor indicate that a door once accessed the north room from the west . The workmanship of Structure C8 was of very high quality and indicates that it was the residence of a member of the city 's elite . Its proximity to the large pyramid @-@ temple C1 has led archaeologist Henri Lehmann to speculate that it was once the house of the high priest .
Structure C11 was a small pyramid temple in the lower ( western ) section of Group C. It was built from small slabs of stone and faced west with an access stairway flanked by ramps . The structure overlies an earlier version that was built using pumice .
Structure C12 is a south @-@ facing platform built from pumice . It divides the West Plaza in two . The upper surface of the platform is marked by a circle of burnt clay formed by the burning of incense .
Structure C13 is a platform closing the southern half of the west side of the West Plaza .
Structure C14 is a platform in the lower part of Group C , close to Pyramid C11 .
= = = = = Group C ' = = = = =
Group C ' is a small group east of Group C ; it is immediately south of Group B and adjoins it .
Structure C ' 1 is an unexcavated mound .
Structure C ' 2 is another unexcavated mound ; it is smaller than Structure C ' 1 .
= = = = = Group D = = = = =
Group D is a dispersed group to the east of Group B.
Pyramid D1 is on the east side of the Group D plaza . The pyramid had three stepped levels erected upon a low base . It faces west towards the plaza and had a single access stairway flanked by sloping balustrades that terminate in vertical sections at the upper extremes . The pyramid was of fine workmanship using well @-@ cut stone slabs . However , itw was poorly preserved and the southern part had partially collapsed . The surviving portions of the building allowed it to be accurately restored by archaeologists .
Platform D2 is on the north side of the Group D plaza ; it has not been investegated by archaeologists .
Platform D3 is on the south side of the Group D plaza and has not been subject to archaeological investigation .
Structure D4 is a small altar in the centre of the Group D plaza .
Platform D5 is a south @-@ facing range structure of great length with just two access stairways . Excavations uncovered a number of funerary urns deposited under the back wall of the structure , the only example burial urns being interred behind such a platform .
= = = = = Group E = = = = =
Group E is located to the west of Group C. Group E is largely surrounded by steep ravines ; the inhabitants of the city cut the cliffs to make them steeper and more defensible , and reinforced them with a retaining wall . Archaeological investigations failed to find any access stairway through the retaining wall to Group E.
Pyramid E1 is located on the east side of the Group E plaza and was the most important building in Group E. The pyramid had three construction phases , the oldest of which was built from pumice upon a natural 2 @-@ metre ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) high elevation and was found to be well preserved during excavations of the site . This early phase was packed with rounded pebbles to provide the infill for the second phase of construction . The second version of the pyramid was very poorly preserved ; excavations uncovered many stucco fragments but were unable to determine which of the first tow construction phases they belonged to . The third and final phase of construction was larger than the preceding versions of the building and encased both them and the natural elevation upon which they stood . The pyramid had four stepped levels upon a basal platform . It faced west with an access stairway flanked by two ramps that terminated in projecting masonry blocks at the top . A small altar was excavated at the base of the pyramid ; two stones were found placed upon it . One of these stones was ball @-@ shaped while the other was perforated and may have been a mace or club . A number of funerary urns were excavated at the base of the southern side of the pyramid .
Structure E2 is a range structure on the north side of the Group E plaza . It has not been subject to archaeological investigation .
Structure E3 is a square altar in the middle of the Group E plaza . It faces towards Pyramid E1 .
Structure E4 is a platform located behind Pyramid E1 and encloses the eastern side of the Group E plaza . It faces west onto the plaza and has two access stairways , both flanked by ramps built from small slabs of stone and with cornices at the top . The platform walls are of fine workmanship , being built with well @-@ cut and carefully fitted pumice . The front portion of the upper platform was paved with stone slabs , and a bench ran the entire length of the back of the platform . The clay floor between the paving and the bench was found to have been burnt . An offering was excavated from the central axis of the platform 's base , it consisted of two ring @-@ shaped clubs placed on either side of a stone ball .
Platform E6 is situated on the west side of the Group E plaza . It is roughly built from irregularly sized , poorly cut stones . The platform faces east towards Pyramid E1 and has four access stairways . The platform once supported perishable residences ; these were built from maize stalks bound together with clay , as evidenced by the imprint of the maize stalks in the fragments of clay wall recovered during excavations . The platform itself was once covered with stucco .
= = = = = Other groups = = = = =
Group E ' is a cluster of small buildings in the trough between the hilltops supporting Groups C and E.
Group F is to the west of Group E. Mound F is the main structure within Group F. It slopes gradually away to the west and was not easily defensible on that side , however it lay outside the strong retaining walls of the fortress and appears to have been an observation platform covering the western pass to the city . A retaining wall supported the mound above the pass and a round earth platform upon the mound may have supported a perishable watchtower .
Group G consists of a number of small structures strung out along the ridge to the north of Group A.
Group H is a small group to the northeast of Group A. Structure H1 is a platform that uses a natural mound as its base .
Group I is also known as the Campana Group . It is the northernmost group at Mixco Viejo ( Jilotepeque Viejo ) .
Group J is a cluster of small buildings immediately southwest of Group A and adjoining it .
= = = = Caves = = = =
Three small caves are found in the sides of the ridge supporting the ruins of the city ; archaeological investigations have revealed that two of these caves were artificially modified in antiquity .
Cueva de La Lola ( " Lola 's Cave " ) is situated below Group A , near the bank of the Pancaco River as it flows to the northwest of the ruins . The cave is 8 @.@ 7 metres ( 29 ft ) deep and 6 @.@ 1 metres ( 20 ft ) wide ; for most of its length it is 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) high . The cave had been artificially widened and heightened . During the rain season rainwater filtering through the ground below the city flows out as a small waterfall at the bottom of the cave . The cave was used for ceremonial activities , related to the presence of the spring within it and the fact that the walls are formed from green phyllite ; greenstone was sacred to the Maya and was associated with water and fertility . Ritual activities in the cave have continued into modern times , with ceremonial fires being lit within .
Cueva del Murciélago ( " Cave of the Bat " ) is located at the southern extreme of the site . It is 14 @.@ 3 metres ( 47 ft ) deep ; at its widest point it is 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) wide and the cave is 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) high . It was artificially widened to permit access and was still used for Maya ceremonies in the late 20th century , when archaeologists found recent evidence of activity .
= = = Funerary offerings = = =
A large quantity of funerary urns have been excavated from the bases of buildings ; the deceased were cremated and their ashes collected in the urns . The sides of the urns were perforated with three holes , perhaps to represent the eyes and mouth of the deceased . The urns were decorated with polychrome motifs in the form of highly stylised serpent decorations painted in black , red and cream ; this style of Maya ceramics has been labelled as Chinautla Polychrome after the site where it was first identified . The Postclassic Maya custom of interring the cremated remains of the deceased in urns was restricted to the elite ; commoners where buried in simple tombs outside the city centre . In Jilotepeque Viejo urns were usually buried under the front of platform bases or under the sides of pyramids and altars . This was not a general practice among the highland Maya in the Postclassic and represents a tradition unique to the city . Funerary urns have been found interred under all the principal plazas of the city . Approximately equal proportions of urns were interred under platforms and under the ceremonial architecture represented by pyramids and altars , although it is impossible to say if those individuals buried under religious architecture had differing roles than those buried under secular architecture .
A total of 52 urns were excavated from the ruins of Jilotepeque Viejo ; 8 of these were destroyed by the 1976 earthquake leaving 44 available for study . Twelve of these were in the collection of the Musée de l 'Homme in Paris for approximately thirty years ; These urns , together with all other artefacts from Mixco Viejo ( Jilotepeque Viejo ) , were repatriated to Guatemala in 1998 . Each urn contained the cremated remains of a single adult . All of these appeared to be mature or elderly adults ; the remains of young adults were notably absent , indicating that elite warriors were buried in some other manner . The urns themselves represented a variety of highland ceramic types . Analysis of bone fragments in the cremated remains indicates that the entire body was burnt without any special treatment for the skull , although the offering of a skull was excavated from Pyramid C1 . Surviving skull fragments indicated the practice of artificial skull deformation among the elite inhabitants of the city . The remains of animal bones were found mixed among a significant portion of the contents of the urns ; where identifiable these included deer bones and those of a number of bird species , particularly parrots and birds of prey .
Only six of the urns contained associated funerary offerings :
= Curtly Ambrose =
Sir Curtly Elconn Lynwall Ambrose , KCN ( born 21 September 1963 ) is a former cricketer from Antigua who played 98 Test matches for the West Indies . A fast bowler , he took 405 Test wickets at an average of 20 @.@ 99 and topped the ICC Player Rankings for much of his career to be rated the best bowler in the world . His great height — he is 6 feet 7 inches ( 2 @.@ 01 m ) tall — allowed him to make the ball bounce unusually high after he delivered it ; allied to his pace and accuracy , it made him a difficult bowler for batsmen to face . A man of few words during his career , he was notoriously reluctant to speak to journalists . He was chosen as one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 1992 ; after he retired he was entered into the International Cricket Council Hall of Fame and selected as one of West Indies all @-@ time XI by a panel of experts .
Born in Swetes , Antigua , Ambrose came to cricket at a relatively late age , having preferred basketball in his youth , but quickly made an impression as a fast bowler . Progressing through regional and national teams , he was first chosen for the West Indies in 1988 . He was almost immediately successful and remained in the team until his retirement in 2000 . On many occasions , his bowling was responsible for the West Indies winning matches which seemed lost , particularly in association with Courtney Walsh . Against Australia in 1993 , he took seven wickets while conceding a single run ; in 1994 he was largely responsible for bowling England out for 46 runs , taking six for 24 ( six wickets for 24 runs ) .
Ambrose 's bowling method relied on accuracy and conceding few runs ; several of his best performances came when he took wickets in quick succession to devastate the opposition . He was particularly successful against leading batsmen . From 1995 , Ambrose was increasingly affected by injury , and several times critics claimed that he was no longer effective . However , he continued to take wickets regularly up until his retirement , although he was sometimes less effective in the early matches of a series . In his final years , the West Indies team was in decline and often relied heavily on Ambrose and Walsh ; both men often bowled with little support from the other bowlers . Following his retirement , Ambrose has pursued a career in music as the bass guitarist in a reggae band .
= = Early life and career = =
Ambrose was born in Swetes , Antigua on 21 September 1963 , the fourth of seven children . His father was a carpenter from the village . The family had no background in cricket , but his mother was a fan , and Ambrose played in his youth , primarily as a batsman . At school , he performed well academically , particularly in mathematics and French , and became an apprentice carpenter upon leaving at the age of 17 . He briefly considered emigrating to America . At the time , his favourite sport was basketball , although he occasionally umpired cricket matches . Ambrose was not particularly tall until he reached his late teens , when he grew several inches to reach a height of 6 feet 7 inches ( 2 @.@ 01 m ) . Around this time , his mother encouraged him to become more involved in cricket . Success as a fast bowler in a softball cricket match persuaded Ambrose to play in some club matches at the age of 20 . He quickly attracted the attention of coaches and progressed to the St John 's cricket team . Selected in the Leeward Islands competition , he took seven for 67 ( seven wickets for 67 runs ) for Antigua against St Kitts . He made his first @-@ class debut for the Leeward Islands in 1985 – 86 and took four wickets in the game , but failed to retain his place the following year .
A Viv Richards scholarship provided funding for him to play club cricket in England for Chester Boughton Hall Cricket Club in the highly rated Liverpool Competition during 1986 where he took 84 wickets at an average of 9 @.@ 80 . The following year , he returned to England to play for Heywood Cricket Club in the Central Lancashire League , for whom he took 115 wickets in the season ; these experiences helped to improve his bowling technique .
Upon his return to Antigua , Ambrose practised intensely , regained his place in the Leeward Islands team and , in the absence of leading bowlers Winston Benjamin and Eldine Baptiste with the West Indies team , became the main attacking bowler in the side . He was no @-@ balled for throwing in the first match , which Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack later attributed to confusion caused by his attribute of flicking his wrist prior to releasing the ball to impart extra pace , and there were no subsequent doubts about the legality of his bowling action . Retaining his place when the international bowlers returned , he took 35 wickets — including 12 in a match against Guyana , of which nine were bowled — in five matches in the competition . Wisden 's report on the West Indian season said his performance was " dominant " , although few had heard of him previously . Identifying his yorker as his most effective delivery , it noted that he " never lost his pace , his accuracy , or his thirst for wickets " .
= = International bowler = =
= = = Debut and first years = = =
When Pakistan toured the West Indies in 1988 , Ambrose played in the One Day International ( ODI ) series , taking the place of the recently retired Joel Garner . He made his debut during the first match , on 12 March 1988 in Kingston , Jamaica , taking wickets with his third and ninth deliveries ; he ended the innings with four for 39 from 10 overs . In the second match , he took four for 35 and followed with another two wickets in the third . West Indies won those first three matches to take the series , and Ambrose did not play in the fourth or fifth game . In the Test series which followed , Ambrose was less effective . In the first Test , he took two for 121 as West Indies lost at home for the first time in 10 years . Wisden noted that his debut was " unimpressive " , but that he improved in the subsequent matches . He finished the series with seven wickets at an average of over 50 runs per wicket . Later that year , Ambrose was chosen to tour England . After appearing in early tour games , he was chosen for the first two ODIs , taking three wickets in total , but was omitted from the third . In the Test series , he played in all five matches to take 22 wickets at an average of 20 @.@ 22 ; his best figures of four for 58 came in the fourth Test , in which he took seven wickets and was named man of the match . Writing in Wisden , commentator Tony Cozier described Ambrose as " a ready @-@ made replacement for Garner " ; the amount of bounce he generated after the ball pitched " made him a constant menace " .
In 1988 – 89 , West Indies took part in an ODI tournament in Sharjah . Ambrose took 8 wickets , and was man of the match with four for 29 when West Indies defeated Pakistan in the final . From there , West Indies travelled to Australia for a series in which Ambrose was a dominant figure . The West Indies won the Test series 3 – 1 , using controversial short @-@ pitched bowling tactics . Ambrose 's height made him difficult to play as made the ball bounce more than other bowlers . Writing in Wisden , John Woodcock noted : " As in England , earlier in 1988 , Ambrose 's bowling was a telling factor ... [ His ] advance compensated for something of a decline in [ Malcolm ] Marshall 's effectiveness " . In the first Test , he took seven wickets ; in the second , he took five wickets in a Test innings for the first time with five for 72 , and finished with eight in the game ; and in the third , he took six wickets . His performances earned him man of the match award in the first and third games , and he ended the series with 26 wickets at an average of 21 @.@ 46 . He was West Indies leading wicket @-@ taker and headed the team bowling averages . In the ODI tournament that took place during the tour , West Indies defeated Australia in the final ; Ambrose took 21 wickets in the series and twice took five wickets in an innings .
Suffering from fatigue and illness , Ambrose was less successful later in 1989 when India toured the West Indies : he took just five wickets in the four @-@ Test series at an average of 54 @.@ 60 .
= = = County cricketer and success against England = = =
Ambrose made his debut in the English County Championship for Northamptonshire County Cricket Club in 1989 — the club signed him for the 1988 season but as he was playing in the West Indies touring team , he was unavailable that year . He took a wicket with his first delivery for the club , but was not particularly successful in the first part of the season ; he settled down later and took 28 first @-@ class wickets at 28 @.@ 39 for Northamptonshire in nine games .
Early in 1990 , England toured the West Indies and played four Tests — a fifth was abandoned owing to rain . The visiting team dominated the first part of the series but West Indies eventually won 2 – 1 . Ambrose was unfit for the first Test , which West Indies lost , and the first four ODIs , but returned to take four for 18 in an ODI organised to replace the rained @-@ off second Test . After a drawn third Test , West Indies won the fourth game . The home captain , Viv Richards , set England 356 to win , but after losing early wickets , the English batsmen entered the last hour of the game with five wickets still to fall . Ambrose took the new ball and removed the last five batsmen for 18 runs in 46 deliveries , four of them leg before wicket . He finished with figures of eight for 45 , ten wickets in the match , and West Indies levelled the series with a 164 @-@ run win . Ambrose was man of the match . He took six wickets in the final match , to finish the series with 20 wickets at 15 @.@ 35 , finishing top of the West Indies ' averages . Ambrose , along with the other home bowlers , was described by Alan Lee in Wisden as an " awesome handful in the latter part of the series " , and described his match @-@ winning spell in the fourth Test as " unforgettable " . Ambrose 's other appearances for West Indies in 1989 – 90 were all in ODIs , although he did take more than two wickets in any innings except in the match against England . He also took 22 first @-@ class wickets for the Leeward Islands , and when he returned to England to play for Northamptonshire in 1990 , took 58 first @-@ class wickets to top the club 's bowling averages . In one @-@ day cricket for the county , he took 13 wickets while conceding an average of just 2 @.@ 53 runs per over .
= = Leading bowler in the Universe = =
= = = Series against Australia and England = = =
West Indies toured Pakistan in late 1990 , and Ambrose topped the team 's bowling averages in a three @-@ match series which was drawn 1 – 1 . He took 14 wickets at 17 @.@ 07 , but was overshadowed slightly by the performances of Ian Bishop . He played the first two ODIs , but missed the third after Pakistan had already won the series , and his best figures in the Tests came in the final match when he took five for 35 . Then , when Australia toured West Indies from February 1991 , Ambrose took 18 wickets in the five Tests at an average of 27 @.@ 38 . West Indies won the series 2 – 1 , and Ambrose was fourth in the averages , but Tony Cozier observed in Wisden that the whole West Indies attack was dependable . Ambrose made an impression batting as part of a West Indian lower batting order which repeatedly added crucial runs during the series . He took part in two important partnerships to help his team recover from a difficult situation , and in the third match , he scored his only half @-@ century in Tests . He also took 20 first @-@ class wickets for Leeward Islands .
West Indies ' next matches were in England . The Test series was drawn 2 – 2 and Ambrose was the team 's leading wicket @-@ taker with 28 ( averaging 20 @.@ 00 ) ; he also came top of the bowling averages . He had a particular impact on Graeme Hick , who was appearing in Test cricket for the first time , dismissing him six times in seven innings with short @-@ pitched bowling . Accurate bowling was important in the series , played on a series of slow @-@ paced pitches ; according to Scyld Berry , writing in Wisden , " Since the 1988 tour , Ambrose had improved his control to the point where a batsman had to play almost every ball — and not with a scoring stroke , either " . Berry suggests that West Indies may have won the series had Viv Richards used a different tactical approach with Ambrose 's bowling . The bowler was not fully fit in the final Test , which may have affected the outcome . Berry describes " Ambrose 's rise to the status of a giant — with the mannerism of celebrating each wicket by whirling his arms upwards , like a flock of doves taking to the air . " Ambrose twice took five wickets in an innings — his best figures were six for 52 in the first Test , when he twice took wickets with consecutive deliveries . Ambrose was named man @-@ of the @-@ match in the third Test and adjudged West Indies man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ series . For his performances , Ambrose was named one of Wisden 's Cricketers of the Year . The citation remarked on his consistency and stated : " Ambrose has the ability to exert a debilitating psychological influence which so often precipitates a cluster of wickets after the initial breach has been made ... Moreover , he was arguably the essential difference between the two sides in what proved to be a zestful series . " The West Indies wicket @-@ keeper , Jeff Dujon , said : " He is mature beyond his years , has pace , accuracy , heart and determination , plus , importantly , real pride in economical figures . "
= = = Victory against South Africa = = =
During the 1991 – 92 season , West Indies played mainly one @-@ day cricket , taking part in tournaments in Sharjah — where Ambrose took seven wickets , including an analysis of five for 53 — and Australia , and took part in the World Cup in Australia and New Zealand . In this tournament , Ambrose took seven wickets in seven games at an average of 33 @.@ 57 and was the seventh most economical bowler among those who played more than one game . West Indies finished sixth in the qualifying table and failed to reach the semi @-@ finals . Ambrose returned home to play twice for the Leeward Islands in January 1992 .
In April 1992 , South Africa toured West Indies for the first time , and played their first Test match for 22 years . Ambrose played in all three ODIs , all of which were won by West Indies . The Test match was the first time West Indies bowled under a new playing regulation which permitted only one bouncer per over ; this seemed to affect the home bowlers , but Ambrose took two for 47 from 36 overs . South Africa began the final day of the match requiring 79 runs to win with just two batsmen out , but Ambrose and Courtney Walsh took the last eight wickets for 26 runs to bowl West Indies to a 52 @-@ run win . On a difficult pitch for batting , the ball bounced unevenly , and both bowlers concentrated on accuracy . Ambrose took six for 34 in the second innings , and was named joint man of the match ; in just over 60 overs , he took eight for 81 in the match .
Returning to play for Northamptonshire , he was less effective . Hampered by a knee injury , which necessitated surgery after the English season , and suffering from many dropped catches , he took 50 first @-@ class wickets at an average of 26 @.@ 14 , but his performance compared unfavourably with other bowlers on the team . He was more effective in the NatWest Trophy , a one @-@ day competition that Northamptonshire won that season , in which he conceded fewer than two runs per over across five games .
= = = Second tour of Australia = = =
The West Indies toured Australia in 1992 – 93 , recovering from losing the second Test to win the final two matches and take the series 2 – 1 . The team also won the annual World Series Cup . In the first three Tests , Ambrose was hampered by pitches which did not suit his bowling and , according to Tony Cozier writing in Wisden , was often unlucky when he bowled , although he took five for 66 in the first Test . In the final two Tests , he took 19 wickets . In the fourth he took ten wickets , including six for 74 in the first innings ; in the second innings , he took three wickets in 19 deliveries and the West Indies won the match by one run . According to Cozier , the captains of both teams , Richie Richardson and Allan Border , " paid tribute to the man who made the result possible : Ambrose consolidated his reputation as the world 's leading bowler " . On the first day of the decisive final Test , Ambrose took seven wickets at the cost of one run from 32 deliveries and finished with figures of seven for 25 . Cozier described it as " one of Test cricket 's most devastating spells " . West Indies won by an innings and Ambrose was named man of the series , having taken 33 wickets to equal the record in an Australia @-@ West Indies Test series . He topped the West Indian bowling averages with an average of 16 @.@ 42 . Cozier described Ambrose 's performance as " instrumental in winning [ the series ] " and his bowling as " flawless " .
In the one @-@ day tournament , Ambrose took 18 wickets at 13 @.@ 38 . He took eight wickets in the two @-@ match final — both games were won by the West Indies . In the first final , he took five for 32 , driven to bowl with more hostility when the Australian batsman Dean Jones asked him to remove his white wristbands while bowling . He followed up with three for 26 in the second match to be named player of the finals . After a one @-@ day tournament in South Africa , West Indies returned home for Test and ODI series against Pakistan . The ODI series was drawn , but the West Indies defeated Pakistan 2 – 0 in the Tests . Ambrose took nine wickets at 23 @.@ 11 to be fifth in the team bowling averages . The Wisden report suggested that he was suffering from fatigue after his team 's busy schedule , but although not at his best , he continued to take important wickets . For Northamptonshire in 1993 , Ambrose was second in the team first @-@ class bowling averages with 59 wickets at 20 @.@ 45 .
Having developed a slower ball , and using the yorker more sparingly , Ambrose took five wickets in three games as West Indies won an ODI tournament in Sharjah in late October and November 1993 . The team competed in another tournament , this time in India , later that November . They finished as runners @-@ up , and Ambrose took four wickets in five matches . Immediately following this , West Indies toured Sri Lanka to play three ODIs and a Test , a rain @-@ ruined match in which Ambrose took three wickets .
= = = More success against England = = =
When he returned to the West Indies , Ambrose took 19 first @-@ class wickets for the Leeward Islands at an average of 11 @.@ 68 , in his first appearances for the islands in two years , but as England arrived to tour West Indies , he complained of fatigue and there were rumours he planned to retire . He played in three times in the five @-@ match ODI series , taking two wickets , and took a further two wickets in the first Test , which West Indies won . In Wisden , Alan Lee described his performances at this time as " lethargic " , and in the Guardian , Paul Allott wrote that he bowled " like a shadow " owing to the effects of continuous cricket . Ambrose was ineffective at the start of the second Test , but recovered , ending the match with eight wickets ; according to Lee , he " struck the critical blows of the match " in the first innings . In the third Test , played in Trinidad , he took five for 60 in England 's first innings , but after the visiting team built a substantial lead , West Indies were bowled out to leave England needing 194 to win and an hour to bat on the fourth evening . Ambrose took six wickets to leave England 40 for eight at the close of play ; the next morning , they were bowled out for 46 and Ambrose had figures of six for 24 in the innings and match figures of 11 for 84 ; he was named man of the match . Lee described the collapse as " staggering " , and judged Ambrose bowling to be " of the highest calibre " . He continued : " He delivered one of the most devastating spells of even his career . " Allott called it " the definitive spell of fast bowling " .
Ambrose took four wickets in the fourth Test , but West Indies lost the match , their first defeat in Barbados for 59 years , and Ambrose was fined £ 1 @,@ 000 by the match referee for knocking down his stumps in frustration when he was the last man out . He took one more wicket in the drawn final Test to finish the series with 26 wickets and top the West Indian bowling averages . Writing in Wisden , Lee summarised Ambrose 's performances : " Ambrose was magnificent . He was deservedly named man of the series , not only for taking 26 wickets at an average of 19 @.@ 96 apiece and winning the Trinidad Test single @-@ handed , but for the more profound truth that West Indies now look to him whenever they need wickets ... [ He ] carried the attack alone " .
Ambrose returned to play for Northamptonshire in 1994 , but arrived later than scheduled . Claiming to need a rest , he missed his scheduled flight and arrived four days late . His absence may have contributed to Northamptonshire 's elimination in the preliminary stages of the Benson and Hedges Cup . At the time , members of the county were unhappy with Ambrose 's performances for the team ; the committee fined him , and he expressed contrition . During the remainder of the season , he bowled extremely effectively to take 77 first @-@ class wickets , the most for the club in 18 years , at an average of 14 @.@ 45 to top the national bowling averages . According to Andrew Radd in Wisden , the club were mollified by his success , but he wrote : " Rarely in Northamptonshire 's history have the performances and the personality of one cricketer dominated a season to the extent that Curtly Ambrose did in 1994 . " Ambrose missed the final match of the season with a shoulder problem .
= = Apparent decline = =
= = = Shoulder injury = = =
Ambrose 's shoulder injury , caused by his bowling workload , caused him to miss the West Indies ' tour of India in the last three months of 1994 . Although he returned to join the tour of New Zealand in early 1995 , he did not reach his full bowling pace ; he took one wicket in the ODI series and five in the two Test matches . He remained in the team when Australia toured the Caribbean later in 1995 ; the West Indies lost the Test series 2 – 1 , their first defeat in a Test series since 1980 . After taking two wickets in four ODIs , Ambrose took 13 wickets at 19 @.@ 84 in the four @-@ Test series to lead the West Indian averages . He took nine of these wickets in Trinidad during the third Test , when West Indies levelled the series having lost the first Test ( the second was drawn ) . Bowling on a pitch that was extremely difficult for batting , and which both teams considered to be unsatisfactory , Ambrose took nine for 65 in the match and was named man of the match . During the game , Ambrose had to be pulled away from a verbal confrontation with Steve Waugh by the captain , Richardson . But outside of this match , the Australian team judged his bowling to have declined in pace following his shoulder injury , and that he lacked the variety to adapt to a different role . The West Indies ' cricket manager , former Test bowler Andy Roberts , publicly claimed during the series that several of his team possessed " attitude problems " , and complained that the fast bowlers would not follow his advice .
During the tour of England which followed , Ambrose did not take a wicket in the three @-@ match ODI series ; according to journalist Simon Barnes , both Ambrose and the team lacked confidence following their defeat by Australia ; he lacked rhythm and displayed signs of frustration and unhappiness . He was more effective in the Test series , and according to Tony Cozier in Wisden , " was always captable of a spell of incisive , quality bowling " . But he was affected by injury throughout the six @-@ match series ; he withdrew injured from the third Test having bowled fewer than eight overs and missed the fifth Test completely . Other bowlers in the team overshadowed Ambrose , and it was not until the final Test that he reached his most effective form in taking five for 96 in the first innings and seven wickets in the match . Waving to the crowd as he left the field on the final day with an injury , Ambrose seemed to indicate that he would not tour England again . He ended the series third in the bowling averages with 21 wickets at 24 @.@ 09 . But according to Cozier , the senior players in the team caused problems for the management , and when the players returned home , Ambrose and three other members of the team were fined 10 per cent of their tour fee — in Ambrose 's case , the fine was for " general failings of behaviour and attitude " , and setting a bad example to younger team @-@ mates .
Along with other senior players , Ambrose was rested from West Indies ' next tour , an ODI tournament in October 1995 , but he returned to play in a three @-@ team ODI tournament in Australia in December and January . However , affected by the refusal of Brian Lara to tour following after being fined for his behaviour during the tour of England , the team failed to qualify for the final . Ambrose took ten wickets in the tournament , and took three wickets in consecutive innings ; in the latter game , he was man of the match . West Indies were more successful in the World Cup in India , Pakistan and Sri Lanka which began in February . They reached the semi @-@ finals , losing to Australia . Ambrose was man of the match with three for 28 in his team 's opening match , and took ten wickets at 17 @.@ 00 in the competition . He conceded an average of just three runs per over over the tournament , the second best among those who played in more than two games . In March , Ambrose played in a home series against New Zealand . In the five match ODI series , 10 wickets at 17 @.@ 60 , including four for 36 in the opening game . He took eight wickets in the two @-@ Test series at an average of 20 @.@ 50 , leading the team averages , and took five for 68 in the second match . During the English cricket season , he returned to Northamptonshire and took 43 wickets in nine games to lead the national bowling averages , but he missed several matches with recurring injuries and his contract was not renewed for the following year . He was replaced by the much younger Mohammad Akram as overseas player .
= = = Team in decline = = =
Following Australia 's victory in 1994 – 95 , when West Indies toured Australia in 1996 – 97 the series was heavily publicised as a re @-@ match . However , the visiting team were often ineffective , continuing a trend of decline , and depended heavily on their senior players , one of whom was Ambrose . He began the series poorly , continuing a pattern established in several preceding series , and critics suggested that he was no longer effective . After taking only three wickets in the first two Tests , both of which were lost by West Indies , Ambrose told his team @-@ mates that he would take ten wickets in the third . On a difficult pitch for batting , he managed to take nine in the match , including three in the first hour of the game , despite struggling with a hamstring injury . West Indies won , and Ambrose was named man of the match , but he missed the fourth Test with an injury . Writing in Wisden , Greg Baum suggested that Ambrose absence possibly affected the outcome of the series ; Australia won easily to ensure they won the series . Ambrose returned for the final match , and on another difficult batting pitch , took five for 43 on the first day . West Indies won and Ambrose was again man of the match . He led the West Indies bowling averages with 19 wickets at 23 @.@ 36 , but had been the driving factor in West Indies ' two wins . Ambrose also played in an ODI tournament during the tour of Australia , taking nine wickets at 27 @.@ 33 . Later in the season , between March and May 1997 , India toured West Indies ; Ambrose took ten wickets at 30 @.@ 10 in the Test series , including five for 87 in the second Test , but was no longer the home team 's most effective bowler . Then in June , Sri Lanka played a two @-@ Test series , won 1 – 0 by West Indies . In the first , Ambrose took five for 37 in the first innings , and eight wickets in the game , to be named man of the match . This included his 300th wicket in Test matches ; he was the 12th bowler , and fourth West Indian , to reach this landmark . Ambrose also played five ODIs during the West Indies home season , taking nine wickets .
West Indies ' loss of form continued in late 1997 when they lost every international match during their tour of Pakistan . Ambrose played in two out of West Indies ' three matches in an ODI tournament , taking one wicket , but his performance in taking one wicket in the two Test matches he played — he missed the third match with injury — prompted Fazeer Mohammed , writing in Wisden , to describe Ambrose as " a shadow of his former self " . Any danger that Ambrose might have retired after this series was forestalled when Brian Lara was appointed West Indies captain and immediately spoke to Ambrose and Walsh to ask them to continue in the team . When England toured the West Indies between January and April 1998 , he took 30 wickets at 14 @.@ 26 to top the bowling averages for the series . Many of the pitches during the tour were poor for batting , but Ambrose was very effective , particularly in the second , third and fourth Tests . In addition , he dismissed Mike Atherton , the England captain , six times in the series . Scyld Berry wrote in Wisden that Ambrose was " back to something near his peak form ... [ He ] defied every prediction that he was finished after his tour of Pakistan . " In the second Test , Ambrose took eight wickets ; he conceded only 23 runs from 26 overs in the first innings and bowled a spell of five wickets for 16 runs from 47 deliveries in the second to complete figures of five for 52 . Having won the second match , West Indies lost the third , but according to Matthew Engel , " Ambrose 's abiding power was the most constant feature of a fluctuating match " . His eight wickets in the game , including five for 25 in the first innings , took him past fifty Test wickets in Trinidad . He followed up with six wickets in West Indies victory in the fourth Test , taking four for 38 in the final innings . Tony Cozier wrote that Ambrose " thundered in , arms and knees pumping like pistons , to generate all of his old pace . " Following the Test series , which West Indies won 3 – 1 , Ambrose played in the first three matches of the ODI series , and took three wickets .
= = Final years of career = =
Ambrose and Walsh missed the Mini World Cup ODI tournament in October 1998 , in Ambrose 's case following damage to his house caused by Hurricane Georges . They returned to the team for West Indies ' first ever tour of South Africa , and Ambrose took 13 wickets in the series at an average of 23 @.@ 76 , but West Indies lost every game of the five @-@ match series . In the first Test match , Ambrose and Walsh bowled effectively but lacked support from the other members of the attack . In the second Test , the pair again lacked support , but bowled well . The visiting team generally bowled too many bouncers to be effective , but Ambrose took eight wickets in the game , including six for 51 in the second innings . He was ineffective in the third Test , and despite bowling what Geoffrey Dean in Wisden called a " superb opening spell " , could not prevent South Africa building up a large total against an attack lacking two other main bowlers . Ambrose pulled out of the attack himself later in the innings with a back injury , and did not bowl in the second innings . He missed the final Test with a hamstring injury . He was fit to play in the first six games of a seven @-@ match ODI series , won 6 – 1 by South Africa , and took six wickets . In March 1999 , West Indies then faced Australia in a home series , and contrary to expectations , West Indies drew the series 2 – 2 . The outcome of the series was decided by a small group of players , including Ambrose , whom Mike Coward described in Wisden as " five of the most distinguished cricketers of all time " . Ambrose took 19 wickets at 22 @.@ 26 , second to Walsh in the averages . His best figures came in the fourth and final Test , when he took five for 94 in the first innings and eight wickets in the match , but in the third match , although he only took four wickets in total , Coward described Ambrose as " rampant " and wrote that Steve Waugh , who scored 199 , had to survive " some extraordinary pace bowling from Ambrose " . He played four of the ODIs which followed in April , taking three wickets . The following month , Ambrose took part in the 1999 World Cup in England , and he was the second most economical bowler in the tournament in conceding an average 2 @.@ 35 runs per over while taking seven wickets at 13 @.@ 42 . West Indies went out in the group stages , and Matthew Engel suggested that the bowlers were tired and judged the team " outright failures " .
Following the World Cup , the West Indian selectors chose to rest Ambrose , along with Walsh , from alternate ODI tournaments . Ambrose consequently missed two ODI series , but in October 1999 he played two ODIs in a series against Bangladesh in Dhaka and three in a tournament in Sharjah . In the latter competition , Ambrose conceded five runs from ten overs against Sri Lanka , the second most economical bowling figures from a full allocation of 10 overs in all ODIs . However , in all five matches , he took just one wicket , and he injured his elbow in Sharjah which forced him to miss West Indies ' tour of New Zealand which began in December . Ambrose recovered in time to play for the Leeward Island in domestic cricket , taking 31 wickets at 12 @.@ 03 in seven first @-@ class games . When Zimbabwe toured the West Indies , he returned to the West Indies team to be named man of the match in the first Test — Zimbabwe were bowled out for 63 when chasing 99 runs to win . He took a wicket in the second and final Test , and four wickets in six matches during a three @-@ way ODI series also involving Zimbabwe and Pakistan . These were his final ODIs ; in 176 matches , he took 225 wickets at an average of 24 @.@ 12 and conceding 3 @.@ 48 runs per over . Pakistan subsequently played a three @-@ Test series against West Indies ; in his last home series , Ambrose took 11 wickets at 19 @.@ 90 to head the West Indian bowling averages .
Before his next series , a five @-@ match series in England , Ambrose announced that he would retire after the final Test , although the president of the West Indies Cricket Board unavailingly tried to persuade him to continue for a little longer . West Indies lost the series 3 – 1 , Tony Cozier , reviewing the series , suggested that only Ambrose and Walsh of the West Indian team emerged from the series with any credit . The other bowlers were ineffective , and Ambrose publicly commented during the series on the lack of support that he and Walsh received . He was second in the averages to Walsh with 17 wickets at 18 @.@ 64 . After taking just one wicket in the first Test , although Martin Johnson , in Wisden , suggested he bowled very well , Ambrose took five wickets in the second Test but was again unlucky as the batsmen were beaten by many deliveries that he bowled . After this match , Ambrose returned to the West Indies having been rested from an ODI tournament involving England and Zimbabwe . He took four wickets in the first innings of both the third and fourth Tests , passing 400 wickets in the latter match . After he took three wickets in his final Test match , the crowd gave him a standing ovation and the England players formed a guard @-@ of @-@ honour when he came out to bat . In 98 Test matches , he took 405 wickets at an average of 20 @.@ 99 ; according to Mike Selvey , in Swetes , his mother rang a bell each time he took a Test wicket .
Having retired from cricket , Ambrose has concentrated on music , playing with several bands . He played bass guitar with the reggae band Big Bad Dread and the Baldhead ; one fellow band member was his former team @-@ mate Richie Richardson . Ambrose was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Nation ( KCN ) by the Antiguan Barbudan government on 28 February 2014 , alongside Richardson and Andy Roberts .
= = Style and technique = =
Mike Selvey wrote in The Guardian in 1991 that Ambrose had " the sort of easy , repetitive , no @-@ sweat action which is the key to unyielding accuracy . There is no respite and all his other qualities are byproducts . " At his peak , Ambrose did not rely on pronounced swing or seam movement of the ball . Instead , he repeatedly bowled into the same areas of the pitch and the height from which he delivered the ball made him extremely difficult to face . The ball bounced sharply after pitching , sometimes deviating slightly from a straight line after pitching on the seam , and frequently took the edge of the batsman 's bat to be caught behind the wicket . His 1992 citation as Wisden Cricketer of the Year states that he had " outright pace and he generates a disconcerting , steepling bounce from fuller @-@ length deliveries ... His height and a slender , sinewy wrist contribute greatly to the final velocity [ of the ball ] , the wrist snapping forward at the
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block ( a performance Elvis himself choreographed ) . Hunk 's number is cut because of his outdated music style . Afterwards , Vince informs Hunk that according to his lawyer , the above @-@ mentioned " contract " they signed in prison was worthless . However , as a consolation , and never forgetting that Hunk tried to intercede on his behalf when he was punished for striking the prison guard , Vince offers Hunk a job with his entourage for a fee equal to ten percent of Vince 's annual gross , which Hunk accepts .
Within a few months , Vince officially became a star . However , Peggy is no longer on speaking terms with Vince , as his success has made him arrogant . Vince then signs a movie deal with Climax Studios . The studio head asks him to spend the day with Sherry Wilson ( Jennifer Holden ) , the studio 's new leading lady , for publicity purposes . The conceited actress is less than thrilled with her co @-@ star at first ; but she eventually falls in love with Vince after shooting a kissing scene , saying that she 's " come all unglued " ( indicating that she 's no longer " stuck up " ) .
Meanwhile , Hunk grows tired of Vince 's self @-@ centered attitude . When Peggy shows up unexpectedly at another of Vince 's parties , Vince is happy to see her at first but becomes upset when she says the purpose of her visit is to talk about business . Mr. Shores then approaches Vince with an offer from Geneva Records to purchase Laurel Records and sign him to a rich contract . Peggy refuses to sell , but Vince announces that he will close the deal since he owns a controlling interest , which deeply devastates Peggy . Enraged by Vince 's attitude — and his treatment of Peggy — Hunk provokes Vince to fight , who refuses to fight back . Hunk then strikes Vince in the throat , endangering his voice and therefore his singing ability . Vince is then rushed to a hospital , where he forgives Hunk and realizes he loves Peggy and she loves him . After being released from the hospital , Vince 's doctor informs him that his vocal cords are fully recovered , but Vince is worried that his voice might have been affected . To test it , he sings " Young and Beautiful " to Peggy , which reassures him that his fears are unfounded .
= = Cast = =
Elvis Presley as Vince Everett , a prisoner who , after being released , becomes a star for his singing talent . Producer Pandro S. Berman 's wife convinced him to make a film with Presley starring in the leading role . Berman contacted Presley 's manager , Colonel Thomas Parker , and asked if he could send Presley or Parker the script to read it . Parker was uninterested and denied the request . Berman asked Parker under which conditions would he take the project , to which Parker replied that he was only interested in the music score of the movie and owning the rights for record sales and publishing royalties . Presley 's payment was settled at US $ 250 @,@ 000 and 50 % of the royalties from the distribution of the movie .
Judy Tyler as Peggy Van Alden , a music promoter who helps Vince build his career and eventually becomes his lover . Tyler was previously known for her part as Princess Summerfall Winterspring in the television show Howdy Doody and her role as Suzy in the Broadway musical Pipe Dream ( 1955 ) . Tyler took a three @-@ month leave of absence from Howdy Doody to shoot the movie . Tyler and her husband were both killed in a car crash on July 3 , days after production of the movie was completed and before the movie premiered . For this reason , Presley refused to watch the film .
Mickey Shaughnessy as Hunk Houghton , Vince 's cellmate and a former country and western singer . He teaches Vince to improve his guitar skills , and after his release from jail becomes Vince 's assistant . Shaughnessy was known for his role as Leva in From Here to Eternity ( 1953 ) . He was also a comedian ; Variety reported before the production of the film that during one of his shows in Omaha , Nebraska , Shaughnessy performed a forty @-@ five @-@ minute routine that derided Presley . Elaine Dundy , author of the book Elvis and Gladys ( 1985 ) , considered that his casting was an " odd choice " , and a product of Berman 's disinterest and his decision to delegate the casting of the actors .
Vaughn Taylor as Mr. Shores , an attorney whom Vince and Peggy hire to manage Vince 's financial affairs .
Jennifer Holden as Sherry Wilson , a starlet of Climax Studios and Vince 's co @-@ star . The movie was Holden 's debut ; she auditioned for the role at MGM in May 1956 and was selected immediately for the role . She studied drama with Lillian Roth and participated in a small role in a play at the Palace Theatre in New York City .
Dean Jones as Teddy Talbot , a disc jockey who plays Vince 's debut record as a favor to Peggy . Jones himself was formerly a blues singer , and he was coached for the role by disc jockeys Ira Cooke and Dewey Phillips .
" Jailhouse Rock " co @-@ writer Mike Stoller ( of the Leiber and Stoller songwriting partnership ) and Presley 's regular band during that period — Scotty Moore , Bill Black and D. J. Fontana — appeared as Vince 's band throughout the film , but were uncredited .
= = Production = =
Jailhouse Rock was Presley 's third film and his first for MGM . It was filmed at the MGM studios in Culver City , California . Filmed in black @-@ and @-@ white , the film was the first production that MGM filmed with the recently developed 35 mm anamorphic lens by Panavision . The film was originally titled The Hard Way , which was changed to Jailhouse Kid before MGM finally settled on Jailhouse Rock . It was not listed with the studio 's planned releases for the year , which it published in Variety magazine , because it was based on an original story by Nedrick Young , a blacklisted writer . In addition , the studio traditionally did not produce any original scripts that were not adaptations of already @-@ successful works such as books or theater plays . During the production of the movie , Pandro Berman 's attention was centered on another of his productions , the 1958 film The Brothers Karamazov . He let the head of the studio , Benny Thau , and Abe Lastfogel , president of the William Morris Agency , decide the cast . Richard Thorpe , who had the reputation of quickly finishing his projects , was chosen to direct the film .
The first scene to be filmed was the title dance sequence to the song " Jailhouse Rock " . Brett Farmer places the " orgasmic gyrations " of the dance sequence within a lineage of cinematic musical numbers that offer a " spectacular eroticization , if not homoeroticization , of the male image " ; it has often been cited as Presley 's greatest moment on screen . Alex Romero , who created moves inspired by Fred Astaire and Gene Kelly , choreographed the sequence . Presley was not convinced by Romero 's initial choreography , so Romero played some music and asked Presley to dance , using his own moves to choreograph the final sequence . Impressed with the dance sequence , Kelly himself applauded one of the rehearsals during a visit to the set .
Shooting of the film began on May 13 , 1957 , with the newly created choreography . Presley 's characteristic hairstyle and sideburns were covered with a wig and makeup for the scenes in musical number and those set in the jail . During the performance , one of Presley 's dental caps fell out and became lodged in his lung . He was taken to the Cedars of Lebanon Hospital , where he spent the night after the cap was removed . Shooting was resumed the next day . Throughout the film , Presley mimed the songs , which had been previously recorded in the studio and were added to the finished scenes . Thorpe , who usually filmed scenes in a single take , finished the rest of the movie by June 17 , 1957 . Jailhouse Rock was Judy Tyler 's last film ; she died in an automobile accident that also killed her husband two weeks after shooting was completed . Presley , moved by the death of his co @-@ star , did not attend the film premiere .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
Before the production began , rock ' n ' roll songwriting partners Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller were commissioned to create the film 's soundtrack . The writers , who accepted the work , did not send any material to MGM for months . In April 1957 , the studio called a meeting with the writers in New York City to be updated on the progress of the work . Leiber and Stoller , who had not written any material , traveled to New York where , instead of working , they toured the city . They were confronted in their hotel room by Jean Aberbach , director of Hill & Range music publishing company , who asked to see the songs . When he was told that there was no material , Aberbach decided to lock the songwriters in their hotel room by blocking the door with a sofa . Aberbach told them that they would not leave the room until they had created the material . Four hours later , Leiber and Stoller had written " I Want to Be Free " , " Treat Me Nice " , " ( You 're So Square ) Baby I Don 't Care " , and " Jailhouse Rock " .
Presley recorded the finished songs at Radio Recorders in Hollywood on April 30 and May 3 , 1957 , with an additional session at the MGM soundstage in Hollywood on May 9 for " Don 't Leave Me Now " . Leiber and Stoller were invited to the recording session of April 30 , where they met Presley . During the session , Stoller helped Presley with the song " Treat Me Nice " and taught him , using a piano , the method he should use while recording the song . Presley was impressed by Stoller and convinced MGM to cast him as the band 's pianist in the film .
The following songs in the film were performed by Elvis unless otherwise noted :
" One More Day " ( Sid Tepper , Roy C. Bennett ) – performed by Mickey Shaughnessy
" Young and Beautiful " ( Abner Silver , Aaron Schroeder )
" I Want to Be Free " ( Jerry Leiber , Mike Stoller )
" Don 't Leave Me Now " ( Aaron Schroeder , Ben Weisman )
" Treat Me Nice " ( Jerry Leiber , Mike Stoller )
" Jailhouse Rock " ( Jerry Leiber , Mike Stoller ) – dance routine was also choreographed by Elvis Presley
" ( You 're So Square ) Baby I Don 't Care " ( Jerry Leiber , Mike Stoller ) - Presley also played electric bass
= = Release = =
Jailhouse Rock premiered on October 17 , 1957 , at Loews State Theater in Memphis , Tennessee . It opened nationally on November 8 .
= = = Box Office = = =
The film peaked at number 3 on the Variety box office chart , and reached number 14 for the year at the box office .
According to MGM records the film earned $ 3 @.@ 2 million in the US and Canada and $ 1 @,@ 075 @,@ 000 elsewhere during its initial theatrical run , resulting in a profit of $ 1 @,@ 051 @,@ 000 .
In 1957 , Presley was ranked the fourth leading box office commodity in the film industry . According to Variety , by 1969 , Jailhouse Rock 's gross income in the United States and Canada was comparable to that of The Wizard of Oz ( 1939 ) .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Despite the success in the box office , Jailhouse Rock earned mixed reviews from critics . It was looked upon as scandalous once it was released because it portrayed Vince Everett as an anti @-@ heroic character , presented a convict as a hero , used the word " hell " as a profanity , and included a scene showing Presley in bed with co @-@ star Tyler . The Parent @-@ Teacher Association described the movie as " a hackneyed , blown @-@ up tale with cheap human values . " The New York Times criticized Guy Trosper for writing a screenplay where the secondary characters whom Mickey Shaughnessey and Judy Tyler acted out were " forced to hang on to the hero 's flying mane and ego for the entire picture . " Cue magazine called the film " [ an ] unpleasant , mediocre and tasteless drama . "
Some publications criticized Presley . Time criticized his onstage personality , while The Miami News compared the film with horror movies , and said , " Only Elvis Presley and his ' Jailhouse Rock ' can keep pace with the movie debut of this ' personality , ' the records show . In estimating the lasting appeal of their grotesque performer . " Jazz magazine Down Beat said Presley 's acting was " amateurish and bland . " British magazine The Spectator described Presley 's evolution from his " silly " performance in Loving You to " dangerously near being repulsive . "
Other reviewers responded positively to the film . Louise Boyca of the The Schenectady Gazette wrote that " it 's dear Elvis that gets the soft focus camera and the arty photography . " Boyca remarked upon the low production costs of the film , and said that Presley was " in top singing and personality form . " The Gadsden Times said , " Elvis Presley not only proves himself as a dramatic actor ... but also reveals his versatility by dancing on the screen for the first time . The movie ... also contains Elvis ' unique style of singing . " Look favored the movie , describing the reception of an audience in a Los Angeles theater that " registered , loud and often , its approval of what may accurately be described as the star 's first big dramatic singing role . "
Author Thomas Doherty wrote in his 2002 book Teenagers and Teenpics : The Juvenalization of American Movies in the 1950s : " In Jailhouse Rock , the treatment of rock ' n ' roll music , both as narrative content and as cinematic performance is knowing and respectful ... The elaborate choreography for the title tune , the long takes and uninterrupted screen time given to the other numbers , and the musical pacing — the rock ' n ' roll builds in quality and intensity — all show an indigenous appreciation of Presley 's rock ' n ' Roll . " Critic Hal Erickson of AllRovi wrote that the film " is a perfect balance of song and story from beginning to end " . Mark Deming , also a critic for AllRovi , wrote that Jailhouse Rock it was " one of [ Presley 's ] few vehicles which really caught his raw , sexy energy and sneering charisma on film . "
= = = Accolades = = =
In 1991 , Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller were awarded with an ASCAP Award for Most Performed Feature Film Standards for the song " Jailhouse Rock " . In 2004 , Jailhouse Rock was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry , as it was deemed " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant . " The film is famous for the dance sequence ( also choreographed by Presley ) in which Presley sings the title track while on stage , cavorting with other " inmates " through a set which resembles a block of jail cells . The sequence is widely acknowledged as the most memorable musical scene in Presley 's 30 narrative movies , and is credited by music historians as the prototype for the modern music video . Jailhouse Rock ranked 495th on Empire 's 2008 list of the 500 greatest movies of all time . The review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an overall 79 % " Fresh " approval rating based on 14 reviews , with a rating average of 6 @.@ 9 out of 10 .
= Blaine Anderson =
Blaine Devon Anderson is a fictional character from the American musical comedy @-@ drama television series Glee . Played by Darren Criss , Blaine was introduced in the sixth episode of the second season as the openly gay lead singer of the Dalton Academy Warblers , a rival show choir to New Directions , the show 's primary musical group . Blaine initially served as a mentor for New Directions member Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) . Chemistry between the two , combined with fan support for the couple , led series co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy to pair them romantically . Their relationship has been well received by critics , and they have been named " one of the most beloved TV couples of the millennium " by Jarett Wieselman of the New York Post . At the beginning of the third season , Blaine transfers to McKinley High and joins New Directions ; concurrently , Criss was promoted from recurring guest star to the show 's main cast .
Criss auditioned for Glee several times before being cast as Blaine , including for the lead role of Finn Hudson . He believed he would be ill @-@ suited to that character , but identifies with Blaine , having been raised among the " gay community " . He plays Blaine as charismatic and confident , and finds his youthful self @-@ acceptance a fitting counterpoint to common media portrayals of gay characters .
As the Warblers ' lead vocalist and subsequent New Directions member , Blaine has performed a number of songs on the television series . His first , a cover version of " Teenage Dream " by Katy Perry , became the fastest @-@ selling Glee single , reached number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 , and was certified gold in the U.S. Tracks by the Warblers have sold over 1 @.@ 3 million copies . The songs became popular enough to warrant a Warbler soundtrack album , Glee : The Music Presents the Warblers . Blaine has received mostly positive reviews from critics ; Criss has been awarded a Rising Star accolade from the Gay and Lesbian Entertainment Critics Association for his portrayal . While the Blaine – Kurt ( " Klaine " ) relationship has been met with acclaim , an episode storyline in which Blaine questioned his sexuality attracted negative reviews for undermining his previous characterization as a confident gay teenager .
= = Storylines = =
= = = Season 2 = = =
Blaine Anderson is introduced in the episode " Never Been Kissed " as the lead soloist of the Dalton Academy Warblers a cappella musical group . He meets Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) , a member of the rival glee club New Directions . When Kurt asks if Blaine is gay , Blaine matter @-@ of @-@ factly says he is ; Kurt tells Blaine that he is being bullied at school for being gay , and Blaine reveals that he too was harassed at his old school , so he transferred to Dalton Academy , which enforces a no @-@ bullying policy . Blaine befriends Kurt , and helps him stand up to his tormentor , Dave Karofsky ( Max Adler ) . When the threats and violence against Kurt reach a dangerous level , he transfers to Dalton Academy . He falls in love with Blaine , who is initially oblivious to Kurt 's feelings even as their friendship grows . Blaine enlists Kurt 's help to serenade his crush Jeremiah ( Alexander Nifong ) , the assistant manager at a local Gap store . Jeremiah is subsequently fired and rebuffs Blaine . Kurt confesses his feelings , and Blaine tells Kurt that he cares for him , but is terrible at romance and does not want to risk damaging their friendship .
Kurt and Blaine attend a party hosted by New Directions co @-@ captain Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) . The attendees play spin the bottle , which results in Rachel and Blaine kissing . In the aftermath , Blaine wonders whether he might be bisexual , and goes on a date with Rachel . When she kisses him again while they are both sober , he concludes that he is indeed gay , which relieves Kurt .
After learning of Kurt ’ s ignorance of sexual matters , Blaine visits Kurt 's father , Burt ( Mike O 'Malley ) , and prompts him to give Kurt " the talk " about sex . As the Warblers prepare to perform at the Regional show choir competition , Kurt admits that he is jealous of how many solos Blaine gets . At a subsequent group meeting , Kurt arrives late and announces that the group 's mascot canary is dead ; he sings " Blackbird " in honor of the bird . While Kurt is singing , Blaine has a revelation , and later tells Kurt that he reciprocates his feelings and kisses him . At Regionals , the two sing a duet of " Candles " by Hey Monday . The Warblers lose to New Directions , but while Kurt is very disappointed , Blaine tells him that even though they lost , in reality , they won each other which makes losing Regionals worth it . After Kurt transfers back to McKinley , he invites Blaine to be his date at his junior prom in " Prom Queen " ; both are shocked when Kurt wins Prom Queen due to having received an overwhelming number of unwanted write @-@ in votes in the secret balloting . Karofsky , the Prom King , leaves to avoid dancing with a guy in the traditional dance between King and Queen , and Kurt dances with Blaine instead . After Kurt returns from Nationals in New York , he and Blaine admit their love for one another .
= = = Season 3 = = =
In the first episode of the third season , " The Purple Piano Project " , Blaine transfers to McKinley High at the beginning of his junior year to be closer to Kurt , who is a senior , and joins New Directions . He later auditions for the role of Bernardo in the school musical West Side Story , so as not to compete against Kurt who wants to play the male lead , Tony , but is cast as Tony himself . In the episode " The First Time " , Blaine is pursued by Sebastian Smythe ( Grant Gustin ) , a new Dalton Academy Warbler . Kurt and Blaine meet up with Sebastian at a gay bar , Blaine gets drunk , and afterward tries to get Kurt to have sex with him in the car . Kurt refuses , they have a fight , and Blaine decides to walk home . After the West Side Story opening night , they apologize to each other , and decide to go to Blaine 's house . They are later shown in bed together , apparently having just had sex for the first time . When New Directions and the Warblers informally compete in " Michael " to determine which club can perform Michael Jackson 's music at the upcoming show choir Regionals , Sebastian throws a slushie containing rock salt at Kurt , but Blaine interposes himself and is hit in the eye ; his cornea is badly scratched and requires surgery . His eye heals , and he is back in time for New Directions to defeat the Warblers at Regionals . Blaine 's older brother Cooper ( Matt Bomer ) , a successful actor in commercials , visits Ohio , and the two achieve a rapprochement . Blaine 's relationship with Kurt is later strained when Kurt text @-@ flirts with a boy he met while preparing for his NYADA audition , and by Kurt 's eagerness to leave for New York after graduation , which would separate the two at least until Blaine graduated the following year . The two patch things up , the glee club wins at Nationals , and the pair is still a couple at the end of the school year , though Blaine is still uneasy about the prolonged physical separation facing them .
= = = Season 4 = = =
In the first episode of the fourth season , " The New Rachel " , Blaine becomes the lead singer of New Directions and successfully prompts Kurt to follow his New York City dreams . In addition , Blaine successfully runs for senior class president with Sam ( Chord Overstreet ) , and the two subsequently develop a friendship . Kurt inadvertently pulls away from Blaine due to his Vogue.com internship ; distraught and feeling isolated from his friends , Blaine cheats on Kurt . After confessing to Kurt of his infidelity , Kurt severs all ties . New Directions ' Nationals trophy is stolen by Hunter Clarington ( Nolan Gerard Funk ) , the new captain of the Dalton Academy Warblers . When Blaine goes to Dalton Academy to retrieve it , Hunter and Sebastian attempt to seduce Blaine into returning to the Warblers . Blaine becomes conflicted , believing that he does not belong in New Directions . Sam ultimately convinces him that , despite having done a bad thing to Kurt , Blaine is still a good person and an important member of New Directions .
Kurt begins to mend their relationship in " Thanksgiving " , just before New Directions loses at Sectionals to the Warblers , and they spend Christmas together in New York City . Though he and Kurt continue to be on good terms , Blaine finds himself developing a crush on his best friend , Sam , which he knows will come to nothing as he knows Sam is not gay ; the two of them team up to find evidence that the Warblers cheated at Sectionals , which means New Directions will be competing at Regionals . He ends up going to the Sadie Hawkins dance with Tina Cohen @-@ Chang ( Jenna Ushkowitz ) , who has developed a crush on him , but as friends only . When Kurt comes to Lima for the wedding of glee club director Will ( Matthew Morrison ) and Emma ( Jayma Mays ) — which Emma flees — he and Blaine make out beforehand , and sleep together afterward , though they do not resume a permanent relationship .
Blaine had briefly joined the Cheerios when it looked like New Directions would be disbanding after their Sectionals loss , and cheerleading coach Sue ( Jane Lynch ) blackmails Blaine into rejoining ; Blaine and Sam hatch up a plan to bring Sue down from the inside . Blaine eventually confesses to Sam that he has feelings for him , to which Sam assures him that he is somewhat flattered by Blaine 's honesty and attraction , and that it would not change the fact that Blaine is still Sam 's best friend . Blaine still loves Kurt and asks Burt for his permission to propose to Kurt , but Burt tells him they 're too young to marry , and advises him to wait . Blaine remains determined , however , and while shopping for a ring , he meets Jan ( Patty Duke ) , a lesbian jeweler who has been with her partner Liz ( Meredith Baxter ) for over thirty years . Jan offers to be a mentor to him , and Blaine and Kurt later have dinner with Jan and Liz , where Jan and Liz explain how their relationship evolved over the years and their experience with the growing mainstream acceptance of gay people . New Directions wins at Regionals , and Will and Emma get married immediately afterward , with the glee club , plus some graduates including Kurt , in attendance . Blaine is shown , after the ceremony is over , holding a jewelry box behind his back .
= = = Season 5 = = =
In the season premiere , " Love Love Love " , Blaine and Kurt agree to be boyfriends again . Blaine still wants to marry Kurt , and stages an elaborate and successful marriage proposal at Dalton Academy where he and Kurt first met , accompanied by New Directions , and all their rival show choir groups , including the Warblers . He auditions for NYADA and is accepted . New Directions comes in second at Nationals , and is disbanded by Sue for not being champions . Blaine graduates as class valedictorian , and then moves to New York to be with Kurt . They start off living together , but though they remain engaged , Blaine ultimately moves out because the two of them realize they still need their own space . The relationship between them goes through rocky patches , including Blaine 's insecurity when Kurt becomes popular at school , and when an influential socialite and NYADA supporter hears Blaine perform and takes an interest in his future career , though she is not impressed by Kurt and ultimately tries to break them up , though she fails and ultimately supports them both . Their engagement is strengthened by having weathered these storms , and Blaine moves back in with Kurt .
= = = Season 6 = = =
Blaine returns to Lima after Kurt ended their engagement , having become so despondent that his schoolwork suffered and he was cut by NYADA . He becomes the coach of the Dalton Academy Warblers , and begins dating Dave Karofsky after a chance encounter at the local gay bar . Kurt , having realized he still loves Blaine and regretting that he ended the engagement , arranges for his NYADA off @-@ campus semester to be in Lima , helping Rachel to coach a reinstated New Directions — Will had left McKinley High to coach Vocal Adrenaline . Unfortunately , by the time he arrives , Blaine and Karofsky are already a couple , and there is further strain between Kurt and Blaine as coaches of rival show choirs . In " The Hurt Locker , Part Two " , Sue , who " ships Klaine " and is desperate for Kurt and Blaine to reunite , locks them both in a fake elevator and refuses to let them leave until they kiss . After resisting for a great many hours , Blaine and Kurt share a passionate kiss , but do not reunite afterward . In " Transitioning " , Blaine sings a duet with Kurt , " Somebody Loves You " , and afterward , kisses Kurt . The following day , Blaine , knowing that he is still in love with Kurt , breaks up with Karofsky ; however , Kurt is still seeing an older man , Walter . In " A Wedding " , Kurt tells Walter that he is going to Brittany and Santana 's wedding with Blaine , not him , and on Walter 's advice , returns to Blaine ; the two again become a couple . At the wedding , Brittany insists that Kurt and Blaine get married alongside her and Santana . Though skeptical at first , Kurt and Blaine agree and get married , with Burt officiating the joint ceremony . Dalton Academy burns down in " The Rise and Fall of Sue Sylvester " , and the Warblers who transfer to McKinley are accepted into New Directions , with Blaine joining Rachel and Kurt as the coaches of the combined glee club . In the series finale , " Dreams Come True " , after New Directions wins Nationals , Blaine and Kurt leave for New York , with Blaine attending NYU and Kurt returning to NYADA along with a reinstated Rachel . The episode jumps ahead to 2020 , and Blaine and Kurt are shown to be actors and a celebrity married couple ; they also visit schools to entertain and talk about acceptance . Rachel , who is married to Jesse , is pregnant with Blaine and Kurt 's child .
= = Development = =
= = = Casting and creation = = =
Blaine is portrayed by actor Darren Criss , who had auditioned for Glee several times for several roles before the character Blaine was created . He originally auditioned to play Finn Hudson . Criss made several audition videos for Glee , of which he posted only one to the social networking website MySpace where he sang a cover of Bill Withers ' song Lean on Me . Although the series writers have seen them , he considers them supplemental to his main audition , which was for series creator Ryan Murphy . Murphy had not seen any of Criss 's previous auditions , but knew he was the right actor for Blaine as soon as he saw this one . The actor cut his long hair before auditioning , to suit the " serious and preppy " role .
Prior to the production of season two , rumors circulated that upcoming episodes would feature a love interest for Kurt . Initial fan and media speculation suggested that Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) was created to fill this role ; however , according to Overstreet , Sam 's storyline quickly paired him with Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) as a result of the chemistry the producers detected between him and Agron . In September 2010 , it was confirmed that Criss would join the show in a " much @-@ talked @-@ about new gay role " . Media speculation suggested that Blaine would be Kurt 's new love interest . His original character description was : " a cute and charismatic gay student from a rival Glee club named the Dalton Academy Warblers — will maintain a strictly platonic friendship with McKinley High 's most out and proud pupil . But could that change as the season progresses ? Yes , it could . " Murphy stated that Blaine 's arc would be a significant one . He explained , " He sort of becomes Kurt 's mentor and then maybe love [ ... ] Kurt really admires him and respects him . "
Following his first few appearances , it was reported that Criss had been confirmed as a series regular for the remainder of season two and for season three of Glee . This was based on comments by Murphy , who said : " Darren has become such a sensation in one week , which I love . I think there 's a hunger for him and a positive relationship role model . He ’ ll definitely continue through the year and longer . " However , the actor later denied that his role had been upgraded and said : " It 's never really been officially confirmed to me . I think the option is there and that they want to keep Blaine around . " Murphy revealed that Blaine may join New Directions during the third season . Criss hoped that this would not come to pass , as he enjoys being at Dalton Academy , but conceded : " it 's not my call . I 'm happy to serve whatever story they want . " For the third season of Glee , Criss was promoted to a series regular , and Blaine did join New Directions when he transferred to McKinley High to be with Kurt .
= = = Characterization = = =
Upon Blaine 's first appearance , Criss described his character as being a " very charismatic , put @-@ together , composed guy . " He stated that although Blaine is gay , he is not " overly queeny , and not too butch either , " and that while his sexuality is a " huge part of who he is " , it is not a major facet of how he wishes to be perceived . Due to similarities which stem from their shared sexuality , Blaine " sees a lot of himself in Kurt , in terms of experiences and the way they feel about the world around them . He feels the need to impart his knowledge , be a source of strength for him , and really help him through what he 's going through . " Initially , Criss felt that the most important element of his character was to give Kurt " someone he can relate to " , and demonstrate that Kurt could have " a young out male friend , a support system " .
Criss discussed his personal connection with Blaine in an interview with Vanity Fair . He explained that he grew up among the " gay community " , being with theater performers , so was raised without a concept of sexuality being an issue . Criss stated that , although he identifies as straight , " it really doesn 't come into play with me in this role . As an actor , your objective is always to play the scene . And this in case , he happens to be a gay teen . " Talk show host and media personality Ellen DeGeneres deemed Blaine " a very confident gay teen , which is something you don 't see much on television . " However , Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times assessed that " despite the image he projects , he , too , is just a kid trying to figure things out as he goes along . " Criss feels that Blaine 's confidence is an important aspect of his character , as it is rare for gay teenagers on television to be so " sure of themselves . " He hopes that " all the kids struggling with this issue can look to a guy like Blaine and feel [ inspired ] by his confidence . "
= = = Relationships = = =
The Kurt – Blaine relationship , sometimes referred to by the portmanteau " Klaine " by Glee fans and the media , developed slowly . As the series showrunner , Murphy felt tasked with keeping the two apart as long as possible . He was initially unsure whether the relationship would become a romantic one , and intended to gauge public response to their friendship before planning future developments . He commented , " Part of me thinks he should be the boyfriend , part of me thinks he should just be the mentor . I didn 't want to decide that until we got into sort of the middle of the season . " In December 2010 , Colfer said , " Fans really want it to happen . It 's funny how many people want to see these boys hook up . We 'll see . " Based on the characters ' chemistry and the " immediate outcry " from fans who wanted to see them as a couple , Murphy decided to have Blaine become Kurt 's love interest . Criss noted : " We all want to see Kurt happy , and like all great love stories , if you have two people that can be together you 've got to hold it up . "
Considering Blaine and Kurt 's potential future together , Murphy planned to treat them the same as all other Glee relationships , by making their pairing " as flawed and as exposed as everyone else 's . " This sentiment was re @-@ iterated by executive producer Brad Falchuk , after the characters kissed for the first time . He revealed that their relationship would not run smoothly , and observed that once couples start dating , " Everything goes to hell . " Colfer suggested that Kurt returning to McKinley may cause difficulties in their relationship , but noted " Distance makes the heart grow fonder , right ? That ’ s what they tell me . So even if they do go through some bumps in the road , it would be very realistic . " In a Q & A with Billboard on the day " Born This Way " ran with Kurt 's McKinley return , Criss stated that Blaine and Kurt were " in the honeymoon stages " of their relationship , and would still be " at the end of the [ second ] season " .
In a July 2012 interview with E ! News , Colfer said , " I would like to do something besides say ' I love you , ' and I think Darren [ Criss ] and I agree on that . We 're ready for the next step . They 've been together for a while . Let 's throw some spice and drama into that . " Colfer quipped that he did not know what was in store for the couple , " I hear mixed things . I hear they 're still together but then maybe they 're breaking up . " In September 2012 , Criss seconded Colfer , " We 're like an old married couple now . Let 's shake it up ! "
In the second season episode " Sexy " , Blaine reveals he has a strained relationship with his father .
= = Musical performances = =
As Blaine , Criss features in many musical performances , which have been released as singles , available for download . His first performance , " Teenage Dream " by Katy Perry , was featured on the soundtrack album Glee : The Music , Volume 4 . It reached number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 in the week ending November 27 , 2010 , and was the best @-@ selling song in the U.S. that week , selling 214 @,@ 000 copies : the largest figure for a Glee title . It was only the second U.S.-certified gold single in the show 's history . Both Billboard 's Jillian Mapes and Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone deemed " Teenage Dream " the best song of " Never Been Kissed " , the episode in which it featured . The Daily News 's Anthony Benigno gave the song an " A " , and noted that it was " flawless " and improved on Perry 's original . The performance was nominated for the Best Gay Moment of the Year and Favorite Music Video awards at the 2010 AfterElton.com Visibility Awards . A Billboard cover @-@ feature on Criss noted that the performance " arguably ushered in the trend of more current pop hits being reworked by the [ Glee ] cast . "
Later songs performed by Blaine and the Warblers became popular enough to warrant a Warbler soundtrack album , Glee : The Music Presents the Warblers . The tracks had sold over 1 @.@ 3 million copies as singles by the time the album was released . Blaine performed the lead vocal on covers of Train 's " Hey , Soul Sister " , which peaked at number 32 in Canada , " Bills , Bills , Bills " by Destiny 's Child , which reached number 44 in the U.S. , and Robin Thicke 's " When I Get You Alone " , which got to number 47 on the Billboard Hot 100 . Criss downplayed his performance of " Bills , Bills , Bills " , and jested that he ought to issue the group 's lead singer , Beyoncé Knowles , an apology for his cover . Blaine also led on " Silly Love Songs " by Wings , and Maroon 5 's " Misery " , which reached 45 and 52 respectively in the U.S. , and Pink 's " Raise Your Glass " , which peaked at number 30 in Australia .
Blaine duetted with Kurt on Frank Loesser 's " Baby , It 's Cold Outside " , which was included on Glee : The Music , The Christmas Album and reached number 53 in Canada . It was reportedly the most downloaded track of the album , and called " by far the gayest thing that has ever been on TV " by Colfer . Murphy expressed his pride in the number for " push [ ing ] the envelope a bit . " Jessica Ronayne of Zap2it called the duet one of the Christmas episode 's few saving graces . Blaine and Kurt also duetted on Neon Trees ' " Animal " and Hey Monday 's " Candles " , which peaked at 62 and 71 in the U.S. respectively . In an April 2011 interview , Criss stated that he did not feel established enough within the cast to make song suggestions , but had mentioned liking " Animal " to Murphy , who included it in a script soon thereafter . Blaine shared a duet of " Don 't You Want Me " by The Human League with Rachel , which Reiter deemed a musical highlight of the episode " Blame It on the Alcohol " . It was included on Glee : The Music , Volume 5 , and peaked at number 44 in Australia .
Over the course of the season , Blaine 's musical performances leading the Warblers became so prevalent that he was called out for it on @-@ screen . Criss offered the insight : " Blaine definitely had his moment in the sun . I think it 's time to focus back on the characters that fans of the show really know and love . Completely objectively from watching the show , I was like , ' Why does Blaine get all these songs ? This is ridiculous . I want to hear other people doing stuff . ' I think we 're focusing a little more back on New Directions and taking a little bit of a break from the Warblers . "
In the first episode of season three of Glee , " The Purple Piano Project " , Blaine sings " It 's Not Unusual " by Tom Jones when he transfers to McKinley and quits the Warblers for New Directions . After successfully auditioning later in the season for the school 's production of West Side Story with " Something 's Coming " from the musical , he sings " Tonight " in rehearsal and " One Hand , One Heart " in performance , both with his co @-@ star Rachel . He sings lead or co @-@ lead on several songs with New Directions , including " Last Friday Night ( T.G.I.F. ) " ; " Perfect " and " Let It Snow ! Let It Snow ! Let It Snow ! " with Kurt ; " Control " and " Man in the Mirror " with Artie and others ; and his first original song , the duet " Extraordinary Merry Christmas " , with Rachel .
In special tribute episode to Michael Jackson , " Michael " , Blaine sings " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " . Futterman wrote that Blaine 's " slick showmanship " made him a " natural for lead vocals " , and TVLine 's Michael Slezak called it " the best use of Darren Criss ' voice on Glee in quite some time " and gave it an " A − " . Entertainment Weekly 's Joseph Brannigan Lynch also gave it an " A − " , and said Criss " captured the excitement and the spunky bravado of the original " . MTV 's Kevin P. Sullivan was another fan of " the sheer awesomeness of Darren Criss " on the song , and characterized it as " a tribute that 's more respectful than any other in the episode " . In the fourteenth episode of the third season , " On My Way " , Blaine performs " Cough Syrup " by Young the Giant , which is sung during the Dave Karofsky suicide sequence . Futterman said Blaine " flawlessly deliver [ ed ] the vocal " . Lynch called it a " chilling rendition " that was " hard to shake " and gave it an " A − " , the same grade given by Slezak , who wrote , " taken on its own , Blaine 's vocal was strong and passionate — perhaps better than the original " . Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle said it was the " best " of the episode , and added that the " scene was really , really well done and carried maximum emotional punch " . In the following episode , " Big Brother " , Blaine shares a duet of Gotye 's " Somebody That I Used to Know " with his brother Cooper ( Matt Bomer ) . Crystal Bell of HuffPost TV called it the " highlight of the episode " , and it was Hankinson 's favorite performance : " Bomer and Criss did a fantastic job bringing it to life " . Futterman said that " it was initially disconcerting to envision " two brothers singing about a " former love " , but she noted that it " was less weird in context " . In its first week , the cover sold 152 @,@ 000 digital downloads in the US , and was number twenty @-@ six on the Billboard Hot 100 .
= = Reception = =
Blaine has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . Ellen DeGeneres praised Criss 's portrayal , and described him as one of Glee 's breakout stars . Entertainment Weekly named him one of the breakout stars of 2010 , with the comment : " It took about 2 minutes and 11 seconds on Glee for Darren Criss to turn into a bona fide Gleek phenomenon . [ ... ] And it doesn 't hurt that his character Blaine 's warm relationship with the show 's other openly gay character , Chris Colfer 's Kurt , continues to resonate with fans . " In November 2010 , the publication also named Criss the series ' best guest @-@ star to date , and praised him for " seamlessly entering the fold with his charm and great voice . " Ronayne deemed him " a much better addition to the show than Chord Overstreet " . Following his Glee debut , Criss won the We 're Wilde About You Rising Star Award at the 2011 Dorian Awards , presented by the Gay and Lesbian Entertainment Critics Association . He also won the 2011 Teen Choice Award for Choice TV Breakout Star .
Indecision over his sexuality in the episode " Blame It on the Alcohol " drew some negative reviews of Blaine . Reiter noted that , " So much of Blaine 's charm has been his certainty about who he is . " Though she found his subplot with Rachel " fun " , she commented : " Blaine 's overwrought speech in the coffee shop after Rachel asks him out just felt off @-@ key . Saying ' bye ' to the Blaine sexual @-@ confusion storyline wouldn 't make us angry at all . " Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club also criticised the storyline , which , he wrote , " seemed like it might be an interesting , complicated look at teenage sexuality and how it can seem formed but might be more fluid than most teens would give it credit for , then lost its nerve and took the easy way out . " AfterElton.com 's Chris O 'Guinn felt that the only aspect of the storyline handled acceptably was Blaine questioning whether he was bisexual , rather than outright straight . He criticized the shallow examination of his feelings , and wrote : " Bisexuality is such a contentious issue that it should not be fumbled this way . For a character to say ' maybe I 'm bi ' in one scene and then the next say , ' nope , definitely gay ' is almost cruel in how dismissive it is toward bisexuals by trivializing the intense confusion that many bisexual people feel in coming to terms with their orientation . " In a more positive review , Canning opined that Blaine and Kurt 's conversation about sexuality was " great " . He was " glad it wasn 't an easy talk for either of them " and said that it " felt very real for kids in this situation . "
Blaine and Kurt 's relationship has been generally well received . They were named Favorite TV Couple at the 2010 AfterElton.com Visibility Awards , and have been lauded for " leading the way " in representing gay teenagers on television by Entertainment Weekly . Jarett Wieselman of the New York Post referred to them as " one of the most beloved TV couples of the millennium " . When they " finally solidified what their relationship actually is " in the episode " Silly Love Songs " , IGN 's Robert Canning noted that his opinion of Blaine improved . He commented : " I love that the [ serenading of Jeremiah ] blew up in Blaine 's face . The character has always come off to me as annoyingly arrogant , but " Silly Love Songs " humanized the guy . Guess I may have to like him now . " Their first kiss , in the episode " Original Song " , was met with critical acclaim . Mark Perigard of The Boston Herald wrote , " It was utterly , sweetly romantic , and Criss sold the hell out of the moment . It 's long overdue and it will silence the growing legion of critics out there who were unhappy with the pace of this story . " Entertainment Weekly 's Mandi Bierly was so impressed with the scene that she was initially concerned it may be a dream sequence , " because we don 't get romantic , unapologetic first kisses like that between young gay characters on network TV . " She wrote , " Relationships aren 't easy . They ’ ll make mistakes . But if they stay true to themselves , and continue to be as open and honest with each other , we 're in for something special . " Kevin Fallon of The Atlantic thought the kiss was " sweet " , and stated that he was pleased that it attracted no controversy whatsoever . Aly Semigran of MTV praised the interaction between Blaine and Kurt . She called the kiss scene a " sweet , real and , shockingly , un @-@ hyped moment " , and praised Criss and Colfer for " handl [ ing ] it with dignity and honesty " .
While Lesley Goldberg of The Hollywood Reporter was pleased Blaine 's season three transfer to McKinley in the first episode increased Criss ' screen time with Colfer and the New Directions cast , she stated that the move " screams of co @-@ dependency . " In contrast , Entertainment Weekly 's Abby West found it romantic , and noted : " Blaine and Kurt , with their budding love and witty , pseudo @-@ urbane ways , are my favorite couple to watch . ... I look forward to hearing [ Blaine ] sing more , watching him bump up against the insular Glee clubbers , and seeing him show off his non @-@ uniform attire . Several reviewers were unhappy with the second episode 's revelation that Blaine was a junior , not a senior like Kurt , as had been implied in the previous season . VanDerWerff wrote that Blaine " seems to have simultaneously gotten younger and had a complete personality transplant over the summer " , Billboard 's Rae Votta noted " the continuity @-@ bending plot point that he 's somehow a Junior and not a Senior like his boyfriend " , and Samantha Urban of The Dallas Morning News allowed her exasperation to show : " Oh really , Glee ? Blaine 's a junior ? Blaine 's younger than Kurt ? Fine . FINE . "
Kurt and Blaine make the decision to have sex for the first time in " The First Time " episode ; many critics were enthusiastic about the fact that a gay couple was being given such a storyline . Canning said that Kurt and Blaine 's " attempts to get a little wild " , and " trying to grow up faster than they should " , were " the better parts of the episode as they felt the most realistic " . Futterman praised their departure from the bar as a " very faithful and honest scene " . VanDerWerff and BuddyTV contributor John Kubicek both had issues with Blaine 's characterization . The latter asserted that he " just behaves however the writers need him to behave in order for the scene to work " , while the former said that Blaine 's season three storyline " hasn ’ t been bad by any means , but it does feel like Darren Criss is playing someone who ’ s quite a bit different from the guy he was playing last season " . Bell was impressed by the way the characters ' relationship " inspires gay youth in a way that we haven 't seen on network television yet " and called them " amazing role models for all teens " , and The Atlantic writer Kevin Fallon said it was " remarkable " and a " milestone " that " the decision by gay teen characters to lose their virginities is given equal weight to that of a straight couple " .
Discussing public response to his character , Criss stated that he particularly enjoyed comments from " people from parts of the world who are maybe not as exposed to certain ideologies " , but had reconsidered their stance on relationships and human rights as a result of the Blaine – Kurt storyline . He called this response " phenomenal " , and said : " I was a straight kid growing up in a very gay community and it 's something that I 've had to watch so many friends have to struggle with and have no place to go to identify in kind of a grander media culture . To be a small piece of that machine is incredibly wonderful . "
= Michael Walker , Baron Walker of Aldringham =
Field Marshal Michael John Dawson Walker , Baron Walker of Aldringham , GCB , CMG , CBE , DL ( born 7 July 1944 ) is a retired British Army officer . Commissioned in 1966 , he served in Cyprus , Northern Ireland , and in a variety of staff posts in the United Kingdom until 1984 . After being given command of a battalion , he was mentioned in despatches for his service during a second tour of duty in Northern Ireland , this time in Derry , and subsequently served a tour on Gibraltar . He was promoted to brigadier , unusually having never held the rank of colonel , and took command of 20th Armoured Brigade in Germany before becoming I Corps chief of staff .
As a major general , Walker was appointed General Officer Commanding , Eastern District , before becoming Assistant Chief of the Defence Staff at the Ministry of Defence . He took command of NATO 's Allied Rapid Reaction Corps ( ARRC ) , which deployed to the Balkans in 1995 , Walker becoming the first officer to command the land component of the NATO @-@ led Implementation Force . For his service with the multi @-@ national forces in the Balkans , he was awarded the American Legion of Merit . After relinquishing command of the ARRC , Walker spent three years as Commander in Chief , Land Command , before being appointed Chief of the General Staff — the professional head of the British Army — in 2000 . In 2003 , he was promoted to Chief of the Defence Staff ( CDS ) — the professional head of all the British Armed Forces . While CDS , Walker attracted controversy during the modernisation of the armed forces , over allegations of prisoner abuse during the Iraq War , and over comments that the media coverage of Iraq may have endangered British troops .
Walker retired in 2006 and was subsequently appointed Governor of the Royal Hospital Chelsea , a post he held until 2011 . He is married and has three children .
= = Early and personal life = =
Born in Salisbury in the British colony of Southern Rhodesia ( modern @-@ day Zimbabwe ) to William Hampden Dawson Walker and Dorothy Helena Walker ( née Shiach ) , Walker was educated both in Southern Rhodesia and in Yorkshire , first at Milton School , Bulawayo , and then at Woodhouse Grove School , West Yorkshire . He spent 18 months teaching in a Preparatory School before joining the British Army . Walker married Victoria ( " Tor " , née Holme ) , in 1973 and the couple have three children — two sons and one daughter . He lists his interests as sailing , shooting , tennis , skiing and golf .
= = Early military career = =
After attending the Royal Military Academy , Sandhurst , Walker was commissioned into the Royal Anglian Regiment as a second lieutenant on 29 July 1966 . He served as a platoon commander with the 1st Battalion and was promoted to lieutenant on 29 January 1968 . In 1969 he was posted to Cyprus for a two @-@ year tour , and served in Northern Ireland during The Troubles , before attending the Staff College , Camberley . He was promoted to captain on 29 July 1972 .
After serving in a staff position at the Ministry of Defence ( MoD ) , Walker was promoted to major at the end of 1976 , and rejoined 1st Battalion , to become a company commander , based in Tidworth , Wiltshire . In 1979 , he took up another staff post at the MoD , after which he was promoted to lieutenant colonel in 1982 . Until 1985 , he served as Military Assistant ( MA ) to the Chief of the General Staff . He was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the New Year Honours List in December 1984 .
In command of the 1st Battalion from 1985 to 1987 , Walker served another tour in Northern Ireland , this time in Derry , and later a tour on Gibraltar . He was mentioned in despatches in 1987 " in recognition of gallant and distinguished service " in Northern Ireland . Unusually , Walker was promoted directly to brigadier at the end of 1987 , without having held the rank of colonel . He took command of 20th Armoured Brigade , based in Germany , from 1987 to 1989 , before holding the post of Chief of Staff , I Corps between 1989 and 1991 .
= = High command = =
Walker attained general officer status with promotion to acting major general in 1991 and took command of North East District and 2nd Infantry Division . Having served in the Gulf War , he was promoted to Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) later in 1991 . He was granted the substantive rank of major general on 2 December 1991 , with seniority from 14 February 1991 , going on to serve as General Officer Commanding of the Eastern District and then as Assistant Chief of the General Staff from 11 December 1992 to 3 October 1994 .
On 8 December 1994 , Walker was appointed commander of NATO 's Allied Rapid Reaction Corps ( ARRC ) , which had its headquarters in Rheindahlen , Germany , and promoted to acting lieutenant general . He was granted the substantive rank of lieutenant general on 15 March 1995 , and knighted in the 1995 Queen 's Birthday Honours when he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath . Under Walker 's command , the ARRC deployed to the Balkans in December 1995 . There , he became the first commander of the land component of the NATO @-@ led Implementation Force ( IFOR ) , until his return to the UK in November 1996 .
His IFOR command in Bosnia was indirectly criticised by Richard Holbrooke for his refusal to use his authority to also perform nonmilitary implementation tasks , including arresting indicted war criminals :
Based on Shalikashvili 's statement at White House meetings , Christopher and I had assumed that the IFOR commander would use his authority to do substantially more than he was obligated to do . The meeting with [ Admiral Leighton ] Smith shattered that hope . Smith and his British deputy , General Michael Walker , made clear that they intended to take a minimalist approach to all aspects of implementation other than force protection . Smith signalled this in his first extensive public statement to the Bosnian people , during a live call @-@ in program on Pale Television – an odd choice for his first local media appearance .
He was appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George at the end of 1996 .
Succeeded as COMARRC by Sir Mike Jackson , Walker was promoted to acting general and appointed Commander in Chief , Land Command on 27 January 1997 . He was granted the substantive rank of general on 2 April 1997 . In recognition of his service with IFOR between 1995 and 1996 , Walker was awarded the American Legion of Merit ( Degree of Commander ) , and granted unrestricted permission to wear the decoration , in May 1997 . In September 1997 , he was appointed Aide @-@ de @-@ Camp General to Queen Elizabeth II , succeeding General Sir Michael Rose , until he in turn was succeeded by General Sir Richard Dannatt . He was promoted to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in the New Year Honours List at the end of 1999 .
Having served just over three years as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Walker was appointed Chief of the General Staff ( CGS ) — the professional head of the British Army — on 17 April 2000 , taking over from General Sir Roger Wheeler . He remained CGS for three years , after which he was promoted to Chief of the Defence Staff ( CDS ) — the professional head of all the British Armed Forces — on 2 May 2003 , succeeding Admiral Sir Michael Boyce ( later Lord Boyce ) . As CDS , Walker criticised some of the media coverage of British deployments in Iraq . In particular , he claimed that attacks on the Black Watch were " enhanced " due to news reports on their location . He went on to say that " [ as a result of the media coverage ] , there could well have been a response by those who wished us ill to go and meet us with something like a bomb " . His comments were rejected by a spokesman for the National Union of Journalists , who retaliated " When generals turn around and start blaming reporters for their own mistakes , it is a sign they aren 't doing their own jobs properly " . Also in 2004 , Walker , along with General Sir Mike Jackson , then Chief of
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the General Staff , attracted controversy over reforms of the armed forces , which included the amalgamation of several army regiments to form larger regiments , leading to the loss of historic names .
In an interview with the BBC in October 2005 , Walker suggested that the army 's recruitment had been adversely affected by the Iraq War . He also commented on the war in Afghanistan , on which he said " There 's a lot of work to be done , of which the military is only a very small part . Ten years , 15 years , long @-@ term . This is not going to be solved in a short term " . In the same month , he gave an interview for The Sunday Times , in which he said that soldiers ' morale had been damaged by the unpopularity of the war among the British public . Later in 2005 , Walker was instrumental in drawing up new procedures for the treatment of British service personnel accused of abusing Iraqi prisoners , following claims that the army had abandoned those soldiers charged in connection with the prisoner abuses . In February 2006 , Walker headed up a military delegation to Bulgaria to discuss military cooperation between the British and Bulgarian governments .
Walker gave evidence to the Iraq Inquiry on 1 February 2010 , in which he spoke about funding for the invasion of Iraq and subsequent planning .
= = = Honorary roles = = =
Lord Walker has held a variety of honorary and ceremonial roles in different regiments . He was granted the honorary titles of Colonel Commandant and Deputy Colonel of Queen 's Division ( of which the Royal Anglian Regiment is part ) in April 1992 and Honorary Colonel , 3rd Battalion Duke of Wellington 's Regiment ( West Riding ) ( Yorkshire Volunteers ) , in October 1993 , which he relinquished on 30 June 1999 . In 1994 , he succeeded General Sir John Learmont as Colonel Commandant of the Army Air Corps and held the title until April 2004 , when he was relieved by then Lieutenant General Sir Richard Dannatt ( later General Lord Dannatt ) . In 1997 , he was appointed honorary Colonel , The Royal Anglian Regiment , in succession to Major General Patrick Stone , and was himself succeeded as Deputy Colonel by Brigadier John Sutherell . Sutherell , then a major general , went on to succeed Walker as Honorary Colonel in February 2000 .
= = Retirement = =
Walker relinquished his appointment as Chief of the Defence Staff in April 2006 and retired from the Army , succeeded as CDS by Air Chief Marshal Jock Stirrup . In September 2006 , Walker was appointed Governor of the Royal Hospital Chelsea , holding the post until February 2011 when he resigned suddenly . On 24 November 2006 , it was announced that he would receive a life peerage , and , on 19 December , he was created Baron Walker of Aldringham , of Aldringham in the county of Suffolk , sitting in the House of Lords as a crossbencher . He was given the ceremonial appointment of Deputy Lieutenant of Greater London in 2007 . Walker was appointed as an honorary field marshal in the Queen 's 2014 Birthday Honours .
= = Arms = =
= Valentine 's Day ( The Office ) =
" Valentine 's Day " is the sixteenth episode of the second season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's twenty @-@ second episode overall . Written by Michael Schur and directed by Greg Daniels , the episode first aired in the United States on February 9 , 2006 on NBC . The episode guest stars Craig Anton , Andy Buckley , Charles Esten , and Conan O 'Brien as himself .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) travels to New York City to give a presentation , but accidentally tells everyone that he " hooked up " with Jan Levinson ( Melora Hardin ) . Meanwhile , the rest of the office is jealous when Phyllis Lapin 's ( Phyllis Smith ) boyfriend Bob Vance gives her several gifts . Also , Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) gives Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) a bobblehead model of himself .
The episode was the first time that Pam Beesly ( Fischer ) had a different hairstyle . In addition , many of the scenes were improvised , including Dwight 's line about ham and Michael 's antics in New York . " Valentine 's Day " received mostly positive reviews from television critics and was watched by 8 @.@ 95 million viewers .
= = Plot = =
Before a Valentine 's Day meeting at the corporate offices in New York City with Jan Levinson and the new CFO David Wallace , Michael Scott accidentally lets slip to the other branch managers that he and Jan " hooked up " . At the meeting , instead of simply providing the financial status of his branch as asked , Michael shows a heartwarming video called " The Faces of Scranton " before reluctantly providing the information requested . Craig , from the Albany branch , is completely unprepared for the meeting and attempts to cover for it by suggesting that " maybe I should 've slept with [ Jan ] , too . " In a private conversation with Michael , Jan is convinced that her career is over , but Michael defuses the situation by explaining to the CFO that it was a bad joke and accepts responsibility for the situation . As Michael leaves , Jan kisses him in the elevator , but then groans when she realizes they were caught on camera .
Meanwhile , back in the office , Angela Martin gives Dwight Schrute a " Dwight " bobblehead doll , and he gives her a key to his home . Phyllis Lapin is inundated with gifts from her boyfriend Bob Vance , while Pam Beesly is irritated with Roy Anderson when the only thing he gives her for Valentine 's Day is the promise of the " best sex of [ her ] life " . Jim Halpert is forced to listen to , and witness Ryan Howard turn Kelly Kapoor down for a date . At the end of the day , Jim tells Pam " Happy Valentine 's Day " and she watches him longingly as he leaves .
= = Production = =
This episode was the fourth episode of the series directed by series creator Greg Daniels . Daniels had previously directed the first season episode " Basketball " , along with the second season episodes " The Dundies " and " The Client " . " Valentine 's Day " was written by Michael Schur , who plays Dwight 's Amish cousin Mose . In the DVD commentary for this episode , Greg Daniels described how some of Michael 's actions in this episode , such as having the requested branch info , unlike Craig , and saving Jan 's job by deflecting Craig 's comments when talking to David Wallace , were scripted to show how he plausibly remains employed .
For the first time ever on The Office , Pam Beesly 's ( Jenna Fischer ) hair is in a different style . Several hairstyles were shown to Greg Daniels before the one used in the episode was selected . Dwight 's line about a ham being a romantic gift was written during filming on the set . The writers did not have a punchline in the scene , so they came up with several alternatives , including ham , as well as " a boombox " . Most of the street scenes in New York City were improvised . They had to be kept short because crowds quickly formed around Steve Carell when he was recognized . Conan O 'Brien appeared in a cameo in the episode . He previously worked with Daniels on the writing staffs for Not Necessarily the News , Saturday Night Live and The Simpsons and the two also went to Harvard University together .
The Season Two DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Michael handing out plastic roses , Michael choosing the most attractive part of a woman , Creed calling everybody " Ace " , Michael meeting Devon in New York , the Vance Refrigeration employees getting into a fistfight , Michael wondering why his meeting is on Valentine 's Day , Jim learning that Dwight has a girlfriend , and Kevin learning that his fiancée has returned to town .
= = Cultural references = =
Michael notes that New York is the " city so nice they named it twice " . He then proceeds to explain that the other name is Manhattan , failing to realize the limerick refers to the city of New York , which also lies in the state of New York . Later , he eats pizza at a Sbarro restaurant , a chain restaurant , but calls it his " favorite New York pizza joint " . At Rockefeller Center , Michael thinks he sees Tina Fey , but it turns out to be a random person . Unbeknownst to Michael , Conan O 'Brien walks past him . Near the end of the episode , Michael is posing in front of a Broadway sign for Fiddler on the Roof , and he says " Oy , vey ! Schmear ! " in a Yiddish accent . Michael 's " Faces of Scranton " video plays over " With or Without You " by the Irish rock band U2 . Michael later quotes a line from the 1980 comedy film Airplane ! when he talks to Jan : " Don 't call me Shirley " .
= = Reception = =
" Valentine 's Day " originally aired on NBC in the United States on February 9 , 2006 . The episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 95 million viewers . This marked a dramatic improvement from the previous episode " Boys and Girls " , which was viewed by only 5 @.@ 42 million viewers .
" Valentine 's Day " received mostly positive reviews . Michael Sciannamea of TV Squad wrote that " The Office continues to deliver outstanding episodes week after week . " Sciannamea went on to say that the episode was " one of their best " and that it left him " wanting more " . " M. Giant " of Television Without Pity graded the episode with a " A " . Brendan Babish of DVD Verdict was pleased with the entry and awarded it an " A – " . He named the highlight of the episode " Michael 's overwrought ' The Faces of Scranton ' presentation played over U2 's ' With or Without You . ' " Betsy Bozdech of DVD Journal called the episode " memorable " and noted that it illustrated Pam and Jim 's relationship ebb and flow . Francis RizzoIII of DVD Talk declared that Ryan 's statement about beginning to date Kelly before Valentine 's Day was " one of the funniest lines in the entire season . "
After the episode , fans wanted their own bobblehead dolls of Dwight . A petition was started to get NBC to sell them at their online store . NBC responded by creating an initial run of 4 @,@ 000 bobblehead dolls , which sold out almost immediately . The network decided to make more , and since then , the bobblehead has become the best @-@ selling merchandise on the NBC website , and has sold over 150 @,@ 000 units .
= Hale Barns =
Hale Barns is a village near Altrincham in the Metropolitan Borough of Trafford , Greater Manchester , England . Historically part of Cheshire , Hale Barns lies about 12 miles ( 19 km ) south of Manchester city centre , 2 miles west of Manchester Airport and close to the River Bollin . At the 2001 census , the village had a population of 9 @,@ 143 , increasing to 9 @,@ 736 at the 2011 Census .
During the medieval period , Hale Barns was originally an outlying area of the township of Hale but the growth in prosperity of the area led Hale Barns to become established as a separate settlement . The village gets its name from the tithe barn that used to stand in Hale Barns . Before the industrial revolution , Hale Barns was an agricultural village , but since then evolved into a commuter settlement . Today the village is a rural place with ' The Square ' as its economic centre which is currently undergoing redevelopment . The Roman Catholic boys grammar school St Ambrose College is in Hale Barns . The village is also home to Ringway golf club . Cotteril Clough , in Hale Barns , is a Site of Special Scientific Interest for its ancient and diverse woodland where Ben Smith wandered as a child .
= = History = =
What were thought to be fragments of Roman pottery tiles were found in Hale Barns in the 1880s near the site of what is now St Ambrose College . The artefacts were lost before their antiquity could be confirmed , but led local historian W. Thompson Wakin to suggest there was probably a Roman villa in the area .
The first reference to Hale is contained within the Domesday Book , at the time ' Hale Barns ' was just an outlying hamlet contained within the manor of Hale . According to the Domesday Book , the manor of Hale was owned by a Saxon thegn Aelfward , who was replaced by the Norman , Hamon de Massey who also gained possession of Dunham and Bowdon and would remain barons of the area until the 14th century . The manor was considered prosperous in comparison to other manors in the north west of England .
The settlements of Hale and Hale Barns are closely linked ; what would later become Hale Barns spent most of the medieval period as an extension of the more dominant Hale . During this era the land around Hale and Hale Barns was used agriculturally because although the soil is poor draining , it is fertile . By the middle of the 15th century Hale Barns had established an identity completely separate from neighbouring Hale as demonstrated by the tithe barn which was established around this time . The tithe barn was for storing the tithes – a tenth of the farm 's produce which was to be given to the church . Such an establishment can be seen as a sign of the area 's prosperity . The original barn no longer survives but there is a drawing of it ( from 1844 ) . It is the source of the village 's name . The first explicit reference to the village of Hale Barns – rather than Hale – is in a document from 1616 .
The English Civil War affected all of England ; even families were split over Royalist or Parliamentarian loyalties . Little is recorded over the divisions within Hale Barns , but Hale and Hale Barns did emerge from the Civil War more or less untouched by events – though there was a heavy tax to pay to support the Parliamentarian army they avoided much of the requisitioning of supplies and animals for passing armies . None of the Royalists in Hale and Hale Barns had their lands confiscated or was forced to pay fines .
Having long been agricultural land , in the 18th century the town was divided up into five farms : Tanyard , Partington , Oakfield , Broadoak , and Elm . Hale Chapel was established in Hale Barns by Nonconformists in 1723 on what is now Chapel Lane . It underwent alterations around 1880 . The chapel is the earliest place of worship in either Hale or Hale Barns and is a Grade II * listed building , one of only nine in Trafford . It also houses an eighteenth @-@ century pulpit and nineteenth @-@ century stained glass . In 1740 , a school was founded by the Unitarian minister of Hale – a time when education was a rare commodity – and can be seen on a map of 1800 along with a tithe barn , two inns , five farms , four cottages , the school house and school rooms .
In the late 19th century a building called " Manor House " was built on the site of the old Tanyard farm , for the purpose of the owner 's retirement . In 2006 a timber @-@ framed barn built around 1701 – originally belonging to the Tanyard Farm and later converted to stables for Manor House – was torn down due to lack of funds to maintain the building . The Grade II listed building – known as " Manor House Stables " – was the last timber @-@ framed building in Hale Barns .
During the 20th century , urbanisation affected Hale Barns , turning the place from an agricultural village into the commuter settlement it is today , focused around ' The Square ' – a shopping precinct . Its main A538 road – Hale Road – runs through the centre of Hale Barns and leads towards Manchester Airport and Wilmslow .
= = = Toponymy = = =
The name Hale , which occurs throughout Britain , derives from the Anglo @-@ Saxon halh meaning a nook or shelter , as supported by the surrounding area which has natural features that would provide shelter . The ' Barns ' element of Hale Barns comes from the Old Tithe Barn .
= = Governance = =
Hale Barns is part of Trafford Metropolitan Borough of Greater Manchester . Up until local government reforms in 1974 , Hale Barns formed part of the administrative county of Cheshire . The Hale Barns ward has three out of sixty @-@ three seats on Trafford Council , and at the 2012 local election all three seats were held by the Conservatives . Since 1997 , Hale Barns has formed part of the Altrincham and Sale West Constituency , before that it was encompassed by the Altrincham and Sale constituency . Since the formation of the Altrincham and Sale West constituency in 1997 it had been represented in the House of Commons by the Conservative MP , Graham Brady .
= = Geography = =
Hale Barns is located at 53 ° 22 ′ 3 @.@ 36 ″ N 2 ° 19 ′ 4 @.@ 8 ″ W ( 53 @.@ 3676 , − 2 @.@ 318 ) , 12 miles ( 19 km ) to the south of Manchester city centre . It is just east of Hale and south east of Altrincham . The town is bounded by the River Bollin to the south , the M56 to the east and the residential areas of Altrincham to the west and Newhall Green to the north . The ward profile produced by Trafford MBC describes its location and economic nature as follows .
" Hale Barns lies at the southern tip of the Borough ( of Trafford ) ... The Ward contains a large amount of agricultural land including two private golf courses . There is also a number of private sports clubs within the Ward providing facilities for tennis , bowling and football . It is generally considered to be an affluent Ward in the top 10 % wealthiest areas in England . "
— Trafford MBC 2006
The climate of Hale Barns – and Greater Manchester as a whole – is generally temperate , with few extremes of temperature or weather . The mean temperature is slightly above average for the United Kingdom ; whereas annual rainfall and average amount of sunshine is slightly below the average for the UK .
= = Demography = =
At the 2001 UK census , the village of Hale Barns had a total population of 9 @,@ 143 and 3732 households . Of those households , 44 % were married couples living together , 5 % were co @-@ habiting couples and 6 % were lone parents . The town had a high percentage of households made up of married couples ( 44 % ) compared to the figure for the rest of Trafford ( 37 % ) and England ( also 37 % ) . The average household size was 2 @.@ 45 . For every 100 females , there were 93 @.@ 9 males .
The ethnicity of the Hale Barns is 91 @.@ 9 % white , 1 @.@ 1 % mixed race , 0 @.@ 4 % black , 5 @.@ 4 % non @-@ Chinese Asian , and 1 @.@ 2 % Chinese . The age distribution was 6 % aged 0 – 4 years , 15 % aged 5 – 15 years , 4 % aged 16 – 19 years , 27 % aged 20 – 44 years , 27 % aged 45 – 64 years and 22 % aged 65 years and over . The town had a high percentage of residents over 65 , compared with the national average of 16 % .
The Trafford MBC Ward Profile for the Hale Barns ward describes it as being
" Diverse in nature and home to a large Jewish and Muslim community groups . "
– Trafford MBC 2006
= = Religion = =
According to the 2001 census , the religious make up of Hale Barns is 70 @.@ 4 % Christian , 7 @.@ 9 % Jewish , 4 @.@ 1 % Muslim , 1 @.@ 5 % Hindu , 0 @.@ 3 % Buddhist and 0 @.@ 1 % Sikh . 9 @.@ 5 % were recorded as having no religion , 0 @.@ 1 % had an alternative religion and 6 @.@ 2 % did not state their religion . Hale Barns is located in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Shrewsbury. and the Church of England Diocese of Chester . Places of worship include Holy Angels ' Church a large Roman Catholic Church linked to St Ambrose College which is situated in Wicker Lane at the junction with Hale Road at the western end of the village centre ; All Saints ' Church belongs to the Church of England and was built 1967 on the site . Hale and District Synagogue serves Hale and Hale Barns and is situated on Shay Lane in Hale Barns . It was rebuilt on its previous site in 2003 ; the modern structure has a synagogue , nursery , function suite and dedicated study room Beit HaMidrash . It is also the site of the South Manchester Mikveh with a utensil mikveh that is adjuncted to the main mikveh building .
= = Education = =
Because of its small size , Hale Barns has few schools . Amongst them are St Ambrose College which provides education for 11- to 18 @-@ year @-@ olds and Elmridge Primary .
Primary schools
Elmridge Primary School is a co @-@ educational day school . It had 240 pupils in the 2011 / 12 school year .
Secondary schools
St. Ambrose College is a Catholic Boy 's Secondary School situated adjacent to Holy Angels Church and Hale Road , near the centre of Hale Barns village . The Christian Brothers came to England from Guernsey during the Second World War and remained to establish the college in 1946 . The college celebrated its 60th anniversary in 2006 . The school is a specialist Maths and Computing College .
In 2005 around 800 pupils attended the school . The College was awarded funding in the summer of 2006 for rebuilding on the current site as part of the Building Schools for the Future Programme . In 2006 , 98 @.@ 3 % of pupils achieved at least 5 A * -C grades at GCSE compared to an average of 66 @.@ 7 % for all secondary schools in Trafford and a national UK average of 61 @.@ 3 % ; 97 @.@ 5 % of its pupils gained at least 5 A * -C grades at GCSE including English and maths , ranking the school 4th out of Trafford 's 19 secondary schools .
In December 2012 , the college was implicated in a child sex abuse case involving teaching staff carrying out alleged acts of abuse both on and off school grounds , although no current staff are said to be involved . More than fifty former pupils contacted police , either as victims of , or witnesses to , sexual abuse . The alleged sexual abuse , including molestation of children while corporal punishment was administered , stemmed from 1962 onwards and continued over four decades .
= = Economy = =
According to Trafford MBC , Hale Barns is in the top 10 % wealthiest areas in England . At the 2001 UK census , the Hale Barns ward had a possible workforce of approximately 6 @,@ 449 people . The economic activity of residents in the Hale Barns electoral ward was 36 % in full @-@ time employment , 12 % in part @-@ time employment , 28 % self @-@ employed , 1 @.@ 5 % unemployed , 1 @.@ 7 % students with jobs , 4 @.@ 7 % students without jobs , 18 @.@ 7 % retired , 7 @.@ 3 % looking after home or family , 2 @.@ 6 % permanently sick or disabled and 2 @.@ 2 % economically inactive for other reasons . Hale Barns has a very high rate of self @-@ employment ( 28 % ) compared with rest of Trafford ( 16 % ) and England ( 17 % ) . Hale Barns also has low rates of unemployment ( 1 @.@ 5 % ) compared with Trafford ( 2 @.@ 7 % ) and England ( 3 @.@ 3 % ) . The Office for National Statistics estimated that during the period of April 2001 to March 2002 the average gross weekly income of households in Hale Barns was £ 660 ( £ 34 @,@ 320 per year ) .
According to the 2001 UK census , the industry of employment of residents in Hale Barns was 22 @.@ 9 % property and business services , 15 @.@ 7 % retail and wholesale , 12 @.@ 1 % health and social work , 11 @.@ 0 % manufacturing , 9 @.@ 4 % education , 6 @.@ 8 % transport and communications , 4 @.@ 7 % finance , 4 @.@ 5 % construction , 3 @.@ 9 % hotels and restaurants , 3 @.@ 2 % public administration and defence , 0 @.@ 6 % energy and water supply , 0 @.@ 5 % agriculture , and 4 @.@ 6 % other . This was roughly in line with national figures , except for the town 's relatively high percentage of workers in property and business services .
A shopping centre was built in Hale Barns in the 1960s called " The Square Shopping Centre " . The site was being considered for redevelopment and proposals were subjected to consultation in 2005 . In 2007 the Council and Developer participated in a Planning Inquiry after the council refused planning permission for the proposed redevelopment . However , in 2013 , the council agreed , and the new shopping Centre , containing a Booths and a Costa Coffee , is now open .
= = Leisure and Recreation = =
There are a number of private sports clubs within the Hale Barns providing facilities for tennis , bowling and football . This includes the home of Hale Barns Cricket Club .
Halecroft Park
Halecroft Park is near the centre of Hale Barns and was crowned North West region winner in the prestigious ' Britain 's Best Park ' competition . Designed by Edgar Wood , the ornamental gardens of Halecroft Park were created in 1891 as part of Halecroft House . The park was winner of the Green Flag Award 3 years running ( 2003 – 2006 ) for setting a standard for parks and green spaces in England and Wales .
The Tennis Club Hale Barns
Private members tennis club with 5 astroturf courts , one floodlit , established in 1924 at The Pavilion , Chapel Lane .
Ringway Golf Club
Covering 18 holes and 6 @,@ 482 yards , Ringway Golf Club was designed by Harry Colt in 1909 and further developed by James Braid .
Cotteril Clough
Cotteril Clough is a Site of Special Scientific Interest situated close to the River Bollin . It has been designated due to its ancient woodland which is among the most diverse in Greater Manchester . It is managed by the Cheshire Wildlife Trust .
= Goodrich Castle =
Goodrich Castle is a now ruinous Norman medieval castle situated to the north of the village of Goodrich in Herefordshire , England , controlling a key location between Monmouth and Ross @-@ on @-@ Wye . It was praised by William Wordsworth as the " noblest ruin in Herefordshire " and is considered by historian Adrian Pettifer to be the " most splendid in the county , and one of the best examples of English military architecture " .
Goodrich Castle was probably built by Godric of Mappestone after the Norman invasion of England , initially as an earth and wooden fortification . In the middle of the 12th century the original castle was replaced with a stone keep , and was then expanded significantly during the late 13th century into a concentric structure combining luxurious living quarters with extensive defences . The success of Goodrich 's design influenced many other constructions across England over the following years . It became the seat of the powerful Talbot family before falling out of favour as a residence in late Tudor times .
Held first by Parliamentary and then Royalist forces in the English Civil War of the 1640s , Goodrich was finally successfully besieged by Colonel John Birch in 1646 with the help of the huge " Roaring Meg " mortar , resulting in the subsequent slighting of the castle and its descent into ruin . At the end of the 18th century , however , Goodrich became a noted picturesque ruin and the subject of many paintings and poems ; events at the castle provided the inspiration for Wordsworth 's famous 1798 poem " We are Seven " . By the 20th century the site was a well @-@ known tourist location , now owned by English Heritage and open to the public .
= = Architecture = =
Goodrich Castle stands on a high rocky sandstone outcrop overlooking the River Wye . It commands a crossing of the river , known as Walesford or Walford , Ross @-@ on @-@ Wye , about 26 kilometres ( 16 mi ) from Hereford and 6 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 0 mi ) from Ross @-@ on @-@ Wye . The castle guards the line of the former Roman road from Gloucester to Caerleon as it crosses from England into Wales .
At the heart of the castle is an early Norman square keep of light grey sandstone , with Norman windows and pilaster buttresses . Although the keep had thick walls , its relatively small size – the single chambers on each floor measure only 5 @.@ 5 by 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 18 by 15 ft ) internally – would have made it more useful for defence than for day @-@ to @-@ day living . The keep originally had a first @-@ storey door for safety , this was later turned into a window and the entrance brought down to the ground floor . The keep would originally have had an earth mound built up against the base of it to protect against attack , and the stone work remains rougher in the first few courses of masonry .
Around the keep is an essentially square structure guarded by three large towers , all built during the 1280s from somewhat darker sandstone . On the more vulnerable southern and eastern sides of the castle , ditches 27 metres ( 90 ft ) long and 9 metres ( 28 ft ) deep have been cut into the rock , exploiting a natural fissure . These towers have large " spurs " , resulting from the interface of a solid , square @-@ based pyramid with the circular towers rising up against the walls . This feature is characteristic of castles in the Welsh Marches , including St Briavel 's and Tonbridge Castle , and was intended to prevent the undermining of the towers by attackers .
The castle 's fourth corner forms its gatehouse . Here the classic Edwardian gatehouse design has been transformed into an asymmetrical structure , with one tower much larger than the other . The gatehouse included portcullises , murder @-@ holes and a drawbridge . Beyond the gatehouse lies a large barbican , inspired by a similar design of the period at the Tower of London and possibly built by the same workmen , designed to protect the causeway leading to the gatehouse . The barbican today is only half of its original height , and includes its own gate , designed to trap intruders within the inner defences . The gatehouse and barbican are linked by a stone causeway .
The gatehouse 's eastwards @-@ facing tower contains the chapel , an unusual arrangement driven by a lack of space , with a recently restored east window of reset 15th @-@ century glass designed by Nicola Hopwood , which illuminates the priest 's seat , or sedile . The 15th @-@ century window frame itself replaced an even taller , earlier 13th @-@ century window . The chapel 's west window is modern , and commemorates British servicemen who died between 1936 – 76 in radar development . The altar itself is particularly old , possibly pre @-@ dating the castle .
The bailey was designed to include a number of spacious domestic buildings . These include a great hall , a solarium , kitchen , buttery and pantry , with a luxuriously large number of gardrobes and fireplaces . The large towers provided additional accommodation . The design of the domestic buildings was skilfully interlocked to support the defensive arrangements of the bailey . The great hall for example , 20 by 9 metres ( 66 by 30 ft ) , was placed in the strongest position overlooking the river Wye , allowing it to benefit from multiple large windows and a huge fireplace without sacrificing defensive strength . Water for the castle was originally raised from the courtyard well , but was later piped in from a spring across the valley ; the castle kitchens had acquired running water by the beginning of the 17th century . The design of the buildings ensured that the servants and nobility were able to live separately from one another in the confined space of the castle , revolutionary at the time .
Beyond the main bailey walls lies the stable block , now ruined but with a visible cobble floor . The stables and the north and west sides of the castle were protected by another , smaller curtain wall , but this is now largely ruined . Accounts suggest that the original stables could hold around 60 horses , although by the 17th century they had been expanded to accommodate more .
= = History = =
= = = Medieval history = = =
= = = = 11th and 12th centuries = = = =
Goodrich Castle appears to have been in existence by 1101 , when it was known as Godric ’ s Castle , named probably after Godric of Mappestone , a local Anglo @-@ Saxon thane and landowner mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086 . Victorian historians , however , believed the castle to date back further to the pre @-@ Norman conquest days of King Canute , and the site may have been among a small number of Saxon fortifications along the Welsh border . By Norman times , Goodrich formed part of the Welsh Marches , a sequence of territories granted to Norman nobles in , and alongside , Wales . Although Goodrich lay on the safer , English side of the border , the threat of raids and attacks continued throughout most of the period .
During the 12th century the attitudes of the English nobility towards the Welsh began to harden ; the policies of successive rulers , but especially Henry II , began to become more aggressive in the region . In the mid @-@ 12th century Godric 's original earth and timber fortification was dismantled and replaced by a tall but relatively small square keep built of stone , sometimes known as " Macbeth 's Tower " . The keep was designed to be secure and imposing but relatively cheap to build . It is uncertain , however , precisely who was responsible for this rebuilding or the date of the work , which may have been between 1120 and 1176 .
At the beginning of the 12th century , the castle had passed from Godric to William Fitz Baderon , thought to be his son @-@ in @-@ law , and on to his son , Baderon of Monmouth , in the 1120s . England descended into anarchy , however , during the 1130s as the rival factions of Stephen and his cousin the Empress Matilda vied for power . Baderon of Monmouth married Rohese de Clare , a member of the powerful de Clare family who usually supported Stephen , and there are records of Baderon having to seize Goodrich Castle during the fighting in the region , which was primarily held by supporters of Matilda . Some suspect that Baderon may have therefore built the stone keep in the early years of the conflict . Stephen went on , however , to appoint Baderon 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Gilbert de Claire , the Earl of Pembroke , and Gilbert de Clare eventually acquired Goodrich Castle himself . Gilbert 's son , Richard de Clare , known as " Strongbow " , succeeded him in 1148 , and Richard is another candidate for the construction of the keep . In 1154 Richard fell out of favour with King Henry II because of the de Clares ' support for Stephen , and the castle was taken into royal hands . Some argue that the king himself may have ordered the construction of the great keep .
= = = = 13th and 14th centuries = = = =
During the following reigns of King Richard I and his brother John , the castle and manor were held by the Crown . King John , however , lost many of his lands in France which in turn deprived key English nobles of their own estates – John became concerned about possible opposition to his rule . Accordingly , in 1203 John transferred Goodrich Castle and the surrounding manor to William Marshal , Earl of Pembroke , to partially compensate him for his lost lands on the continent . Marshal was a famous English knight with reputation as a heroic warrior , and he expanded Goodrich by building an additional towered curtain wall in stone , around the existing keep . Marshal had to intervene to protect Goodrich Castle from Welsh attack , most famously in 1216 when he was obliged to leave Henry III 's coronation feast in Gloucester to hurry back to Goodrich to reinforce the castle .
Marshal 's sons inherited the castle after their father 's death ; Marshal left the castle to his eldest son , William , who in turn gave it to his younger brother , Walter . After William 's death , however , Marshal 's second son , Richard , took over the castle . Richard led the baronial opposition to Henry III and allied himself with the Welsh , resulting in King Henry besieging Goodrich Castle in 1233 and retaking personal control for a period . Walter was eventually given Goodrich back once more , but died shortly afterwards in 1245 .
The castle briefly reverted to the Crown again , but in 1247 passed by marriage to William de Valence , half brother to Henry III . De Valence was a French nobleman from Poitiers and a noted soldier who spent most of his life fighting in military campaigns ; Henry arranged his marriage to Joan de Munchensi , one of the heiresses to the Marshal estate . The marriage made Valence immensely rich and gave him the title of Earl of Pembroke .
The Welsh border situation remained unsettled however , and in the decades after 1250 security grew significantly worse , as the Welsh prince Llywelyn ap Gruffudd conducted numerous raids into English territories . The Wye valley and Goodrich were particularly affected by these raids .
Accordingly , William de Valence began to build a much larger castle around the original keep from the 1280s onwards , demolishing Marshal 's earlier work . As part of the extremely expensive construction work , Valence used oak trees drawn from several royal forests . Valence was building at the same time that his nephew Edward I was constructing his major castles in the north of Wales , and the concentric castle that he built at Goodrich is both very similar in design and a rarity in England itself . Valence 's son , Aymer de Valence built an additional line of outer defences before his death in 1324 , including the external barbican , inspired by that at the Tower of London , and for which the earlier Valence barbican at Pembroke may have been an experimental forerunner . The effect was an early success in converting a fortress into a major dwelling , without damaging its defensive arrangements , and influenced the later castle conversion at Berkeley .
The castle then passed to Aymer 's niece , Elizabeth de Comyn , a well @-@ connected young noblewoman . By the middle of the 1320s , however , England was in the grip of the oppressive rule of the Marcher lords Hugh le Despenser the older and his son Hugh Despenser the younger , the royal favourites of King Edward II . As part of a " sweeping revenge " on their rivals , especially in the Marches , the Despensers illegally seized a wide range of properties , particularly from vulnerable targets such as widows , wives whose husbands were out of favour with the king or unmarried women . Upon her inheritance , Hugh le Despenser the younger promptly kidnapped Elizabeth in London and transported her to Herefordshire to be imprisoned in her own castle at Goodrich . Threatened with death , Elizabeth was finally forced to sign over the castle and other lands to the Despensers in April 1325 . Elizabeth then married Richard Talbot , the 2nd Baron Talbot , who seized back the castle in 1326 shortly before Queen Isabella of France landed in England and deposed both the Despensers and her husband Edward II ; Talbot and Elizabeth regained their legal title to the castle the following year . Richard later received permission from Isabella 's son Edward III to create a dungeon under the keep for holding prisoners .
= = = = 15th and 16th centuries = = = =
Goodrich remained the favourite home of the Richard Talbot 's descendants for many years . During the early years , the security situation in Wales remained of concern . Owain Glyndŵ
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the Civil War , Goodrich Castle remained with the Earls of Kent until 1740 , when it was sold by Henry Grey to Admiral Thomas Griffin . Griffin undertook some restoration of the castle but retained it as a ruin .
During the 1780s the concept of the picturesque ruin was popularised by the English clergyman William Gilpin . Goodrich Castle was one of the ruins he captured in his book Observations on the River Wye in 1782 , writing that the castle was an example of the " correctly picturesque " landscape . By this time , the castle was in a slow state of decay . Theodore Fielding , an early Victorian historian , noted how the " castle 's situation , far from human dwellings , and the stillness which that solitude , insures to its precinct , leaves contemplation to all the solemnity , that is inspired by the sight of grandeur sinking in dignity , into decay " . The Regency and Victorian watercolour artists David Cox and William Callow also captured Goodrich Castle and its landscape in paint , again invoking the picturesque , romantic mood of the setting at the time .
The castle was praised by William Wordsworth as the " noblest ruin in Herefordshire " . Wordsworth first visited Goodrich Castle in 1793 , and an encounter with a little girl he met while exploring the ruins led him to write the poem We are Seven in 1798 . Other poets from this period were also inspired by the castle , including Henry Neele in 1827 .
By the 1820s , visitors could purchase an early guidebook at the site outlining the castle 's history , and Victorian tourists recorded being charged six @-@ pence to wander around the castle . In the early 1820s , the antiquarian Sir Samuel Rush Meyrick attempted to purchase the site , with the aim of converting the castle back into a private dwelling , but was unable to convince the owners to sell . Instead , Meyrick built the neo @-@ gothic Goodrich Court in a similar style next door , which greatly displeased Wordsworth when he returned to Goodrich in 1841 and found the view spoilt by the new building . The new bridge over the river Wye , built in 1828 , and the 1873 railway line added to the number of visitors .
Goodrich Castle then passed through various hands , until in 1915 the Office of Works began discussions with its then owner , Mrs Edmund Bosanquet ; large @-@ scale collapses of parts of the north @-@ west tower and curtain wall in 1919 contributed to Bosanquet 's decision to grant the castle to the Commissioner of Works in 1920 . The Commissioners began a programme of repairs to stabilise the ruin in its current state .
= = Today = =
Today , the castle at Goodrich is considered by historians to be the " most splendid in the county , and one the best examples of English military architecture " . The castle is classed as a Grade I listed building and as a Scheduled Monument .
Substantial remains still exist and are open to the public , managed by English Heritage . The adjacent Victorian castle of Goodrich Court was demolished in 1949 , restoring the original landscape . The Roaring Meg mortar , preserved by Herefordshire Council , has been returned to the site , along with a number of civil war cannonballs found at Goodrich during excavations in the 1920s .
= = Folklore = =
Several legends surround the castle at Goodrich . The Great Keep has the alternative name of the " Macbeth tower " , after stories of an Irish chieftain held prisoner there . According to some tales , he died attempting to escape and his ghost is said to still haunt the tower .
The events of the English Civil War also have left their mark . Local stories tell that Colonel Birch 's niece , Alice Birch , fell in love with a handsome Royalist , Charles Clifford ; according to these stories the two attempted to escape before the final assault but died in a flash flood while trying to cross the River Wye , and live on as ghosts on the site .
= Nathaniel Parker Willis =
Nathaniel Parker Willis ( January 20 , 1806 – January 20 , 1867 ) , also known as N. P. Willis , was an American author , poet and editor who worked with several notable American writers including Edgar Allan Poe and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow . He became the highest @-@ paid magazine writer of his day . For a time , he was the employer of former slave and future writer Harriet Jacobs . His brother was the composer Richard Storrs Willis and his sister Sara wrote under the name Fanny Fern .
Born in Portland , Maine , Willis came from a family of publishers . His grandfather Nathaniel Willis owned newspapers in Massachusetts and Virginia , and his father Nathaniel Willis was the founder of Youth 's Companion , the first newspaper specifically for children . Willis developed an interest in literature while attending Yale College and began publishing poetry . After graduation , he worked as an overseas correspondent for the New York Mirror . He eventually moved to New York and began to build his literary reputation . Working with multiple publications , he was earning about $ 100 per article and between $ 5 @,@ 000 and $ 10 @,@ 000 per year . In 1846 , he started his own publication , the Home Journal , which was eventually renamed Town & Country . Shortly after , Willis moved to a home on the Hudson River where he lived a semi @-@ retired life until his death in 1867 .
Willis embedded his own personality into his writing and addressed his readers personally , specifically in his travel writings , so that his reputation was built in part because of his character . Critics , including his sister in her novel Ruth Hall , occasionally described him as being effeminate and Europeanized . Willis also published several poems , tales , and a play . Despite his intense popularity for a time , at his death Willis was nearly forgotten .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life and family = = =
Nathaniel Parker Willis was born on January 20 , 1806 , in Portland , Maine . His father Nathaniel Willis was a newspaper proprietor there and his grandfather owned newspapers in Boston , Massachusetts and western Virginia . His mother was Hannah Willis ( née Parker ) from Holliston , Massachusetts and it was her husband 's offer to edit the Eastern Argus in Maine that caused their move to Portland . Willis 's younger sister was Sara Willis Parton , who would later become a writer under the pseudonym Fanny Fern . His brother , Richard Storrs Willis , became a musician and music journalist known for writing the melody for " It Came Upon the Midnight Clear " . His other siblings were Lucy Douglas ( born 1804 ) , Louisa Harris ( 1807 ) , Julia Dean ( 1809 ) , Mary Perry ( 1813 ) , Edward Payson ( 1816 ) , and Ellen Holmes ( 1821 ) .
In 1816 , the family moved to Boston , where Willis 's father established the Boston Recorder and , nine years later , the Youth 's Companion , the world 's first newspaper for children . The elder Willis 's emphasis on religious themes earned him the nickname " Deacon " Willis . After attending a Boston grammar school and Phillips Academy at Andover , Nathaniel Parker Willis entered Yale College in October 1823 where he roomed with Horace Bushnell . Willis credited Bushnell with teaching him the proper technique for sharpening a razor by " drawing it from heel to point both ways ... the two cross frictions correct each other " . At Yale , he further developed an interest in literature , often neglecting his other studies . He graduated in 1827 and spent time touring parts of the United States and Canada . In Montreal , he met Chester Harding , with whom he would become a lifelong friend . Years later , Harding referred to Willis during this period as " the ' lion ' of the town " . Willis began publishing poetry in his father 's Boston Periodical , often using one of two literary personalities under the pen names " Roy " ( for religious subjects ) and " Cassius " ( for more secular topics ) . The same year , Willis published a volume of poetical Sketches .
= = = Literary career = = =
In the latter part of the 1820s , Willis began contributing more frequently to magazines and periodicals . In 1829 , he served as editor for the gift book The Token , making him the only person to be editor in the book 's 15 @-@ year history besides its founder , Samuel Griswold Goodrich . That year , Willis founded the American Monthly Magazine , which began publishing in April 1829 until it was discontinued in August 1831 . He blamed its failure on the " tight purses of Boston culture " and moved to Europe to serve as foreign editor and correspondent of the New York Mirror . In 1832 , while in Florence , Italy , he met Horatio Greenough , who sculpted a bust of the writer . Between 1832 and 1836 , Willis contributed a series of letters for the Mirror , about half of which were later collected as Pencillings by the Way , printed in London in 1835 . The romantic descriptions of scenes and modes of life in Europe sold well despite the then high price tag of $ 7 a copy . The work became popular and boosted Willis 's literary reputation enough that an American edition was soon issued .
Despite this popularity , he was censured by some critics for indiscretion in reporting private conversations . At one point he fought a bloodless duel with Captain Frederick Marryat , then editor of the Metropolitan Magazine , after Willis sent a private letter of Marryat 's to George Pope Morris , who had it printed . Still , in 1835 Willis was popular enough to introduce Henry Wadsworth Longfellow to important literary figures in England , including Ada Byron , daughter of Lord Byron .
While abroad , Willis wrote to a friend , " I should like to marry in England " . He soon married Mary Stace , daughter of General William Stace of Woolwich , on October 1 , 1835 , after a month @-@ long engagement . The couple took a two @-@ week honeymoon in Paris . The couple moved to London where , in 1836 , Willis met Charles Dickens , who was working for the Morning Chronicle at the time .
In 1837 , Willis and his wife returned to the United States and settled at a small estate on Owego Creek in New York , just above its junction with the Susquehanna River . He named the home Glenmary and the 200 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 81 km2 ) rural setting inspired him to write Letters from under a Bridge . On October 20 , 1838 , Willis began a series of articles called " A New Series of Letters from London " , one of which suggested an illicit relationship between writer Letitia Elizabeth Landon and editor William Jordan . The article caused some scandal , for which Willis 's publisher had to apologize .
On June 20 , 1839 , Willis 's play Tortesa , the Usurer premiered in Philadelphia at the Walnut Street Theatre . Edgar Allan Poe called it " by far the best play from the pen of an American author " . That year , he was also editor of the short @-@ lived periodical The Corsair , for which he enlisted William Makepeace Thackery to write short sketches of France . Another major work , Two Ways of Dying for a Husband , was published in England during a short visit there in 1839 – 1840 . Shortly after returning to the United States , his personal life was touched with grief when his first child was stillborn on December 4 , 1840 . He and Stace had a second daughter , Imogen , who was born June 20 , 1842 .
Later that year , Willis attended a ball in honor of Charles Dickens in New York . After dancing with Dickens 's wife , Willis and Dickens went out for " rum toddy and broiled oysters " . By this time , his fame had grown enough that he was often invited to lecture and recite poetry , including his presentation to the Linonian Society at Yale on August 17 , 1841 . Willis was invited to submit a column to the each weekly issue of Brother Johnathan , a publication from New York with 20 @,@ 000 subscribers , which he did until September 1841 . By 1842 , Willis was earning the unusually high salary of $ 4 @,@ 800 a year . As a later journalist remarked , this made Willis " the first magazine writer who was tolerably well paid " .
In 1842 , Willis employed Harriet Jacobs , an escaped slave from North Carolina , as a house servant and nanny . When her owners sought to have her returned to their plantation , Willis 's wife bought her freedom for $ 300 . Nearly two decades later , Jacobs would write in her fictionalized autobiography Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl , which she began composing while working for the Willis family , that she " was convinced that ... Nathaniel Parker Willis was proslavery " . Willis is depicted as " Mr. Bruce " , an unattractive Southern sympathizer in the book . One of Willis 's tales , " The Night Funeral of a Slave " , featured an abolitionist who visits the South and regrets his anti @-@ slavery views ; Frederick Douglass later used the work to criticize Northerners who were pro @-@ slavery .
= = = Evening Mirror = = =
Returning to New York City , Willis reorganized , along with George Pope Morris , the weekly New York Mirror as the daily Evening Mirror in 1844 with a weekly supplement called the Weekly Mirror , in part due to the rising cost of postage . By this time , Willis was a popular writer ( a joke was that Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was Germany 's version of N. P. Willis ) and one of the first commercially successful magazine writers in America . In the fall of that year , he also became the first editor of the annual gift book The Opal founded by Rufus Wilmot Griswold . During this time , he became the highest @-@ paid magazine writer in America , earning about $ 100 per article and $ 5 @,@ 000 per year , a number which would soon double . Even the popular poet Longfellow admitted his jealousy of Willis 's salary .
As a critic , Willis did not believe in including discussions of personalities of writers when reviewing their works . He also believed that , though publications should discuss political topics , they should not express party opinions or choose sides . The Mirror flourished at a time when many publications were discontinuing . Its success was due to the shrewd management of Willis and Morris and the two demonstrated that the American public could support literary endeavors . Willis was becoming an expert in American literature and so , in 1845 , Willis and Morris issued an anthology , The Prose and Poetry of America .
While Willis was editor of the Evening Mirror , its issue for January 29 , 1845 , included the first printing of Poe 's poem " The Raven " with his name attached . In his introduction , Willis called it " unsurpassed in English poetry for subtle conception , masterly ingenuity of versification , and consistent , sustaining of imaginative lift ... It will stick to the memory of everybody who reads it " . Willis and Poe were close friends , and Willis helped Poe financially during his wife Virginia 's illness and while Poe was suing Thomas Dunn English for libel . Willis often tried to persuade Poe to be less destructive in his criticism and concentrate on his poetry . Even so , Willis published many pieces of what would later be referred to as " The Longfellow War " , a literary battle between Poe and the supporters of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow , whom Poe called overrated and guilty of plagiarism . Willis also introduced Poe to Fanny Osgood ; the two would later carry out a very public literary flirtation .
Willis 's wife Mary Stace died in childbirth on March 25 , 1845 . Their daughter , Blanche , died as well and Willis wrote in his notebook that she was " an angel without fault or foible " . He brought his surviving daughter Imogen to England to be with her mother 's family and left her behind when he returned to the United States . In October 1846 , he married Cornelia Grinnell , a wealthy Quaker from New Bedford and the adopted daughter of a local Congressman . She was two decades younger than Willis at the time and vocally disliked slavery , unlike her new husband . After the marriage , Willis 's daughter Imogen came to live with the newlyweds in New York .
= = = Home Journal = = =
In 1846 , Willis and Morris left the Evening Mirror and attempted to edit a new weekly , the National Press , which was renamed the Home Journal after eight months . Their prospectus for the publication , published November 21 , 1846 , announced their intentions to create a magazine " to circle around the family table " . Willis intended the magazine for the middle and lower classes and included the message of upward social mobility , using himself as an example , often describing in detail his personal possessions . When discussing his own social climbing , however , he emphasized his frustrations rather than his successes , endearing him to his audience . He edited the Home Journal until his death in 1867 . It was renamed Town & Country in 1901 , and it is still published under that title as of 2011 . During Willis 's time at the journal , he especially promoted the works of women poets , including Frances Sargent Osgood , Anne Lynch Botta , Grace Greenwood , and Julia Ward Howe . Willis and his editors favorably reviewed many works now considered important today , including Henry David Thoreau 's Walden and Nathaniel Hawthorne 's The Blithedale Romance .
= = = Idlewild = = =
In 1846 , Willis settled near the banks of Canterbury Creek near the Hudson River in New York and named his new home Idlewild . When Willis first visited the property , the owners said it had little value and that it was " an idle wild of which nothing could ever be made " . He built a fourteen @-@ room " cottage " , as he called it , at the edge of a plateau by Moodna Creek next to a sudden 200 @-@ foot ( 61 m ) drop into a gorge . Willis worked closely with the architect , Calvert Vaux , to carefully plan each gable and piazza to fully take advantage of the dramatic view of the river and mountains .
Because of failing health Willis spent the remainder of his life chiefly in retirement at Idlewild . His wife Cornelia was also recovering from a difficult illness after the birth of their first child together , a son named Grinnell , who was born April 28 , 1848 . They had four other children : Lilian ( born April 27 , 1850 ) , Edith ( born September 28 , 1853 ) , Bailey ( born May 31 , 1857 ) , and a daughter that died only a few minutes after her birth on October 31 , 1860 . Harriet Jacobs was re @-@ hired by Willis to work for the family .
During these last years at Idlewild , Willis continued contributing a weekly letter to the Home Journal . In 1850 he assisted Rufus Wilmot Griswold in preparing an anthology of the works of Poe , who had died mysteriously the year before . Griswold also wrote the first biography of Poe in which he purposely set out to ruin the dead author 's reputation . Willis was one of the most vocal of Poe 's defenders , writing at one point : " The indictment ( for it deserves no other name ) is not true . It is full of cruel misrepresentations . It deepens the shadows unto unnatural darkness , and shuts out the rays of sunshines that ought to relieve them " .
Willis was involved in the 1850 divorce suit between the actor Edwin Forrest and his wife Catherine Norton Sinclair Forrest . In January 1849 , Forrest had found a love letter to his wife from fellow actor George W. Jamieson . As a result , he and Catherine separated in April 1849 . He moved to Philadelphia and filed for divorce in February 1850 though the Pennsylvania legislature denied his application . Catharine went to live with the family of Parke Godwin and the separation became a public affair , with newspapers throughout New York reporting on supposed infidelities and other gossip .
Willis defended Catharine , who maintained her innocence , in the Home Journal and suggested that Forrest was merely jealous of her intellectual superiority . On June 17 , 1850 , shortly after Forrest had filed for divorce in the New York Supreme Court , Forrest beat Willis with a gutta @-@ percha whip in New York 's Washington Square , shouting " this man is the seducer of my wife " . Willis , who was recovering from a rheumatic fever at the time , was unable to fight back . His wife soon received an anonymous letter with an accusation that Willis was in an adulterous relationship with Catherine Forrest . Willis later sued Forrest for assault and , by March 1852 , was awarded $ 2 @,@ 500 plus court costs . Throughout the Forrest divorce case , which lasted six weeks , several witnesses made additional claims that Catherine Forrest and Nathaniel Parker Willis were having an affair , including a waiter who claimed he had seen the couple " lying on each other " . As the press reported , " thousands and thousands of the anxious public " awaited the court 's verdict ; ultimately , the court sided with Catherine Forrest and Willis 's name was cleared .
= = = Ruth Hall = = =
Willis arbitrarily refused to print the work of his sister Sara Willis ( " Fanny Fern " ) after 1854 , though she previously had contributed anonymous book reviews to the Home Journal . She had recently been widowed , became destitute , and was publicly denounced by her abusive second husband . Criticizing what he perceived as her restlessness , Willis once made her the subject of his poem " To My Wild Sis " . As Fanny Fern , she had published Fern Leaves , which sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies the year before . Willis , however , did not encourage his sister 's writings . " You overstrain the pathetic , and your humor runs into dreadful vulgarity sometimes ... I am sorry that any editor knows that a sister of mine wrote some of these which you sent me " , he wrote . In 1854 she published Ruth Hall , a Domestic Tale of the Present Time , a barely concealed semi @-@ autobiographical account of her own difficulties in the literary world . Nathaniel Willis was represented as " Hyacinth Ellet " , an effeminate , self @-@ serving editor who schemes to ruin his sister 's prospects as a writer . Willis did not publicly protest but in private he asserted that , despite his fictitious equivalent , he had done his best to support his sister during her difficult times , especially after the death of her first husband .
Among his later works , following in his traditional sketches about his life and people he has met , were Hurry @-@ Graphs ( 1851 ) , Out @-@ Doors at Idlewild ( 1854 ) , and Ragbag ( 1855 ) . Willis had complained that his magazine writing prevented him from writing a longer work . He finally had the time in 1856 , and he wrote his only novel , Paul Fane , which was published a year later . The character Bosh Blivins , who served as comic relief in the novel , may have been based on painter Chester Harding . His final work was The Convalescent ( 1859 ) , which included a chapter on his time spent with Washington Irving at Sunnyside .
= = = Final years and death = = =
In July 1860 , Willis took his last major trip . Along with his wife , he stopped in Chicago and Yellow Springs , Ohio , as far west as Madison , Wisconsin , and also took a steamboat down the Mississippi River to St. Louis , Missouri , and returned through Cincinnati , Ohio and Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . In 1861 , Willis allowed the Home Journal to break its pledge to avoid taking sides in political discussions when the Confederate States of America was established , calling the move a purposeful act to bring on war . On May 28 , 1861 , Willis was part of a committee of literary figures — including William Cullen Bryant , Charles Anderson Dana , and Horace Greeley — to invite Edward Everett to speak in New York on behalf of maintaining the Union . The Home Journal lost many subscribers during the American Civil War , Morris died in 1864 , and the Willis family had to take in boarders and for a time turned Idlewild into a girls ' school for income .
Willis was very sick in these final years : he suffered from violent epileptic seizures and , early in November 1866 , fainted in the streets , prompting Harriet Jacobs to return to help his wife . Willis died on his sixty @-@ first birthday , January 20 , 1867 , and was buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge , Massachusetts . Four days later , the day of his funeral , all bookstores in the city were closed as a token of respect . His pallbearers included Longfellow , James Russell Lowell , Oliver Wendell Holmes , Samuel Gridley Howe , and James Thomas Fields .
= = Reputation = =
Throughout his literary career , Willis was well liked and known for his good nature amongst friends . Well traveled and clever , he had a striking appearance at six feet tall and was typically dressed elegantly . Many , however , remarked that Willis was effeminate , Europeanized , and guilty of " Miss Nancyism " . One editor called him " an impersonal passive verb — a pronoun of the feminine gender " . A contemporary caricature depicted him wearing a fashionable beaver hat and tightly closed coat and carrying a cane , reflecting Willis 's wide reputation as a " dandy " . Willis put considerable effort into his appearance and his fashion sense , presenting himself as a member of an upcoming American aristocracy . As Oliver Wendell Holmes , Sr. once said , Willis was " something between a remembrance of Count D 'Orsay and an anticipation of Oscar Wilde " . Publisher Charles Frederick Briggs once wrote that " Willis was too Willisy " . He described his writings as the " novelty and gossip of the hour " and was not necessarily concerned about facts but with the " material of conversation and speculation , which may be mere rumor , may be the truth " . Willis 's behavior in social groups annoyed fellow poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow . " He is too artificial " , Longfellow wrote to his friend George Washington Greene . " And his poetry has now lost one of its greatest charms for me — its sincerity " . E. Burke Fisher , a journalist in Pittsburgh , wrote that " Willis is a kind of national pet and we must regard his faults as we do those of a spoiled stripling , in the hope that he will amend " .
Willis built up his reputation in the public at a time when readers were interested in the personal lives of writers . In his writings , he described the " high life " of the " Upper Ten Thousand " , a phrase he coined . His travel writings in particular were popular for this reason as Willis was actually living the life he was describing and recommending to readers . Even so , he manufactured a humble and modest persona , questioned his own literary merit , and purposely used titles , such as Pencillings by the Way and Dashes at Life With Free Pencil , which downplayed their own quality . His informally toned editorials , which covered a variety of topics , were also very successful . Using whimsicality and humor , he was purposely informal to allow his personality to show in his writing . He addressed his readers personally , as if having a private conversation with them . As he once wrote : " We would have you ... indulge us in our innocent egotism as if it were all whispered in your private ear and over our iced Margaux " . When women poets were becoming popular in the 1850s , he emulated their style and focused on sentimental and moral subjects .
In the publishing world , Willis was known as a shrewd magazinist and an innovator who focused on appealing to readers ' special interests while still recognizing new talent . In fact , Willis became the standard by which other magazinists were judged . According to writer George William Curtis , " His gayety [ sic ] and his graceful fluency made him the first of our proper ' magazinists ' " . For a time , it was said that Willis was the " most @-@ talked @-@ about author " in the United States . Poe questioned Willis 's fame , however . " Willis is no genius – a graceful trifler – no more " , he wrote in a letter to James Russell Lowell . " In me , at least , he never excites an emotion . " Minor Southern writer Joseph Beckham Cobb wrote : " No sane person , we are persuaded , can read his poetry " . Future senator Charles Sumner reported : " I find Willis is much laughed at for his sketches " . Even so , most contemporaries recognized how prolific he was as a writer and how much time he put into all of his writings . James Parton said of him :
Of all the literary men whom I have ever known , N. P. Willis was the one who took the most pains with his work . It was no very uncommon thing for him to toil over a sentence for an hour ; and I knew him one evening to write and rewrite a sentence for two hours before he had got it to his mind .
By 1850 and with the publication of Hurry @-@ Graphs , Willis was becoming a forgotten celebrity . In August 1853 , future President James A. Garfield discussed Willis 's declining popularity in his diary : " Willis is said to be a licentious man , although an unrivaled poet . How strange that such men should go to ruin , when they might soar perpetually in the heaven of heavens " . After Willis 's death , obituaries reported that he had outlived his fame . One remarked , " the man who withdraws from the whirling currents of active life is speedily forgotten " . This obituary also stated that Americans " will ever remember and cherish Nathaniel P. Willis as one worthy to stand with Fenimore Cooper and Washington Irving " . In 1946 , the centennial issue of Town & Country reported that Willis " led a generation of Americans through a gate where weeds gave way to horticulture " . More modern scholars have dismissed Willis 's work as " sentimental prattle " or refer to him only as an obstacle in the progress of his sister as well as Harriet Jacobs . As biographer Thomas N. Baker wrote , Willis is today only referred to as a footnote in relation to other authors .
= = Selected list of works = =
Prose
Sketches ( 1827 )
Pencillings by the Way ( 1835 )
Inklings of Adventure ( 1836 )
À l 'Abri ; or , The Tent Pitched ( 1839 )
Loiterings of Travel ( 1840 )
The Romance of Travel ( 1840 )
American Scenery ( 2 volumes 1840 )
Canadian Scenery ( 2 volumes 1842 )
Dashes at Life with a Free Pencil ( 1845 )
Rural Letters and Other Records of Thoughts at Leisure ( 1849 )
People I Have Met ( 1850 )
Life Here and There ( 1850 )
Hurry @-@ Graphs ( 1851 )
Summer Cruise in the Mediterranean ( 1853 )
Fun Jottings ; or , Laughs I have taken a Pen to ( 1853 )
Health Trip to the Tropics ( 1854 )
Ephemera ( 1854 )
Famous Persons and Places ( 1854 )
Out @-@ Doors at Idlewild ; or , The Shaping of a Home on the Banks of the Hudson ( 1855 )
The Rag Bag . A Collection of Ephemera ( 1855 )
Paul Fane ; or , Parts of a Life Else Untold . A Novel ( 1857 )
The Convalescent ( 1859 )
Plays
Bianca Visconti ; or , The Heart Overtasked . A Tragedy in Five Acts ( 1839 )
Tortesa ; or , The Userer Matched ( 1839 )
Poetry
Fugitive Poetry ( 1829 )
Melanie and Other Poems ( 1831 )
The Sacred Poems of N. P. Willis ( 1843 )
Poems of Passion ( 1843 )
Lady Jane and Humorous Poems ( 1844 )
The Poems , Sacred , Passionate , and Humorous ( 1868 )
= Bobby Bauer =
Robert Theodore " Bobby " Bauer ( February 16 , 1915 – September 16 , 1964 ) was a Canadian professional ice hockey right winger who played 10 seasons in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Boston Bruins . He was a member of the famed " Kraut Line " with teammates Milt Schmidt and Woody Dumart . The trio led the Bruins to two Stanley Cup championships and became the first line to finish first , second and third in NHL scoring , in 1939 – 40 . Bauer was named to the All @-@ Star Team four times and was a three @-@ time winner of the Lady Byng Trophy , awarded for gentlemanly conduct combined with a high calibre of play . He recorded only 36 penalties in minutes in 327 games .
Prior to his NHL career , Bauer won the Memorial Cup with the St. Michael 's Majors in 1934 as junior champions of Canada . He joined the Royal Canadian Air Force in 1942 and won the Allan Cup with the Ottawa RCAF Flyers as senior champions that year . Bauer turned to coaching following his NHL career and guided the Kitchener @-@ Waterloo Dutchmen to two Allan Cup championships . The Dutchmen were sent to represent Canada at the 1956 Winter Olympics where Bauer coached the team to a bronze medal . He also coached the Canadian entry at the 1960 Winter Olympics that won a silver medal . Bauer assisted his brother David in creating the Canadian national hockey team in the 1960s . He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1996 .
= = Early life = =
Bauer was born on February 16 , 1915 , in Waterloo , Ontario . He was the second of 11 children to Edgar and Alice Bauer ; His elder brother Frank was later Mayor of Waterloo and he had nine younger siblings : Eugene , Jerome , Alice , David , Raymond , Mary , Rita , Therese and Margaret . Edgar was a Knight of the Order of St. Sylvester , Waterloo city councilor and executive in the Bauer family 's automotive parts business .
The Bauer children learned to play hockey in a backyard rink , and Bobby grew up playing youth hockey in Kitchener – Waterloo before moving to Toronto in 1930 where he attended St. Michael 's College and played junior first with the St. Michael 's Buzzers in 1930 – 31 followed by three years with the St. Michael 's Majors . In 1933 – 34 , Bauer recorded 15 points in 13 Memorial Cup playoff games to help the Majors capture the Dominion junior championship . Bauer played his final year of junior in 1934 – 35 with the Kitchener Greenshirts where he first played with Milt Schmidt and Woody Dumart , who was then a defenceman .
= = Playing career = =
All three players were signed by the Boston Bruins , and Bauer was assigned to the Boston Cubs of the Canadian @-@ American Hockey League ( CAHL ) for the 1935 – 36 season . He scored 15 goals for the Cubs in 48 games , then was promoted to the Providence Reds of the International @-@ American Hockey League ( IAHL ) in 1936 – 37 . It was with the Reds that Bauer as right wing , Schmidt at centre and Dumart , who moved up to left wing , were first placed together as a line . Owing to their shared German heritage , the trio were initially called the " Sauerkrauts " by Providence coach Albert Leduc , though the name was shortened and they were known as the " Kraut Line " for the majority of their careers . Following a season in which Bauer recorded 18 points in 44 games with the Reds , the Bruins recalled him to Boston for the team 's final game of the regular season . He made his NHL debut on March 21 , 1937 , and scored his first goal in a 6 – 1 victory over the Chicago Black Hawks .
The Kraut Line earned full @-@ time spots in Boston beginning in 1937 – 38 ; Bauer recorded a team @-@ leading 20 goals in his rookie season as the trio led the Bruins to the team 's first of four consecutive Prince of Wales Trophy wins as the NHL 's best team in the regular season . Following a 31 @-@ point regular season in 1938 – 39 , Bauer added five points in 12 playoff games and was named to the NHL 's second All @-@ Star Team . The Bruins eliminated the New York Rangers , then defeated the Toronto Maple Leafs four games to one to capture Boston 's first Stanley Cup championship in ten years . In 1939 – 40 , Schmidt led the NHL in points with 52 while Dumart and Bauer finished second and third respectively with 43 each . It was the first time in league history that three linemates finished in the top three spots in NHL scoring . Bauer was again named a second team All @-@ Star , and with only two penalties in minutes ( PIM ) , won the Lady Byng Trophy for the first time .
A 39 @-@ point season in 1940 – 41 with only two PIM earned Bauer his third consecutive appearance on the All @-@ Star Team and a second Lady Byng Trophy . In the playoffs , the Bruins reached the 1941 Stanley Cup Finals where they defeated the Detroit Red Wings in four straight games . Bauer scored the Stanley Cup winning goal midway through the second period of a 3 – 1 victory in the deciding game . Following the outbreak of the Second World War , all three members of the Kraut Line enlisted with the Canadian military by signing up for home defence . At the same time , anti @-@ German sentiment led to efforts to change the trio 's nickname . They were briefly called the " Buddy Line " and the " Kitchener Kids " , though they were again referred to as the Kraut Line following the war .
The trio were called to active duty in January 1942 , forcing them to leave the Bruins midway through the 1941 – 42 season . In their final game with the Bruins , the Kraut Line recorded eight points in a dominating victory over the Montreal Canadiens . Following the contest , players from both teams fêted the trio , hoisting them up on their shoulders and parading them around the ice . Bauer was overwhelmed by the moment : " The ovation , at the height of my youth , sort of grabbed me . " Schmidt , Dumart and Bauer were the first NHL players to join the Royal Canadian Air Force , and while training in Ottawa , they joined the Ottawa RCAF Flyers of the Quebec Senior Hockey League ( QSHL ) . The trio helped the Flyers win the Allan Cup as Canadian senior champions . Bauer was sent to Halifax to continue his training and played with the Dartmouth RCAF team in 1942 – 43 . Bauer , who served as a radio technician , was dispatched to the United Kingdom where he , Schmidt and Dumart were members of a bomber squadron . However , he was returned to Canada in 1944 after being ruled invalid due to a bout of sciatica caused by an old hockey injury . He played with a team in Toronto until the war 's conclusion .
Returning to the Bruins for the 1945 – 46 NHL season , Bauer was reunited with his Kraut Line teammates . Unlike many players who had left for the war , he remained in peak form . However , after scoring 22 points that season , Bauer contemplated retirement . He chose to return for one additional season and was named the Bruins captain for 1946 – 47 . Bauer had his best year in the NHL : he recorded a team @-@ leading 30 goals and finished seventh overall in league scoring with 54 points . He was named to a fourth All @-@ Star Team and won the Lady Byng Trophy for the third time . Following the season , he announced his retirement .
= = Coaching career = =
Returning to Kitchener , Bauer joined his father @-@ in @-@ law 's hockey equipment business . He also began his coaching career with the Ontario Hockey Association ( OHA ) ' s Guelph Biltmore Mad Hatters and , late in the 1947 – 48 season , joined the Kitchener @-@ Waterloo Dutchmen in the OHA senior division . After recording 15 points in eight games , Bauer scored 38 and 24 points in the following two seasons and helped the Dutchmen reach the OHA finals in three consecutive years between 1948 and 1950 . He again retired as a player in 1950 , but came back in 1951 – 52 for a final season with Kitchener @-@ Waterloo . Late in the season , he also played in one final game with the Bruins . The team was celebrating " Milt Schmidt @-@ Woody Dumart appreciation night " and convinced Bauer to come out of retirement to reunite the Kraut Line for one game on March 18 , 1952 . The trio were presented gifts in honour of their service to the team and sport . In the contest itself , Bauer scored one goal in a 4 – 0 victory over Toronto and assisted ( along with Dumart ) on Schmidt 's 200th career goal – at the time a rare feat ; Schmidt was one of only five active players at that point to have reached the mark .
Ending his playing career , Bauer became coach , general manager and president of the Dutchmen in 1952 . He coached the team to two OHA senior championships and Allan Cup victories : 1952 – 53 and 1954 – 55 . As the top senior team in the nation , the Dutchmen were sent to Italy to represent Canada at the 1956 Winter Olympics . Bauer was pleased with the way his team adapted to European rules and the Dutchmen were expected to bring home the gold medal . However , the team was shocked by the American entry , a 4 – 1 loss . Though they still had a chance at gold due to the round robin format of the tournament , the Dutchmen were defeated by the Soviet Union – at the time a relatively unknown and emerging hockey power – by a 2 – 0 score despite outshooting the Soviets 23 – 9 . Canada was relegated to the bronze medal , at the time the worst finish in the nation 's Olympic hockey history .
Bauer retired as a coach following the Olympics . However , the Dutchmen , augmented by players loaned from other teams , were again sent to represent Canada at the 1960 Winter Olympics . The team 's coach , Bill Durnan resigned following a six @-@ game losing streak , and after several other candidates were unable to take the necessary time off to coach the squad at the tournament , the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association ( CAHA ) convinced Bauer to return . The Canadians lost only one game in the tournament , to the United States . The final game of the tournament had been scheduled between Canada and the Soviet Union as it was expected to be the gold medal match @-@ up . However the Americans won all of their games . Consequently , the match determined the silver medal , which Canada claimed with an 8 – 5 victory .
= = Personal life = =
Bauer partnered in a Guelph @-@ based electronics company and resided in Kingston with his wife Marguerite and sons Bobby Jr . , and Bradley . He also partnered with Woody Dumont in a stick manufacturing company and was a director of the Kitchener Rangers hockey club . His brother , Father David Bauer , convinced CAHA officials in 1962 to abandon the practice of sending a club team to represent Canada internationally in favour of building a true Canadian National Team . Bobby assisted his brother 's efforts in creating the team by sharing his coaching knowledge and helping to formulate how the team was to be formed . The first national team played at the 1964 Winter Olympics where it finished a controversial fourth . On September 16 , 1964 , Bauer suffered a heart attack while golfing and died at the age of 49 . He was posthumously inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame by the veterans committee in 1996 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = Awards and honours = =
= North & South ( TV serial ) =
North & South is a British television drama serial , produced by the BBC and originally broadcast in four episodes on BBC One in November and December 2004 . It follows the story of Margaret Hale ( Daniela Denby @-@ Ashe ) , a young woman from southern England who has to move to the North after her father decides to leave the clergy . The family struggles to adjust itself to the industrial town 's customs , especially after meeting the Thorntons , a proud family of cotton mill owners who seem to despise their social inferiors . The story explores the issues of class and gender , as Margaret 's sympathy for the town mill workers clashes with her growing attraction to John Thornton ( Richard Armitage ) .
The serial is based on the 1855 Victorian novel North and South by Elizabeth Gaskell . It was adapted for television by Sandy Welch and directed by Brian Percival .
= = Plot = =
Margaret Hale ( Daniela Denby @-@ Ashe ) and her parents Maria ( Lesley Manville ) and Richard ( Tim Pigott @-@ Smith ) move to the ( fictional ) industrial town of Milton , Darkshire , in the north of England because her father , a clergyman , decides to leave the Church of England and become a Nonconformist . Thanks to his friend , Mr. Bell ( Brian Protheroe ) , he is able to find a house and gains employment as a private tutor . One of his pupils is local mill @-@ owner John Thornton ( Richard Armitage ) , who gets off to a bad start with Margaret when she witnesses him beating a worker whom he has caught smoking in the mill , thus endangering all the workers . Gradually , Margaret gets used to Thornton , but his mother Hannah ( Sinéad Cusack ) and sister Fanny ( Jo Joyner ) disapprove of her , believing her haughty and alien to the customs of the North . In the meantime , Margaret attempts to do charitable work among the working classes , and thus comes into contact with Nicholas Higgins ( Brendan Coyle ) and his daughter , Bessy ( Anna Maxwell Martin ) , who contracted Pneumoconiosis from exposure to the cotton @-@ fibres in the mills . When Bessy became ill at Hamper 's Mill , her father moved her to Marlborough Mills , Thornton 's mill , because the working environment is better there . In a meeting with fellow mill owners , Thornton says he had a wheel for ventilation installed in all of the rooms of his factory , despite the fact that it costs a great deal of money . The other industrialists had refused to install a wheel because of the expense .
Margaret 's mother is falling ill . Mrs Hale desires to see her son Frederick ( Rupert Evans ) before she dies . Frederick , a naval officer was involved in a mutiny and he cannot return to England without risking his life . However , without telling her father , Margaret writes to her brother in Cádiz , Spain , to tell him that their mother is dying . Margaret calls on the Thorntons to borrow a water mattress for her mother and is trapped while mill workers riot during a strike . When the angry mob threatens John 's safety as he confronts them after Margaret 's goading , Margaret defends him from the rioters and is injured by a thrown stone .
Margaret recovers and returns home , telling nobody about what had happened at the Mill , mainly to protect the health of her mother . When Thornton proposes to her the next day , she scorns him , thinking he believes himself superior because of the difference in their financial circumstances . He denies this and tells her that he is in love with her , but she insists that her actions were not personal .
Meanwhile , Bessy Higgins dies and Thornton stops coming for lessons from Mr. Hale . As a distraction for Mrs. Hale and for herself , Margaret visits the Great Exhibition with her Aunt Shaw ( Jane Booker ) , her cousin Edith and Edith 's husband . Margaret meets Thornton at the exhibition , where he is discussing the machinery with a group of gentlemen , all of whom are listening with great respect and admiration for his simple good sense . Margaret is embarrassed to meet Thornton so soon after her rejection but defends him when Henry Lennox ( John Light ) , Edith 's brother @-@ in @-@ law and an admirer of Margaret , tries to belittle him for being in trade . Henry 's sophistication and reliance on fashionable wit and sarcasm compares unfavourably with Thornton 's honesty when Margaret sees them together .
When Margaret returns home , her mother has taken a turn for the worse . Margaret 's brother arrives just in time to see his mother on her death @-@ bed . While Frederick is in the house , Thornton comes to visit his friend Mr. Hale , but he cannot be allowed in , in case he sees Fred . Thornton interprets this as Margaret refusing to see him . The family 's servant , Dixon ( Pauline Quirke ) , sees a former member of Frederick 's crew in Milton town , and it is decided that Frederick must leave at once , before he is discovered and arrested . He and Margaret are seen together at the railway station by Thornton , who thinks Margaret has a lover .
Thornton gives employment to Higgins after Bessy 's death , and master and hand get along surprisingly well , despite their differences . They come up with a plan to feed the workers cheaply in a communal kitchen , and Thornton comes to a greater understanding with his workers as they share ideas . However , because of the strike , Thornton 's business is in trouble , and he is forced to close the mill .
Margaret 's father dies in Oxford and she leaves the north to stay with relatives in London , but her godfather , Mr Bell , makes over his fortune to her when he finds out that he has a terminal illness and chooses to move to Argentina for the better climate . Margaret becomes the owner of Marlborough Mills and John Thornton 's landlord . Thornton , having discovered the truth about Fred from Mr Higgins , goes south to see Margaret 's home town , and on the way back meets her returning from a visit to the north . She proposes a business deal by which the factory can be reopened ; after this the two share a kiss . Their final scene takes place on the railway station platform with both going " home " to Milton .
= = Cast = =
Daniela Denby @-@ Ashe – Margaret Hale
Richard Armitage – John Thornton
Tim Pigott @-@ Smith – Mr Richard Hale
Lesley Manville – Mrs Maria Hale
Sinéad Cusack – Mrs Hannah Thornton
Jo Joyner – Fanny Thornton
Brendan Coyle – Mr Nicholas Higgins
Anna Maxwell Martin – Bessy Higgins
Kay Lyon – Mary Higgins
Pauline Quirke – Dixon
Rupert Evans – Frederick Hale
Brian Protheroe – Mr. Bell
John Light – Henry Lennox
Emma Ferguson – Edith Shaw Lennox
Jane Booker – Aunt Shaw
Will Houston – John Boucher
= = Production = =
= = = Origins = = =
Sandy Welch started adapting Elizabeth Gaskell 's 1855 North and South in 2001 , making a few changes to emphasise the industrial landscape of the story . Welch 's story , for example , begins and ends with the main character Margaret Hale travelling by train , which is not the starting and ending point of the novel ( although Gaskell describes the Hales travelling from the South to the North by train ) . Welch also made the main characters visit the Great Exhibition of 1851 . These are changes Welch believed Gaskell would have done " if she 'd had the time " , since Gaskell had complained of being under pressure to complete the novel by her editor Charles Dickens . In the summer of 2003 Kate Bartlett was brought to the project as a producer and a ten @-@ week period of pre @-@ production started at the beginning of February .
= = = Casting = = =
Daniela Denby @-@ Ashe had not originally auditioned for the role of Margaret Hale but for that of Fanny Thornton , and was not sure she would be participating on the project , but the producers had been looking for the right Margaret for a long time and Denby @-@ Ashe 's " directness , energy and charm " as well as the chemistry she had with would @-@ be co @-@ star Richard Armitage proved decisive . Armitage himself had been the first actor to read for the role of John Thornton and even though his performance had impressed producer Kate Bartlett and casting director Jill Trevellick , they still had to see many other possible Thorntons . Three weeks after casting had begun , Trevellick decided to recapitulate the first auditions , realising that Armitage was " perfect " .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming took place from the end of April 2004 until July 2004 . Gaskell 's fictional town of Milton , Darkshire , was loosely based on Manchester , but the producers decided to shoot many of the town scenes in Edinburgh , which maintains more of its visual and architectural heritage from the industrial Victorian era . Keighley in West Yorkshire became one of the main locations , the cotton mill 's exteriors were filmed at Dalton Mill . The scenes inside the mill were shot at Helmshore Textile Museum in Rossendale and Queen Street Mill on the outskirts of Burnley , Lancashire . London was another main location , all the interior scenes were shot at the Ealing Studios in west London and the Great Exhibition scene was shot at Alexandra Palace in North London . Other locations were Selkirk , a town in the Scottish Borders , Burnley in Lancashire , and the Bluebell Railway in Sussex , where the final and the beginning scenes were shot . Additional railway sequences were filmed in Yorkshire , using carriages provided by the Vintage Carriages Trust
As a costume drama , North & South required substantial work from the art department . In 2005 the serial 's production designer Simon Elliot received a British Academy Television Award nomination for Best Production Design .
= = = Music = = =
Martin Phipps composed the score for North & South . The short piano tune is played throughout the whole series in different rhythms . The music is especially loud and clear whenever there is a turning point in the relationship between Margaret and Thornton .
= = Reception = =
As the BBC had low expectations for the series , it was not well publicised and went almost unnoticed by critics . Audiences , however , were more receptive ; hours after the first episode aired in November 2004 , the message board of the programme ’ s website crashed because of the number of visitors the site was receiving , forcing host bbc.co.uk to shut it down . This sudden interest on the serial was attributed to Richard Armitage , a relatively unknown actor , whose portrayal of the emotionally restrained John Thornton drew parallels with Colin Firth 's portrayal of Fitzwilliam Darcy on the BBC 's 1995 mini @-@ series Pride and Prejudice , and the reception he later received . Armitage himself claims that the series was a success because of the " industrial landscape and the attention [ that the series gives ] to the working classes and the way they develop " . The reaction to the series was a surprise to the BBC , who then decided to release the DVD on 11 April 2005 .
North & South was voted " Best Drama " in the BBC drama website 's annual poll in 2004 . Richard Armitage was voted " Most Desirable Drama Star " and " Best Actor " , Daniela Denby @-@ Ashe was voted " Best Actress " ( Sinead Cusack came in third ) and three different scenes were voted as the year 's " Favourite Moments " , with the final scene winning the number one spot .
= Mary Bell ( aviator ) =
Mary Teston Luis Bell ( 3 December 1903 – 6 February 1979 ) was an Australian aviator and founding leader of the Women 's Air Training Corps ( WATC ) , a volunteer organisation that provided support to the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) during World War II . She also helped establish the Women 's Auxiliary Australian Air Force ( WAAAF ) , the first and largest women 's wartime service in the country , which grew to number more than 18 @,@ 000 members by 1944 . Born Mary Fernandes in Tasmania , she married RAAF officer John Bell in 1923 and obtained a pilot 's licence in 1927 . Given temporary command of the WAAAF on its formation in 1941 , she was passed over as its inaugural Director in favour of corporate executive Clare Stevenson . Bell refused the post of Deputy Director and resigned , but subsequently rejoined and served until the final months of the war . She and her husband later became farmers . Nicknamed " Paddy " , Mary Bell died in 1979 at the age of seventy @-@ five .
= = Early life and WATC = =
Born on 3 December 1903 in Launceston , Tasmania , Mary Bell was the daughter of Rowland Walker Luis Fernandes , an English @-@ born clerk , and his wife Emma . She attended Church of England Girls ' Grammar School , Launceston and St Margaret 's School , Devonport , before commencing work in a solicitor 's office at the age of fourteen . She married John Bell ( 1889 – 1973 ) , a Royal Australian Air Force officer and World War I veteran of Gallipoli and the Australian Flying Corps , at St Andrew 's Anglican Church in Brighton , Victoria on 19 March 1923 . They had one daughter .
From 1925 until early 1928 , the Bells lived in Britain while John attended RAF Staff College , Andover and acted as RAAF liaison officer to the Royal Air Force . Interested in aviation since her teens , Mary learnt to fly in England and in April 1927 qualified for a Grade ' A ' private pilot 's licence . Returning to Australia , she was the first female to gain a pilot 's licence in Victoria , on 20 March 1928 . The following year , she became the first Australian woman to qualify as a ground engineer .
By 1939 , the Bells had moved to Brisbane , where John was Queensland manager for Airlines of Australia Ltd , having left the RAAF in 1929 . Mary became leader of forty or so members of the Women 's National Emergency Legion Air Wing who had volunteered to assist with aircraft maintenance during times of war . Determining that their objectives would not be met in their existing organisation , on 17 July they formed a new paramilitary group , the Women 's Air Training Corps ( WATC ) , and elected Bell its commander . She soon expanded the WATC into a national organisation , with Commandants leading each state 's chapter , and herself as Australian Commandant . Bell wrote to Air Vice Marshal Richard Williams , with whom she was acquainted via her husband and through aviation circles , advocating the establishment of a women 's branch of the RAAF similar to the RAF 's Women 's Auxiliary Air Force ( WAAF ) . Among other things , she pointed out that female volunteers such as hers were already supporting the Air Force in driving , nursing and clerical duties . The WATC was one of several women 's voluntary organisations whose members were keen to support the military , arguing that their personnel provided a ready @-@ made pool of skilled staff for auxiliary services , saving the government time and money training unskilled labour .
= = World War II and WAAAF = =
Australia having declared war on 3 September 1939 , the RAAF Air Board met in November to discuss Mary Bell 's letter , but postponed taking any further action . Bell continued to lobby , as did various women 's groups seeking to support the war effort and free male staff for overseas postings . In July 1940 , the new Chief of the Air Staff , Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Burnett , invited her to produce a proposal for a women 's auxiliary , supervised by her husband John , who had rejoined the Air Force at the war 's outbreak and was now a wing commander in the Directorate of Organisation at RAAF Headquarters , Melbourne . Mary recommended forming the new service under the Air Force Act to permit women to enlist for the duration of the war under conditions similar to RAAF members , rather than enrolling on a short @-@ term contractual basis , a radical idea at the time which would not be put in place until 1943 . She also suggested a volunteer reserve or ' citizen ' force to augment the enlisted women , effectively the existing WATC , though this was seen as placing too much emphasis on her personal command . Various senior Air Force officers , including the recently promoted Air Marshal Williams , and the Director of Personnel Services , Group Captain Joe Hewitt , opposed a women 's service . Burnett , an RAF member who appreciated how the WAAF proved its worth during the Battle of Britain , championed its establishment as the Women 's Auxiliary Australian Air Force ( WAAAF ) .
Bell was appointed to the RAAF 's Personnel Branch as Staff Officer ( Administrative ) with the probationary rank of section officer ( acting flight officer ) on 24 February 1941 , in order to " get the organisation going " . Formally established on 25 March , the WAAAF was the first uniformed women 's branch of an armed service in Australia , predating similar organisations in the Army and Navy . Bell led the WAAAF for the first three months of its existence , recruiting approximately two hundred women by June ; of the first six officers she appointed , five were former members of the WATC . On 21 May 1941 , Berlei corporate executive Clare Stevenson was appointed Director WAAAF with Bell as her Deputy Director , effective from 9 June . The Air Member for Personnel , Air Vice Marshal Henry Wrigley , chose Stevenson on the basis of her management background and because she was not a " socialite " . Notwithstanding her aviation experience and familiarity with the RAAF , he considered Bell to be " tangled up with the WATC " , where she " waved the flag and obtained a great deal of publicity for herself " . She may also have alienated Burnett by not including his daughter Sybil @-@ Jean , a founding member of the WAAF , among the initial intake of staff .
Bell chose to resign on learning of Stevenson 's appointment , rather than stay on and report to someone from outside the service fraternity ; she later rejoined at Wrigley 's request , on the condition that she received no promotion higher than flight officer . Two of her original officer appointees also resigned when Bell was passed over , later describing her as " a thorough and effective organiser " and the " obvious choice " as Director . After Bell returned to the WAAAF on 5 October 1942 , she served at RAAF Headquarters in various directorates , mainly that of Medical Services . Despite her recommendation in July 1940 that they be enlisted into the WAAAF as permanent staff , women were at first enrolled only for renewable twelve @-@ month contracts ; they did not become part of the Permanent Air Force , with the benefits that entailed , until 1943 . Pay was only ever two @-@ thirds that of male equivalents . The organisation nevertheless grew rapidly , peaking in strength at over 18 @,@ 600 members in October 1944 , or twelve per cent of all RAAF personnel . By the end of the war a total of 27 @,@ 000 women had served in the WAAAF , comprising over thirty @-@ one per cent of ground staff and filling sixty @-@ one trades , all previously occupied by men .
= = Later life = =
Ranked flight officer , Mary Bell was discharged from the WAAAF at her own request on 11 April 1945 . Her husband John was acting air commodore when he left the RAAF on 15 October that year . The WAAAF , first and largest of Australia 's wartime women 's services , was disbanded on 30 September 1946 . The Bells became farmers , first in Victoria and then in Tasmania , before retiring in 1968 . Survived by her daughter , Mary Bell died in Ulverstone , Tasmania on 6 February 1979 . She was buried at Mersey Vale Memorial Park cemetery in Spreyton , near Devonport , beside her husband , who had died in 1973 .
= Indicud =
Indicud is the third studio album by American hip hop recording artist Kid Cudi . The album was released on April 12 , 2013 , by Republic Records . It was the first album of Cudi 's solo career to not be an installment of his Man on the Moon series . The album 's cover artwork was designed by Kid Cudi himself , who also served as an executive producer of Indicud . It was Cudi 's goal to make more uptempo and positive music with the album . He described it as a completely new format compared to his previous albums .
The album 's record production was handled entirely by Cudi as well , with only record producer Hit @-@ Boy co @-@ producing one track , while Cudi 's WZRD bandmate Dot da Genius , provided drums on two . The album features guest appearances from fellow American rappers King Chip , Kendrick Lamar , Too Short , RZA and ASAP Rocky as well as appearances from American singer @-@ songwriters Father John Misty and Michael Bolton along with indie rock band Haim .
During the early release of Indicud , it was preceded by four singles – " Just What I Am " featuring King Chip , " King Wizard " , " Immortal " and " Girls " featuring Too Short . Indicud debuted at number 2 in the United States . With sales of 139 @,@ 000 copies and debuted at number 32 on the UK Albums Chart , becoming Cudi 's highest @-@ charting album on the chart , while entering at number 2 on the UK R & B Chart . The album received generally mixed reviews from music critics .
= = Background = =
After his crossover into rock music with Dot da Genius , on their project WZRD ( 2012 ) , Cudi soon began working on his third solo studio album . The album was initially going to be the third installment to his Man on the Moon series , which he announced when he revealed he would not be releasing the A Man Named Scott mixtape , to focus on his rock project and " MOTM3 " . Be that as it may , in the summer of 2012 Cudi announced the title of his third studio album when he tweeted : " My new album is entitled indicud , it will be my version of The Chronic 2001 , some songs i 'll produce , others i 'll feat & / or play songwriter " . On June 8 , 2012 , Cudi announced Indicud , would be a double @-@ disc album , until tweeting on October 28 , 2012 that " Indicud will not be a double disc but will contain a maximum of 17 brand new jams . " Kid Cudi also tweeted : " The overall tone of indicud is positive and confident , " adding : " The energy of Indicud is its own new thing . New format with some of my favorite musical tricks here and there . The album moves dope " .
Before the album 's release , in December 2012 , Cudi dedicated Indicud to the late Ben Breedlove and all his fans who died , continuing : " My journey shall continue in your honor . Never forgotten . " The dedication was ultimately included in the album 's liner notes . The album is upbeat and optimistic , very much unlike his previous studio album Man on the Moon II : The Legend of Mr. Rager ( 2010 ) , which was considered darkly erratic . The positive vibe stems from Cudi 's desire to always change and reinvent :
" I always try to push myself to the next level with everything I do . Since I 've been in the business , critics have known that about me . When I started working on Indicud , I just wanted to bring more energy into my sound . Most of my old music was driven towards relaxed , chilled out smoke music . And that was my goal first coming in . Now it 's like , ' What ’ s a side of me that people haven ’ t seen ? ' The only time people have seen me on up @-@ tempos is on remixes or some shit . So I just wanted to take the energy to the next level . That ultimately inspired the subject matter . It was a chain reaction . With the up @-@ tempos came more positive lyrics . It just brightened up the whole shit . "
After announcing his departure from GOOD Music , Cudi revealed Indicud would be his last album under the label , adding that only the first 200 @,@ 000 copies printed would have the GOOD Music logo on it ; making them collector 's items .
= = Recording = =
In April 2012 , in Geneseo , New York , Cudi performed before a sold out crowd and premiered a hip hop song , his first since 2010 . During his set , he performed a new record , tentatively titled " The Leader of the Delinquents " , which he did a cappella . On April 25 , 2012 Cudi was officially back to rapping with the release of " Dennis , Hook Me Up with Some More of That Whiskey ! " . The song , the first ever solely produced by Cudi himself , samples his 2010 song " Ghost ! " . On July 10 , 2012 via his Twitter feed , Cudi announced collaborations on the album thus far , as the album had not yet been completed , to be Pusha T , Jaden Smith and Kendrick Lamar , along with more familiar collaborators Kanye West , King Chip and Cage . He also revealed he was hoping to collaborate with 50 Cent , Lloyd Banks , Diplo and MGMT . In September , he had also expressed interest in working with Harlem @-@ bred rapper ASAP Rocky on Indicud . On October 1 , 2012 Cudi confirmed that production from electronic rock duo Ratatat , with whom he collaborated on " Pursuit of Happiness " and " Alive " from his debut album Man on the Moon : The End of Day ( 2009 ) , would be featured on Indicud .
On October 9 and 12 , Cudi released pictures of him and Dot da Genius in the studio working on the album . On November 6 , 2012 , Cudi made it known that he was in the studio that day working with fellow American rapper J. Cole . On November 17 , 2012 , via his Twitter feed , Cudi announced the song he recorded with Kendrick Lamar was produced by himself and is titled " Solo Dolo , Part II " . He also stated his former GOOD Music label @-@ mate Common would be featured on the album , on a song produced by Dot da Genius and Cudi 's mentor 88 @-@ Keys . On February 13 , 2013 , via Twitter , Cudi revealed he previewed the album to friend and fellow American actor , Mark Webber , and asked him to share his thoughts on the album , as a favor to the fans . During his barrage of tweets , Webber gave insight on the album , revealing Too Short and Wu @-@ Tang Clan 's RZA as features , as well as praising Cudi 's production , rapping and singing . Unlike his previous albums , Indicud is primarily produced by Cudi himself .
In an interview with Billboard , released March 2013 , Cudi confirmed he was working closely with ASAP Rocky , while also revealing Haim , an all @-@ female indie rock band , would appear on the album on a song produced by high @-@ profile American record producer Hit @-@ Boy and himself . On April 2 , 2013 Hit @-@ Boy , claimed besides Cudi , he was the only other person to provide production on the album . Cudi later confirmed the statement via Twitter . Cudi and Hit @-@ Boy had been working on the aforementioned song since January 2011 . The track is also the first record the two of them ever worked on together .
= = Production = =
Cudi also incorporated quotes from his favorite movies into the album , wherever
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St Mary and the manorial Radcliffe Tower , both of which are Grade I listed buildings .
Coal lies under the area of mines opened in the Industrial Revolution , providing fuel for the cotton spinning and papermaking industries . By the mid @-@ 19th century , Radcliffe was an important mill town with cotton mills , bleachworks and a road , canal and railway network .
With a population of 34 @,@ 239 , falling to 29 @,@ 950 at the Census in 2011 . Radcliffe is predominantly a residential area whose few remaining cotton mills are now occupied by small businesses .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
The name Radcliffe is derived from the Old English words read and clif , meaning " the red cliff or bank " , on the River Irwell in the Irwell Valley . The Domesday Book records the name as " Radeclive " . Other archaic spellings include " Radclive " ( recorded in 1227 ) , and " Radeclif " ( recorded in 1309 and 1360 ) . The Radcliffe family took its name from the town .
= = = Early history = = =
The first human settlements in the area , albeit seasonal , are thought to have been as far back as 6,000BC during the Mesolithic period . Archaeological excavations in 1949 at Radcliffe E 'es ( a level plain along the north bank of the Irwell , formed by retreating glacial deposits during the previous ice age ) found evidence of pre @-@ historic activity , suggesting a lake village site , but dating techniques of the time were unreliable . Further investigations in 1961 revealed rows of sharpened posts and worked timbers , but no further dating evidence was collected . In 1911 while repairs to the bridge at Radcliffe bridge were underway , a stone axe @-@ hammer was found in the river bed . The 8 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 22 cm ) large tool artefact weighs 4 pounds ( 1 @.@ 8 kg ) and is made from polished Quartzite , with a bore to take a shaft .
South of the present @-@ day Withins reservoir is a possible location for a Hengi @-@ form Tumulus . The town also has Roman associations ; a Roman road passes through the town , along the border between Radcliffe and Bury on a south @-@ east to north @-@ west route . It allowed easy travel between the Roman forts at Manchester ( Mamucium ) and Ribchester ( Bremetennacum ) . The approximate route was through Higher Lane in nearby Whitefield , through Dales Lane and across the Irwell over Radcliffe E 'es through the site of the former East Lancashire Paper Mill . The route passes up Croft Lane , over Cross Lane and over the route of the Manchester Bolton & Bury Canal under the 10 3 / 4 milestone . It then crosses Bury and Bolton Road , and heads through Higher Spen Moor .
Other than placenames , little information about the area survives from the Dark Ages . Radcliffe was likely moorland and swamps .
Following the 11th century Norman conquest of England , Radcliffe became a parish and township in the hundred of Salford , and county of Lancashire . One of only four parishes from the hundred mentioned in the Domesday Book and held by Edward the Confessor as a Royal Manor , it initially consisted of two hamlets ; Radcliffe , near to the border with Bury and centred on the Medieval Church of St Mary and the manorial Radcliffe Tower , and further to the west Radcliffe Bridge , at a crossing of the Irwell . As a Royal Manor , the hide may originally have been up to four times the size it was when it was recorded in 1212 as being held by William de Radeclive , of the " Radclyffes of the Tower " family .
In the 15th century the Pilkington family who , during the Wars of the Roses , supported the House of York , owned much of the land around the parish . Thomas Pilkington was at this time lord of many estates in Lancashire . In 1485 Richard III was killed in the Battle of Bosworth . The Duke of Richmond , representing the House of Lancaster , was crowned Henry VII . Sir William Stanley may have placed the crown upon his head . As a reward for the support of his family , on 27 October 1485 Henry made Thomas Stanley the Earl of Derby . Thomas Pilkington was attainted , and in February 1489 Earl Thomas was given many confiscated estates including those of Pilkington , which included the township of Pilkington , and Bury . During the English Civil War Radcliffe , along with nearby Bolton , fought on the side of the Parliamentarians against the Royalist Bury .
In 1561 after about 400 years rule by the Radclyffes , Robert Assheton ( Lord of the Manor of Middleton ) bought the manor of Radcliffe for 2 @,@ 000 Marks . From 1765 the Assheton estates were divided between the two daughters of the late Ralph Assheton , one of whom married Thomas Egerton , 1st Earl of Wilton . The manor of Radcliffe appears to have been included in her share , and thereafter was included in the Wilton estates .
= = = Textiles and the Industrial Revolution = = =
The first documented reference to industry in Radcliffe is after 1680 , in the Radcliffe parish registers , which make increasing mention of occupations such as woollen webster ( weaving ) , linen webster , and whitster ( bleacher ) . These were cottage industries which worked alongside local agriculture . In 1780 Robert Peel built the first factory in the town , several hundred yards upstream from Radcliffe Bridge ( at the end of Peel Street ) . With a weir and goit providing motive power for a water wheel , the factory was built for throstle spinning and the weaving of cotton — a relatively new introduction to Britain . The water wheel proved to be insufficient , and so around 1804 the goit was extended . The weir ( known as Rectory Weir ) was made from timber . Conditions were poor ; the mill employed child labour bought from workhouses in Birmingham and London . Children were boarded on an upper floor of the building , and bound until they reached the age of 21 . They were unpaid , and were kept locked up each night . Shifts were typically 10 – 10 @.@ 5 hours in length , and children returning from a day shift would sleep in the same bed as children leaving for a night shift . Peel himself admitted that conditions at the mill were " very bad " . In 1784 an outbreak of typhoid prompted Lord Grey de Wilton to inform the magistrates of the Salford Hundred ; keen to prevent the spread of the disease to neighbouring towns and villages , they sent doctors to assess the situation . Their recommendations included leaving the windows of the mill open at night , fumigation of rooms with tobacco ( as this was thought to discourage disease ) , regular cleaning of rooms and toilets and occasional bathing of children . The report forced the magistrates , led by Thomas Butterworth Bayley , to abandon the practice of binding parish apprentices to any mill not adhering to these conditions . The report also prompted Peel to introduce an Act of Parliament to improve factory hygiene , which later became the Factory Act of 1802 . Over time , conditions at the mill improved ; in the mid @-@ 1790s the physician John Aikin , a critic of the factory system , praised working conditions at the mill , and in 1823 inspections by local magistrates of conditions in mills across the county revealed that unlike many others , the factory at Radcliffe was adhering to all requirements of the Factory Acts .
The underlying coal measures throughout the parish were a valuable source of fuel . Radcliffe already had an established textile industry before the arrival of steam power . The first recorded instance of coal getting in the North West of England was in 1246 , when Adam de Radeclyve was fined for digging de minera on common land in the Radcliffe area . Coal outcroppings were not uncommon ; as recently as 1936 members of the public were seen carrying away large pieces of coal from a seam revealed by the landslip caused when the Manchester , Bolton & Bury Canal breached at Ladyshore . Mining was initially limited to bell pits until the arrival of steam engines , which along with improved ventilation , made possible much deeper pits . The earliest known local use of such an engine was in 1792 at Black Cat Colliery . The parish of Radcliffe was once home to as many as 50 pits , but with the exceptions of Outwood Colliery and Ladyshore Colliery , all were either exhausted or closed by the end of the 19th century . During the 1926 General Strike many striking miners illegally took coal from exposed seams around the Coney Green area of the town , to sell to local housewives . In the 1950s to the north of the town the National Coal Board did some open cast mining near Radcliffe Moor Road , but the last legal instance of coal mining in Radcliffe was between 1931 and 1949 , close to Bury and Bolton Road .
The transformation of the area from an industry based upon water power , to one based upon steam power , may not have been without problems . A story in W. Nicholl 's History and Traditions of Radcliffe ( 1900 ) tells of a " great crowd " of protesters from Bury who marched on Bealey 's Works , demanding that work be halted . James Booth ordered the gates closed , gave the ringleaders £ 5 , and promised to halt work the next day . The crowd then marched on other businesses within the town before heading along the canal to Bolton , at which point they were apparently turned back by news of approaching soldiers .
There were many smaller textile concerns in the parish . Thomas Howarth owned a cottage in Stand Lane from where he sent yarn to be dyed and sized . He made his own warps which were weaved in the town . He would then travel to Preston and Kendal where drapers would purchase his products . His nephews founded A. & J. Hoyle 's Mill in Irwell Street , which employed power weaving to produce their specialities in Ginghams and shirting . The mill closed in 1968 . Messrs Stott & Pickstone 's Top Shop on Stand Lane was the first company to employ powered looms and spinning around 1844 . Many of their employees would eventually leave to start their own businesses , such as Spider Mill , built by Robert and William Fletcher , and John Pickstone . This mill closed around 1930 .
Radcliffe was at one time home to around 60 textile mills and 15 spinning mills , along with 18 bleachworks of which the Bealey family were prominent owners . However , the textile industry was not the town 's major employer ; other industries such as mining and paper making were also important sources of employment .
Mount Sion Mill along Sion Street was founded in the early 19th century and during the First World War manufactured guncotton . A weir was constructed along with a goit , used to turn a water wheel which powered a beam engine to pump water to the reservoirs above .
Radcliffe became well known for its paper industry ; its mills included the East Lancashire Paper Mill and Radcliffe Paper Mill . The former was founded by the Seddon family on 29 March 1860 , along the banks of the Irwell . Its construction provided much @-@ needed employment : in the 1860s living standards within the town were poor , and local mills often operated on " short time " . A reduction in the demand for coal had placed many colliers out of work , and the Lancashire Cotton Famine was starving Lancashire of raw materials , especially cotton . Soup kitchens were opened by local benefactors , and many local residents were on poor relief . The mill began producing low grade paper and newsprint , moving on to other products including high quality printing and writing papers . Radcliffe Paper Mill was formed during the First World War , when it took over from a paper mill and a pipe plant . It originally produced paper suitable for roofing felt , to cater for a national shortage . After World War II the mill employed over 600 people and produced 70 @,@ 000 tons of paper annually . British Plaster Board Industries ( BPB ) took over the company in 1961 .
Other industries in the town included brick making and chimney pot manufacture . Raw materials were sourced from local collieries . In Mill Street carts , waggons , and bicycles were manufactured from 1855 , and elsewhere motor vehicles were also produced until the late 1950s . John Cockerill moved to the town from Haslingden before leaving for continental Europe to become the founder of Cockerill @-@ Sambre . James Cockerill , employed Radcliffe man William Yates as his manager . Several foundries and machine manufacturers were located around the town , including Dobson and Barlow at Bradley Fold , and Wolstenholme 's along Bridgewater Street . Munitions , aircraft and tank components were manufactured during the Second World War . Chemicals were manufactured by companies such as Bealey 's and J. & W. Whewell .
= = = Post @-@ industrial history = = =
From the 1950s Radcliffe 's textile industry went into terminal decline , and although its paper industry survived to the end of the 20th century , both the town 's largest paper mills have now been closed and demolished . One of the larger mills in Radcliffe was the Pioneer Mill , built between 1905 and 1906 , and which ceased weaving in July 1980 — the last mill in Radcliffe to use cotton . The building is now occupied by several different businesses .
Although the town retains much of its existing Victorian and Edwardian housing stock , new estates have been built on former brownfield land including that of the Radcliffe Paper Mill Company . Since deindustrialisation the local population has continued to grow . Radcliffe 's housing stock of 23 @,@ 790 properties is a mixture of mainly semi @-@ detached and terraced housing , with smaller percentages of detached housing and flats . In 1974 the town became a part of the Metropolitan Borough of Bury , and as a result has been described as losing its independence , and to some extent its identity .
= = Governance = =
Following the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 , Radcliffe formed part of the Bury Poor Law Union , an inter @-@ parish unit established to provide social security . Radcliffe 's first local authority was an early form of local government in England . In July 1866 the Radcliffe Local Board of Health was established . With reference to the Local Government Act 1858 , it was a regulatory body consisting of 12 members , responsible for standards of hygiene and sanitation in the township . Richard Bealey J.P. was chairman of the local board until April 1876 In the same year , the parish was extended to include parts of the former township of Pilkington , formerly in the parish of Prestwich @-@ cum @-@ Oldham .
Radcliffe became a part of the Municipal Borough of Bury in 1876 , but following the Local Government Act 1894 it left the district ( by then the County Borough of Bury ) , becoming an urban district within the administrative county of Lancashire . The district boundary was extended to include the Stand Lane district The extension made the area covered by Radcliffe Urban District 3 @,@ 084 acres ( 12 @.@ 48 km2 ; 4 @.@ 819 sq mi ) . Radcliffe Urban District was governed by a council of 24 members , made from six councillors from each of the four wards , Radcliffe Hall , Radcliffe Bridge , Black Lane , and Stand Lane . Alker Allen J.P. was the first chairman of the new council . A town hall was built in 1911 , replacing an earlier building on the junction of Water Street and Spring Lane . It formed the public administrative centre for the district with a large council chamber on the first floor , with public gallery , and four committee rooms .
The Lancashire ( Southern Areas ) Review Order of 1933 extended the district to include the township of Ainsworth , and a portion of the township of Outwood . This increased the area covered by Radcliffe District to 4 @,@ 915 acres ( 19 @.@ 89 km2 ) . A new ward was created for Ainsworth , comprising the former township and a portion of the Black Lane ward . Three councillors were added to the council , and the total number of electors became 15 @,@ 009 . On 21 September 1935 the urban district received a charter as a municipal borough , which gave it borough status , and elevated it to the Municipal Borough of Radcliffe .
Under the Local Government Act 1972 the town 's urban district status was abolished , and Radcliffe has , since 1 April 1974 , formed an unparished area of the Metropolitan Borough of Bury , a local government district of the metropolitan county of Greater Manchester .
For electoral purposes , Radcliffe is now divided into three wards ; Radcliffe North , Radcliffe East , and Radcliffe West . It is in the Bury South constituency and is represented in the House of Commons by Labour Party member Ivan Lewis .
= = Geography = =
At 53 ° 33 ′ 41 ″ N 2 ° 19 ′ 36 ″ W ( 53 @.@ 5615 ° , − 2 @.@ 3268 ° ) and 170 miles ( 274 km ) northwest of central London , Radcliffe lies in the Irwell Valley on the course of the River Irwell . The larger towns of Bury and Bolton lie to the northeast and northwest . For the purposes of the Office for National Statistics , Radcliffe forms a northerly part of the Greater Manchester Urban Area , with Manchester city centre 6 @.@ 5 miles ( 10 @.@ 5 km ) to the south @-@ southeast .
Radcliffe 's position on the River Irwell has proved important in its history and development as the river provided a source of water for local industry . Radcliffe E 'es , a level plain formed along the north bank of the Irwell during the previous ice age , is now derelict and the planned location of a new school . From a highpoint of 500 feet ( 152 m ) above sea level in the northwest of Radcliffe , the surface gradually descends , particularly in the south and east , being the lowest along the River Irwell . The geology is represented by coal measure .
Radcliffe is surrounded by open space and rural land , much of which is visible from the town centre . To the east of the town the River Roch flows under Blackford Bridge , and joins the Irwell shortly thereafter , along which several weirs and goits were built as it passes through the town . Flowing from east to west the river divides the town on the north and south sides of the valley respectively . The town centre sits on the north side of the valley . Two road bridges cross the river : one in the former hamlet of Radcliffe Bridge , and another newer bridge built as part of the A665 Pilkington Bypass . Another bridge crosses the river along the eastern border with Bury . Various smaller pedestrian footbridges and two railway viaducts ( one disused ) also exist .
= = Demography = =
According to the Office for National Statistics , at the time of the United Kingdom Census 2001 , Radcliffe had a population of 34 @,@ 239 . The population density in 2001 was 9 @,@ 132 inhabitants per square mile ( 3 @,@ 526 / km2 ) , with a 100 to 94 @.@ 9 female – male ratio . Of those over 16 years old , 28 @.@ 6 % were single ( never married ) and 42 @.@ 8 % married . Radcliffe 's 14 @,@ 036 households included 28 @.@ 1 % one @-@ person , 39 @.@ 0 % married couples living together , 9 @.@ 2 % were co @-@ habiting couples , and 12 @.@ 3 % single parents with their children . The figures for married couples households was below the borough ( 48 @.@ 5 % ) and national average ( 47 @.@ 3 % ) , and single parent households were slightly above the average for the whole of Bury ( 11 @.@ 6 % ) and England ( 10 @.@ 5 % ) . Of those aged 16 – 74 , 31 @.@ 1 % had no academic qualifications , slightly higher than averages of Bury ( 29 @.@ 2 % ) and England ( 28 @.@ 9 % ) .
The residential areas of Radcliffe both to the north and the south of the town centre operate as suburbs of Bury and Manchester , such that their populations are not necessarily linked to the town . The socio @-@ demographic characteristics of the town 's population includes a mix of working and suburban middle classes , the layout of which are both linked to neighbouring towns .
Radcliffe is within the Manchester Larger Urban Zone , and within the Manchester Travel to Work Area .
= = Economy = =
Radcliffe 's first market was built by the Earl of Wilton and opened in 1851 . The town was home to twelve Co @-@ op stores , the largest of which was on Stand Lane . The four storey structure , built in 1877 , had shops and offices on the ground floor , and a large area for public meetings on the second floor . The building was truncated to two stories in June 1971 , and eventually demolished . Two more Co @-@ op stores were located on Bury Street and Cross Lane . The current market hall , built in 1937 on a different site to the old market , suffered a devastating fire in 1980 but was later restored . Radcliffe was once served by several banks including the Lancashire and Yorkshire Bank , the Manchester and Liverpool District Bank , the Union Bank of Manchester , and Parr 's Bank ltd . Today both the Royal Bank of Scotland and Halifax bank have branches in the town .
Radcliffe has two weekly newspapers , the Radcliffe Times , based at the Bury Times offices , in Bury , and the Salford @-@ based The Advertiser , which also covers the neighbouring areas of Prestwich and Whitefield .
The construction in the 1980s of the A665 Pilkington Way Bypass relieved traffic congestion along the traditional route through the town , Blackburn Street . A new bridge across the Irwell was constructed for the road , and part of Blackburn Street was pedestrianised . The road has attracted developments along former industrial land to the west of the town , including a large Asda supermarket , although it has exacerbated the decline of the retail outlets in the town centre . The bypass has created problems for cyclists and pedestrians who appear reluctant to cross the road and visit the town centre . One solution presently under consideration would involve a partial reopening of the pedestrianised section of Blackburn Street to traffic .
The closure of the East Lancashire and Radcliffe Paper Mills , both of which employed thousands of people , has left a large gap in the town 's local economy . Along with the decline of local industry the town 's shopping centre has suffered a severe loss of trade and is now barely viable as a retail outlet . Radcliffe 's market hall compares poorly with the neighbouring Bury Market . Amongst other shops , the town 's central shopping precinct retains a Boots . A Dunelm Mill store now occupies the former site of the town 's Asda supermarket .
" Re @-@ inventing Radcliffe " is the name given on a report of a proposed improvement scheme . The report envisages several initiatives , and includes the creation of new housing both to the north and south of the town . Existing industry to the west of the town and along Milltown Street would be retained and improved , along with sections of the former Radcliffe Paper Mill and Pioneer Mill . The market would be redeveloped along with the Kwik Save site and bus station , and the town could become a centre for the arts . To improve transport links , new crossings of the Irwell and canal are proposed , along with a new school to replace the two closed secondary schools . Finally , the report suggests improving the image of Radcliffe within the Bury area .
" Newlands " is a regeneration programme run by the Forestry Commission . One site under consideration for regeneration is the former waste tip of Radcliffe E 'es .
= = = Population and employment change = = =
In 1921 2 @,@ 394 men and 3 @,@ 680 women were employed in the textile industry . By 1951 these figures had fallen respectively to 981 and 1 @,@ 852 . A more drastic fall is evident in the numbers of people employed in the mining and quarrying industries ; in 1921 591 people were employed in both , but in 1951 this had dropped to only 57 , reflecting the number of mines in and around Radcliffe that had by that time been completely exhausted .
By 2001 , from a working population of 15 @,@ 972 between the ages of 16 – 74 only six people were employed in mining . 3 @,@ 011 people were employed in manufacturing , 103 in public utilities , and 985 in construction . 3 @,@ 371 people worked in wholesale and retailing ; repair of motor vehicles , 682 in hotels and catering , and 1 @,@ 185 in transport ; storage and communication . 642 people worked in financial intermediation , 1 @,@ 711 in real estate , 694 in public administration and defence , 987 in education , 1 @,@ 876 in health and social work , and 657 in other work .
= = Landmarks = =
Radcliffe Tower is all that remains of an early 15th @-@ century stone @-@ built manor house . The structure is a Grade I listed building and protected as a Scheduled Monument . The construction of a nearby tithe barn is not documented , but it was probably built between 1600 and 1720 . It was used for storage of the local tithes ( a tenth of a farm 's produce ) . Along with Radcliffe Tower , the Parish Church of St Mary is a Grade I listed building . The town also has two Grade II * listed buildings ; Dearden Fold Farmhouse , completed during the 16th century , and Radcliffe Cenotaph , built in 1922 to commemorate the First World War . Outwood Viaduct , and Radcliffe 's most visible landmark , St Thomas ' Church , are Grade II listed buildings . St Thomas ' took nine years to complete . The first stone was laid by Viscount Grey de Wilton ( grandson of the Countess Grosvenor ) on 21 July 1862 , and it was consecrated in 1864 by the first Bishop of Manchester , James Prince Lee . Construction of the tower began in 1870 and the building was completed in 1871 . The building cost £ 7 @,@ 273 , ( £ 610 thousand today ) and the tower cost £ 1 @,@ 800 ( £ 150 thousand today ) . The first vicar was the Reverend Robert Fletcher .
Radcliffe 's first public ornament was a drinking fountain located at the bottom of Radcliffe New Road . It was presented to the town by a Mrs Noah Rostron in memory of her husband , and erected in August 1896 . The fountain no longer exists at this location .
Built in 1911 the town hall was on the junction of Water Street and Spring Lane . For many years after the town lost its urban district status , the building was unoccupied . It was converted to private accommodation in 1999 .
= = Transport = =
The Manchester to Blackburn packhorse route passed through the town ( hence the name Blackburn Street ) . The bridge across the Irwell was likely first erected during the late Medieval period at the site of a ford . An Act of Parliament in 1754 authorised the first turnpike through the hamlet of Radcliffe Bridge , and included Manchester to Bury via Crumpsall , and from Prestwich to Radcliffe . An Act of 1821 created a turnpike from Bury to Radcliffe , Stoneclough and Bolton . An Act of 1836 created a turnpike from Starling Lane to Ainsworth , and Radcliffe to Bury and Manchester Road ( near Fletcher Fold ) . A turnpike from Whitefield to Radcliffe Bridge via Stand Lane was created in 1857 with toll houses at Besses o ' th ' Barn , Stand Lane , the junction of Dumers Lane and Manchester Road , on Bolton Road near Countess Lane , and on Radcliffe Moor Road at Bradley Fold . Radcliffe New Road was created in an Act of 1860 which enabled the construction of a toll road between Radcliffe and Whitefield . To prevent damage to the road surfaces , weighing machines were used at various strategic positions including at the bridge end of Dumers Lane , at Sandiford turning , and on Ainsworth Road .
During the Industrial Revolution , as local cottage industries were gradually supplanted by the factory system the roads became inadequate for use . A convoy of horse @-@ drawn lorries carrying salt between Bealey 's Bleach Works and Northwich would take up to two weeks to make a return journey . These problems gave rise to the construction of the Manchester , Bolton & Bury Canal , which reached the town in 1796 and which was navigable throughout in 1808 . For 38 years the canal was the town 's main route for trade and transport , with a wharf near Hampson Street . The proprietors later converted into a railway company and built a line between Salford and Bolton , which opened in 1838 . A branch from this line was to have been built to Bury , along the line of the canal , but due to technical constraints this did not happen . Radcliffe 's closest railway connection therefore remained several miles distant at Stoneclough .
The opening of the Manchester , Bury and Rossendale Railway ( later known as the East Lancashire Railway ( ELR ) ) in 1846 brought the town a direct connection to Manchester and Bury . Two stations served the town , Radcliffe Bridge station , and Withins Lane station ( although this closed in 1851 after only a few years of operation ) . Ringley Road station was located to the south of the parish , close to the civil parish of Pilkington . The line crossed the Irwell over Outwood Viaduct , an impressive structure which remains to this day .
The Liverpool and Bury Railway ( L & BR ) opened on 28 November 1848 , with a station to the north of the town , called Black Lane station . On 18 July 1872 the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway ( L & YR ) , which had amalgamated with the ELR some years previously , gained an Act of Parliament to construct a railway between Manchester and Bury , via Whitefield and Prestwich . This opened in 1879 with a new station , known as Radcliffe New Station , with a link to the L & BR line at Bradley Fold ( near the present day Chatsworth Road ) , and a new station along Ainsworth Road , Ainsworth Road Halt . The new L & YR route joined the existing ELR route near Withins Lane ( North Junction ) , whereon they shared the connection to Bury . The L & YR gained a further Act of 1877 to construct a link between North Junction and Coney Green Farm ( West Junction ) . The LY & R line was electrified in 1916 for which a substation was constructed , between the canal and the West Fork .
The town also had an extensive tram network . The first tram ran from Black Lane ( latterly Ainsworth Road ) in 1905 , with a terminus next to St Andrew 's Church on Black Lane Bridge . In 1907 a branch was built to connect to the Bury to Bolton part of the network . A large bus station is located between Dale Street and the river . Officially abandoned in 1961 , the canal is currently undergoing restoration on the Salford arm , although a rebuilt bridge along Water Street presents a barrier to its full restoration .
Public transport in Radcliffe is now coordinated by the Greater Manchester Passenger Transport Executive ( GMPTE ) , a county @-@ wide public body with direct operational responsibilities such as supporting ( and in some cases running ) local bus services , and managing integrated ticketing in Greater Manchester .
The town is now served only by a single light rail system and regular bus services . The Metrolink opened on 6 April 1992 along the L & YR line between Manchester and Bury / Bury and Altrincham ( Manchester also servers as a change point for the rest of the Metrolink system as it expands to cover a greater portion of the region , including Oldham ) . Trams leave from the town 's station every six minutes between 7 : 15 am and 6 : 30 pm , and every 12 minutes at other times of the day . Radcliffe Bridge station closed on 5 July 1958 , and has since been replaced by the path of the A665 Pilkington Way ( the new road has been built below the level of the old station ) . The path of the ELR line is still quite visible from aerial photography , with Outwood Viaduct fully restored , and the route of the line southwest of the town converted for use as a nature trail forming part of the Irwell Sculpture Trail .
= = Education = =
One of the earliest schools in the parish was the Close Wesleyan Day School , a Dame school opened around 1840 . St Thomas 's day school was opened on 4 March 1861 , and housed over 500 children . Due to overcrowding and the risk of subsidence caused by local mining activity , the school was rebuilt on a new site along School Street , provided by the Earl of Wilton . It was opened in October 1877 by Lady Wilton . On the opposite side of the town St John 's school started life in 1860 as an institute along Irwell Street , and by 1864 contained 120 children . The buildings were enlarged in 1869 . In 1897 eight teachers and a monitor taught 358 children . In 1899 the school leaving age was twelve , and many of the senior class were " half @-@ timers " who would spend half the day at school , and the other half at work . This system was abolished in 1919 . Regular epidemics of scarlet fever , chicken pox , mumps , and especially measles , meant that in 1897 and 1903 the school was temporarily closed . St John 's School and the nearby church were demolished in the 1970s . Radcliffe also had a technical school on Whittaker Street . Formally opened by Lord Stanley on 7 November 1896 , it adjoined the public baths on Whittaker Street . The building is now used as council offices .
Radcliffe County Secondary School was founded in 1933 on the former Peel Park Ground near School Street , but Radcliffe 's first secondary school ( apart from an endowed grammar school in nearby Stand ) was held at the New Jerusalem schoolroom from the early 1860s . Radcliffe East , latterly known as Coney Green County Comprehensive School , was built in 1975 on the site of the former railway goods yard alongside Radcliffe East Fork . Part of the school , known as " Phase One " , opened in September 1975 , with 150 first @-@ year pupils , and 70 second @-@ year pupils ( from Radcliffe County Secondary School ) . The remainder , known as " Phase Two " , opened two years later .
Radcliffe has ten primary schools , but no secondary schools . A new school was proposed to replace the former Coney Green and Radcliffe High schools , but recent developments make the construction of this school uncertain .
= = Religious sites = =
In Romano – British times , Radcliffe was in the Diocese of York ; in Saxon times in the Diocese of Lindesfarne , then of York ; in Norman times in the Diocese of Lichfield ; after 1540 in the Diocese of Chester and since 1847 in the Diocese of Manchester .
Based on the subdivisions of the dioceses , before 1535 Radcliffe ancient parish was in Manchester and Blackburn Rural Deanery . Between this date and 1850 the ancient parish was placed in Manchester Rural Deanery . From 1850 to 1851 it was placed in Bury Rural Deanery ; from 1851 to 1872 it was in Prestwich Rural Deanery ; from 1872 to 1912 , it was placed in Prestwich and Middleton Rural Deanery ; and since 1872 it has been in Radcliffe and Prestwich Rural Deanery .
= = = Church of England = = =
Radcliffe was an ancient parish which in its early history had duties which combined both ecclesiastical and civil matters . In 1821 Radcliffe St. Thomas ecclesiastical parish was created from the ancient parish , and it was re @-@ founded in 1839 . In 1873 further parts of the ancient parish were taken to form Bury St. Peter 's ecclesiastical parish . In 1878 parts of the ancient parish as well as part of Radcliffe St. Thomas were taken to form Radcliffe St. Andrew , Black Lane ecclesiastical parish . The Parish Church of St Mary was built during the 14th century , and the tower added in the 15th century . In 1966 it was designated a Grade I listed building by English Heritage under its former name of the Church of St Mary and St Bartholomew . In 1991 some local parishes were merged , and the church adopted its present name .
Radcliffe is also served by the Parish of St Thomas and St John . St Thomas ' is visible on the horizon for many miles . The original church was built in 1819 by Countess Grosvenor and is visible above in the image of Radcliffe Bridge . The building was later considered too small , and in 1862 was demolished and replaced with the present structure ( see landmarks ) . The Church of St John was consecrated on 19 February 1866 at the bottom of Radcliffe New Road . Built at a cost of about £ 4 @,@ 000 ( £ 330 thousand today ) the site was donated to the church by the Earl of Derby , who in 1897 also made a grant of land for the site of the Mission Church at Chapelfield . The parishes of St John and St Philip were merged with St Thomas ' in 1975 – 76 . Radcliffe is also home to the Church of St Andrew on Ainsworth Road , which was consecrated in 1877 .
= = = Other faiths = = =
Radcliffe was also home to many smaller churches . The main Roman Catholic church , St. Mary & St. Philip Neri , on Spring Lane , was built in 1894 . Other churches included Stand Independent , a Quaker church on Foundry Street , Water Lane Congregational , and several Wesleyan churches , including one on Bridgefield Street , which in March 2008 was destroyed by fire . The church was built in 1892 . The United Reformed Church has two congregations within the town , one on Lord Street , and the other on Stand Lane . The church was originally formed from a Congregational school in 1848 . A Methodist New Connexion church has existed along Smyrna Street since 1844 . Other faiths are also catered for , with a mosque on Bridgefield Street , and a centre for Swedenborgianism on Radcliffe New Road .
= = Sports = =
Radcliffe has a rich history of sport , including football , rugby , cricket and swimming , but entertainment in Radcliffe once included bear @-@ baiting , bull @-@ baiting , and cock @-@ fighting . Cock fights were prevalent in the town and took place in local " hush @-@ shops " , generally viewed by invitation only . Bull and bear baiting was held in the Radcliffe Bridge area of the parish . In Nicholls ' History and Traditions of Radcliffe ( 1900 ) the author describes the contents of the diary of a Lord Kenyon , who wrote " W.M. Robt . James , and Thomas Radcliffe , were fined for causing a Bayre to be bayted upon Saturday being the 18th of March 1587 – 8 , at the Bull @-@ Ringe neere the conduite in Manchester . " Trained dogs were used to attack a bull , which was donated by the Earl of Wilton . Such entertainment took place where the bridge now stands , along the banks of the river near the ford . Such spectacles were eventually outlawed by Act of Parliament , and the last bull bait in the town was held on 26 September 1838 . Horse racing replaced the sport the following year , with a course alongside the river . During the first year of racing the main spectator stand collapsed , injuring many spectators . In 1876 events were moved to a new course approximately one mile in circumference at Radcliffe Moor , upon which site the town 's cricket club now stands .
The town is home to Central Lancashire Cricket League side Radcliffe Cricket Club . For many years Sir Frank Worrell played for the club , and a street near the cricket ground was named in his honour . Sir Garfield Sobers joined the club in 1958 at the age of 21 . The town also has two Football teams , Radcliffe Town , and Radcliffe Borough . Former players include Paul Gascoigne and Matt Derbyshire .
Radcliffe was also home to Nellie Halstead , who in her time was known as " Britain ’ s greatest woman athlete " . A multiple world record holder , she represented Great Britain at the 1932 Olympic Games in Los Angeles .
= = Public services = =
= = = History = = =
The Rivers Pollution Prevention Act 1876 posed a problem for the local authorities ; disposal of sewage was generally an expensive proposition , and efforts to resolve the practical problems involved were often unsatisfactory . After initial experiments , in 1894 contracts were let for work . Chairman of the Local Board Samuel Walker Esq cut the first sod on 23 April 1894 , and the works were completed in the following year .
The town was provided with electricity by a coal @-@ fired power station along the south bank of the river , to the west of the town . Authorised by the Radcliffe Electric Lighting Order of 1894 , and inaugurated on 5 October 1904 , Radcliffe Power Station was opened by the Earl of Derby on 9 October 1905 . It originally had two 1 @,@ 500 kW turbo sets made by British Thomson @-@ Houston , and was the first power station in the country to transmit electricity over bare electrical conductors .
In 1921 the Radcliffe and Little Lever Joint Gas Board purchased the Radcliffe & Pilkington Gas Company . Constituted in 1921 by an Act of Parliament , the board consisted of six members of the Radcliffe Council and one member of the Little Lever Council . The area supplied included all the districts of Radcliffe and Little Lever , and also Prestwich , Whitefield , Unsworth , Outwood , and Ainsworth . In 1935 the company supplied 263 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 7 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 m3 ) of gas to 16 @,@ 748 consumers , and provided gas for public street lighting . Water supplies were provided both by upland watersheds and by the Bury & District Joint Water Board , of which Radcliffe was a constituent authority .
By 1935 a fire brigade and ambulances were available to protect the town during emergencies . The Gamewell system of fire alarms was used and consisted of 16 alarm boxes spread throughout the district . Three motor ambulances and a motorised utility van were kept at the fire station , operated by permanent staff .
= = = Modern services = = =
The North West Ambulance Service provides emergency patient transport , and the statutory emergency fire and rescue service is now provided by the Greater Manchester Fire and Rescue Service .
Home Office policing in Radcliffe is provided by the Greater Manchester Police . The force 's " ( N ) Division " has a police station in Radcliffe , along Railway Street . Waste management is coordinated by the local authority via the Greater Manchester Waste Disposal Authority . Radcliffe 's Distribution Network Operator for electricity is United Utilities .
= = Notable people = =
Born in Radcliffe , Private First World War veteran James Hutchinson was a recipient of the Victoria Cross . Radcliffe was also the birthplace of Canadian author Donald Jack and also the home of Olympic Medal @-@ winning cyclist Harry Hill who took bronze at the 1936 Summer Olympics . Nellie Halstead was a runner who represented Great Britain in both the 1932 Summer Olympics and 1936 Summer Olympics . Radcliffe was also the birthplace of Oscar @-@ winning film director Danny Boyle and the three times World Champion snooker player , John Spencer .
= = Culture = =
Radcliffe 's wealth as a mill town gave rise to many outlets for the entertainment of its population . These included cinemas and public houses . Several cinemas were built in the town , including the Picturedrome in Water Street , and an Odeon cinema , built in 1937 along Dale Street . Whittaker Street public baths were built in 1898 and demolished in 1971 . Radcliffe Pool ( as of 2015 due to storm damage the main building has been condemned , with temporary facilities under construction at a local school ) now provides swimming facilities for the local population . A public library was opened in 1907 on a site donated by Andrew Carnegie , who also contributed £ 5 @,@ 000 ( £ 480 thousand today ) towards the cost of the building . Two branch libraries were opened in Ainsworth between 1933 and 1935 . A museum was located in the upper rooms of Close House before it was demolished in March 1969 .
Radcliffe Brass Band has performed in the town since 1914 , when it accompanied one of the Whit Walks that used to take place on Whit Friday . Popular as these were , support later dwindled to a point where they were abandoned around 1977 . Rushcart processions were once popular , held on the first Saturday of September , finishing on the following Sunday at the Parish Church .
The town has several parks , including Coronation Park near Radcliffe Bridge and Close Park near Radcliffe Tower . Much of the land for Coronation Park was in 1900 donated by the Earl of Derby . Close House and the grounds around it were formerly the home of the Bealey family , and were donated by the Bleachers ' Association . The town is also along the route of the Irwell Sculpture Trail .
= Burmese Indians =
Burmese Indians ( Burmese : ကုလားလူမျိုး ; MLCTS : ku. la : lu myui : ) are a group of people of Indian origin who live in Burma . While Indians have lived in Burma for many centuries , most of the ancestors of the current Burmese Indian community emigrated to Burma from the start of British rule in the mid @-@ 19th century to the separation of British Burma from British India in 1937 . During British times , ethnic Indians formed the backbone of the government and economy serving as soldiers , civil servants , merchants and moneylenders . A series of anti @-@ Indian riots beginning in 1930 and mass emigration during the Japanese occupation of Burma followed by the forced expulsion of 1962 left ethnic Indians with a much reduced role in Burma .
Ethnic Indians today account for approximately 2 % ( about 950 @,@ 000 ) of the population of Burma and are concentrated largely in the two major cities ( Yangon and Mandalay ) and old colonial towns ( Pyin U Lwin and Kalaw ) . They are largely barred from the civil service and military and are disenfranchised by being labeled as ' foreigners ' and ' non @-@ citizens ' of Burma . Amongst the well @-@ known Burmese Indians is S. N. Goenka , a leading practitioner and teacher of vipassanā meditation and Helen , a well @-@ known Bollywood film actress who is also of Anglo @-@ Burmese descent .
= = History = =
The term " Burmese Indian " refers to a broad range of ethnic groups from India , most notably from present @-@ day South Asian countries such as Bangladesh , India and also Pakistan . Indians have a long history in Burma with over 2000 years of active engagement in politics , religion , culture , arts and cuisine . Within Burma , they are often referred to as ka @-@ la or ka @-@ laar ( a term generally used for dark @-@ skinned foreigners from India , Africa and the west ) , a term that is considered derogatory or Kala Lumyo . Its root is believed to be ku la meaning either " to cross over ( the Bay of Bengal ) " or " person " depending on the way it is pronounced . An alternative explanation is that the word is derived from “ Ku lar ” , meaning the people who adhere to a caste system .
The majority of Indians arrived in Burma whilst it was part of British India . Starting with the annexation of Tenasserim and Western Burma after the First Anglo @-@ Burmese War , a steady stream of Indians moved to Burma as civil servants , engineers , river pilots , soldiers , indentured labourers and traders . Following the annexation of Upper Burma in 1885 , numerous infrastructure projects started by the British colonial government and increases in rice cultivation in the delta region caused an unprecedented economical boom in Burma that drew many Indians , particularly from southern India , to the Irrawaddy Delta region .
= = = Anti @-@ Indian sentiments = = =
After the First World War , anti @-@ Indian sentiments began to rise for a number of reasons . The number of ethnic Indians was growing rapidly ( almost half of Yangon 's population was Indian by the Second World War ) . Indians played a prominent role in the British administration and became the target of Burmese nationalists . Racial animosity toward Indians because of their skin @-@ color and appearance also played a role . Meanwhile , the price of rice plummeted during the economic depression of the 1930s and the Chettiar from South India , who were prominent moneylenders in the rice belt , began to foreclose on land held by native Burmese .
In May 1930 , a British firm of stevedores at the port of Rangoon employed Burmese workers in an attempt to break a strike organized by its Indian workers . When , on May 26 , the strike ended and the Indians returned to work , clashes developed between the returning Indian workers and the Burmese workers who had replaced them . The clashes soon escalated into large @-@ scale anti @-@ Hindu and anti @-@ Muslim riots in the city . Over two hundred Indians were killed and their bodies flung into the river . Authorities ordered the police to fire upon any
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assembly of five or more who refused to lay down their arms , under Section 144 of the Criminal Procedure Code . Within two days the riot spread throughout the country to locations such as Maymyo .
= = = The Second World War and after = = =
At the start of World War II , almost half of Rangoon 's ( Yangon ) population was Indian , and about 16 % of the population of Burma was ethnically Indian . As a consequence of the Japanese invasion of 1942 , half a million members of the Indian community fled Burma overland into Assam , largely on foot . The refugees suffered terribly and thousands died . Some of the Indian community remained in Burma during the war , others returned after the war , although many never did . After Independence , Burmese law treated a large percentage of the Indian community as " resident aliens " . Though many had long ties to Burma or were born there , they were not considered citizens under the 1982 Burma citizenship law which restricted citizenship for groups immigrating before 1823 .
After he seized power through a military coup in 1962 , General Ne Win ordered a large @-@ scale expulsion of Indians . Although many Indians had been living in Burma for generations and had integrated into Burmese society , they became a target for discrimination and oppression by the junta . This , along with a wholesale nationalization of private ventures in 1964 , led to the emigration of over 300 @,@ 000 ethnic Indians from Burma . Indian @-@ owned businesses were nationalized and their owners were given 175 kyat for their trip to India . This caused a significant deterioration in Indian @-@ Burmese relations and the Indian government arranged ferries and aircraft to lift Burmese of Indian ethnicity out of Burma .
= = Culture = =
India has been particularly influential in Burmese culture as the cradle of Buddhism , and ancient Hindu traditions can still be seen in Brahmans presiding over important ceremonies such as weddings and ear @-@ piercings but most notably in Thingyan , the Burmese New Year festival . The Burmese poetry tradition of niti ( notably the Dhammaniti ) also has Indian origins . Traditions of kingship including coronation ceremonies and formal royal titles as well as those of lawmaking were also Hindu in origin . Many Burmese dishes and breads came as a result of Indian influence , prominently reflected in the Burmese version of Indian biryani .
Burmese Indians came from various groups from different parts of India , including Tamils , Telugus , Hindi speakers , Bengali , Gujarati , Oriya , and Punjabis . Today they form approximately 2 % ( about 950 @,@ 000 ) of the population , according to the CIA World Factbook 2006 , although exact figures do not exist due to uncertainties over census results and methods in Myanmar . Disaffected young Indians often flee the cities and join ethnic resistance movements . The All Burma Muslim Union whose members consist largely of Muslims of Indian origin is routinely labeled by the government as " Muslim terrorist insurgents " . In actuality it operates alongside the Karen National Union and , despite a swelling of its ranks following anti @-@ Muslim riots in the eighties , remains a very minor force .
= = = Religion = = =
Burmese Indians practise Hinduism , Islam , Sikhism , Buddhism and Christianity . Burmese Muslims , some of them of mixed blood born of Burmese mothers and some of them with full Burmese blood , call themselves Bama Musalin ( ဗမာမူစလင ္ ) ; the majority are Sunni with small numbers of Twelvers . The Burmese call them Zaydabayi .
The constitution grants limited rights to freedom of religion ; however , some articles in the constitution , as well as other laws and policies , restrict those rights . In practice the government enforced those restrictions . " Muslims continue to experience the most severe forms of legal , economic , religious , educational , and social restrictions and discrimination " . The military dictatorship rejects or ignores their requests when they want to build mosques in the country or to go abroad for religious ceremonies . Although there is freedom of religion in Burma , Muslims decided not to hold Eid al @-@ Adha in 2012 due to Rakhine @-@ Rohingya strikes in Rakhine State .
= = = Language = = =
Burmese Indians are from an array of ethnic backgrounds . There are Tamils from Tamil Nadu , Telugus from Andhra Pradesh and Marwaris from the Marwar region of India 's Rajasthan state as well as Bengalis hailing from the Indian state of West Bengal as well as the present @-@ day independent nation of Bangladesh . Prior to the expulsion of Indians , there were also Urdu @-@ speaking Pashtuns from North India , Malayalis from Kerala , Odias , Punjabis from the state of Punjab who are mostly Sikhs and two groups of Gujaratis , both Gujarati @-@ speaking Parsis and Gujaratis proper who are mostly Hindus or Muslims by faith hailing from the state of Gujarat . All can and were able to communicate in Burmese due to years of assimilation and lack of education in languages other than English . Other languages used by Burmese Indians include Tamil , Telugu and small pockets of Malayalam speakers .
= = Economic role = =
Historically , Burmese Indians have made their livelihoods as merchants , traders and shopkeepers as well as manual labourers such as coolies , dockers , municipal workers , rickshaw men , pony cart drivers , malis and durwans . They were also heavily represented in certain professions such as civil servants , university lecturers , pharmacists , opticians , lawyers and doctors . They dominated several types of businesses such as auto parts and electrical goods , ironmongery and hardware , printing and bookbinding , books and stationery , paper and printing ink , tailoring and dry @-@ cleaning , English tuition , and money lending . They traded in textiles , gold and jewellery , where the market was traditionally dominated by Burmese women . The Chettiars of Burma functioned as moneylenders and have been thought crucial in the growth in agricultural output of Burma during the colonial era . Today , many Indians live in central Rangoon on both sides of the Su Lei Paya Road and are largely involved in businesses , including restaurants , jewellery shops and money exchanges .
= = Notable Burmese Indians and Others = =
Karim Ghani was born in Sodugudi , Ilayangudi , a politician in South @-@ East Asia of Indian origin . Before the Second World War Karim Ghani was a parliamentary secretary in Burma under Dr. Ba Maw .
Ba Than Haq - Professor of Geology and Minister of Mines . Of mixed Afghan and Danu descent .
Bahadur Shah II or Bahadur Shah Zafar , the last Mughal Emperor was exiled to Rangoon after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . He , along with his wife Zeenat Mahal and granddaughter Raunaq Zamani Begum , is buried at the Mazar ( mausoleum ) at No. 6 Theatre Road in Yangon .
T. S. S. Rajan - Indian freedom @-@ fighter and Minister of Health in Madras Presidency from 1937 to 1940 .
S. N. Goenka - eminent Vipassana Buddhist meditation teacher ( born 1924 )
Parshuram Verma ( Freedom Fighter in Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose army in Myanmar , social worker and leader of repatriated Indian Burmese in Bihar & UP . He pioneered the repatriation of Indian Burmese in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh who were migrated from these areas to Myanmar at the time of British era and started migrating into India at the time of unrest during General Nevin regime in 1969 . He dedicated his most of life to address their problems and find the solutions with the help of various Indian Government Ministries and Authorities .
H. N. Goshal aka Thakin Ba Tin - Communist leader and founding member from the 1940s to the 1960s killed in an internal purge in 1967 . He was an ethnic Bengali .
Helen of Bollywood . Born Helen Jairag Richardson Khan in Rangoon on July 14 , 1938 , she fled to India during World War II and became famous for playing the vamp in Indian cinema .
Dr. Maung Di - Department chair and dean of Rangoon Arts and Science University ( now Yangon University ) , Deputy Education Minister . Son of the Dean of Islamic Religious College in Kanbalu .
U Razak ( 20 January 1898 – 19 July 1947 ; Arabic : Abdul Razak ) was a Burmese politician who was a respected educationalist . He is a Tamil Muslim ( Choliyah ) . While his brothers and sisters chose to be Buddhists , he maintained the Muslim name Razak , in honor of his father . Although nominally Muslim , Razak was a secularist who deeply loved Burma and encouraged unity in diversity . Razak initiated calls for unity between Burmese Muslims and Buddhists . He was a Muslim , but maintained ties to Buddhism , educating himself on Pali , the sacred script of Theravada Buddhism , and helped found the Mandalay College ( modern Mandalay University ) . Razak fathered three children . He was a minister at Aung San 's pre @-@ independence interim government and was assassinated , along with Aung San and other members , on 19 July 1947 . July 19 is celebrated in Myanmar today as Martyrs ' Day . U Razak was Minister of Education and National Planning , and was chairman of the Burma Muslim Congress .
Dr. B.S. Joshi - ( 4 / 3 / 1912 @-@ 15 / 10 / 2009 ) Surgeon Par Excellence @-@ Civil Surgeon Burma Medical Services . Graduated Medical College Rangoon with Honours receiving the Bishop Bigandit Medal ( 1936 ) . There has been only 1 recipient up to date . Married Dr. Ratna Sundari Misra D / o Dr. Matabadal Misra and she was one of the only female doctors in Burma . Together they had hospitals sanctioned and constructed throughout the districts of Burma . Both Dr. B.S. Joshi and his wife were committed doctors and dedicated to the people of Burma . Besides his duties as a surgeon general to the Union of Burma he was also District Health Officer , Municipal Health Officer of every district with extensive experience in Public Health Work . In the beginning of his career , he was a teacher of clinical surgery in Rangoon General Hospital . Then Assistant Surgeon Thayetmyo / Officer in charge of Hospitals in Nyanglebin , Mandalay and Moulmein and later Chief Medical Officer Sagain and finally Rangoon as surgeon of Rangoon Hospital . Later surgeon general in Lashio , Tavoy . Mergui , Myaumgmya , Moulmein and was also in charge of 13 hospitals in the Northern Shan States with headquarters at Lashio . Dr. B.S. Joshi was a loyal friend to both General Ne Win and U Nu , a leading Nationalist and political figure of the Union of Burma .
S. Mukerjee aka Pyu Win - Communist trade union leader killed in the 1950s
Dr. Nath aka Tun Maung - Communist leader and founding member killed in the 1960s
Captain Ohn Kyaw Myint - Martyred after failed attempt of coup d 'état
Saya Rajan aka Aung Naing - Communist trade union leader captured in the 1950s
M. A. Rashid - Government Minister in the 1950s
Thakin Tha Khin ( Shan Indian ) - Government Minister in the 1950s
U Balwant Singh -A Jat Sikh from Burma sent to the United States by Burmese Govt ( U NU ) to work at the United Nations during the term of U Thant ( Sec General of UN whose father was Indian also ) .
Dr Ram Bax Singh - A Jat Sikh Served as the Port Health director for Port of Rangoon till early 1960 .
Dr Santosh Sureen ( Shwe Mann ) - Municipal Health Minister during the 1960s
Chaudhry Charan Das - Originally hailing from Gujranwala ( now in Pakistan ) , Chaudhary Charan Das moved to Burma in the early 1900s to establish a soap factory in Mandalay ( Burma ) under the banner S. Sagar & Co . Decades later during Japanese invasion the family then returned and settled in Rawalpindi . During India @-@ Pakistan partition in 1947 , the family eventually settled in Kapurthala ( India ) where Chaudhary Charan Das 's eldest son Dr. Shanti Sagar Verma soon established himself as a very prominent and successful doctor and where he opened one of the first private multi @-@ speciality hospitals in the city .
B.N. Verma- One of the famous high school English teachers in Myanmar .
U Myo Nyunt ( Myo Nyunt Mathematics ) - A Mathematics tuition teacher who have taught over 50 @,@ 000 students .
Bhanumati Devi - Oriya film and theater actress who was born in Burma .
U. A. Khader - U. A. Khader ( 1935- ) is a noted Malayalee novelist and literary personality . He has written about fifty works in Malayalam , which include novels , novellas , short @-@ stories , travelogues and non @-@ fiction .
Alan Basil de Lastic - ( 1929 – 2000 ) was the fourth Archbishop of Delhi . He was born in Maymyo of mixed Burmese , Irish and French ancestry .
Daw Tint Tint @ Usha wife of former President of India , K. R. Narayanan . Usha Narayanan ( 1923 – 2008 ) worked on several social welfare programs for women and children in India and had completed her Masters in Social Work from Delhi School of Social Work . She also translated and published several Burmese short stories ; a collection of translated stories by Thein Pe Myint , titled Sweet and Sour , appeared in 1998 . She is the only woman of foreign origin to have become the First Lady .
= Vilna offensive =
The Vilna offensive was a campaign of the Polish – Soviet War of 1919 – 1921 . The Polish army launched an offensive on April 16 , 1919 , to take Vilnius ( Polish : Wilno ) from the Red Army . After three days of street fighting from April 19 – 21 , the city was captured by Polish forces , causing the Red Army to retreat . During the offensive , the Poles also succeeded in securing the nearby cities of Lida , Pinsk , Navahrudak , and Baranovichi .
The Red Army launched a series of counterattacks in late April , all of which ended in failure . The Soviets briefly recaptured the city a year later , in spring 1920 , when the Polish army was retreating along the entire front . In the aftermath , the Vilna offensive would cause much turmoil on the political scene in Poland and abroad .
= = Prelude = =
Soviet Russia , while at the time publicly supporting Polish and Lithuanian independence , sponsored communist agitators working against the government of the Second Polish Republic , and considered that its eastern borders should approximate those of the defunct Congress Poland . Poles and Lithuanians , on the other hand , inspired by memories of the greatness of the erstwhile Grand Duchy of Lithuania , part of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , saw their borders as lying much farther east . The leader of the Polish forces , Józef Piłsudski , discerned an opportunity for regaining territories that were once the part of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , and since then were part of the Prussian Empire , shaken by the 1917 Revolution and the ongoing Russian Civil War .
In the first weeks of 1919 , following the retreat of the German Ober @-@ Ost forces under Max Hoffmann , Vilnius found itself in a power vacuum . It promptly became the scene of struggles among competing political groups and experienced several internal revolutions .
On January 1 , Polish officers , led by generals Władysław Wejtko and Stefan Mokrzecki , attempted to take control of the city by establishing a Samoobrona ( " Self @-@ Defense " ) provisional government . Their aim was to defeat the Communist " Workers ' Council " , a rival faction within Vilnius plotting to seize the city . Samoobrona rule of Vilnius did not last long . Four days later January 5 , 1919 , the Polish forces were forced to make a hasty retreat when the Russian Western Army marched in from Smolensk to support the local communists as part of the Soviet westward offensive .
Vilnius , the historical capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , became part of the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic and was soon proclaimed capital of the Lithuanian – Belorussian Soviet Socialist Republic ( Lit @-@ Bel ) on February 27 , 1919 . The Lit @-@ Bel became the 8th government to control Vilnius in two years . During the month and a half that the Lit @-@ Bel controlled the city , the new communist government turned Vilnius into a social experiment , testing various applications of left @-@ leaning governmental systems on the city 's inhabitants .
Józef Piłsudski , Polish commander @-@ in @-@ chief , determined that regaining control of Vilnius , whose population consisted mostly of Poles and Jews , should be a priority of the renascent Polish state . He had been working on plans to take control of Vilnius since at least March ; he gave preliminary orders to prepare a push in that direction — and counter an expected Soviet westward push — on March 26 . One of Piłsudski 's objectives was to take control of Vilnius before Western diplomats at the Paris Peace Conference could rule on whom the city , demanded by various factions , should be given to . The action was not discussed with Polish politicians or the government , who at that time were more concerned with the situation on the southern Polish – Ukrainian front . By early April , when members of the Kresy Defence Committee ( Komitet Obrony Kresów ) Michał Pius Römer , Aleksander Prystor , Witold Abramowicz , and Kazimierz Świtalski met with Pilsudski , stressing the plight of occupied Vilnius and its inhabitants ' need for self @-@ government , Piłsudski was ready to move .
= = The Offensive = =
= = = Diversionary attacks = = =
Piłsudski arrived at the front near Lida on 15 April , bringing reinforcements from Warsaw . His plan called for exploitation of the gap in the Soviet lines between Vilnius and Lida by an advance towards Vilnius using the road and railway . Amidst diversionary attacks , designed to draw Russian attention away from the main Polish thrust towards Vilnius , the main Polish attack began at dawn on 16 April . The forces moving on Vilnius included the cavalry group of Colonel Wladyslaw Belina @-@ Prazmowski , composed of 800 men in nine cavalry squadrons and a battery of horse artillery ; and infantry under General Edward Rydz @-@ Śmigły , composed of 2 @,@ 500 men in three battalions of the Polish 1st Legions Infantry Division and two batteries of heavy artillery .
Soviet forces in the area were composed of the Western Rifle Division , a unit which had many pro @-@ communist Polish volunteers , and other units of the Western Army . The Soviet garrison of Vilnius numbered about 2 @,@ 000 newly trained troops . Soviet forces in the area around Vilnius are estimated at 7 @,@ 000 infantry , a few hundred cavalry , and 10 artillery pieces . These forces were to be engaged and thus prevented from coming to the aid of the Vilnius garrison .
The diversionary attacks went well , with Soviet forces acting under the impression that the Poles had targets other than Vilnius . Despite their diversionary intent , these attacks succeeded in their own right , with Generał Józef Adam Lasocki taking Lida in two days despite unexpectedly strong resistance , and Generał Stefan Mokrzecki taking Nowogrodek in three days and Baranowicze in four .
= = = Assault on Vilnius = = =
On 18 April , Colonel Belina decided to use the element of surprise and move into Vilnius without waiting for the slower infantry units . Polish forces left the village of Mýto in early morning . At 03 : 30 on 19 April , Maj. Zaruski took Lipówka near Vilnius . Belina 's cavalry bypassed Vilnius and attacked from behind , taking the train station on the night of 18 to 19 April ; on 19 April , cavalry under lieutenant Gustaw Orlicz @-@ Dreszer — future Polish general — charged into the suburbs , spreading panic among the confused garrison . He seized the train station and sent a train down the line to collect infantry . In this surprise raid about 400 prisoners , 13 trains , and various military supplies were captured . Piłsudski would declare Belina 's cavalry action the " most exquisite military action carried out by Polish cavalry in this war " .
Cavalrymen fought for control of the center of Vilnius and took Cathedral Square , the castle complex on the hillside , and the enemy quarters on the southern riverbank . They also captured hundreds of Bolshevik soldiers and officials , but their numbers were too small compared to the enemy forces , who had begun to reorganize , particularly in the north and west of the town , and prepare a counterattack . Belina sent a message reporting that " enemy is resisting with extreme strength " and asking for immediate reinforcements . At around 8 : 00 in the evening the train he had sent in the morning returned with the first infantry reinforcements . The Polish troops were also supported by the city 's predominantly Polish population which formed a militia to aid them . By the evening of 19 April half of Vilnius was under Polish control , however , the Red Army troops and supporters were putting up a stubborn and coordinated defence . Only upon the arrival of the main force of Polish infantry under Generał Śmigły on 21 April did the Poles gain the upper hand , attacking those parts of the town still held by the Red Army . The Polish infantry was able to reinforce the cavalry in the city center , and during the night , with help of local guides , Polish forces crossed the river and took one of the bridges . On April 20 , the bridges were in the hands of the Poles , and more of the city fell under their control . During the afternoon of that day , after a three @-@ day @-@ long urban battle , the city was in Polish hands . Piłsudski arrived in Vilnius on the same day .
= = = Jewish deaths = = =
Reports also have been circulated about pogroms in Vilna . They are absolutely false . Nothing of the sort has happened there . That is a sample of the exaggeration German agents are giving to the situation to poison public opinion against us in America .
– Ignacy Jan Paderewski , Prime Minister of Poland , 1919
As the Polish troops entered the city , the first pogrom in modern Vilnius started , as noted by the Timothy D. Snyder , citing Michał Pius Römer . Dozens of people connected with the Lit @-@ Bel were arrested , and some were executed ; Norman Davies cites a death toll for all – Jews and non @-@ Jews , under Polish rule – as 65 . Jews constituted close to one @-@ half of Vilnius 's population , according to the German census of 1916 , and many victims of fighting and subsequent repression in Vilnius were Jews . Henry Morgenthau , Sr. counted 65 , Joseph W. Bendersky counted over a hundred .
There was a common belief among the Poles that most Jews were Bolsheviks and Communists , in league with the enemy of the Polish state , Soviet Russia . The Polish army stated that any Jews it killed were militants and collaborators engaged in actions against the Polish army . Having been fired at from Jewish homes , Polish soldiers took this as an excuse to break into many Jewish homes and stores , beating the Jews and robbing them , desecrating synagogues , arresting hundreds , depriving them of food and drink for days and deporting them from the city ; such abuses were , however , not supported by – and even specifically forbidden by – the Polish high command .
The US Army representative on the scene , Colonel Wiliam F. Godson , agreed with the version of events presented by the Polish general staff . In his reports , Godson wrote that " Jews constituted at least 80 % of every Bolshevik organization " and that , unlike the " harmless Polish Jews " ( who really " had become Poles " ) , the " Litwaks or Russian Jews " are " extremely dangerous " , making the " Jewish question the most important one [ for the country ] " . Neglecting the plight of the Jews , Godson had only noted in his report the instances of Bolsheviks executing and mutilating civilians and Polish prisoners of war . The Nobel Prize @-@ winning author Władysław Reymont , in an article published by Gazeta Warszawska , the main organ of the openly antisemitic National Democratic Party , also denied that pogroms had taken place . Henry Morgenthau , Sr. of the Anglo @-@ American Investigating Commission in his report acquitted the Polish side of having organized pogroms , noting the wartime confusion and the fact that some Jews had indeed shot at the Polish forces . The report was , however , highly critical of the activities of the Polish Army in Vilnius , noting that 65 Jews with no proven connections to the Bolsheviks had been killed , and that many arrests , robberies and mistreatments had occurred , while soldiers guilty of these acts had not been punished .
= = = Soviet counteroffensive = = =
The Polish victory infuriated the Soviets , leading to dozens of arrests and several executions among those connected to the Lit @-@ Bel . ; the former Lit @-@ Bel leaders began accusing one another of culpability for the loss of their capital . Lenin considered the city vital to his plans , and ordered its immediate recapture , with the Red Army attempting several counteroffensives in April 1919 .
Near the end of the month about 12 @,@ 000 infantry , 3 @,@ 000 cavalry , 210 heavy machine guns and 44 guns were assembled by Soviet forces in the area of Szyrwiany , Podbrodzie , Soly and Ashmyany . Polish forces in the area under general Stanisław Szeptycki numbered 11 @,@ 000 ; Rydz @-@ Śmigly had 8 infantry battalions , 18 cavalry squadrons and 18 guns in Vilnius itself . Rydz @-@ Śmigły decided to engage enemy forces before they combined their strengths . On the night of April 28 – 29 , general Stefan Dąb @-@ Biernacki took Podbrodzie , capturing one of the Soviet formations . Simultaneously , Soviet forces attacked near Deliny – Ogrodniki , south of Vilnius . Polish defenses and counterattacks managed to halt Soviet movements towards Vilnius , pushing them back towards Szkodziszki – Grygajce . In retaliation , Soviet forces launched yet another counterattack , this one from north of Vilnius . The results were significantly better than those of the previous offensive , with Soviet forces breaking through Polish defenses in the area . However , Red Army forces halted their movements short of Vilnius , not wishing to attack a hostile city during the night . Polish forces took advantage of the opportunity to strengthen their defenses . Shortly afterwards , Polish forces counterattacked , pushing the Red Army back towards Mejszagoła and Podberezie . Polish forces pursued and took those two settlements , as well as Giedrojsc and Smorgoń . By mid @-@ May Polish forces had reached the line of Narocz lake – Hoduciszki – Ignalina – Lyngniany , leaving Vilnius well behind the frontline .
= = Aftermath = =
Because of the successful surprise attack , the Polish army in Vilnius managed to appropriate sizable stocks of supplies and take hundreds of prisoners . When Piłsudski entered the city , a victory parade was held in his honour . The city 's Polish citizens on the whole were delighted ; their politicians envisaged a separate Lithuanian state closely allied with Poland . Representatives from the city were immediately sent to the Paris Peace Conference , and the Stefan Batory University in Vilnius , which had been closed in 1832 following the November 1830 Uprising , was reopened .
Acting in accordance with his vision of a Polish @-@ led " Międzymorze " federation of East @-@ Central European states , Piłsudski on April 22 , 1919 , issued a bilingual statement , in Polish and Lithuanian , of his political intentions — the " Proclamation to the inhabitants of the former Grand Duchy of Lithuania " , pledging to provide " elections [ which will ] take place on the basis of secret , universal and direct voting , without distinction between the sexes " and to " create an opportunity for settling your nationality problems and religious affairs in a manner that you yourself will determine , without any kind of force or pressure from Poland . " Piłsudski 's proclamation was aimed at showing good will both to Lithuanians and international diplomats ; the latter succeeded as the proclamation dealt a blow to the image of ' Polish conquest ' and replaced it with the image of ' Poland fighting with Bolsheviks dictatorship and liberating other nations ' ; however the Lithuanians who demanded exclusive control over the city were much less convinced . Piłsudski 's words also caused significant controversy on the Polish political scene ; as they had not been discussed with the Sejm and caused much anger among Piłsudski 's National @-@ Democratic opponents ; Polish People 's Party " Piast " deputies demanded incorporation of the Vilnius Region into Poland and even accused Piłsudski of treason . However , Piłsudski 's supporters in the Polish Socialist Party managed to deflect those attacks .
The Lithuanian government in Kaunas , which viewed the city as the historic capital of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania , saw the Polish incursion as an occupation . The Lithuanian government demanded Vilnius back . Relations between the Polish and Lithuanian governments , unable to reach a compromise over Vilnius , continued to worsen , destroying the prospects for Piłsudski 's plan of the Międzymorze federation and leading to open hostilities in the ensuing Polish – Lithuanian War . In 1920 , the Soviets recaptured Vilnius , followed by the Poles ' establishment of the short @-@ lived Republic of Central Lithuania .
The Polish capture of Vilnius set the stage for further escalation of Polish conflicts with Soviet Russia and Lithuania . In coming months , Polish forces would push steadily eastward , launching Operation Minsk in August .
= Delhi Daredevils in 2012 =
The Delhi Daredevils ( DD ) is a franchise cricket team based in Delhi , India , which plays in the Indian Premier League ( IPL ) . The team competed in the 2012 IPL and finished at the third place , thus qualified for the 2012 Champions League Twenty20 ( CLT20 ) . It topped the league and the group stage in the IPL and the CLT20 respectively ; however , it failed to win any match in the playoffs .
After finishing last in the previous season , the Daredevils added players such as Mahela Jayawardene , Andre Russell , Kevin Pietersen and Ross Taylor to the squad . Eric Simons succeeded Greg Shipperd as the head coach and T. A. Sekhar took the mentorship . The team won 11 of the 16 matches played in the league stage of the IPL and topped the point table . However , it lost both its two matches in the playoffs and finished at the third place . In the CLT20 , they won two of its four group stage matches , while the other two were abandoned due to rain . It topped its group and reached the semi @-@ final , where it lost to the Highveld Lions . Morné Morkel was the highest wicket @-@ taker in the IPL , whereas skipper Virender Sehwag became the first batsman to score five consecutive fifties in the league . After the CLT20 , the team released fourteen of its players , including Robin Bist , Aaron Finch and Venugopal Rao , signing Jesse Ryder , Johan Botha and Jeevan Mendis .
= = Background = =
The Delhi Daredevils is a franchise cricket team based in Delhi , India which plays in the IPL . It is owned by the GMR Group , which bought it for US $ 84 million . It reached the IPL playoffs in the 2008 and the 2009 seasons , while topping the league stage in 2009 . It had a " shocking performance " in the 2011 season , finishing at the last position . In the 2012 IPL auction , the team purchased Mahela Jayawardene for $ 1 @.@ 4 million , Andre Russell for $ 450 @,@ 000 and Doug Bracewell for $ 50 @,@ 000 . It got Kevin Pietersen and Ross Taylor from the Deccan Chargers and the Rajasthan Royals respectively in a transfer window , and it gave Andrew McDonald to the Royal Challengers Bangalore . It also released Ashok Dinda and James Hopes to the Pune Warriors India . It signed Pawan Negi , Manpreet Juneja and Kuldeep Raval , dropping out Robert Frylinck , Sridharan Sriram , Vivek Yadav , Rajesh Pawar and Matthew Wade . Glenn Maxwell and Gulam Bodi were signed as the replacements for withdrawn players Travis Birt and Colin Ingram .
Before the season , Daredevils ' head coach Greg Shipperd was replaced by Eric Simons , who was the previous assistant coach of the team and the then bowling coach of the India . T. A. Sekhar became the team mentor for the second time , after working with the Mumbai Indians in the previous two seasons . The theme song was also changed from Khelo Front Foot pe to Munday Dilli ke .
In her preview of the Daredevils for ESPNcricinfo , Sharda Ugra termed the buying of Pietersen and Jayawardene as the " repair work for the new season . " She termed the team 's middle order as a " perfect mixture : batsmen of calibre combining with the game 's leading entertainers , " and identified Virender Sehwag and Jayawardene as the key players .
= = Squad = =
The following players made at least one appearance for the Daredevils in 2012 . The age given is at the start of the team 's first match of the year ( 5 April 2012 ) .
= = Indian Premier League = =
The Daredevils finished in third place in the 2012 IPL , which was " another season of dominance at the league stage ended without a win in the playoffs . " After a disappointing season in 2011 , the 2012 IPL saw a return of the Daredevils to being one of the more consistent IPL teams . Ugra said that despite having Virender Sehwag and David Warner as the openers , bowler Morné Morkel was the key player in the tournament , and Umesh Yadav was a nice assistant for him . Shahbaz Nadeem acted as a " tidy option " for a team which lacked spinners . Venugopal Rao , brought for $ 700 @,@ 000 , was termed as a " flop buy " by Ugra . Rao made 122 runs in ten matches , and had a strike @-@ rate lower than 104 . The team was captained by Sehwag , with Jayawardene acting as the stand @-@ in captain in two matches .
The Daredevils topped the points table in the league stage , in which they won 11 out of 16 matches . They played its first match against the Kolkata Knight Riders , and won by eight wickets . This was followed by a 20 @-@ run loss against the Royal Challengers Bangalore . It won its next match against the Chennai Super Kings by eight wickets , and then in the " battle of the heavyweights " , aggressive bowling by the Daredevils earned it a win against the Mumbai Indians . In the match against the Deccan Chargers , it got a five @-@ wickets victory , and Pietersen played a 103 @-@ run innings . This was followed by two matches against the Pune Warriors India ; it lost the first by 20 runs , and won the second by eight wickets . Their next match against Mumbai saw a 37 @-@ run victory for the squad . Then in the match against the Rajasthan Royals , Morkel 's " sensational penultimate over " gave the Daredevils a one @-@ run victory , and also saw Sehwag becoming the only player to make four consecutive half @-@ centuries in the IPL . The team 's next fixture was also against the Royals , which was a six @-@ wicket win . Sehwag scored 73 runs from 38 balls , extending his record to five consecutive fifties . In the " clash between the two most impressive teams in the tournament , " the Knight Riders beat the Daredevils by six wickets . This caused the Daredevils to lose the top spot in the points table , a position it had held " virtually from the start of the tournament " . In its next game , a ton by David Warner and a half @-@ century by Naman Ojha led the team to a nine wickets win , and it regained the top spot . Then " came a cropper on a lively pitch " , as the Daredevils lost to the Super Kings by nine wickets . It became the first team to get into the playoffs when it registered a five wickets win against the Kings XI Punjab . Against the Royal Challengers Bangalore , it faced a 204 @-@ runs partnership between Chris Gayle and Virat Kohli , the second best in Twenty20 , and lost the match by 21 runs . It finished its league stage campaign with a six wickets win over the Kings XI .
The Daredevils played the first qualifier against the Knight Riders . The winner of this match qualified for the final , whereas the loser got another chance to get to it . The Knight Riders scored 162 runs for four wickets , 56 of which came in the last four overs . Irfan Pathan , Yadav and Negi each got one wicket , whereas Varun Aaron conceded 48 runs in four overs . Chasing the total , the Daredevils lost its openers Warner and Sehwag at seven and ten runs respectively . Ojha made 28 runs , whereas Rao scored 13 runs off 22 balls . Some economical overs and Rao 's struggle forced Jayawardene to attack , which eventually resulted in him getting out at 40 . When the team required 55 runs off 32 balls , Negi was sent in before Taylor . Taylor later hit a six on the third ball he faced from Sunil Narine , " but it was too late by then . " The Daredevils managed to score 144 runs for eight wickets , losing the match by 18 runs . In the second qualifier against the Super Kings , Morkel was benched , a decision which made a " significant difference " . " Virtually unknown offspinner " Sunny Gupta made his IPL debut in the match , and this was " one of the biggest tactical goof @-@ ups in IPL history . " Murali Vijay scored a century for the Super Kings , and it reached to a total of 222 . Gupta conceded 47 runs in his three overs ; Aaron gave 63 in his four overs : the least economical bowling figure in IPL . The match also saw , for the first time in the season , Sehwag not opening for the Daredevils . Warner went for three runs , whereas Sehwag scored one run off six balls . Jayawardene made a half @-@ century , and Taylor made 24 runs . Wickets felt at regular intervals , and the Daredevils eventually got all out at 136 runs , registering the biggest loss of the season . After the match , coach Simons clarified that Morkel was dropped to an allrounder in the form of Russell . Morkel was later awarded the Purple cap for claiming the most number of wickets in the tournament . , for claiming the most wickets in the tournament : 25 .
= = = Season standings = = =
Key : Pld
= Played , W =
Wins , L
= Losses , NR =
No result , Pts
= Points , NRR =
Net run rate .
Notes :
Teams marked * progressed to the next stage of the competition .
Teams marked † were eliminated from the competition .
= = = Match logs and statistics = = =
= = Champions League Twenty20 = =
By finishing third in the IPL , the Daredevils qualified for the 2012 CLT20 . Before the tournament , Morkel decided to play for the Daredevils and not for his home team the Titans . The franchise changed the team captain to Jayawardene as per the suggestion of Sehwag , who wanted to be " relieved of the responsibility " in order to " bat freely " . Aavishkar Salvi came in as a replacement for Aaron , who was going to go through tonsillectomy . Sehwag strained a ligament during the 2012 ICC World Twenty20 , due to which he was initially doubtful for the CLT20 ; however he recovered from the injury and played in the tournament . In his preview for ESPNcricinfo , Sidharth Monga said that the team had " some of the best names Twenty20 cricket can throw up . " He termed Morkel as the key player and Unmukt Chand as the " surprise package " . However , he said that the team 's failure in big @-@ matches and lack of spinners were its weaknesses . The team had a practice match with the Sydney Sixers , which it lost by 5 wickets .
Directly qualifying to the group stage , two of the four group matches of the Daredevils were abandoned due to rain . It played its first match with the Knight Riders , and won it by 52 runs . The Daredevils ' innings ended at 160 runs for eight wickets , and Chand emerged as the top @-@ scorer with 40 runs . In response , the Knight Riders got all out for 108 runs ; Yadav , Ajit Agarkar and Morkel took two wickets each . The match against the Auckland Aces was abandoned due to rain . Playing against the Perth Scorchers , the Daredevils restricted its opponent to 121 runs , " a score which is rarely defended in Twenty20 cricket . " Morkel took three wickets for 19 runs , and the team 's " four @-@ pronged pace attack was at its best . " Chasing the total , only Sehwag , who made 52 runs , could reach the double figures among the top order . However Agarkar 's 11 runs from seven balls helped the team eventually win the match . For the last league match against the Titans , Jayawardene was replaced by Warner and Taylor was appointed as the captain . However the match was abandoned due to rain . In the semi @-@ final , the Daredevils played against the Highveld Lions . It again rested Jayawardene to make space for Warner . The bowlers restricted Lions to 139 runs ; Yadav took two wickets conceding 20 runs . Batting second , the Daredevils lost its openers early , and no other specialist batsman , except Pietersen , was able to reach a double figure . Pietersen scored a half @-@ century , while Morkel remained not out at 18 runs . The team managed to score 117 run for nine wickets and lost the match by 22 runs . After the match , Taylor cited that the team 's fielding was one of the reasons for the loss .
= = = Season standings = = =
Key : Pld
= Played , W =
Wins , L
= Losses , NR =
No result , Pts
= Points , NRR =
Net run rate .
Notes :
Teams marked * progressed to the next stage of the competition .
Teams marked † were eliminated from the competition .
= = = Match logs and statistics = = =
= = Reaction = =
Daredevils released fourteen of its players for 2013 IPL . This release included Robin Bist , Bodi , Bracewell , Aaron Finch , Sunny Gupta , Maxwell , Salvi and Rao . It signed Kedar Jadhav for ₹ 2 million ( US $ 30 @,@ 000 ) . Later in the year , the franchise also started Fastrax Daredevils School Cup , a Inter @-@ School Twenty20 tournament . The franchise , under its " Dare to Care " campaign , launched the website The Cheer @-@ O @-@ Meter . The campaign , supported by UNICEF India , is meant to protect the right of adolescent girls facing " various forms of discrimination , exploitation and abuse " .
In the 2013 auction , the Daredevils signed Jesse Ryder , Johan Botha and Jeevan Mendis . Mushtaq Ahmed and Jeremy Snape were appointed as the bowling consultant and performance coach respectively . The team also signed Muralidharen Gautam and exchanged Taylor for Ashish Nehra , who was a part of the Warriors .
= One Minute =
" One Minute " is a song recorded by American recording artist Kelly Clarkson taken from her third studio album , My December ( 2007 ) . The song served as the album 's second single in Australia on September 18 , 2007 through 19 Recordings and RCA Records . Clarkson originally wrote it for her second studio album , Breakaway ( 2004 ) , with songwriters Kara DioGuardi , Chantal Kreviazuk and Raine Maida ; however , it did not make the final track listing . It was then reworked for My December , being produced by David Kahne , and co @-@ produced by Jason Halbert and Jimmy Messer . " One Minute " is an alternative rock song with electropop influences , and consists of " rapid @-@ fire give @-@ and @-@ take verses . "
Upon its release , " One Minute " was met with positive reviews from music critics , with one considering it to be the musical highlight of My December , along with " Never Again " and " Don 't Waste Your Time " . Following strong radio airplay , the song debuted at number 41 in Australia , reaching its peak of number 36 a week later . No accompanying music video was recorded for the song ; however , Clarkson promoted it through few live appearances , including at Daytona 500 on February 2007 , and on Take 40 's Live Lounge .
= = Release and composition = =
In 2004 , Clarkson teamed up with songwriters Kara DioGuardi and Chantal Kreviazuk to work on songs for her second studio album , Breakaway ( 2004 ) . Together they wrote " Where Is Your Heart " , while musician Raine Maida , Kreviazuk 's husband , co @-@ wrote " Walk Away " and " One Minute " with the trio . However , only the first two songs were included on the album . " One Minute " was then reworked for My December , being produced by David Kahne , and co @-@ produced by Jason Halbert and Jimmy Messer . After receiving strong radio airplay in Australia , it was released as the second single from the album in the country , on September 18 , 2007 through 19 Recordings and RCA Records .
" One Minute " is an alternative rock song with electropop influences , and begins with Clarkson singing , " You 're going crazy , running on empty / You can 't make up your mind / You try to hide it , but you had to say it / Restless all this time . " It is composed in the key of A major and is set in time signature of common time , with a tempo of 124 beats per minute . Clarkson 's vocal range spans over an octave , from A3 to D5 . Critics have observed the influence of 1980s music on the song , while Talia Kraines of BBC Music compared it to pop rock songs released by singers Ashlee Simpson and Lindsay Lohan . A reviewer for Billboard commented on the song 's structure , writing that " One Minute " consists of " rapid @-@ fire give @-@ and @-@ take verses " .
= = Critical response = =
" One Minute " received generally positive reviews from music critics . On his review for My December , Josh Love of Stylus Magazine wrote that the song , along with " Don 't Waste Your Time " , " as lyrically sour as they may be , [ ... ] are both fantastically layered pop @-@ rockers . " Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly considered the album to be Clarkson 's " darker , more personal , riskier " release until that point . Willman added that " One Minute " was a " lighter [ pleasure ] that ( take note , Team Clive ! ) would make [ a ] dandy warm @-@ weather [ single ] . " Michael Endelman of Spin considered it a " snarling disco rock " song , while Nick Levine of Digital Spy deemed it " pounding [ and ] insistent . " Penn Live blogger Ashley Z. said that " the anger on this record can be overwhelming at times , " which could be an argument for the " existence " of " One Minute " . Allmusic long @-@ time contributor Stephen Thomas Erlewine considered it the highlight of My December , along with " Never Again " and " Irvine " , writing that the song " give this album some much needed spark . "
= = Live performances = =
Clarkson first performed " One Minute " at Daytona 500 on February 18 , 2007 , where she premiered the song prior to the album 's release . Later that year , she performed the song during a special titled Nissan Live Sets on Yahoo ! Music , and on Take 40 's Live Lounge . The latter was released as a promotional live video in Australia , as no accompanying music video for the single was filmed . " One Minute " was included on the set list of the album 's supporting concert tour , titled My December Tour ( 2008 ) .
= = Formats and track listings = =
CD single
" One Minute " – 3 : 05
" Never Again " ( live at AOL Sessions ) – 3 : 40
Digital download
" One Minute " – 3 : 05
" Never Again " – 3 : 40
= = Charts = =
On the week of October 7 , 2007 , " One Minute " debuted at number 41 in Australia , following strong radio airplay . The following week , it peaked at number 36 , before falling out of the top 50 two weeks later .
= = Release history = =
= Swami Vivekananda =
Swami Vivekananda ( Bengali : স ্ বামী বিবেকানন ্ দ ) Bengali : [ ʃami bibekanɒnɖo ] , Shāmi Bibekānondo ; 12 January 1863 – 4 July 1902 ) , born Narendranath Datta ( Bengali : নরেন ্ দ ্ রনাথ দত ্ ত ) ( Bengali : [ nɔrend ̪ ro nat ̪ ʰ d ̪ ɔt ̪ t ̪ o ] ) , was an Indian Hindu monk , a chief disciple of the 19th @-@ century Indian mystic Ramakrishna . He was a key figure in the introduction of the Indian philosophies of Vedanta and Yoga to the Western world and is credited with raising interfaith awareness , bringing Hinduism to the status of a major world religion during the late 19th century . He was a major force in the revival of Hinduism in India , and contributed to the concept of nationalism in colonial India . Vivekananda founded the Ramakrishna Math and the Ramakrishna Mission . He is perhaps best known for his speech which began , " Sisters and brothers of America ... , " in which he introduced Hinduism at the Parliament of the World 's Religions in Chicago in 1893 .
Born into an aristocratic Bengali family of Calcutta , Vivekananda was inclined towards spirituality . He was influenced by his Guru , Ramakrishna Deva , from whom he learnt that all living beings were an embodiment of the divine self ; therefore , service to God could be rendered by service to mankind . After Ramakrishna 's death , Vivekananda toured the Indian subcontinent extensively and acquired first @-@ hand knowledge of the conditions prevailing in British India . He later travelled to the United States , representing India at the 1893 Parliament of the World Religions . Vivekananda conducted hundreds of public and private lectures and classes , disseminating tenets of Hindu philosophy in the United States , England and Europe . In India , Vivekananda is regarded as a patriotic saint and his birthday is celebrated there as National Youth Day .
= = Early life ( 1863 – 88 ) = =
= = = Birth and childhood = = =
Vivekananda was born Narendranath Datta ( shortened to Narendra or Naren ) at his ancestral home at 3 Gourmohan Mukherjee Street in Calcutta , the capital of British India , on 12 January 1863 during the Makar Sankranti festival . He belonged to a traditional Bengali Kayastha family and was one of nine siblings . His father , Vishwanath Datta , was an attorney at the Calcutta High Court . Durgacharan Datta , Narendra 's grandfather was a Sanskrit and Persian scholar who left his family and became a monk at age twenty @-@ five . His mother , Bhubaneswari Devi , was a devout housewife . The progressive , rational attitude of Narendra 's father and the religious temperament of his mother helped shape his thinking and personality .
Narendranath was interested spiritually from a young age , and used to meditate before the images of deities such as Shiva , Rama , Sita , and Mahavir Hanuman . He was fascinated by wandering ascetics and monks . Naren was naughty and restless as a child , and his parents often had difficulty controlling him . His mother said , " I prayed to Shiva for a son and he has sent me one of his ghosts " .
= = Education = =
In 1871 , at the age of eight , Narendranath enrolled at Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar 's Metropolitan Institution , where he went to school until his family moved to Raipur in 1877 . In 1879 , after his family 's return to Calcutta , he was the only student to receive first @-@ division marks in the Presidency College entrance examination . He was an avid reader in a wide range of subjects , including philosophy , religion , history , social science , art and literature . He was also interested in Hindu scriptures , including the Vedas , the Upanishads , the Bhagavad Gita , the Ramayana , the Mahabharata and the Puranas . Narendra was trained in Indian classical music , and regularly participated in physical exercise , sports and organised activities . Narendra studied Western logic , Western philosophy and European history at the General Assembly 's Institution ( now known as the Scottish Church College ) . In 1881 he passed the Fine Arts examination , and completed a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1884 . Narendra studied the works of David Hume , Immanuel Kant , Johann Gottlieb Fichte , Baruch Spinoza , Georg W. F. Hegel , Arthur Schopenhauer , Auguste Comte , John Stuart Mill and Charles Darwin . He became fascinated with the evolutionism of Herbert Spencer and corresponded with him , translating Spencer 's book Education ( 1861 ) into Bengali . While studying Western philosophers , he also learned Sanskrit scriptures and Bengali literature . William Hastie ( principal of General Assembly 's Institution ) wrote , " Narendra is really a genius . I have travelled far and wide but I have never come across a lad of his talents and possibilities , even in German universities , among philosophical students ' Some accounts have called Narendra a shrutidhara ( a person with a prodigious memory ) .
= = = Spiritual apprenticeship - influence of Brahmo Samaj = = =
In 1880 Narendra joined Keshab Chandra Sen 's Nava Vidhan , which was established by Sen after meeting Ramakrishna and reconverting from Christianity to Hinduism . Narendra became a member of a Freemasonry lodge " at some point before 1884 " and of the Sadharan Brahmo Samaj in his twenties , a breakaway faction of the Brahmo Samaj led by Keshab Chandra Sen and Debendranath Tagore . From 1881 to 1884 he was also active in Sen 's Band of Hope , which tried to discourage youths from smoking and drinking .
It was in this cultic milieu that Narendra became acquainted with western esotericism . His initial beliefs were shaped by Brahmo concepts , which included belief in a formless God and the deprecation of idolatry , and a " streamlined , rationalized , monotheistic theology strongly coloured by a selective and modernistic reading of the Upanisads and of the Vedanta . " Rammohan Roy , the founder of the Brahmo Samaj who was strongly influenced by unitarianism , strived toward an universalistic interpretation of Hinduism . His ideas were " altered [ ... ] considerably " by Debendranath Tagore , who had a romantic approach to the development of these new doctrines , and questioned central Hindu beliefs like reincarnation and karma , and rejected the authority of the Vedas . Tagore also brought this " neo @-@ Hinduism " closer in line with western esotericism , a development which was furthered by Keshubchandra Sen. Sen was influenced by transcendentalism , an American philosophical @-@ religious movement strongly connected with unitarianism , which emphasised personal religious experience over mere reasoning and theology . Sen strived to " an accessible , non @-@ renunciatory , everyman type of spirituality " , introducing " lay systems of spiritual practice " which can be regarded as prototypes of the kind of Yoga @-@ exercises which Vivekananda popularised in the west .
The same search for direct intuition and understanding can be seen with Vivekananda . Not satisfied with his knowledge of philosophy , Narendra came to " the question which marked the real beginning of his intellectual quest for God . " He asked several prominent Calcutta residents if they had come " face to face with God " , but none of their answers satisfied him . At this time , Narendra met Debendranath Tagore ( the leader of Brahmo Samaj ) and asked if he had seen God . Instead of answering his question , Tagore said " My boy , you have the Yogi 's eyes . " According to Banhatti , it was Ramakrishna who really answered Narendra 's question , by saying " Yes , I see Him as I see you , only in an infinitely intenser sense . " Nevertheless , Vivekananda was more influenced by the Brahmo Samaj 's and its new ideas , than by Ramakrishna . It was Sen 's influence who brought Vivekananda fully into contact with western esotericism , and it was also via Sen that he met Ramakrishna .
= = = With Ramakrishna = = =
In 1881 Narendra first met Ramakrishna , who became his spiritual focus after his own father had died in 1884 .
Narendra 's first introduction to Ramakrishna occurred in a literature class at General Assembly 's Institution when he heard Professor William Hastie lecturing on William Wordsworth 's poem , The Excursion . While explaining the word " trance " in the poem , Hastie suggested that his students visit Ramakrishna of Dakshineswar to understand the true meaning of trance . This prompted some of his students ( including Narendra ) to visit Ramakrishna .
They probably first met personally in November 1881 , though Narendra did not consider this their first meeting , and neither man mentioned this meeting later . At this time Narendra was preparing for his upcoming F. A. examination , when Ram Chandra Datta accompanied him to Surendra Nath Mitra 's , house where Ramakrishna was invited to deliver a lecture . According to Paranjape , at this meeting Ramakrishna asked young Narendra to sing . Impressed by his singing talent , he asked Narendra to come to Dakshineshwar .
In late 1881 or early 1882 , Narendra went to Dakshineswar with two friends and met Ramakrishna . This meeting proved to be a turning point in his life . Although he did not initially accept Ramakrishna as his teacher and rebelled against his ideas , he was attracted by his personality and began to frequently visit him at Dakshineswar . He initially saw Ramakrishna 's ecstasies and visions as " mere figments of imagination " and " hallucinations " . As a member of Brahmo Samaj , he opposed idol worship , polytheism and Ramakrishna 's worship of Kali . He even rejected the Advaita Vedanta of " identity with the absolute " as blasphemy and madness , and often ridiculed the idea . Narendra tested Ramakrishna , who faced his arguments patiently : " Try to see the truth from all angles " , he replied .
Narendra 's father 's sudden death in 1884 left the family bankrupt ; creditors began demanding the repayment of loans , and relatives threatened to evict the family from their ancestral home . Narendra , once a son of a well @-@ to @-@ do family , became one of the poorest students in his college . He unsuccessfully tried to find work and questioned God 's existence , but found solace in Ramakrishna and his visits to Dakshineswar increased .
One day Narendra requested Ramakrishna to pray to goddess Kali for their family 's financial welfare . Ramakrishna suggested him to go to the temple himself and pray . Following Ramakrishna 's suggestion , he went to the temple thrice , but failed to pray for any kind of worldly necessities and ultimately prayed for true knowledge and devotion from the goddess . Narendra gradually grew ready to renounce everything for the sake of realising God , and accepted Ramakrishna as his Guru .
In 1885 , Ramakrishna developed throat cancer , and was transferred to Calcutta and ( later ) to a garden house in Cossipore . Narendra and Ramakrishna 's other disciples took care of him during his last days , and Narendra 's spiritual education continued . At Cossipore , he experienced Nirvikalpa samadhi . Narendra and several other disciples received ochre robes from Ramakrishna , forming his first monastic order . He was taught that service to men was the most effective worship of God . Ramakrishna asked him to care for the other monastic disciples , and in turn asked them to see Narendra as their leader . Ramakrishna died in the early @-@ morning hours of 16 August 1886 in Cossipore .
= = = Founding of first Ramakrishna Math at Baranagar = = =
After Ramakrishna 's death , his devotees and admirers stopped supporting his disciples . Unpaid rent accumulated , and Narendra and the other disciples had to find a new place to live . Many returned home , adopting a Grihastha ( family @-@ oriented ) way of life . Narendra decided to convert a dilapidated house at Baranagar into a new math ( monastery ) for the remaining disciples . Rent for the Baranagar Math was low , raised by " holy begging " ( mādhukarī ) . The math became the first building of the Ramakrishna Math : the monastery of the monastic order of Ramakrishna . Narendra and other disciples used to spend many hours in practising meditation and religious austerities every day . Narendra later reminisced about the early days of the monastery :
We underwent a lot of religious practice at the Baranagar Math . We used to get up at 3 : 00 am and become absorbed in japa and meditation . What a strong spirit of detachment we had in those days ! We had no thought even as to whether the world existed or not .
In 1887 , Narendra compiled a Bengali song anthology named Sangeet Kalpataru with Vaishnav Charan Basak . Narendra collected and arranged most of the songs of this compilation , but could not finish the work of the book for unfavourable circumstances .
= = = Monastic vows = = =
In December 1886 , the mother of Baburam invited Narendra and his other brother monks to Antpur village . Narendra and the other aspiring monks accepted the invitation and went to Antpur to spend few days . In Antpur , in the Christmas Eve of 1886 , Narendra and eight other disciples took formal monastic vows . They decided to live their lives as their master lived . Narendranath took the name " Swami Vivekananda " .
= = Travels in India ( 1888 – 93 ) = =
In 1888 , Narendra left the monastery as a Parivrâjaka — the Hindu religious life of a wandering monk , " without fixed abode , without ties , independent and strangers wherever they go " . His sole possessions were a kamandalu ( water pot ) , staff and his two favourite books : the Bhagavad Gita and The Imitation of Christ . Narendra travelled extensively in India for five years , visiting centres of learning and acquainting himself with diverse religious traditions and social patterns . He developed sympathy for the suffering and poverty of the people , and resolved to uplift the nation . Living primarily on bhiksha ( alms ) , Narendra travelled on foot and by railway ( with tickets bought by admirers ) . During his travels he met , and stayed with Indians from all religions and walks of life : scholars , dewans , rajas , Hindus , Muslims , Christians , paraiyars ( low @-@ caste workers ) and government officials . Narendra left Bombay for Chicago on 31 May 1893 with the name " Vivekananda " , as suggested by Ajit Singh of Khetri , which means " the bliss of discerning wisdom " .
= = First visit to the West ( 1893 – 97 ) = =
Vivekananda started his journey to the West on 31 May 1893 and visited several cities in Japan ( including Nagasaki , Kobe , Yokohama , Osaka , Kyoto and Tokyo ) , China and Canada en route to the United States , reaching Chicago on 30 July 1893 , where the " Parliament of Religions " took place in September 1893 . The Congress was an initiative of the Swedenborgian layman , and judge of the Illinois Supreme Court , Charles C. Bonney , to gather all the religions of the world , and show " the substantial unity of many religions in the good deeds of the religious life . " It was one of the more than 200 adjunct gatherings and congresses of the Chicago 's World 's Fair , and was " an avant @-@ garde intellectual manifestation of [ ... ] cultic milieus , East and West , " with the Brahmo Samaj and the Theosophical Society being invited as being representative of Hinduism .
Vivekananda wanted to join , but was disappointed to learn that no one without credentials from a bona fide organisation would be accepted as a delegate . Vivekananda contacted Professor John Henry Wright of Harvard University , who invited him to speak at Harvard . Vivekananda wrote of the professor , " He urged upon me the necessity of going to the Parliament of Religions , which he thought would give an introduction to the nation " . Vivekananda submitted an application , " introducing himself as a monk ' of the oldest order of sannyāsis ... founded by Sankara , ' " supported by the Brahmo Samaj representative Protapchandra Mozoombar , who was also a member of the Parliament 's selection committee , " classifying the Swami as a representative of the Hindu monastic order . "
= = = Parliament of the World 's Religions = = =
The Parliament of the World 's Religions opened on 11 September 1893 at the Art Institute of Chicago as part of the World 's Columbian Exposition . On this day , Vivekananda gave a brief speech representing India and Hinduism . He was initially nervous , bowed to
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Saraswati ( the Hindu goddess of learning ) and began his speech with " Sisters and brothers of America ! " . At these words , Vivekananda received a two @-@ minute standing ovation from the crowd of seven thousand . According to Sailendra Nath Dhar , when silence was restored he began his address , greeting the youngest of the nations on behalf of " the most ancient order of monks in the world , the Vedic order of sannyasins , a religion which has taught the world both tolerance , of and universal acceptance " . Vivekananda quoted two illustrative passages from the " Shiva mahima strotam " : " As the different streams having their sources in different places all mingle their water in the sea , so , O Lord , the different paths which men take , through different tendencies , various though they appear , crooked or straight , all lead to Thee ! " and " Whosoever comes to Me , through whatsoever form , I reach him ; all men are struggling through paths that in the end lead to Me . " According to Sailendra Nath Dhar , " [ i ] t was only a short speech , but it voiced the spirit of the Parliament . "
Parliament President John Henry Barrows said , " India , the Mother of religions was represented by Swami Vivekananda , the Orange @-@ monk who exercised the most wonderful influence over his auditors " . Vivekananda attracted widespread attention in the press , which called him the " cyclonic monk from India " . The New York Critique wrote , " He is an orator by divine right , and his strong , intelligent face in its picturesque setting of yellow and orange was hardly less interesting than those earnest words , and the rich , rhythmical utterance he gave them " . The New York Herald noted , " Vivekananda is undoubtedly the greatest figure in the Parliament of Religions . After hearing him we feel how foolish it is to send missionaries to this learned nation " . American newspapers reported Vivekananda as " the greatest figure in the parliament of religions " and " the most popular and influential man in the parliament " . The Boston Evening Transcript reported that Vivekananda was " a great favourite at the parliament ... if he merely crosses the platform , he is applauded " . He spoke several more times " at receptions , the scientific section , and private homes " on topics related to Hinduism , Buddhism and harmony among religions until the parliament ended on 27 September 1893 . Vivekananda 's speeches at the Parliament had the common theme of universality , emphasising religious tolerance . He soon became known as a " handsome oriental " and made a huge impression as an orator .
= = = Lecture tours in the UK and US = = =
After the Parliament of Religions , he toured many parts of the US as a guest . His popularity opened up new views for expanding on " life and religion to thousands " . During a question @-@ answer session at Brooklyn Ethical Society , he remarked , " I have a message to the West as Buddha had a message to the East . "
Vivekananda spent nearly two years lecturing in the eastern and central United States , primarily in Chicago , Detroit , Boston , and New York . He founded the Vedanta Society of New York in 1894 . By spring 1895 his busy , tiring schedule had affected his health . He ended his lecture tours and began giving free , private classes in Vedanta and yoga . Beginning in June 1895 , Vivekananda gave private lectures to a dozen of his disciples at Thousand Island Park in New York for two months .
During his first visit to the West he travelled to the UK twice , in 1895 and 1896 , lecturing successfully there . In November 1895 he met Margaret Elizabeth Noble an Irish woman who would become Sister Nivedita . During his second visit to the UK in May 1896 Vivekananda met Max Müller , a noted Indologist from Oxford University who wrote Ramakrishna 's first biography in the West . From the UK , Vivekananda visited other European countries . In Germany he met Paul Deussen , another Indologist . Vivekananda was offered academic positions in two American universities ( one the chair in Eastern Philosophy at Harvard University and a similar position at Columbia University ) ; he declined both , since his duties would conflict with his commitment as a monk .
His success led to a change in mission , namely the establishment of Vedanta centres in the West . Vivekananda adapted traditional Hindu ideas and religiosity to suit the needs and understandings of his western audiences , who were especially attracted by and familiar with western esoteric traditions and movements like Transcendentalism and New thought . An important element in his adaptation of Hindu religiosity was the introduction of his " four yogas " model , which includes Raja yoga , his interpretation of Patanjali 's Yoga sutras , which offered a practical means to realise the divine force within which is central to modern western esotericism . In 1896 his book Raja Yoga was published , which became an instant success and was highly influential in the western understanding of Yoga .
Vivekananda attracted followers and admirers in the US and Europe , including Josephine MacLeod , William James , Josiah Royce , Robert G. Ingersoll , Nikola Tesla , Lord Kelvin , Harriet Monroe , Ella Wheeler Wilcox , Sarah Bernhardt , Emma Calvé and Hermann Ludwig Ferdinand von Helmholtz . He initiated several followers : Marie Louise ( a French woman ) became Swami Abhayananda , and Leon Landsberg became Swami Kripananda , so that they could continue the work of the mission of the Vedanta Society . This society still is filled with foreign nationals and is also located in Los Angeles . During his stay in America , Vivekananda was given land in the mountains to the southeast of San Jose , California to establish an retreat for Vedanta students . He called it " Peace retreat " , or , Shanti Asrama . The largest American centre is the Vedanta Society of Southern California in Hollywood , ( one of the twelve main centres ) . There is also a Vedanta Press in Hollywood which publishes books about Vedanta and English translations of Hindu scriptures and texts . Christina Greenstidel of Detroit was also initiated by Vivekananda with a mantra and she became Sister Christine , and they established a close father – daughter relationship .
From the West , Vivekananda revived his work in India . He regularly corresponded with his followers and brother monks , offering advice and financial support . His letters from this period reflect his campaign of social service , and were strongly worded . He wrote to Akhandananda , " Go from door to door amongst the poor and lower classes of the town of Khetri and teach them religion . Also , let them have oral lessons on geography and such other subjects . No good will come of sitting idle and having princely dishes , and saying " Ramakrishna , O Lord ! " — unless you can do some good to the poor " . In 1895 , Vivekananda founded the periodical Brahmavadin to teach the Vedanta . Later , Vivekananda 's translation of the first six chapters of The Imitation of Christ was published in Brahmavadin in 1889 . Vivekananda left for India on 16 December 1896 from England with his disciples Captain and Mrs. Sevier and J.J. Goodwin . On the way they visited France and Italy , and set sail for India from Naples on 30 December 1896 . He was later followed to India by Sister Nivedita , who devoted the rest of her life to the education of Indian women and India 's independence .
= = Back in India ( 1897 – 99 ) = =
The ship from Europe arrived in Colombo , British Ceylon ( now Sri Lanka ) on 15 January 1897 , and Vivekananda received a warm welcome . In Colombo he gave his first public speech in the East , India , the Holy Land . From there on , his journey to Calcutta was triumphant . Vivekananda travelled from Colombo to Pamban , Rameswaram , Ramnad , Madurai , Kumbakonam and Madras , delivering lectures . Common people and rajas gave him an enthusiastic reception . During his train travels , people often sat on the rails to force the train to stop so they could hear him . From Madras , he continued his journey to Calcutta and Almora . While in the West , Vivekananda spoke about India 's great spiritual heritage ; in India , he repeatedly addressed social issues : uplifting the people , eliminating the caste system , promoting science and industrialisation , addressing widespread poverty and ending colonial rule . These lectures , published as Lectures from Colombo to Almora , demonstrate his nationalistic fervour and spiritual ideology .
On 1 May 1897 in Calcutta , Vivekananda founded the Ramakrishna Mission for social service . Its ideals are based on Karma Yoga , and its governing body consists of the trustees of the Ramakrishna Math ( which conducts religious work ) . Both Ramakrishna Math and Ramakrishna Mission have their headquarters at Belur Math . Vivekananda founded two other monasteries : one in Mayavati in the Himalayas ( near Almora ) , the Advaita Ashrama and another in Madras . Two journals were founded : Prabuddha Bharata in English and Udbhodan in Bengali . That year , famine @-@ relief work was begun by Swami Akhandananda in the Murshidabad district .
Vivekananda earlier inspired Jamshedji Tata to set up a research and educational institution when they travelled together from Yokohama to Chicago on Vivekananda 's first visit to the West in 1893 . Tata now asked him to head his Research Institute of Science ; Vivekananda declined the offer , citing a conflict with his " spiritual interests " . He visited Punjab , attempting to mediate an ideological conflict between Arya Samaj ( a reformist Hindu movement ) and sanatan ( orthodox Hindus ) . After brief visits to Lahore , Delhi and Khetri , Vivekananda returned to Calcutta in January 1898 . He consolidated the work of the math and trained disciples for several months . Vivekananda composed " Khandana Bhava – Bandhana " , a prayer song dedicated to Ramakrishna , in 1898 .
= = Second visit to the West and final years ( 1899 – 1902 ) = =
Despite declining health , Vivekananda left for the West for a second time in June 1899 accompanied by Sister Nivedita and Swami Turiyananda . Following a brief stay in England , he went to the United States . During this visit , Vivekananda established Vedanta Societies in San Francisco and New York and founded a shanti ashrama ( peace retreat ) in California . He then went to Paris for the Congress of Religions in 1900 . His lectures in Paris concerned the worship of the lingam and the authenticity of the Bhagavad Gita . Vivekananda then visited Brittany , Vienna , Istanbul , Athens and Egypt . The French philosopher Jules Bois was his host for most of this period , until he returned to Calcutta on 9 December 1900 .
After a brief visit to the Advaita Ashrama in Mayavati Vivekananda settled at Belur Math , where he continued co @-@ ordinating the works of Ramakrishna Mission , the math and the work in England and the US He had many visitors , including royalty and politicians . Although Vivekananda was unable to attend the Congress of Religions in 1901 in Japan due to deteriorating health , he made pilgrimages to Bodhgaya and Varanasi . Declining health ( including asthma , diabetes and chronic insomnia ) restricted his activity .
= = Death = =
On 4 July 1902 ( the day of his death ) Vivekananda awoke early , went to the chapel at Belur Math and meditated for three hours . He taught Shukla @-@ Yajur @-@ Veda , Sanskrit grammar and the philosophy of yoga to pupils , later discussing with colleagues a planned Vedic college in the Ramakrishna Math . At 7 : 00 p.m. Vivekananda went to his room , asking not to be disturbed ; he died at 9 : 10 p.m. while meditating . According to his disciples , Vivekananda attained mahasamādhi ; the rupture of a blood vessel in his brain was reported as a possible cause of death . His disciples believed that the rupture was due to his brahmarandhra ( an opening in the crown of his head ) being pierced when he attained mahasamādhi . Vivekananda fulfilled his prophecy that he would not live forty years . He was cremated on a sandalwood funeral pyre on the bank of the Ganga in Belur , opposite where Ramakrishna was cremated sixteen years earlier .
= = Teachings and philosophy = =
Vivekananda propagated that the essence of Hinduism was best expressed in Adi Shankara 's Advaita Vedanta philosophy . Nevertheless , following Ramakrishna , and in contrast to Advaita Vedanta , Vivekananda believed that the Absolute is both immanent and transcendent . According to Anil Sooklal , Vivekananda 's neo @-@ Advaita " reconciles Dvaita or dualism and Advaita or non @-@ dualism " . Vivekananda summarised the Vedanta as follows , giving it a modern and Universalistic interpretation :
Each soul is potentially divine . The goal is to manifest this Divinity within by controlling nature , external and internal . Do this either by work , or worship , or mental discipline , or philosophy — by one , or more , or all of these — and be free . This is the whole of religion . Doctrines , or dogmas , or rituals , or books , or temples , or forms , are but secondary details .
Nationalism was a prominent theme in Vivekananda 's thought . He believed that a country 's future depends on its people , and his teachings focused on human development . He wanted " to set in motion a machinery which will bring noblest ideas to the doorstep of even the poorest and the meanest " .
Vivekananda linked morality with control of the mind , seeing truth , purity and unselfishness as traits which strengthened it . He advised his followers to be holy , unselfish and to have śraddhā ( faith ) . Vivekananda supported brahmacharya ( celibacy ) , believing it the source of his physical and mental stamina and eloquence . He emphasised that success was an outcome of focused thought and action ; in his lectures on Raja Yoga he said , " Take up one idea . Make that one idea your life – think of it , dream of it , live on that idea . Let the brain , muscles , nerves , every part of your body , be full of that idea , and just leave every other idea alone . This is the way to success , that is the way great spiritual giants are produced " .
= = Influence and legacy = =
Vivekananda was one of the main representatives of Neo @-@ Vedanta , a modern interpretation of selected aspects of Hinduism in line with western esoteric traditions , especially Transcendentalism , New Thought and Theosophy . His reinterpretation was , and is , very successful , creating a new understanding and appreciation of Hinduism within and outside India , and was the principal reason for the enthusiastic reception of yoga , transcendental meditation and other forms of Indian spiritual self @-@ improvement in the West . Agehananda Bharati explained , " ... modern Hindus derive their knowledge of Hinduism from Vivekananda , directly or indirectly " . Vivekananda espoused the idea that all sects within Hinduism ( and all religions ) are different paths to the same goal . However , this view has been criticised as an oversimplification of Hinduism .
In the background of emerging nationalism in British @-@ ruled India , Vivekananda crystallised the nationalistic ideal . In the words of social reformer Charles Freer Andrews , " The Swami 's intrepid patriotism gave a new colour to the national movement throughout India . More than any other single individual of that period Vivekananda had made his contribution to the new awakening of India " . Vivekananda drew attention to the extent of poverty in the country , and maintained that addressing such poverty was a prerequisite for national awakening . His nationalistic ideas influenced many Indian thinkers and leaders . Sri Aurobindo regarded Vivekananda as the one who awakened India spiritually . Mahatma Gandhi counted him among the few Hindu reformers " who have maintained this Hindu religion in a state of splendor by cutting down the dead wood of tradition " .
The first governor @-@ general of independent India , Chakravarti Rajagopalachari , said " Vivekananda saved Hinduism , saved India " . According to Subhas Chandra Bose , a proponent of armed struggle for Indian independence , Vivekananda was " the maker of modern India " ; for Gandhi , Vivekananda 's influence increased Gandhi 's " love for his country a thousandfold " . Vivekananda influenced India 's independence movement ; his writings inspired independence activists such as Netaji Subhas Chandra Bose , Aurobindo Ghose , Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bagha Jatin and intellectuals such as Aldous Huxley , Christopher Isherwood , Romain Rolland . Many years after Vivekananda 's death Rabindranath Tagore told French Nobel laureate Romain Rolland , " If you want to know India , study Vivekananda . In him everything is positive and nothing negative " . Rolland wrote , " His words are great music , phrases in the style of Beethoven , stirring rhythms like the march of Händel choruses . I cannot touch these sayings of his , scattered as they are through the pages of books , at thirty years ' distance , without receiving a thrill through my body like an electric shock . And what shocks , what transports , must have been produced when in burning words they issued from the lips of the hero ! "
Jamshedji Tata was inspired by Vivekananda to establish the Indian Institute of Science , one of India 's best @-@ known research universities . Abroad , Vivekananda communicated with orientalist Max Müller , and scientist Nikola Tesla was one of those influenced by his Vedic teachings . While National Youth Day in India is observed on his birthday , 12 January , the day he delivered his masterful speech at the Parliament of Religions , 11 September 1893 is " World Brotherhood Day " . In September 2010 , India 's Finance Ministry highlighted the relevance of Vivekananda 's teachings and values to the modern economic environment . The then Union Finance Minister Pranab Mukherjee , the current President of India , approved in principle the Swami Vivekananda Values Education Project at a cost of ₹ 1 billion ( US $ 15 million ) , with objectives including involving youth with competitions , essays , discussions and study circles and publishing Vivekananda 's works in a number of languages . In 2011 , the West Bengal Police Training College was renamed the Swami Vivekananda State Police Academy , West Bengal . The state technical university in Chhattisgarh has been named the Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekananda Technical University . In 2012 , the Raipur airport was renamed Swami Vivekananda Airport .
The 150th birth anniversary of Swami Vivekananda was celebrated in India and abroad . The Ministry of Youth Affairs and Sports in India officially observed 2013 as the occasion in a declaration . Year @-@ long events and programs were organised by branches of the Ramakrishna Math , the Ramakrishna Mission , the central and state governments in India , educational institutions and youth groups . Bengali film director Tutu ( Utpal ) Sinha made a film , The Light : Swami Vivekananda as a tribute for his 150th birth anniversary .
= = Works = =
= = = Lectures = = =
Although Vivekananda was a powerful orator and writer in English and Bengali , he was not a thorough scholar , and most of his published works were compiled from lectures given around the world which were " mainly delivered [ ... ] impromptu and with little preparation " . His main work , Raja Yoga , consists of talks he delivered in New York .
= = = Literary works = = =
According to Banhatti , " [ a ] singer , a painter , a wonderful master of language and a poet , Vivekananda was a complete artist " , composing many songs and poems , including his favourite , " Kali the Mother " . Vivekananda blended humour with his teachings , and his language was lucid . His Bengali writings testify to his belief that words ( spoken or written ) should clarify ideas , rather than demonstrating the speaker ( or writer 's ) knowledge .
Bartaman Bharat meaning " Present Day India " is an erudite Bengali language essay written by him , which was first published in the March 1899 issue of Udbodhan , the only Bengali language magazine of Ramakrishna Math and Ramakrishna Mission . The essay was reprinted as a book in 1905 and later compiled into the fourth volume of The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda . In this essay his refrain to the readers was to honour and treat every Indian as a brother irrespective of whether he was born poor or in lower caste .
= = = Publications = = =
= = = Printed sources = = =
= = = Web @-@ sources = = =
= SM U @-@ 27 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) =
SM U @-@ 27 or U @-@ XXVII was the lead boat of the U @-@ 27 class of U @-@ boats or submarines for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . U @-@ 27 was built by the Austrian firm of Cantiere Navale Triestino ( CNT ) at the Pola Navy Yard and launched on 19 October 1916 . She was commissioned on 24 February 1917 .
She had a single hull and was just over 121 feet ( 37 m ) in length . She displaced nearly 265 metric tons ( 261 long tons ) when surfaced and over 300 metric tons ( 295 long tons ) when submerged . Her two diesel engines moved her at up to 9 knots ( 17 km / h ) on the surface , while her twin electric motors propeller her at up to 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ) while underwater . She was armed with two bow torpedo tubes and could carry a load of up to four torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) deck gun and a machine gun .
During her service career , U @-@ 27 sank the British destroyer Phoenix , damaged the Japanese destroyer Sakaki , and sank or captured 34 other ships totaling 14 @,@ 386 GRT . U @-@ 27 was surrendered at Pola at war 's end and handed over to Italy as a war reparation in 1919 . She was broken up the following year . Conway 's All the World 's Fighting Ships , 1906 – 1921 calls U @-@ 27 Austria @-@ Hungary 's " most successful submarine " .
= = Design and construction = =
Austria @-@ Hungary 's U @-@ boat fleet was largely obsolete at the outbreak of World War I. The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy satisfied its most urgent needs by purchasing five Type UB I submarines that comprised the U @-@ 10 class from Germany , by raising and recommissioning the sunken French submarine Curie as U @-@ 14 , and by building four submarines of the U @-@ 20 class that were based on the 1911 Danish Havmanden class .
After these steps alleviated their most urgent needs , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy selected the German Type UB II design for its newest submarines in mid 1915 . The Germans were reluctant to allocate any of their wartime resources to Austro @-@ Hungarian construction , but were willing to sell plans for up to six of the UB II boats to be constructed under license in Austria @-@ Hungary . The Navy agreed to the proposal and purchased the plans from AG Weser of Bremen .
U @-@ 27 displaced 264 metric tons ( 260 long tons ) surfaced and 301 metric tons ( 296 long tons ) submerged . She had a single hull with saddle tanks , and was 121 feet 1 inch ( 36 @.@ 91 m ) long with a beam of 14 feet 4 inches ( 4 @.@ 37 m ) and a draft of 12 feet 2 inches ( 3 @.@ 71 m ) . For propulsion , she had two shafts , twin diesel engines of 270 bhp ( 200 kW ) for surface running , and twin electric motors of 280 shp ( 210 kW ) for submerged travel . She was capable of 9 knots ( 16 @.@ 7 km / h ) while surfaced and 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ) while submerged . Although there is no specific notation of a range for U @-@ 27 , the German UB II boats , upon which the U @-@ 27 class was based , had a range of over 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 000 km ) at 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ) surfaced , and 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ) submerged . U @-@ 27 class boats were designed for a crew of 23 – 24 .
U @-@ 27 was armed with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) bow torpedo tubes and carried a complement of four torpedoes . She was also equipped with a 75 mm / 26 ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) deck gun and an 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun .
After intricate political negotiations to allocate production of the class between Austrian and Hungarian firms , U @-@ 27 was ordered from Cantiere Navale Triestino ( CNT ) on 12 October 1915 . She was laid down by early 1916 at the Pola Navy Yard , and launched on 19 October .
= = Service career = =
After her completion , U @-@ 27 was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 24 February 1917 under the command of Linienschiffsleutnant Robert Teufl von Fernland . Previously in command of U @-@ 11 , von Fernland was 31 @-@ year @-@ old native of Vienna . In April , von Fernland and U @-@ 27 both achieved their first kills . On 12 April , U @-@ 27 encountered the 3 @,@ 756 @-@ ton Greek steamship Niritos sailing from Genoa for Port Said . About 5 nautical miles ( 9 @.@ 3 km ; 5 @.@ 8 mi ) off Augusta , Sicily , U @-@ 27 shelled and sank the 11 @-@ year @-@ old Greek ship . Four days later , von Fernland torpedoed another Greek steamer , the 2 @,@ 976 @-@ ton Zinovia . Carrying coal from Barry for Taranto , Zinovia was sent to the bottom 5 nautical miles ( 9 @.@ 3 km ) from Cape Rizzuto .
In mid @-@ May 1917 , U @-@ 27 participated in a support role in a raid on the Otranto Barrage that precipitated the Battle of Otranto Straits . On the night of 14 / 15 May , the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruisers Helgoland , Saida , and Novara attacked the drifters that deployed the anti @-@ submarine nets that formed part of the Barrage , sinking 14 , damaging 5 , and taking 72 prisoners . Destroyers Csepel and Balaton were sent to simultaneously attack Italian transports shuttling between Italy and Valona , and sank an Italian destroyer and a munitions ship . U @-@ 27 , which was assigned to patrol between Brindisi and Cattaro , was a part of a force of three U @-@ boats intended to intercept British and Italian ships responding to the attacks ; the other two were the Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ 4 ( which was posted near Valona ) and the German UC @-@ 25 ( assigned to mine Brindisi ) . A squadron of British cruisers and Italian and French destroyers joined the battle against the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruisers on 15 May . Several ships on each side were damaged by the time the engagement was broken off . As a result of the attacks the drifter line of the Barrage was moved farther south and maintained only during the day , a success for the Central Powers . U @-@ 27 did not take any offensive action during the raid and ensuing battle .
On 9 June , U @-@ 27 sank Roland , a French sailing ship , off the Greek island of Cerigo . Two days later , von Fernland torpedoed the Japanese destroyer Sakaki between Cerigotto and Meles . Sakaki was one of eight Kaba @-@ class destroyers that were part of the Japanese contribution to the Allied effort in the Mediterranean . Although the Japanese ships often performed escort service for British troop convoys , Helgason does not report whether Sakaki was engaged in that duty when she was attacked . Even though 68 Japanese sailors perished in the attack , nearly two @-@ thirds the complement of a typical Kaba class ship , Sakaki remained afloat , was repaired , and remained in service . On 29 December , Linienschiffsleutnant Josef Holub replaced von Fernland as commander of U @-@ 27 . Holub , a 32 @-@ year @-@ old native of Galicia , had previously been in command of U @-@ 21 and U @-@ 22 . Holub recorded his first victory with U @-@ 27 in January 1918 . While near Marca , Sirocco , the U @-@ boat torpedoed and sank the Italian steamer Andrea Costa on 22 January . The 3 @,@ 991 @-@ ton Andrea Costa had sailed from Rangoon , but was sunk just short of her destination of Malta . A little more than four months would pass before Holub and U @-@ 27 would score their next success .
From late April to early May , U @-@ 27 sank six small ships — five Greek and one Italian — including three on one day , 6 May . All of the ships with reported tonnages were under 50 tons . U @-@ 27 torpedoed the British destroyer Phoenix at 09 : 18 on 14 May with the loss of one stoker and one artificer . Phoenix had been attached to the group of ships patrolling the Otranto Barrage when she was torpedoed amidships on the starboard side . Although she survived the initial attack , Phoenix was listing badly and taking on large quantities of water . An attempt was made by Australian destroyer Warrego to tow Phoenix to safety but by 12 : 45 she was in danger of capsizing and her crew were removed . Phoenix eventually sank at 13 : 10 in position 40 ° 23 ′ 30 ″ N 19 ° 14 ′ 00 ″ E. From 3 to 11 July , U @-@ 27 sank another ten ships , the largest reported being the 67 @-@ ton sailing vessel Giuseppino Padre . U @-@ 27 dispatched three of the ships on 3 July , and sank two each on 10 and 11 July . On 13 August , U @-@ 27 attacked the 2 @,@ 209 @-@ ton British steamer Anhui . The 15 @-@ year @-@ old ship was en route from Famagusta to Port Said , when U @-@ 27 torpedoed her 2 nautical miles ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) off Crete . Four persons on Anhui died when the ship with her general cargo went down .
U @-@ 27 's next victims were all encountered in mid @-@ September . On 11 September , the French sailing ship Antoinette was seized as a prize and towed into the port of Beyrouth . Starting three days later , Holub and U @-@ 27 sent an additional ten small ships to the bottom , including the final six all on 20 September . Except for the two largest ships — the 113 @-@ ton Agios Nicolas and the 103 @-@ ton Theologos — none were over 60 tons .
At the war 's end , U @-@ 27 was in port at Pola . The U @-@ boat was surrendered to Italy as a war reparation in 1919 and was scrapped at Fiume in 1920 . In addition to the sinking and damaging of two destroyers , she sank or captured 34 merchant ships totaling 14 @,@ 386 GRT . Conway 's All the World 's Fighting Ships , 1906 – 1921 calls U @-@ 27 Austria @-@ Hungary 's " most successful submarine " .
= = Ships sunk or damaged = =
* damaged but not sunk
* * captured as a prize
= Gateway of India =
The Gateway of India is a monument built during the 20th century in Mumbai City of Maharashtra state in Western India . It is located on the waterfront in the Apollo Bunder area in South Mumbai and overlooks the Arabian Sea . The structure is a basalt arch , 26 metres ( 85 feet ) high . It lies at the end of Chhatrapati Shivaji Marg at the water 's edge in Mumbai Harbour . It was a crude jetty used by the fishing community which was later renovated and used as a landing place for British governors and other prominent people . In earlier times , it would have been the first structure that visitors arriving by boat in Mumbai would have seen . The Gateway has also been referred to as the Taj Mahal of Mumbai , and is the city 's top tourist attraction . The India Gate in New Delhi is similar to the Gateway of India in Mumbai . The structure was erected to commemorate the landing of King George V and Queen Mary at Apollo Bunder , when they visited India in 1911 . Built in Indo @-@ Saracenic style , the foundation stone for the Gateway of India was laid on 31 March 1911 . The final design of George Wittet was sanctioned in 1914 and the construction of the monument was completed in 1924 . The Gateway was later the ceremonial entrance to India for Viceroys and the new Governors of Bombay . It served to allow entry and access to India .
The monument has witnessed three terror attacks from the beginning of the 21st century ; twice in 2003 and it was also the disembarkation point in 2008 when four gunmen attacked the Taj Mahal Palace & Tower .
= = History = =
The Gateway of India was built to commemorate the visit of King George V and Queen Mary to Mumbai , prior to the Delhi Durbar , in December 1911 . However , they only got to see a cardboard model of the structure since the construction did not begin till 1915 . The foundation stone was laid on March 31 , 1911 , by the governor of Bombay Sir George Sydenham Clarke , with the final design of George Wittet sanctioned on March 31 , 1914 . The gateway was built from yellow basalt and concrete . Between 1915 and 1919 , work proceeded at Apollo Bundar ( Port ) to reclaim the land on which the gateway and the new sea wall would be built . The foundations were completed in 1920 , and construction was finished in 1924 . The gateway was opened on December 4 , 1924 , by the Viceroy , the Earl of Reading .
The last British troops to leave India following the country 's independence , the First Battalion of the Somerset Light Infantry , passed through the Gateway on their way out in a ceremony on February 28 , 1948 , signalling the end of British rule .
= = Design and structure = =
The Scottish architect George Wittet combined the elements of the Roman triumphal arch and the 16th @-@ century architecture of Gujarat . Its design is a combination of Hindu and Muslim architectural styles ; the arch is of Muslim style while the decorations are of Hindu style . The gateway is built from yellow basalt and reinforced concrete . The stone was locally obtained , and the perforated screens were brought from Gwalior . The gateway faces out to Mumbai Harbour from the tip of Apollo Bunder .
The central dome is 48 feet ( 15 metres ) in diameter and 83 feet ( 25 metres ) above the ground at its highest point . The whole harbour front was realigned in order to come in line with a planned esplanade which would sweep down to the centre of the town . On each side of the arch , there are large halls that can hold 600 people . The cost of the construction was ₹ 2 million ( US $ 30 @,@ 000 ) , borne mainly by the Imperial Government of India . Due to a paucity of funds , the approach road was never built , and so the gateway stands at an angle to the road leading up to it .
= = Significance = =
It is the place where the viceroys and governors used to land upon their arrival in India . Though built as a welcome to King George V for his visit of 1911 , then an event of grand significance for British India and the British empire , today serves as a " monumental memento " of British colonial rule over India . Built right next to the Taj Mahal Palace & Tower hotel , for British arriving for the first time to India , the gateway was a symbol of the " power and majesty " of the British empire .
Opposite the gateway stands the statue of Shivaji , the king who used guerilla warfare to establish the Maratha empire in the Sahyadri mountain range in the 17th century , as a symbol of Maratha " pride and courage " . The statue was unveiled on 26 January 1961 on the occasion of India 's Republic Day . The other statue in the area is that of Swami Vivekananda , by renowned sculptor Sitaram S. Arte .
There are five jetties at the gateway . The first jetty is exclusive to the Atomic Research Centre , the second and third are used for commercial ferry operations , the fourth is closed and the fifth is exclusive to the Royal Bombay Yacht Club .
After the 2008 Mumbai attacks , there has been a proposal to close all these jetties and replace them with two newer ones to be built near the Bombay Presidency Radio Club nearby . The second and third jetties are the starting point for tours of Elephanta Caves , which is a 50 @-@ minute boat ride away by ferry . Other routes from the Gateway include ferry rides to Alibaug and Mandwa ; these ferries are said to carry passengers above their certified capacity due to their popularity .
The Gateway of India is a major tourist destination and a popular gathering spot for locals , street vendors and photographers . In 2012 , Maharashtra Tourism Development Corporation moved the " Elephanta Festival of music and dance " from its original location at Elephanta Caves ( where it had been celebrated for 23 years ) to the Gateway due to the increased capacity offered by the venue . The Gateway can host 2 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 500 people , whereas Elephanta Caves could host only 700 to 800 people .
A bomb planted in a taxi exploded near the gateway in the 2003 . The gateway was also the site of a major bomb @-@ blast in August 2003 and was the disembarkation point of the terrorists participating in the November 2008 terror attacks when four gunmen attacked the Taj Mahal Palace & Tower . Public movement in certain areas was restricted after the 2008 attacks .
= Henry III of England =
Henry III ( 1 October 1207 – 16 November 1272 ) , also known as Henry of Winchester , was King of England , Lord of Ireland and Duke of Aquitaine from 1216 until his death . The son of King John and Isabella of Angoulême , Henry assumed the throne when he was only nine in the middle of the First Barons ' War . Cardinal Guala declared the war against the rebel barons to be a religious crusade and Henry 's forces , led by William Marshal , defeated the rebels at the battles of Lincoln and Sandwich in 1217 . Henry promised to abide by the Great Charter of 1225 , which limited royal power and protected the rights of the major barons . His early rule was dominated first by Hubert de Burgh and then Peter des Roches , who re @-@ established royal authority after the war . In 1230 the King attempted to reconquer the provinces of France that had once belonged to his father , but the invasion was a debacle . A revolt led by William Marshal 's son , Richard , broke out in 1232 , ending in a peace settlement negotiated by the Church .
Following the revolt , Henry ruled England personally , rather than governing through senior ministers . He travelled less than previous monarchs , investing heavily in a handful of his favourite palaces and castles . He married Eleanor of Provence , with whom he had five children . Henry was known for his piety , holding lavish religious ceremonies and giving generously to charities ; the King was particularly devoted to the figure of Edward the Confessor , whom he adopted as his patron saint . He extracted huge sums of money from the Jews in England , ultimately crippling their ability to do business , and as attitudes towards the Jews hardened , he introduced the Statute of Jewry , attempting to segregate the community . In a fresh attempt to reclaim his family 's lands in France , he invaded Poitou in 1242 , leading to the disastrous Battle of Taillebourg . After this , Henry relied on diplomacy , cultivating an alliance with Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II . Henry supported his brother Richard in his bid to become King of the Romans in 1256 , but was unable to place his own son Edmund on the throne of Sicily , despite investing large amounts of money . He planned to go on crusade to the Levant , but was prevented from doing so by rebellions in Gascony .
By 1258 , Henry 's rule was increasingly unpopular , the result of the failure of his expensive foreign policies and the notoriety of his Poitevin half @-@ brothers , the Lusignans , as well as the role of his local officials in collecting taxes and debts . A coalition of his barons , initially probably backed by Eleanor , seized power in a coup d 'état and expelled the Poitevins from England , reforming the royal government through a process called the Provisions of Oxford . Henry and the baronial government enacted a peace with France in 1259 , under which Henry gave up his rights to his other lands in France in return for King Louis IX of France recognising him as the rightful ruler of Gascony . The baronial regime collapsed but Henry was unable to reform a stable government and instability across England continued .
In 1263 one of the more radical barons , Simon de Montfort , seized power , resulting in the Second Barons ' War . Henry persuaded Louis to support his cause and mobilised an army . The Battle of Lewes occurred in 1264 , where Henry was defeated and taken prisoner . Henry 's eldest son , Edward , escaped from captivity to defeat de Montfort at the Battle of Evesham the following year and freed his father . Henry initially enacted a harsh revenge on the remaining rebels , but was persuaded by the Church to mollify his policies through the Dictum of Kenilworth . Reconstruction was slow and Henry had to acquiesce to various measures , including further suppression of the Jews , to maintain baronial and popular support . Henry died in 1272 , leaving Edward as his successor . He was buried in Westminster Abbey , which he had rebuilt in the second half of his reign , and was moved to his current tomb in 1290 . Some miracles were declared after his death but he was not canonised .
= = Background and childhood = =
Henry was born in Winchester Castle on 1 October 1207 . He was the eldest son of King John and Isabella of Angoulême . Little is known of Henry 's early life . He was initially looked after by a wet nurse called Ellen in the south of England , away from John 's itinerant court , and probably had close ties to his mother . Henry had four legitimate younger brothers and sisters – Richard , Joan , Isabella and Eleanor – and various older illegitimate siblings . In 1212 his education was entrusted to Peter des Roches , the Bishop of Winchester ; under his direction , Henry was given military training by Philip D 'Aubigny and taught to ride , probably by Ralph of St Samson .
Little is known about Henry 's appearance ; he was probably around 168 centimetres ( 66 in ) tall , and accounts recorded after his death suggested that he had a strong build , with a drooping eyelid . Henry grew up to occasionally show flashes of a fierce temper , but mostly , as historian David Carpenter describes , he had an " amiable , easy @-@ going , and sympathetic " personality . He was unaffected and honest , and showed his emotions readily , easily being moved to tears by religious sermons .
At the start of the 13th century , the Kingdom of England formed part of an empire spreading across Western Europe . Henry was named after his grandfather , Henry II , who had built up this vast network of lands stretching from Scotland and Wales , through England , across the English Channel to the territories of Normandy , Brittany , Maine and Anjou in north @-@ west France , onto Poitou and Gascony in the south @-@ west . For many years the French Crown was relatively weak , enabling first Henry II , and then his sons Richard and John , to dominate France .
In 1204 , John lost Normandy , Brittany , Maine and Anjou to Philip II of France , leaving English power on the continent limited to Gascony and Poitou . John raised taxes to pay for military campaigns to regain his lands , but unrest grew among many of the English barons ; John sought new allies by declaring England a Papal fiefdom , owing allegiance to the Pope . In 1215 , John and the rebel barons negotiated a potential peace treaty , the Magna Carta . The treaty would have limited potential abuses of royal power , demobilised the rebel armies and set up a power @-@ sharing arrangement , but in practice neither side complied with its conditions . John and the loyalist barons firmly repudiated the Magna Carta and the First Barons ' War erupted , with the rebel barons aided by Philip 's son , the future Louis VIII , who claimed the English throne for himself . The war soon settled into a stalemate , with neither side able to claim victory . The King became ill and died on the night of 18 October , leaving the nine @-@ year @-@ old Henry as his heir .
= = Minority ( 1216 – 26 ) = =
= = = Coronation = = =
Henry was staying safely at Corfe Castle in Dorset with his mother when King John died . On his deathbed , John appointed a council of thirteen executors to help Henry reclaim the kingdom , and requested that his son be placed into the guardianship of William Marshal , one of the most famous knights in England . The loyalist leaders decided to crown Henry immediately to reinforce his claim to the throne . William knighted the boy , and Cardinal Guala Bicchieri , the papal legate to England , then oversaw his coronation at Gloucester Cathedral on 28 October . In the absence of the archbishops of Canterbury or York , he was anointed by the bishops of Worcester and Exeter , and crowned by Peter des Roches . The royal crown had been either lost or sold during the civil war , so instead the ceremony used a simple gold corolla belonging to Queen Isabella .
The young King inherited a difficult situation , with over half of England occupied by the rebels and most of his father 's continental possessions still in French hands . He had substantial support , however , from Guala who intended to win the civil war for Henry and punish the rebels . Guala set about strengthening the ties between England and the Papacy , starting with the coronation itself , where Henry gave homage to the Papacy , recognising the Pope as his feudal lord . Pope Honorius declared that Henry was the Pope 's vassal and ward , and that the legate had complete authority to protect Henry and his kingdom . As an additional measure , Henry took the cross , declaring himself a crusader and so entitled to special protection from Rome .
Two senior nobles stood out as candidates to head Henry 's regency government . The first was William , who , although elderly , was renowned for his personal loyalty and could help support the war with his own men and material . The second was Ranulf de Blondeville , the Earl of Chester and one of the most powerful loyalist barons . William diplomatically waited until both Guala and Ranulf had requested him to take up the post before assuming power . William then appointed des Roches to be Henry 's guardian , freeing himself up to lead the military effort .
= = = End of the Barons ' War = = =
The war was not going well for the loyalists and the new regency government considered retreating to Ireland . Prince Louis and the rebel barons , however , were also finding it difficult to make further progress . Despite Louis controlling Westminster Abbey , he could not be crowned king because the English Church and the Papacy backed Henry . John 's death had defused some of the rebel concerns , and the royal castles were still holding out in the occupied parts of the country . In a bid to take advantage of this , Henry encouraged the rebel barons to come back to his cause in exchange for the return of their lands , and reissued a version of the Magna Carta , albeit having first removed some of the clauses , including those unfavourable to the Papacy . The move was not successful and opposition to Henry 's new government hardened .
In February , Louis set sail for France to gather reinforcements . In his absence , arguments broke out between Louis 's French and English followers , and Cardinal Guala declared that Henry 's war against the rebels was a religious crusade . This resulted in a series of defections from the rebel movement , and the tide of the conflict swung in Henry 's favour . Louis returned at the end of April and reinvigorated his campaign , splitting his forces into two groups , sending one north to besiege Lincoln Castle and keeping one in the south to capture Dover Castle . When he learnt that Louis had divided his army , William Marshal gambled on defeating the rebels in a single battle . William marched north and attacked Lincoln on 20 May ; entering through a side gate , he took the city in a sequence of fierce street battles and sacked the buildings . Large numbers of senior rebels were captured , and historian David Carpenter considers the battle to be " one of the most decisive in English history " .
In the aftermath of Lincoln , the loyalist campaign stalled and only recommenced in late June when the victors had arranged the ransoming of their prisoners . Meanwhile , support for Louis 's campaign was diminishing in France and he concluded that the war in England was lost . The French prince negotiated terms with Cardinal Guala , under which he would renounce his claim to the English throne ; in return , his followers would be given back their lands , any sentences of excommunication would be lifted and Henry 's government would promise to enforce the Magna Carta . The proposed agreement soon began to unravel amid claims from some loyalists that it was too generous towards the rebels , particularly the clergy who had joined the rebellion . In the absence of a settlement , Louis remained in London with his remaining forces .
On 24 August 1217 , a French fleet arrived off the coast of Sandwich , bringing Louis soldiers , siege engines and fresh supplies . Hubert de Burgh , Henry 's justiciar , set sail to intercept it , resulting in the Battle of Sandwich . De Burgh 's fleet scattered the French and captured their flagship , commanded by Eustace the Monk , who was promptly executed . When the news reached Louis , he entered into fresh peace negotiations . Henry , Isabella , Louis , Guala and William came to agreement on the final Treaty of Lambeth , also known as the Treaty of Kingston , on the 12 and 13 September . The treaty was similar to the first peace offer , but excluded the rebel clergy , whose lands and appointments remained forfeit . Louis accepted a gift of £ 6 @,@ 666 to speed his departure from England , and promised to try to persuade King Philip to return Henry 's lands in France . Louis left England as agreed and joined the Albigensian Crusade in the south of France .
= = = Restoring royal authority = = =
With the end of the civil war , Henry 's government faced the task of rebuilding royal authority across large parts of the country . By the end of 1217 many former rebels were routinely ignoring instructions from the centre , and even Henry 's loyalist supporters jealously maintained their independent control over royal castles . Illegally constructed fortifications , called adulterine castles , had sprung up across much of the country . The network of county sheriffs had collapsed , and with it the ability to raise taxes and collect royal revenues . The powerful Welsh Prince Llywelyn posed a major threat in Wales and along the Welsh Marches .
Despite his success in winning the war , William had far less success in restoring royal power following the peace . In part , this was because William was unable to offer significant patronage , despite the expectations from the loyalist barons that they would be rewarded . William attempted to enforce the traditional rights of the Crown to approve marriages and wardships , but with little success . Nonetheless , William was able to reconstitute the royal bench of judges and reopen the royal exchequer . The government issued the Charter of the Forest , which attempted to reform the royal governance of the forests . The regency and Llywelyn came to agreement on the Treaty of Worcester in 1218 , but its generous terms – Llywelyn became effectively Henry 's justiciar across Wales – underlined the weakness of the English Crown .
Henry 's mother was unable to establish a role for herself in the regency government and she returned to France in 1217 , marrying Hugh de Lusignan , a powerful Poitevin noble . William Marshal fell ill and died in April 1219 . The replacement government was formed around a grouping of three senior ministers : Pandulf , the replacement Papal legate ; Peter des Roches ; and Hubert de Burgh , a former justiciar . The three were appointed by a great council of the nobility at Oxford , and their government came to depend on these councils for authority . Hubert and des Roches were political rivals , with Hubert supported by a network of English barons , and des Roches backed by nobles from the royal territories in Poitou and Touraine . Hubert moved decisively against des Roches in 1221 , accusing him of treason and removing him as the King 's guardian ; the Bishop left England for the crusades . Pandulf was recalled by Rome the same year , leaving Hubert as the dominant force in Henry 's government .
Initially the new government had little success , but in 1220 the fortunes of Henry 's government began to improve . The Pope allowed Henry to be crowned for a second time , using a new set of royal regalia . The fresh coronation was intended to affirm the authority of the King ; Henry promised to restore the powers of the Crown , and the barons swore that they would give back the royal castles and pay their debts to the Crown , on the threat of excommunication . Hubert , accompanied by Henry , moved into Wales to suppress Llywelyn in 1223 , and in England his forces steadily reclaimed Henry 's castles . The effort against the remaining recalcitrant barons came to a head in 1224 with the siege of Bedford Castle , which Henry and Hubert besieged for eight weeks ; when it finally fell , almost all of the garrison were executed .
Meanwhile , Louis VIII of France allied himself with Hugh de Lusignan and invaded first Poitou and then Gascony . Henry 's army in Poitou was under @-@ resourced and lacked support from the Poitevin barons , many of whom had felt abandoned during the years of Henry 's minority ; as a result , the province quickly fell . It became clear that Gascony would also fall unless reinforcements were sent from England . In early 1225 a great council approved a tax of £ 40 @,@ 000 to dispatch an army , which quickly retook Gascony . In exchange for agreeing to support Henry , the barons demanded that the King reissue the Magna Carta and the Charter of the Forest . This time the King declared that the charters were issued of his own " spontaneous and free will " and confirmed them with the royal seal , giving the new Great Charter and the Charter of the Forest of 1225 much more authority than any previous versions . The barons anticipated that the King would act in accordance with these definitive charters , subject to the law and moderated by the advice of the nobility .
= = Early rule ( 1227 – 34 ) = =
= = = Invasion of France = = =
Henry assumed formal control of his government in January 1227 , although some contemporaries argued that he was legally still a minor until his 21st birthday the following year . The King richly rewarded Hubert de Burgh for his service during his minority years , making him the Earl of Kent and giving him extensive lands across England and Wales . Despite coming of age , Henry remained heavily influenced by his advisers for the first few years of his rule and retained Hubert as his justiciar to run the government , granting him the position for life .
The fate of Henry 's family lands in France still remained uncertain . Reclaiming these lands was extremely important to Henry , who used terms such as " reclaiming his inheritance " , " restoring his rights " and " defending his legal claims " to the territories in diplomatic correspondence . The French kings , however , had an increasing financial , and thus military , advantage over Henry . Even under John , the French Crown had enjoyed a considerable , although not overwhelming , advantage in resources , but since then , the balance had shifted further , with the ordinary annual income of the French kings almost doubling between 1204 and 1221 .
Louis VIII died in 1226 , leaving his 12 @-@ year @-@ old son , Louis IX , to inherit the throne , supported by a regency government . The young French King was in a much weaker position than his father , and faced opposition from many of the French nobility who still maintained their ties to England , leading to a sequence of revolts across the country . Against this background , in late 1228 a group of potential Norman and Angevin rebels called upon Henry to invade and reclaim his inheritance , and Peter de Dreux , the Duke of Brittany , openly revolted against Louis and gave his homage to Henry .
Henry 's preparations for an invasion progressed slowly , and when he finally arrived in Brittany with an army in May 1230 , the campaign did not go well . Possibly on the advice of Hubert , the King decided to avoid battle with the French by not invading Normandy and instead marching south into Poitou , where he
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a Drama Series .
= Blackadder Goes Forth =
Blackadder Goes Forth is the fourth and final series of the BBC sitcom Blackadder , written by Richard Curtis and Ben Elton , which aired from 28 September to 2 November 1989 on BBC One . The series placed the recurring characters of Blackadder , Baldrick and George in a trench in Flanders during World War I , and followed their various doomed attempts to escape from the trenches to avoid certain death under the misguided command of General Melchett . The series is particularly noted for its criticism of the British Army leadership during the campaign , and also refers to a number of famous figures of the age . In addition , the series is remembered for the poignant ending of the final episode .
Despite initial concerns that the comedy series might trivialise the events of 1914 – 1918 , the series won widespread acclaim on its release , and won the British Academy Television Award for Best Comedy Series in 1989 . It has since become regarded as a classic television sitcom , and in 2000 was placed 16th by industry professionals in a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes compiled by the British Film Institute . However , some historians have criticized it for presenting an oversimplified view of the war , reinforcing the popular notion of " lions led by donkeys " .
= = Scenario = =
Blackadder Goes Forth is set in 1917 on the Western Front in the trenches of World War I. Captain Edmund Blackadder ( Rowan Atkinson ) is a professional soldier in the British Army who , until the outbreak of the Great War , has enjoyed a relatively action @-@ free existence fighting natives who were usually " two feet tall and armed with dried grass " . Finding himself trapped in the trenches with another " big push " planned , his concern is to avoid being sent over the top to certain death . The series thus chronicles Blackadder 's attempts to escape the trenches through various schemes , most of which fail due to bad fortune , misunderstandings and the general incompetence of his comrades . The aforementioned comrades are his second @-@ in @-@ command , idealistic upper @-@ class Edwardian twit Lieutenant George ( Hugh Laurie ) and their profoundly stupid but dogged batman Private S. Baldrick ( Tony Robinson ) .
Rather than the Germans , who remain generally unseen ( with the exception of " Private Plane " , where they are a means to escape the trenches ) , Blackadder 's nemeses come in the form of his superior , the eccentric General Melchett ( Stephen Fry ) who rallies his troops from a French château 35 miles ( 56 km ) from the front , and Melchett 's bureaucratic assistant , Captain Kevin Darling ( Tim McInnerny ) . Despite the two being of equal rank , Blackadder treats Darling with contempt — while the former is on the front line , the latter is " folding the general 's pyjamas " . Their animosity is mutual , largely as a result of Blackadder exploiting the comic potential of Darling 's surname at every opportunity .
= = = Themes = = =
Blackadder Goes Forth is more satirical in tone than the previous three Blackadder series and most sitcoms , taking the opportunity to present an anti @-@ war message . The dialogue is marked throughout by satirical musings about the nature of the war , its origins and the effects on the soldiers who suffered over its course . The fact that the soldiers suffered whilst their commanders remained safely distant from the action was also referenced on many occasions , such as when Melchett says to Baldrick , " Don 't you worry my boy , if you should falter , remember that Captain Darling and I are behind you ! " , to which Blackadder responds , " Yes , about 35 miles behind ! " . In the episode " Corporal Punishment " , Blackadder justifies the shooting for food of a carrier pigeon ( which turns out to be Melchett 's pet ) by saying , " With 50 @,@ 000 men killed a week , who 's going to miss a pigeon ? " This episode sees Blackadder being sentenced to death by firing squad for the act , reflecting on the harsh punishments dealt to deserters under the laws of war , and the dictatorship of higher ranking officers over those of lower ranking .
In " Private Plane " , after receiving word that Blackadder and Baldrick may have been killed when shot down over German lines , Melchett tries to cheer George up by showing him a life @-@ size model ( measuring seventeen square feet ) of land recaptured by the British , a commentary on the high human cost and small physical gains achieved by attacks in the middle years of the war . Later in the same episode , Blackadder describes the Great War as : " a war which would be a damn sight simpler if we just stayed in England and shot fifty thousand of our men a week . "
Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig , whose orders are alleged to have resulted in hundreds of thousands of British deaths at Passchendaele and the Somme , is continually referenced . Blackadder himself describes Haig 's attempts at an advance as no more than " another gargantuan effort to move his drinks cabinet six inches closer to Berlin " . In " Goodbyeee " , a scene parodies Haig 's professional abilities by depicting the Field Marshal playing with toy soldiers , which he sweeps nonchalantly from trench to trench and then into a rubbish bin , while listening to Blackadder 's plea to get out of the big push on the telephone .
The series recalls a number of famous historical events of the war , such as the Christmas truce of 1914 . Blackadder recalls the event : " Both sides advanced further during one Christmas piss @-@ up than they did in the next two and a half years of war . " References are also made to the popular culture of the era , as well as the previous series . The episode " Private Plane " , sees the return of the characters of Lord Flashheart and Bob from the second series episode " Bells " and also an appearance of the famous flying ace Baron von Richthofen . A plot thread in the third episode " Major Star " involves Blackadder 's dislike of the silent film star Charlie Chaplin , whom he finds " as funny as getting an arrow through the neck , and then finding there 's a gas bill tied to it " .
In the fifth episode , the anti @-@ German sentiment in Britain during the war is repeatedly referenced . General Melchett orders Blackadder to find out what is behind the leak in top @-@ secret battle plans and immediately , though erroneously , pins it on a " German spy " ( who is later discovered to be inadvertently one of their own ) . Blackadder takes the chance to " interrogate " Captain Darling , who vehemently denies being a spy and says that he is " as British as Queen Victoria " , to which Blackadder sarcastically replies " So your father is German , you 're half German and you married a German ? " . Blackadder 's retort references the fact that Victoria was a member of the House of Hanover and that her husband was a prince from the House of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha . In 1917 , Victoria 's grandson King George V changed the royal house name from Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha to Windsor in an effort to appease British nationalist feelings .
The final episode of this series , " Goodbyeee " , although true to the series ' usual comedy style through most of the preceding scenes , is known for featuring a highly dramatic and extraordinarily poignant final scene , where the main characters ( except General Melchett himself ) are finally sent over the top . To the sound of a slow , minimal and downbeat piano version of the title theme , the four are seen in slow @-@ motion , charging into the fog and smoke of no man 's land , with gunfire and explosions all around , before the scene fades into footage of a sunny poppy field and the sound of birdsong . The fate of the four is left ambiguous . Blackadder 's final line before the charge is also underpinned with an unusually reflective and sentimental tone , offered after Baldrick claims to have one last cunning plan to save them from the impending doom :
= = Episodes = =
The series aired for six episodes broadcast on BBC One on Thursdays at 9.30pm between 28 September and 2 November 1989 , ending nine days before Remembrance Day . The titles of the first five episodes , " Captain Cook " , " Corporal Punishment " , " Major Star " , " Private Plane " and " General Hospital " are puns based on the pairing of a military rank and another word related to the episode 's content . The final episode , " Goodbyeee " , was the title of a period song .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and rehearsals = = =
Writers Ben Elton and Richard Curtis wrote the scripts for Blackadder episodes separately using word processors and then swapped the disks containing the scripts for each other to add or remove jokes and dialogue . Curtis recalls that they stuck to a policy whereby if one removed a line for not being funny , then it was never put back .
During rehearsals , the script was exhaustively discussed and redrafted by the cast , with Richard Curtis having the final say on the content . Fry , Laurie and Atkinson were comic writers and performers themselves , and having worked together on previous series were not afraid to question the script and make suggestions . For example , Captain Darling was originally called " Captain Cartwright " and was renamed when Stephen Fry recalled a boy at his school with the surname " Darling " , who had found the name a constant embarrassment . Curtis recalls that he was initially reluctant to change the name , as he considered it a one @-@ off joke .
Speaking to The Times about the ending of the show in 1989 , Curtis hinted that the collaborative writing process caused tensions amongst the cast : " Everybody on the show thinks they can put in good jokes , despite the fact that Ben Elton and I think there are already quite a few good ones in there to start with . It does usually end up funnier , but it 's time to do something over which I have more control . " Twenty years on , Curtis recalled in the documentary Blackadder Rides Again that : " They would literally sit around for the entire time discussing the script ... sometimes we would just say to them " if you stood up and tried to act this script out , you would find out things about it . " Ben Elton stated that by opening it up , they allowed the cast to question every aspect of the script .
During Blackadder Rides Again , Tony Robinson likewise recalls that these script meetings could be uncomfortable , and has been less reserved speaking about the script rehearsals since . In an interview with The Daily Telegraph he suggests that although relations between the actors were generally cordial " There was bad feeling between the writers and the performers — the writers felt we were unilaterally altering the script and altering it for the worse . At end of the first day of rehearsals the writers would go away and by the time they came back we would have changed an awful lot of it . By the end , they felt we had run away with it . There were quite a lot of emotions flashing around about that . "
Producer John Lloyd , speaking to The Times in 1989 hinted that it was the draining scripting and rehearsal process that led to the writers deciding not to make another series : " Things do get very tense by the end of a series , because everyone involved in the thing is very clever , and very funny , and they all want to push the scripts along . It 's a very exhausting process , and by the end of it we all swear we 'll never , ever , do another one . But then you start to think how rare it is to get so many good people in the same room and you talk yourself into doing another series . "
= = = Casting = = =
Rowan Atkinson and Tony Robinson reprised their roles as Edmund Blackadder and Baldrick respectively . Hugh Laurie also returned to play Lieutenant George . The fourth series enlarged the principal cast from the third series to include Stephen Fry as General Melchett and Tim McInnerny as Captain Kevin Darling , who had both appeared in guest roles in Blackadder the Third and had appeared regularly in Blackadder II . This cast appeared together in every episode of the fourth series , although the only episode to feature no guest appearances was " Captain Cook " . Miranda Richardson , who had played Elizabeth I in the second series , appeared in a guest role in one episode ( as she had in the third series ) . In their guest performances , actors such as Rik Mayall and Gabrielle Glaister reprised characters they had played in earlier series . Other performers , such as Bill Wallis and Lee Cornes , who had played minor roles in prior series , appeared briefly again in the fourth series as well .
= = = Taping = = =
This series of Blackadder was one of the first television programmes in Britain to be made and transmitted with stereo sound , using the NICAM digital system , even though most viewers could only afford , or were only able to receive due to their location , the standard FM mono audio carrier signal .
The series was directed by Richard Boden and all interior scenes were shot at BBC Television Centre in front of a live studio audience . Rowan Atkinson recalls that the studio shooting could present him with problems :
That sitcom tradition is very strange when you 're performing to both a camera and an audience at the same time ... The thing that sometimes held us up is my stammer . Some words and some phrases did catch me out ... " B " s in particular . I remember one episode in which Stephen Fry and Hugh Laurie were going " woof " a lot , and my line was " it 's like Battersea Dogs Home in here " . The B of Battersea was a problem for me . The floor manager suggested that I say " Crufts " instead .
Atkinson has said that in the buildup to the final episode , he began to psychologically experience something of his character 's apprehension . Speaking to Michael Parkinson in 2003 , he recalled " I remember ... in the weeks leading up to the one day recording of that final episode when we went over the top , for the first time in my acting career ... knowing that even though the rest of the episode was its usual standard funny sitcom self , there was this deep twist in my stomach throughout that week thinking along with your character that you were doomed . It was most peculiar . I 'm sure serious character actors feel this all the time ... Obviously if you 're trying to feel the character and his dilemma then you 're going to experience some of the fictional feelings for real . You felt swept along by it . "
Other than the title sequence , the series used little external shooting . To achieve the flying sequences in the episode " Private Plane " , footage from the 1976 film Aces High was re @-@ edited and dubbed over with the actors ' voices . The most challenging scene to shoot was the final " over the top " sequence , which was recorded in a separate studio set away from the audience which had been rigged with special effects to simulate a battlefield .
On viewing the original studio rushes for the 20th anniversary documentary Blackadder Rides Again , John Lloyd recalls that originally the final scene was " all very embarrassing " , as the actors only had 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) to run before they reached the barbed wire in front of the camera , where they had to pretend to die , an effect described by Atkinson as " somewhat unconvincing " . It was only in post @-@ production that the final effect was achieved by running the video and audio in slow motion and fading another video of the empty set over the top to make it appear as if the characters had disappeared . This image of a barren landscape was then faded into a still image of a poppy field found in the BBC Picture Library .
= = = Titles and music = = =
The theme melody was a variation on the Blackadder theme by Howard Goodall over opening title images of Blackadder and George parading their men past Melchett and Darling , while Baldrick plays the triangle . The title music starts with the opening bars of " The British Grenadiers " before segueing into the familiar Blackadder theme . In the closing credits , the full Blackadder theme plays over visuals of armed men marching on a parade ground . The sequences were filmed and recorded on location at the former Colchester Cavalry Barracks , with the production using fifty members of the 3rd Battalion , the Royal Anglian Regiment to represent Blackadder 's men , attired in reproduction First World War uniforms , with the battalion 's band providing the music .
The titles are presented as static captions instead of being rolled as in the previous three series . The crew credits are presented in pseudo @-@ military fashion : for example , the designer is credited thus : " Dgr – 404371 Hull , C " . The opening sequence is filmed in colour , while the closing sequence was treated in post production to appear grainy , streaky , and sepia toned in imitation of newsreels of the era .
" Goodbyeee " has no closing titles , simply fading from the protagonists charging across no man 's land under fire , to a field of poppies in the sunlight , a reference to the poem " In Flanders Fields " and the flower 's symbolic significance . The music was also changed to a slow , echoey solo piano arrangement , finishing with three strong bass @-@ drum notes , interposed with sound effects of gunshot , and later birdsong . In the 25th anniversary special interview , Richard Curtis stated that the production team had not intended for such an ending and the idea of the scene fading to the poppy field was only conceived after some of the cast stated their reluctance in doing a second take .
= = Reception = =
= = = Subject = = =
Emma Hanna , in her book The Great War on the Small Screen , has noted that some contemporary reviewers felt the topic of the First World War to be inappropriate for a comedy series , with one newspaper critic uncertain of the writers ' motives : " is [ the series ] justified in using tragic situations as a springboard for comedy merely for entertainment value ? " . Ben Elton 's uncle , the historian Geoffrey Elton , " was at first most unhappy at what he considered to be an insulting portrayal of the army " , although it is worth noting " he later took the view that the satire was drawn with great respect " .
Certainly , the issue of the series ' subject matter was of concern to the producers . Atkinson recalled in an interview with Michael Parkinson that the poignant ending of the final episode was in part written to counter the possibility of criticism that the subject was inappropriate for a comedy , although noted that the public accepted the series for what it was . Speaking during filming in 1989 , he remarked that despite the 20th century setting , the trenches were particularly apt for the Blackadder series :
We wanted a place and a time that could reproduce to a certain extent the claustrophobia and the sordidness of medieval England , and the best way to do that is to set it in the middle of a war .
Co @-@ writer Richard Curtis has said that before writing the series , the writers read a number of books about the war and decided that the First World War was a particularly apt subject for a situation comedy , finding that " actually , all the lead up to the first world war was very funny , all the people coming from communities where they 'd never bumped into posh people ... and all being so gung ho and optimistic ... the first hundred pages of any book about the world war are hilarious ; then of course everybody dies . "
Michael Brooke , assessing the series for the British Film Institute , suggests that the characterisation and pervading sense of danger prevented the sitcom from trivialising its subject matter : " The prospect of its characters suddenly dying a violent death provided a constant source of tension and gags , though when they really were killed off at the end of the final episode ... the result was so unexpectedly moving that the programme was later repeated as part of an otherwise wholly serious BBC2 Armistice Day programme without anyone batting an eyelid . "
= = = Awards = = =
The series won the British Academy Television Award for Best Comedy Series in 1989 . In addition , for his performance as Captain Blackadder , Rowan Atkinson won Best Light Entertainment Performance . In 2000 , the series was placed 16th by industry professionals in a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes compiled by the British Film Institute . In 2004 , championed by John Sergeant , the whole Blackadder series came second in the BBC poll to find Britain 's Best Sitcom with 282 @,@ 106 votes .
= = = Legacy = = =
Academics have noted that the television series has become a pervasive view of the war in the public 's perception of World War I , with Max Hastings calling the common British view of the war " the Blackadder take on history . " Military historian Richard Holmes commented in his book The Western Front : " Blackadder 's aphorisms have become fact ... A well turned line of script can sometimes carry more weight than all the scholarly footnotes in the world . " Stephen Badsey , analysing trends in television programmes about the war remarked that Blackadder Goes Forth as a popular comedy series was subject to particular criticism from historians , remarking that the series " consciously traded on every cliche and misremembered piece of history about the Western Front , and was influential enough to draw a surprising degree of angry criticism from professional historians as a result . "
Esther MacCallum @-@ Stewart of Sussex University noted in her essay " Television Docu @-@ Drama and The First World War " that " Blackadder Goes Forth is used as a teaching aid in schools ; not as a secondary text that should be analysed and discussed for its own reliability , but as a truthful parody of the conditions of the First World War . "
= = Media releases = =
Blackadder Goes Forth is available on a variety of BBC Worldwide @-@ distributed DVD and VHS video releases , either as an individual series or as part of a boxset with the other series of Blackadder . In addition , a BBC Radio Collection audio version created from the TV soundtrack is available on Cassette and CD . All 4 seasons and the Christmas special are also available for download on iTunes . The complete scripts of the four television series were released in 1998 as Blackadder : The Whole Damn Dynasty 1485 – 1917 , and later reissued by Penguin Books in 2009 .
= = = VHS releases = = =
= = = DVD releases = = =
= M @-@ 146 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 146 was a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan that initially served as a bypass for traffic going around Port Huron and as a short cut for traffic between U.S. Highway 25 ( US 25 ) and M @-@ 21 . Later it connected to the Blue Water Bridge before it was truncated to its final form . Segments of M @-@ 146 still exist today as state highways as part of Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) and I @-@ 69 and the Lapeer Connector .
= = Route description = =
As the highway last existed , its southern end was at an intersection with M @-@ 21 ( Lapeer Road ) in a residential area of Port Huron west of the Black River . Following what is today named the Lapeer Connector , M @-@ 146 ran northward for about 0 @.@ 9 miles ( 1 @.@ 4 km ) to an interchange with I @-@ 94 / US 25 where it terminated .
= = History = =
When the route debuted in 1933 it served as a connector between US 25 in southwest Port Huron and M @-@ 21 along the west side of the side . In 1954 a new approach was built from M @-@ 21 to the foot of the Blue Water Bridge , and M @-@ 146 was extended northward and easterly , designated along this new route . By 1958 , this newer segment was converted to freeway specifications , and in 1964 , with the completion of the I @-@ 94 / US 25 freeway , M @-@ 146 was removed from that portion of the route . By the next year , the M @-@ 146 designation only remained along the stretch of freeway which now serves as the exit 274 interchange on I @-@ 94 , and was removed from 24th Street through town . In 1966 , with the completion of a new freeway alignment for M @-@ 21 between Wadhams and downtown Port Huron , the M @-@ 146 designation was removed from the state trunkline system , and has not been used since . The connector between Lapeer Street and present @-@ day I @-@ 94 is now known as the Lapeer Connector and Connector 69 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway was in St. Clair County .
= David Bridges =
David Stephen Bridges ( born 22 September 1982 ) is an English footballer who plays for King 's Lynn Town as a midfielder .
Bridges started his career with local side Cambridge United , progressing through the club 's youth system and eventually breaking into the first @-@ team in 2001 . He spent three seasons at Cambridge , but was released at the end of the 2003 – 04 season after failing to agree terms on a new contract . Bridges had a brief spell in Latvia playing for FK Rīga , before returning to England to play four games for Braintree Town in January 2005 . He joined Histon in March 2005 , playing for the club until the end of the season . He left Histon at the end of the season , and subsequently earned himself a one @-@ year contract to rejoin Cambridge United in July 2005 . He played regularly for the club for two seasons , but was released again in 2007 .
Bridges then joined Kettering Town ahead of the 2007 – 08 season , playing an important part in the club achieving promotion from the Conference North to the Conference National in his first season at the club . At the end of the season he rejected a contract offer from Kettering and joined Stevenage on a free transfer . In his first season at the Hertfordshire club , he helped the side to FA Trophy success , as well as helping the club earn promotion to the Football League for the first time in the club 's history the following season . He was also part of the squad that helped Stevenage earn back @-@ to @-@ back promotions during the 2010 – 11 season . Ahead of the 2011 – 12 campaign , Bridges re @-@ joined Conference National side Kettering Town . He left the club after one season , and spent a year at Chelmsford City , before signing for Bury Town in May 2013 . Bridges has also earned one cap for the England C team , playing in a game against Italy C in January 2006 .
= = Club career = =
= = = Cambridge United = = =
Born in Huntingdon , Cambridgeshire , Bridges began his career with local side Cambridge United , whom he joined at the age of 8 , he progressed through the club 's youth system before signing his first professional contract in February 2002 . He broke into the first @-@ team towards the end of the 2001 – 02 season , making his debut as a substitute in a 1 – 0 defeat against Huddersfield Town at the Abbey Stadium . He played six further games in the same season , scoring his first goal for Cambridge in a 2 – 1 home win against Tranmere Rovers . Bridges featured regularly in the opening half of the 2002 – 03 season , playing a total of 25 times and scoring once in a 3 – 0 victory against York City . However , a " persistent " ankle injury cut his run in the first @-@ team short , and he did not feature from February onwards . He returned to first @-@ team action in a 1 – 0 defeat to Wycombe Wanderers in October 2003 , and played a further 22 times for the club throughout the 2003 – 04 campaign . However , Bridges left Cambridge at the end of the season after failing to agree a contract with manager Hervé Renard . On leaving Cambridge , Bridges said " I was offered a contract that was almost a kick in the teeth after the time I had been at the club when players were coming in from all over the place who did not care about the club . They were getting paid five or six times what I was offered , and I thought it was probably time to move on " . During his three seasons with the club , Bridges made a total of 55 appearances in all competitions , scoring four times .
= = = Journeyman = = =
Bridges trialled at a number of clubs before the start of the 2004 – 05 season , most notably Chesterfield and Northampton Town , without successfully securing a deal . He also spent the majority of the close season in America training with two professional American football clubs , before realising it was not financially viable to move to America on a permanent basis . Bridges struggled to find a club ahead of the 2004 – 05 campaign , and took up an offer to play for FK Rīga in Latvia . However , Bridges suffered a fractured foot just ten days after signing for the club , and failed to feature for the Latvian side . Despite the injury , he spent three months in Latvia before returning to England to " assess his options " . After returning to England in November 2004 for rehabilitation at Lilleshall , he began part @-@ time training with Cambridgeshire side Histon in January 2005 . However , he signed for Braintree Town on a short @-@ term contract shortly after training with Histon , making his debut for the club in a 2 – 1 home victory against Slough Town a day after joining the club . In the following game , Bridges assisted two of Braintree 's goals in the club 's 4 – 2 win away at Wealdstone , as well as making another assist a week later in a 5 – 0 win against Billericay Town . He played in the club 's next league fixture , a 3 – 1 away win at Hendon , but was taken off at half @-@ time after suffering another foot injury . It proved to be his last game for the club , he played four times for Braintree , all of which were victories . A month later , Bridges joined Histon on a short @-@ term basis , making his debut for the club in March 2005 – playing the whole match in a 3 – 1 home win against Tiverton Town . He scored once for Histon in a 3 – 0 home win against Solihull Borough . Bridges made eleven appearances for Histon and helped the club achieve promotion to the Conference South in his two months at the club . He left Histon at the end of the season , and subsequently earned himself a one @-@ year contract to re @-@ join his former employers , Cambridge United , following a successful trial at the club . Bridges said he " did not hesitate in joining Cambridge for a second time " when he was eventually offered a full @-@ time contract in June 2005 .
= = = Return to Cambridge = = =
During the 2005 – 06 season , Bridges was a regular in the centre of Cambridge 's midfield . He made his second debut for Cambridge in a 1 – 0 defeat at Forest Green Rovers , and scored in the following two games against both Hereford United and Accrington Stanley respectively . He also scored in the club 's 3 – 0 win in the Football League Trophy against Chester City , scoring the first goal of the game . Bridges scored the only goal of the game as Cambridge secured their first away victory of the season in November 2005 – winning 1 – 0 against Morecambe at Christie Park . His fifth goal of the campaign came in Cambridge 's 4 – 2 away defeat to Macclesfield Town in the Football League Trophy , before scoring a " glancing header " in the next game as Cambridge beat Stevenage 1 – 0 at the Abbey Stadium . His last goal of the season came in February 2006 in a 2 – 1 defeat to Altrincham . Bridges played 40 times during the season , scoring seven goals from midfield . Consequently , he won the ' Player of the Season ' award at Cambridge in the same season , and more importantly earned a one @-@ year contract extension in May 2006 . He continued playing regularly under new manager Jimmy Quinn in the 2006 – 07 season . He scored his first goal of the season in a 3 – 0 home win against Gravesend & Northfleet in November 2006 , and scored again two weeks later in the club 's 2 – 1 away win at Southport at Haig Avenue . However , after Cambridge 's 2 – 0 home defeat to St Albans City in December , Bridges did not feature in the first – team for two months . He returned to first @-@ team action in Cambridge 's 3 – 0 win against Woking , and scored his third of the campaign in a 2 – 1 away victory against Stafford Rangers . He played 31 games during the season , scoring three times – playing his last game for the club in a 1 – 0 home win against Tamworth . He was released by Quinn in May 2007 as he re @-@ vamped the entire squad . During his second spell at Cambridge , Bridges made 71 appearances in all competitions over two seasons , scoring ten times .
= = = Kettering Town = = =
Two months later , Bridges joined Conference North side Kettering Town on a one @-@ year deal . Bridges made his debut for Kettering in late August 2007 , starting in the club 's 3 – 2 away win against Worcester City . He scored his first goal for the club in the following game , scoring in the 60th minute to double Kettering 's lead in a victory against Tamworth , and followed this up with another goal in the club 's 4 – 1 win against Leigh RMI . Bridges made it four goals in as many games by scoring against both Boston United and Workington respectively . However , he suffered an injury in Kettering 's 2 – 0 home loss to Hyde United in October 2007 , ruling him out for two months . He returned to first @-@ team action in December , coming on as a second @-@ half substitute in the club 's 3 – 2 loss against Cambridge City , and scored twice the following week in Kettering 's 3 – 0 home win against Leigh RMI . He started 2008 by scoring Kettering 's fifth in a 6 – 1 victory against Solihull Moors , as well as scoring in the next game – heading in Kettering 's second in a 3 – 1 win against Harrogate Town . Bridges scored his ninth goal of the campaign shortly after , doubling the club 's lead in a 2 – 0 away win at Hucknall Town . Bridges featured regularly during the club 's second half of the season , getting on the scoresheet in a 3 – 0 away victory at Hyde United , before scoring Kettering 's third in another 3 – 0 win , this time against AFC Telford United – his last appearance for the club . He was instrumental for the Northamptonshire club throughout Kettering 's 2007 – 08 league campaign , scoring a total of 11 goals in 27 appearances to help guide Kettering to promotion to the Conference National .
= = = Stevenage = = =
He was offered a new contract by manager Mark Cooper , which was rejected , as he opted to join Craig Westcarr and Gary Mills at Stevenage . However , Bridges suffered a knee injury during pre @-@ season and subsequently missed the first half of the 2008 – 09 season . He eventually made his debut for the Hertfordshire club in a 1 – 1 draw against Oxford United in December 2008 , scoring Stevenage 's goal with an " unstoppable drive from outside the area " . In the following match , Bridges set up two of Stevenage 's goals in the club 's 3 – 1 home win against Rushden & Diamonds , as well as hitting the crossbar with a " looping header " in the second @-@ half . Two days later , he won Stevenage 's penalty in the 93rd minute against one of his former employers , Cambridge United , as Stevenage salvaged a 1 – 1 draw at the Abbey Stadium . Bridges ' return to the first – team coincided with an upturn in form for the club , and he continued his goalscoring form from midfield with another goal in a 3 – 0 home win against Barrow in January 2009 . He also scored three goals in the club 's successful FA Trophy campaign , scoring in 4 – 0 victories against both Burton Albion and Forest Green Rovers , as well as scoring the winner in Stevenage 's 3 – 2 home win against Ebbsfleet United in the first leg of the semi – final . However , his season was cut short when he suffered an injury in a 1 – 1 draw against Oxford United at Broadhall Way , a game in which he scored Stevenage 's goal , but ultimately missed the rest of the season . In total , Bridges made 19 appearances during the club 's 2008 – 09 campaign , scoring six times .
Bridges returned from injury at the start of the 2009 – 10 season , starting in a 0 – 0 draw against Barrow at Holker Street . However , he sustained an injury shortly after the match and did not feature again until October 2009 , starting in a 1 – 1 draw away at Kettering Town . He scored his first goal of the season in a 2 – 0 win over Ebbsfleet United , and followed this up by scoring twice against Vauxhall Motors in the FA Trophy . The following month , Bridges scored the winner in a
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ated . However , after the introduction of flash pasteurization in 1996 and a new plastic bottle in 2001 , the shelf life has been considerably extended . Generally , Odwalla products are sold in special Odwalla @-@ brand displays at grocery and convenience stores , instead of being intermixed with other products .
= = Products = =
= = = Drinks = = =
Odwalla Inc. produces many flavors of fruit and vegetable drinks , as well as dairy @-@ free soy milk ( marketed under the " Soy Smart " name ) , " PomaGrand " pomegranate juice , " Serious Energy " caffeinated fruit juice , bottled spring water , and Odwalla 's Superfood smoothie line of products ( see green smoothie ) , which are viewed as the core products of the company and are made of various fruit purées , wheat grass , and barley grass . These products accounted for roughly 95 percent of Odwalla 's revenue in 2001 . Odwalla juice is sold in individual 12 fl oz ( formerly 450 millilitre or 15 @.@ 4 US fl oz ) bottles made of plant @-@ based recyclable HDPE plastic , as well as larger 64 US fluid ounce ( 1 @.@ 9 litre ) containers . Odwalla 's juice , because of production costs , is " typically sold at prices higher than most other juice products " , and the price of the juice can vary over time because of weather or disease affecting the supply of fruit and vegetables .
Throughout its history , Odwalla has produced and subsequently withdrawn various juice flavors due to their lower popularity , including the Odwalla Superfood Amazing Purple , Soy Vanilla , and Pomegranate Mango drinks .
= = = Food bars = = =
In September 1998 , Odwalla began to sell energy bars made with fruit and grains , named food bars , as an alternative to its drinks in an attempt to raise revenue following the 1996 E. coli outbreak . The first three flavors released were Cranberry Citrus , Organic Carrot & Raisin , and Peach Crunch , all three of which are now discontinued . Within eight weeks of their release , the Odwalla Bar was one of the top @-@ selling energy bar brands in the market . The bars come in a variety of flavors , and weigh 2 ounces ( 56 grams ) per bar . As of 2001 , before Odwalla was acquired by Coca @-@ Cola , food bars accounted for less than five percent of Odwalla 's revenue .
= Thou Shalt Not Kill ( Spooks ) =
" Thou Shalt Not Kill " is the premiere episode of the British television series Spooks . It first aired on BBC One in the United Kingdom on 13 May 2002 . The episode was written by series creator David Wolstencroft and directed by Bharat Nalluri . " Thou Shalt Not Kill " focuses on MI5 's activities in stopping a pro @-@ life movement who have smuggled 20 explosive devices to be used against family planning doctors . The episode title is a reference to the sixth Commandment .
The pilot went through 30 rewrites and four separate story changes before the BBC were satisfied with the plot . It would be rewritten again following the September 11 attacks , with the purpose of acknowledging the series premise as battling terrorism . Filming took place mostly in London , England using a long lens camera . The idea of using split screen , regularly used by the series , came from Nalluri after filming wrapped up for the episode , and was not inspired by the American television series 24 .
Following its broadcast , the pilot was seen by over nine million viewers , easily winning its time slot , having nearly doubled viewership from ITV1 at the same time ; the ratings went beyond the producers ' expectations . However , critics gave varied responses towards the episode .
= = Plot = =
When a car bomb detonates in Liverpool , killing family planning doctor Karen Lynott ( Karen Westwood ) and severely injuring her young daughter Sarah , Section D of MI5 is on the case . Danny Hunter ( David Oyelowo ) learns from one of his assets , " Osprey " ( Kelly Rolfe ) , that the group responsible have smuggled 20 bombs into the country . After following her , the team learn that the terrorist responsible for smuggling the bombs and killing Lynott is Mary Kane ( Lisa Eichhorn ) , an American pro @-@ life extremist ; she smuggled herself into the country under an assumed name and has been setting up cells across the UK . Section D also learn that Kane may be setting up the attacks in tribute of her husband , who is on death row in Florida following a series of attacks in abortion clinics . Upon tracking the movements of one cell , the Central Intelligence Agency pressure MI5 to extradite Kane back to the United States ; such an action will seriously hinder their efforts to find the cells and a put a stop to them . By the time Harry Pearce ( Peter Firth ) signs the extradition forms , Kane evades MI5 .
In the meantime , Zoe Reynolds ( Keeley Hawes ) goes undercover to pose as a sympathizer to the cell . She lures a member , Rachel ( Rachel Power ) to the same hospital Sarah Lynott is being treated ; Sarah would later die from the extent of her injuries . Senior case officer and team leader Tom Quinn ( Matthew Macfadyen ) attempts to persuade her to stop Kane , believing she has little regard for any life . Rachel leaves in haste , but unbeknownst to her , MI5 bug her mobile phone , and record a phone conversation she makes to the cell regarding their next target , Diane Sullivan , a doctor living in London . Tom 's team are able to take Sullivan to safety whilst Zoe poses as the target . The team see Kane deliver a bomb to Zoe 's car , and prepares to detonate it via mobile phone . To counter the attack , a Bomb Squad jams the signal long enough for Tom to arrest her . During the interrogation , Tom promises to send her to a state in the US where the death penalty does not apply in exchange for the locations of every cell she runs in the UK . After she cooperates , Tom goes back on the deal and delivers Kane to CIA liaison Christine Dale ( Megan Dodds ) , who returns her to Florida to be executed .
Meanwhile , over the course of the episode , Tom enters a relationship with civilian Ellie Simm ( Esther Hall ) following an unrelated operation before the events of the episode , going by the pseudonym of civil servant in IT " Matthew Archer " .
= = Production = =
The script for the episode went through 30 drafts , and four separate stories before the BBC were satisfied and ordered the series . Writing the pilot was completed before the September 11 terrorist attacks ; after the attacks took place , the producers decided to add mention of the events into the episode in order to acknowledge the fact that the series is about fighting terrorism .
Writer David Wolstencroft decided that Tom Quinn would use IT as his cover story for Ellie Simm , because IT has , according to Wolstencroft , " something that has an enormous amount of thought and technical fact behind it that nobody would really understand , " and according to series producer Jane Featherstone , has people reluctant to be asking questions about . A scene where a cat escaped during Zoe 's operation to bug Kane 's cottage , and the ensuing search in the rain mirrored an experience during Wolstencroft 's early career . It was also intended that the episode established that although spies plan heavily before operations , things can go wrong . Among the main cast , Peter Firth was attracted to appearing on Spooks after hearing of Howard Brenton 's involvement in the series . The cast were advised by ex @-@ MI5 officers in order to help give insight into how the characters operate in the spy world and how their personal lives would be affected by it . The character Maisie Simm ( Heather Cave ) , Ellie 's daughter , was created because Featherstone believed that " children are the best spies of all " ; Maisie is often seen " spying " on Tom throughout the episode and first series . Megan Dodds guest starred as Christine Dale ; the producers were sufficiently impressed with her performance that she would later return as Dale in the second series .
Principal photography took place in November and December 2001 . The majority of filming was done with a long lens , which proved difficult as many filming location were short on space . 40 to 50 cuts were made in the first 10 minutes of the episode to quickly introduce the main characters . Filming took part almost entirely in London ; some London locations doubled as Liverpool locations , including the hospital , which was filmed in Covent Garden . The hospital scenes were first in the episode to be shot . The scenes set in a cottage in The Wirral were filmed in Surrey ; the cottage was dubbed the " cottage from hell " according to director Bharat Nalluri because of its small size . The Freemasons ' Hall in London served as the filming location for Thames House , the headquarters for MI5 . The Hall was chosen as the producers felt that both buildings were similar in architecture . The Grid set was filmed in a Kensington medical school . Borough Market was located to film the scenes where Kane is arrested ; filming proved to be difficult as they had to reset the scene several times .
The idea for split screening came to Nalluri after visiting a pub one night after filming wrapped up . In the audio commentary for the episode , Nalluri stated he was not inspired by the American series 24 , which also uses split screen , as he was not yet aware of the show . The news report covering Mary and Paul Kane 's past activities were snippets of real @-@ life news from the United States , which were edited together . The music was composed by Jennie Muskett , who spent just two to three hours putting several pieces of background music together . One part of the episode centred on Zoe posing as target Diane Sullivan . Some publicity shots of Keeley Hawes in the series were shots of her with long brunette hair , though in fact she has short blonde hair .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
The pilot was first broadcast on Monday 13 May 2002 , during the 9 to 10 pm time slot . The Spooks producers were hoping the ratings for the pilot would achieve at least six million viewers , with a 30 per cent audience share ; at the time this would be considered acceptable ratings by the BBC , as it would allow them to further consider Spooks ' future . The episode ended up with an overnight rating of 9 @.@ 2 million viewers , with a 41 per cent audience share , easily winning its time slot , and nearly doubling the numbers of ITV1 's Helen West , which was viewed by 4 @.@ 8 million with 22 per cent share in the same slot . The final numbers posted on the Broadcasters ' Audience Research Board website was up slightly to 9 @.@ 6 million viewers , making the Spooks pilot the seventh most viewed BBC One broadcast , and the tenth most viewed broadcast in total the week it aired .
Nancy Banks @-@ Smith of The Guardian called it " one of those shiny and insubtantial series , " adding that " all that leaping out of bed at dawn on the pretext that you have to go and sell a house tends to wear thin . " Banks @-@ Smith also called the story " slightly unexpected . " She also stated " Spooks appears to plume itself on its authenticity , and there are moments , well one moment , so stupid it has to be true . " Thomas Sudcliff of The Independent felt it was a " different kind of spy drama " with " a literal description , derived from the sort of rueful story you could imagine being told at an MI5 staff social , " and " a lot of bullshit too , naturally . This is one of those dramas where colleagues never make small talk but instead launch straight into an urgent purposive shorthand . " Joe Joseph of The Times stated that it " bears a closer resemblance [ ... ] 24 , " which " shaded the pleasure of this opening episode , " but felt that by the end of the episode , Spooks had " established a voice of its own . " Gerard O 'Donovan of The Telegraph thought that the episode " proved thoroughly entertaining , " and praised Wolstencroft 's writing , which O 'Donovan felt was " confident enough to be playful with its subject - especially regarding Britain 's poor @-@ relation relationship with America . " Alison Graham of the Radio Times said that after the episode , the series " looks like it 's going to be great fun , " but " it 's presumably not meant to be taken too seriously , because surely life in MI5 can 't be this exciting ? "
= Battle of Lipantitlán =
The Battle of Lipantitlán , also known as the Battle of Nueces Crossing , was fought along the Nueces River on November 4 , 1835 between the Mexican Army and Texian insurgents , as part of the Texas Revolution . After the Texian victory at the Battle of Goliad , only two Mexican garrisons remained in Texas , Fort Lipantitlán near San Patricio and the Alamo Mission at San Antonio de Béxar ( modern @-@ day San Antonio in the U.S. state of Texas ) . Fearing that Lipantitlán could be used as a base for the Mexican army to retake Goliad and angry that two of his men were imprisoned there , Texian commander Philip Dimmitt ordered his adjutant , Captain Ira Westover , to capture the fort .
The commander of Fort Lipantitlán , Nicolás Rodríguez , had been ordered to harass the Texian troops at Goliad . Rodríguez took the bulk of his men on an expedition ; while they were gone , Westover 's force arrived in San Patricio . On November 3 , a local man persuaded the Mexican garrison to surrender , and the following day the Texians dismantled the fort . Rodríguez returned as the Texians were crossing the swollen Nueces River to return to Goliad . The Mexican soldiers attacked , but the longer range of the Texians rifles soon forced them to retreat . One Texian was injured , 3 – 5 Mexican soldiers were killed , and 14 – 17 were wounded .
The injured Mexican troops were allowed to seek medical treatment in San Patricio , and the remaining Mexican soldiers retreated to Matamoros . The Texians now had full control of the Texas Gulf Coast , which meant that the troops stationed at San Antonio de Béxar could only receive reinforcements and supplies overland . Historian Bill Groneman believes that this contributed to the eventual Mexican defeat at the siege of Béxar , which expelled all Mexican troops from Texas . The former site of the fort is now a Texas historic site .
= = Background = =
Fort Lipantitlán was built on the grounds of an old campsite along the west bank of the Nueces River on the Gulf coast of Texas . The site was first occupied by a nomadic Lipan Apache tribe during their periodic visits . After the Apaches abandoned the area , the campground was often used by missionaries , military units , and traders making their way between Mexico and the Texas settlements . In 1825 or 1826 , Mexican officials constructed a makeshift fort , named Lipantitlán after the Lipan Apaches , at the campsite . According to Texian John J. Linn , the fort " was a single embankment of earth , lined within by fence rails to hold the dirt in place , and would have answered tolerably well , perhaps , for a second @-@ rate hog pen " . The embankment was surrounded by a large ditch ; just outside the ditch lay adobe and wooden huts for the officers and their families .
Between 80 and 125 soldiers from the 2nd Active ( Cavalry ) Company of Tamaulipas were garrisoned at the fort . They collected customs duties and provided protection to San Patricio , a small settlement of Irish and Mexican colonists approximately 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) south . Smaller garrisons were located at Copano Bay and Refugio , with a larger force stationed at Presidio La Bahía in Goliad .
In 1835 , federalists in several interior Mexican states revolted against the increasingly centralist reign of Mexican President Antonio López de Santa Anna . The Texians staged a minor revolt against customs duties in June , and wary colonists soon began forming militias , ostensibly to protect themselves . Fearing that strong measures were needed to quell the unrest , Santa Anna ordered General Martín Perfecto de Cos to lead a large force into Texas ; Cos arrived in Texas on September 20 .
The Texas Revolution officially began on October 2 at the Battle of Gonzales . Within days , Texian insurgents seized Presidio La Bahía , located at Goliad . Twenty Mexican soldiers escaped and briefly took refuge at Copano and Refugio ; those garrisons soon abandoned their posts and joined the larger force at Fort Lipantitlán . The Mexican soldiers at Lipantitlán began improving the defenses of their small fort . As the only remaining garrison on the Texas coast , Fort Lipantitlán was a vital link between the Mexican interior and Béxar , the political center of Texas which housed Cos and the only other force of Mexican troops in Texas .
Captain Philip Dimmitt assumed command of the Texians at Presidio La Bahía . In a letter to General Stephen F. Austin dated October 15 , Dimmitt proposed an attack on Fort Lipantitlán , whose capture would " secure the frontier , provide a vital station for defense , create instability among the centralists , and encourage Mexican federalists " . Most of the federalists in San Patricio were afraid of retaliation if they openly defied Santa Anna 's centralist policies . They were also reluctant to hold elections for delegates to the Consultation , which would decide whether Texians were fighting for reinstatement of the Constitution of 1824 or for independence from Mexico . Soldiers at Lipantitlán had also imprisoned two of Dimmitt 's men , John Williams and John Toole , as they tried to deliver missives to the federalist leaders in San Patricio on October 10 and 11 . Dimmitt hoped to free the men after capturing Fort Lipantitlán .
On October 20 , James Power , one of the Irish empresarios who had helped to found San Patricio , learned that the Lipantitlán soldiers had been ordered to retake Presidio La Bahia . Two hundred cavalry were expected to reinforce the Lipantitlán garrison before the attack , with an additional 200 – 300 soldiers expected later . Although Dimmitt forwarded the intelligence to Austin , he was not given authorization to attack . The delay proved costly to Williams and Toole , who were marched to the Mexican interior , beyond the reach of the Texians . According to Dimmitt 's angry letter to Austin , Toole begged his captors to kill him outright rather than send him on the march , which he believed would still result in his death . Dimmitt concluded , " this news , after the leniency shown to the prisoners taken here , could not fail to create a lively , and a strong excitement . The men under my command are clamorous for retaliation " .
= = Prelude = =
The furor over the removal of Williams and Toole likely led Dimmitt to take matters into his own hands . On October 31 he sent a member of his staff , Adjutant Ira Westover , to take 35 men to attack Fort Lipantitlán . A self @-@ appointed advisory committee — John J. Linn , Major James Kerr and Power — rode along . The three advisors had been elected to the Consultation but delayed their departure so that they could participate in the fighting .
Rather than riding directly southwest to the fort , Westover travelled southeast to Refugio . This alternative route was likely intended to suggest that the expedition was headed for Copano Bay . An unknown number of men joined the expedition in Refugio ; historian Craig Roell believes that the expedition grew by at least 20 men , and historian Bill Groneman estimated that Westover 's force numbered 60 – 70 men when it reached San Patricio .
Meanwhile , the commander of the garrison at Fort Lipantitlán , Captain Nicolás Rodríguez , received orders to harass the Texians at Presidio La Bahía . On October 31 , as Rodríguez and his men neared Goliad , they learned that a Texian force had left the fort earlier that day . The Mexican soldiers immediately retraced their route . They did not encounter any Texian soldiers during their march and arrived on November 1 to find the fort unmolested . Uncertain as to what the Texians intended to do , Rodríguez and the bulk of his garrison ( almost 80 men ) turned back towards Goliad to attempt to intercept the Texians . Between 21 and 27 soldiers , armed with two cannon , remained to defend the fort .
= = Battle = =
Rodríguez expected the Texians to take a direct route. his men patrolled the northern approaches to the fort . Westover 's men instead approached from the east , eluding the Mexican patrols . Five miles ( 8 km ) from San Patricio , Westover received word that Rodríguez was searching for the Texians . He forced the men to increase their pace , and they arrived at San Patricio 30 minutes after sundown on November 3 . Westover positioned two small groups of men to guard the Nueces River crossings , about 70 yards ( 64 m ) from the fort . As the rest of the Texians prepared for a dawn assault , two San Patricio residents wandered into their camp . Westover arrested one of them , James O 'Riley , for " aiding and assisting the enemy " . In exchange for his liberty , O 'Riley offered to persuade the Mexican garrison to surrender . Historians have no records of what methods O 'Riley used , but by 11 pm the Mexican soldiers had surrendered , without a shot fired . They were released immediately as long as they promised not to fight again during the Texas Revolution . The Texians captured the two 4 @-@ lb ( 1 @.@ 8 @-@ kg ) cannons , 18 muskets , and 3 – 4 pounds ( 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 8 kg ) of powder . They also released several Texians who had been held prisoner in the fort .
The following day , Texians burned the wooden huts adjacent to the fort and dismantled the embankments . By 3 pm they had rounded up 14 horses and were preparing to bring the cannons back to Goliad . In the meantime , Rodriguez had travelled almost all the way to Goliad . Before he reached Presidio La Bahía , one of his spies arrived with news that the Texians had taken Fort Lipantitlán . Rodriguez and his men — including 10 colonists from San Patricio — marched back toward the fort , arriving at about 4 pm .
The Texians used a small canoe to transport men across the Nueces River , and when the Mexican soldiers were sighted only half of the Texian force had crossed to the east bank of the river . As the Mexican soldiers attacked , the Texians took cover in a grove of trees . The trees prevented the cavalry from approaching , so Rodriguez 's men dismounted and attempted to attack from both sides . The Texian rifles had a much longer range than the Mexican Brown Bess muskets — 200 yards ( 180 m ) compared to 70 yards ( 64 m ) . After 30 minutes of fighting , the Mexicans withdrew , leaving behind 8 horses and several wounded men . The only Texian injured was Lieutenant William Bracken , who lost three fingers . Texian rifleman A. J. Jones later wrote to Fannin that 3 Mexicans had died with 14 wounded , though historian Stephen Hardin believes that 5 Mexicans died with 17 wounded . Jones 's letter mentioned that three of the wounded were the alcalde , judge , and sheriff of San Patricio .
= = Aftermath = =
Without draft animals , the Texians had no easy way to transport the artillery . As night approached , a cold rain began to fall , and the men became discouraged . Westover , Kerr , Linn , and Power agreed to throw the artillery in the river rather than continue to struggle with it . The Texians also deposited their cache of captured ammunition and muskets in the river ; in their opinion , the supplies were useless .
Most Texians spent the night in San Patricio , housed by sympathetic locals . The Mexican troops camped outdoors near the battle site . At dawn , Westover agreed to allow the wounded Mexican soldiers to be transported to San Patricio for treatment . The following day one of the wounded soldiers , Mexican Lieutenant Marcellino Garcia , died . Garcia was a personal friend of Linn , and the Texians gave him a full burial with honors .
Westover sent a messenger to Rodríguez to request " another pleasant meeting " . Rodríguez declined the offer and retreated with his remaining men to Matamoros . Their departure left only one remaining group of Mexican soldiers in Texas , those under General Cos at Béxar . The Texians now controlled the Gulf Coast , and so all communication between Cos and the Mexican interior must be transferred overland . The long distance involved severely slowed the delivery of messages and receipt of supplies and reinforcements . According to Groneman , this likely contributed to Cos 's defeat in the siege of Béxar , which expelled the remaining Mexican soldiers from Texas .
On their return to Goliad , Westover 's group encountered Agustín Viesca , the recently deposed governor of Coahuila y Tejas . Several months before , Viesca had been imprisoned by the Mexican army for defying attempts by Santa Anna to disband the state legislature . He and members of his cabinet had been liberated by sympathetic soldiers and immediately travelled to Texas to recreate the state government . Westover and his men provided a military escort to Goliad , arriving on November 12 . Dimmitt welcomed Viesca but refused to recognize his authority as governor . This caused an uproar in the garrison ; many supported the governor , while others believed that Texas should be an independent country and should therefore not recognize the Mexican governor .
Dimmitt later chastised Westover for not following orders during the expedition . Westover refused to make an official report to Dimmitt . Instead , he sent a written report to Sam Houston , the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the regular army . In Westover 's opinion , " The men all fought bravely and those on the opposite bank of the river were enabled to operate on the flanks of the enemy above and below the crossing which they did with fine effect . " Houston lauded " the conduct and bravery of the officers and men who have so handsomely acquitted themselves in the affair and so deservedly won [ a ] reputation for themselves and Glory for their Country " . This was the first armed skirmish fought since the Battle of Goliad , according to historian Hobart Huson , the victory " renewed the morale of the people " . News of the battle spread throughout the United States , and the Texians were widely praised in American newspapers .
The removal of Mexican army oversight encouraged federalists in San Patricio . These men soon gained control of the municipal government , formed a militia , and elected delegates to represent them at the Consultation . However , the town remained divided ; many still supported the centralist Mexican government . After reaching Matamoros , Rodríguez sent a letter to the town leaders . The letter warned that the Mexican army would return and encouraged the people of San Patricio to repudiate the rebellion . One of the San Patricio federalists later wrote Dimmitt , " We have neither men nor means to withstand any force that may be sent against us . " The Texians chose not to garrison men in or near San Patricio . In 1836 , as part of Santa Anna 's invasion of Texas , General José de Urrea led Mexican forces along the Texas coastline and retook San Patricio on February 27 .
In 1937 , the land comprising the former site of Fort Lipantitlán was donated to the state of Texas . The Texas State Parks Board gained control over the site in 1949 . Now named the Lipantitlan State Historic Site , the park covers 5 acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) in Nueces County . A stone marker indicates the location of the former fort .
= Elizabeth Needham =
Elizabeth Needham ( died 3 May 1731 ) , also known as Mother Needham , was an English procuress and brothel @-@ keeper of 18th @-@ century London , who has been identified as the bawd greeting Moll Hackabout in the first plate of William Hogarth 's series of satirical etchings , A Harlot 's Progress . Although Needham was notorious in London at the time , little is recorded of her life , and no genuine portraits of her survive . Her house was the most exclusive in London and her customers came from the highest strata of fashionable society , but she eventually ran afoul of the moral reformers of the day and died as a result of the severe treatment she received after being sentenced to stand in the pillory .
= = Character = =
Nothing is known of Needham 's early life , but by the time she was middle @-@ aged she was renowned in London as the keeper of a brothel in Park Place , St. James . Her house was regarded as the most exclusive in London , superior to those of Covent Garden , even to that of the other notorious bawd of the time , Mother Wisebourne . She was said to still be attractive in middle @-@ age ; Hogarth described her as a " handsome old Procuress ... well dressed in silk " , but mentions " patches on her face " and in his picture her face is seen to be pock @-@ marked . She went by a number of aliases : Bird , Howard , Blewitt and Trent are among those ascribed to her , although Mother Bird was also the name of another brothel @-@ keeper who was committed to Newgate Prison with Needham in 1724 . Needham was apparently ruthless with the girls and women who worked for her . They were forced to hire their dresses from her , and , if they were unable to pay the exorbitant rentals , she would force them to take more customers or have them committed to debtors ' prison until they met her demands ( a scheme John Cleland 's heroine falls prey to in Fanny Hill ( 1748 ) ) . Once they were too old or too ill to attract customers , she would throw them out .
Needham procured her prostitutes from many sources including the houses of other brothel @-@ keepers , the " Bails " in Covent Garden where homeless girls would sleep rough , Tom King 's Coffee House , and , it appears , from auctions , but , as depicted in Hogarth 's picture , she particularly targeted girls and women fresh from the country . The essayist Richard Steele found her pitching to a newly arrived girl when he went to meet a wagon bringing him items from the countryside . He described her as " artful " , and it seems that she was friendly and engaging with her potential employees , revealing her vicious character only when they were under her roof ; in The Dunciad , Alexander Pope warns not to " ... lard your words with Mother Needham 's style " . Pope mentions her once more at the end of The Dunciad ( 1728 ) , making reference to her foul mouth , and again , alongside other notorious madams of the day , in the last verses of his Coronation Epistle ( which were suppressed in editions of the poem from 1769 until 1954 ) :
For Want of you , we spend our random Wit on
The first we find with Needham , Brooks , or Briton .
Henry Fielding refers to her in his Pasquin ( 1736 ) and used Hogarth 's representation of her as the model for Mother Punchbowl in The Covent Garden Tragedy ( 1732 ) . Mary Davys 's bawd in the Accomplish 'd Rake of 1727 is called " Mother N @-@ d @-@ m " and targets young girls fresh from the countryside , just as Needham did .
= = Customers = =
Chief among her customers were Colonel Francis Charteris and his cousin the Duke of Wharton — Charteris is lounging in the doorway behind Needham in Hogarth 's picture . Ronald Paulson suggests that the model for Moll Hackabout in Hogarth 's first scene is Ann Bond , who was lured by Needham and raped by Charteris . Charteris , already known as the " Rape @-@ Master General " , was convicted and sentenced to death as a result of the Bond rape , although he was later pardoned . Needham 's name was not mentioned during the legal proceedings .
Needham may have introduced Charteris to Sally Salisbury around 1708 . Salisbury was the pre @-@ eminent prostitute of the day and was kept by Charteris for a short time as mistress at the beginning of her career . When her previous bawd , Mother Wisebourne , died in 1719 , she became a member of Needham 's household and brought with her a clientele from the highest ranks of society . Salisbury brought further fame to Needham 's house by involving another of her girls in the theft of the Earl of Cardigan 's clothes . The two women accompanied him to Newmarket where he became drunk , and after putting him to bed at an inn they stole his clothes and jewellery and returned to London . The Earl treated the matter as a joke .
Some idea of the reputation of Needham 's house can be gathered from one of Joe Miller 's Jests , which involves her asking her landlord to wait for his money until Parliament and the Convocation sit , at which point she will be able to pay him ten times over , and by a satirical premature obituary , which appeared in the London Journal . The latter describes a will in which she distributes appropriate gifts to her famous clients : " a picture of Sodom and Gomorrah to indorsing D ― n ; an ounce of Mercuris Dulcis to Beau C ― e , of St. Martin 's Lane ; her estate to the Duke of Wharton ; her library to Ned C ― ; and a receipt to cure a clap to little Quibus " . At the time , the figures mentioned would not have been spared their blushes by the omission of their full names , but identifying them now is guesswork .
Her well @-@ connected clientele may have allowed her to escape arrest . Despite the popular notion that Sally Salisbury 's 1723 stabbing of John Finch , the son of the Duchess of Winchelsea , had taken place in her house ( it had actually occurred at the Three Tuns Tavern in Covent Garden ) , the first time Needham was raided was in 1724 :
Yesterday morning the celebrated Mother Needham and Mother Bird , two eminent conservators of the Game of the Kingdom , were committed to Newgate ; their houses being disturb 'd the night before by the Constables , who disengaged the Gentlemen and Ladies to a great number , and carried them to the Round @-@ House . This being the first time Mrs Needham ever received publick correction , since her being at the head of venal affairs in this town , ' tis thought will be the ruin of her household . Daily Journal , Tuesday 21 July 1724 .
The constables had found " two women in bed with two men of distinction " . The men were bound over , but the women were sent to Tothill Fields Bridewell to do hard labour . Needham 's punishment on this occasion is not recorded , but it appears that she was still incarcerated in September when her house burned down , killing one of the inhabitants , Captain Barbute , a French officer . In 1728 , several of her girls were arrested , but she appears to have escaped punishment .
= = Arrest , conviction and death = =
In late 1730 , Sir John Gonson , a Justice of the Peace and fervent supporter of the Society for the Reformation of Manners , spurred on by the furore surrounding the Charteris rape case , began conducting raids on brothels all over London . By early 1731 he had arrived at St James , where some residents of Park Place reported " a Notorious Disorderly House in that Neighbourhood " . In truth , Needham 's house was hardly unknown , having served the upper echelons of society for years , but she was arrested by Gonson and committed to the Gatehouse by Justice Railton .
On 29 April 1731 , Needham was convicted of keeping a disorderly house , fined one shilling , and sentenced to stand twice in the pillory , and " to find sureties for her good behaviour for 3 years " . On 30 April she was taken to the pillory near Park Place to stand for the first time . Perhaps because of her connections , she was allowed to lie face down in front of the pillory and a number of guards were paid to protect her . Despite this she received such a pelting that it was thought likely she would die before her punishment was completed . The crowds that had gathered to see her pilloried were so large that one boy fell on an iron fencing rail while trying to get a better look and was killed .
Needham was taken from the pillory alive , but died on 3 May 1731 , the day before she was due to stand in the pillory ( this time at New Palace Yard ) for the second time . With her last words she apparently expressed great fear at having to stand in the pillory again after the severe punishment she had received the first time . The Grub Street Journal , the satirical journal allied with Alexander Pope and others of Hogarth 's friends , sardonically reported that the populace " acted very ungratefully , considering how much she had done to oblige them " . Her demise was celebrated in a mocking rhyme :
Ye Ladies of Drury , now weep
Your voices in howling now raise
For Old Mother Needham 's laid deep
And bitter will be all your Days .
She who drest you in Sattins so fine
Who trained you up for the Game
Who Bail , on occasion would find
And keep you from Dolly and Shame
Now is laid low in her Grave ...
Hogarth was still at work on A Harlot 's Progress when she died , so she never saw herself immortalised . There were other madams ready to step into her shoes , but it was not until Mother Douglas took over the King 's Head in Covent Garden in 1741 that a brothel reappeared with a reputation to match that of Needham .
= Maurice Clemmons =
Maurice Clemmons ( February 6 , 1972 – December 1 , 2009 ) was an American who was responsible for the November 29 , 2009 , murder of four police officers in Parkland , Washington . After evading police for two days following the shooting , Clemmons was shot and killed by a police officer in Seattle .
Prior to his involvement in the shooting , Clemmons had at least five felony convictions in Arkansas and at least eight felony charges in Washington . His first incarceration began in 1989 , at age 17 . Facing sentences totaling 108 years in prison , the burglary sentences were reduced in 2000 by Governor of Arkansas Mike Huckabee to 47 years , which made him immediately eligible for parole . The Arkansas Parole Board unanimously moved to release him in 2000 . Clemmons was subsequently arrested on other charges and was jailed several times . In the months prior to the Parkland shooting , he was in jail on charges of assaulting a police officer and raping a child . One week prior to the Parkland shooting , he was released from jail after posting a $ 150 @,@ 000 bail bond .
Clemmons ' murder of four police officers represented the largest number of law enforcement officers killed by one man in a single incident in U.S. history until July 7 , 2016 . The Dallas , Texas shootings resulted in the deaths of five police officers .
= = Early life and crimes = =
Maurice Clemmons 's father made frames for automobile seats at a Chrysler factory , and his mother , Dorothy Mae Clemmons , worked in a nursing home . He had five siblings . Clemmons lived in Marianna , Arkansas in his early youth , and moved to Little Rock as a teen . He was arrested when he was a junior at Hall High School for carrying a .25 @-@ caliber pistol on school property . He claimed to be carrying the gun because he was " beaten by dopers " , and said he had " something for them " if they attacked him again . Clemmons did not return to school , and finished his education at eleventh grade . In 1989 , a 17 @-@ year @-@ old Clemmons and two other accomplices robbed a woman at midnight in the parking lot of a Little Rock hotel bar . Clemmons pretended to have a gun in his pocket and threatened to shoot her if she did not give him her purse . When she responded , " Well , why don 't you just shoot ? " , he punched her in the head and ran off with the purse , which contained $ 16 and a credit card .
Clemmons was accused multiple times of displaying violent behavior during court appearances . In one incident , he dismantled a metal door stop and hid it in his sock to use as a weapon . It was discovered and confiscated by a court bailiff . In another incident , he took a lock from his holding cell and threw it at a bailiff , but missed and accidentally hit his mother instead . Clemmons was once accused of reaching for a guard 's pistol while being transported to court . During one trial , he was shackled in leg irons and seated next to a uniformed officer because the presiding judge ordered extra security , claiming Clemmons had threatened him . At age 16 , Clemmons ' charges were committed from juvenile court to adult court due to the extremely violent nature of his crimes and demeanor .
By 1990 , Clemmons was sentenced to 108 years in prison for eight felony charges from his teenage years in Arkansas . The total prison term stemmed from multiple sentences , some of which were concurrent to others and some were consecutive . The largest sentencing came in 1990 , when he was given a 60 @-@ year prison term for breaking into an Arkansas state trooper 's home and stealing about $ 6 @,@ 700 @-@ worth of items , including a gun .
During his sentencing on the charges , a circuit judge told Clemmons that he had broken his mother 's heart , to which he responded , " I have broken my own heart . " Clemmons was sentenced in 1989 to 35 years in prison for robbing the woman in front of the Little Rock hotel bar . Among his other sentences were six years for weapon possession based on his high school arrest ; and eight years for burglary , theft and probation in Pulaski County on September 9 , 1989 . He was ineligible for parole until 2015 or later . He was originally held at the Tucker Correctional Facility in Tucker , Arkansas , but was eventually transferred to the Cummins Unit near Grady .
= = Clemency = =
In 1999 , after having served 10 years of his sentence , Clemmons filed a clemency appeal with Arkansas Governor Mike Huckabee .
In his petition to Huckabee , Clemmons wrote he came from " a very good Christian family " and was " raised much better than my actions speak " . Clemmons claimed he had just moved from Seattle , Washington , to Arkansas as a teenager , and because he had no friends he gave in to peer pressure and " fell in with the wrong crowd " to be accepted by his young peers , which led him to commit his crimes . Although he apologized for his actions , Clemmons also complained that he received overly harsh sentences . He also claimed to have changed and expressed regret that his mother had recently died without seeing him turn his life around . Clemmons ' clemency application was supported by Pulaski County Circuit Court Judge Marion Humphrey , who argued the cumulative sentence was excessive and cited Clemmons ' young age at the time he committed the crimes .
The decision was made over the objections of some victims and prosecutors involved in Clemmons ' previous cases but was supported by the bipartisan parole board and the trial court judge in Clemmons ' case . Mark Fraiser , an attorney who prosecuted early cases against Clemmons in Pulaski County , argued Clemmons was extremely likely to commit further acts of violence in the future , and said for a teen to receive such a lengthy prison sentence without committing a murder , " you 've got to be a bad little dude " . On May 3 , 2000 , Huckabee commuted Clemmons ' 108 @-@ year sentence to 47 years , 5 months and 19 days , which made him eligible for parole that day . As a factor in his decision , Huckabee cited the unusually long sentence for Clemmons ' age at the time the crimes were committed . The Arkansas Parole Board unanimously approved Clemmons ' release on July 13 , 2000 , and he was set free on August 1 , 2000 .
= = Later crimes = =
In March 2001 , Clemmons violated parole by committing aggravated robbery and theft again in Ouachita County . He was convicted on July 13 , 2001 and sentenced to 10 years in prison . He faced charges of parole violations , but due to problems with the case , he was not served with the charges until 2004 . His attorney argued the parole violation charges should be dropped because so much time had passed , and they were subsequently dismissed . Clemmons was granted parole on the robbery charges in 2004 . He told the parole board he was " not ready " the first time he was released , but that he " doesn 't want to die in prison " and will " try to do the right thing " . Clemmons moved to Washington in 2004 while still on parole , which was approved by Arkansas authorities . That year , he married a woman named Nicole Smith , although The Seattle Times later reported the relationship had " been tumultuous " . He was placed under the supervision of the Washington State Department of Corrections and classified as " high risk to reoffend " . His supervision was to continue until October 2015 . He lived in Tacoma , where he ran a landscaping and power @-@ washing business out of his house . Over the next five years , Clemmons bought six houses , including one in Arkansas and five in Washington .
Following his parole in 2004 , Clemmons had no arrests or problems with the law until May 2009 . The Seattle Times referred to four days in May 2009 as the time when " Maurice Clemmons ' behavior and mental state deteriorated " . On May 9 , a Pierce County sheriff 's deputy responded to Clemmons ' home after reports he was throwing rocks at houses , cars and people . When the deputy tried to enter the house , one of Clemmons ' cousins grabbed his wrist . After a struggle , Clemmons emerged from the house and punched the deputy in the face , and assaulted a second deputy who arrived to help . Clemmons was placed under arrest and taken to Pierce County Jail , where he continued to struggle and told jail workers , " I 'll kill all you bitches . " He was charged with two felony assault charges and two felony malicious mischief charges , and released from jail the next day after posting a $ 40 @,@ 000 bail bond without seeing a judge .
On May 11 , around 1 a.m. , Clemmons appeared naked in his living room and ordered two female relatives , ages 11 and 12 , to fondle him . The two reportedly complied out of fear , and the 11 @-@ year @-@ old fled the house afterward . Clemmons took the 12 @-@ year @-@ old into his bedroom along with Clemmons ' wife . Clemmons repeatedly referred to himself as Jesus , and said his wife was Eve . He released the 12 @-@ year @-@ old girl after his wife begged him to let her go . However , around 4 a.m. that same morning , he gathered his family back into the living room and demanded they strip naked together . He later left the house , claiming the world was coming to an end and that he was " going to fly to heaven " . A family member called 911 and police found Clemmons at a nearby second house he was building , but Clemmons fled on foot and escaped . He failed to appear the next day for an arraignment on his May 9 charges . Child Protective Services investigated and substantiated the sexual abuse complaint . Latanya Clemmons , Clemmons 's sister , told authorities he had undergone a change and was " not in his right mind " .
Clemmons was arrested on July 1 , 2009 , after he appeared in a Pierce County court trying to have his bench warrant thrown out . He was charged with second @-@ degree rape of a child , as well as being a fugitive from Arkansas . At the time of his arrest , Clemmons made religiously themed comments and referred to himself as " the beast " . He also told a police officer that President Barack Obama and LeBron James were his brothers , and Oprah Winfrey was his sister . Pierce County prosecutors asserted that Clemmons ' recent crimes amounted to a violation of Clemmons ' parole in Arkansas , and that he faced years in prison if he was returned to the state . However , the Arkansas Department of Community Correction notified Pierce County on July 22 that they did not intend to ask for his extradition and that he should be adjudicated on his Washington charges . Stephen Penner , a deputy prosecuting attorney in Pierce County , said of the Arkansas decision , " There 's a built @-@ in incentive to not following through . In a way , the more violent they are , the less you want them in your community . "
During a court @-@ ordered mental health evaluation , Clemmons told psychologists he had experienced hallucinations in May 2009 of " people drinking blood and people eating babies , and lawless on the streets , like people were cannibals " . He claimed the visions had since passed . He also claimed to have no faith in the American justice system and thought he was being " maliciously persecuted because I 'm black and they believe the police " . The evaluation , completed by two psychologists from the Western State Hospital on October 19 , concluded Clemmons was dangerous and presented an increased risk of future criminal acts . Pierce County Judge John McCarthy set bail for Clemmons ' assault charges at $ 40 @,@ 000 , considerably below the $ 100 @,@ 000 prosecutors sought based on Clemmons ' history of violence . Pierce County Judge Thomas Felnagle set bail for the child @-@ rape charges at $ 150 @,@ 000 , lower than the $ 200 @,@ 000 sought by prosecutors , but higher than usual for the charges .
After a mental evaluation , a psychologist concluded Clemmons was competent to stand trial on the charges , which eliminated him as a candidate for involuntary commitment . An attorney for Clemmons notified the court he planned to pursue an insanity or diminished @-@ capacity defense . On November 23 , 2009 , Clemmons paid $ 15 @,@ 000 for a $ 190 @,@ 000 bail bond from Jail Sucks Bail Bonds , a Chehalis @-@ based company , to secure his release . Two other bail bond agencies had rejected Clemmons based on his history of failing to appear in court .
= = 2009 police officer shooting = =
Clemmons failed to check in with his community corrections officer within 24 hours of his release as required , but nothing was done in response . On November 26 , 2009 , less than one week after Clemmons posted his bail bond , during a Thanksgiving gathering at the home of Clemmons ' aunt , Clemmons told several people he was angry about his Pierce County legal problems and that he planned to use a gun to murder police officers and others , including school children . He showed a gun to the people in the room and told them he had two others in his car and home . Clemmons said he planned to activate an alarm by removing a court @-@ ordered ankle monitor , then he would shoot the police officers who responded to his house . In describing the planned murder , Clemmons said , " Knock , knock , knock , boom ! "
Darcus Allen , a convicted murderer who previously served in a Arkansas prison with Clemmons , was allegedly present for the conversation . Also on Thanksgiving , Clemmons cut off a GPS monitor Jail Sucks Bail Bonds had secured onto his ankle . On November 28 , Clemmons showed two handguns to friends Eddie and Douglas Davis and told them he planned to shoot police officers with them ; the exchange was witnessed by Clemmons ' half @-@ brother Rickey Hinton , with whom he shared a house . During the exchange , Clemmons danced around with the guns in his hands , claiming to be Lucifer . He told the men he had twice tried to go to a Tacoma police station , where he planned to walk in and start shooting . The first time the station was closed , and the second time he got a flat tire on the way there , Clemmons claimed . He talked about stopping at a crowded intersection or a school and shooting people there .
On the morning of November 29 , Clemmons drove a white pickup truck to Allen 's home , then Allen drove him past the Forza Coffee Co. coffee shop in Parkland , Washington , a suburb of Tacoma . After they saw marked police patrol cars in the parking lot , Allen drove back past the coffee shop and parked nearby . Some reports from witnesses said Clemmons parked his truck in a car wash north of the coffee shop and pretended to clean the vehicle , but never turned the hose on . Around 8 a.m , Clemmons walked into the Forza Coffee Co. coffee shop , where four police officers were working on laptops before their shift . Clemmons opened fire on the officers , shooting them to death .
Investigators said the murders were a targeted , execution @-@ style attack and not associated with a robbery ; Clemmons did not aim at any other customers or the two baristas working at the time . The four slain officers were Mark Renninger , 39 ( killed with a shot to the head ) ; Ronald Owens , 37 ( shot in the neck ) ; Tina Griswold , 40 ( shot in the head ) ; and Greg Richards , 42 ( shot in the head ) .
As Clemmons fled , Officer Richards struggled with him in the restaurant 's doorway , then shot Clemmons in the back before the officer succumbed to a bullet wound to his head . The shooter stole Richards ' Glock pistols before escaping . Clemmons returned to the truck and Allen drove him away . Allen later told detectives he stopped at an intersection and abandoned Clemmons and the truck , claiming he " wants of no part of this " . Authorities however , later disputed this claim and said there was no evidence Allen abandoned the
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of pilgrims coming to America and the stories of them that were common throughout his childhood . In particular , his mother wrote poems about the pilgrims arriving to New England , and Eliot found information related to his family 's history in a book called Sketch of the Eliot Family . The location , East Coker , was where Andrew Eliott , T. S. Eliot 's ancestor , left when joining the pilgrimage .
= = Reception = =
East Coker sold almost 12 @,@ 000 copies during its initial publication . Eliot 's response was to claim that its popularity proved that it was a bad poem . Regardless of the truthfulness of the statement , he enjoyed the fact that the poem could inspire people during the war . Eliot 's friend , Emily Hale , liked the poem so much that she read the poem to her Smith College students " as if it were a love @-@ letter from God " . Early reviews focused on discussing the poem in terms of its content and not its style . In the Southern Review , James Johnson Sweeney , Spring 1941 , and Curist Bradford , Winter 1944 , discussed paraphrases of the poems and the sources of various passages . However , Andrews Wanning , Spring 1941 , stated that Burnt Norton was a better poem than East Coker and that " ' Burnt Norton ' is a poem of suggestion , ' East Coker ' a poem of argument and explanation " . Another American critic , Delmore Schwartz did not appreciate the tone within East Coker , especially that expressed in the fifth section .
= Sienna Guillory =
Sienna Tiggy Guillory ( / ˈɡɪləri / ; born 16 March 1975 ) is an English actress , and former model . She is known for playing the title role in the TV miniseries , Helen of Troy , as elf princess Arya Dröttningu in fantasy @-@ adventure film , Eragon , and for her portrayal of Jill Valentine in the science fiction action horror film Resident Evil : Apocalypse . She resumed her role as Jill Valentine for a cameo appearance in the 2010 action @-@ horror film Resident Evil : Afterlife , and in Resident Evil : Retribution , released on 14 September 2012 .
= = Early life = =
Born in Kettering , Northamptonshire , England , Guillory is the daughter of the American folk guitarist Isaac Guillory and his first wife , English model Tina Thompson , whom he married in 1973 . Isaac Guillory was of Jewish heritage and born at the Guantanamo naval base in Cuba , the son of an American sailor and his Turkish wife .
Her parents moved to Fulham , London when Guillory was two , then later to Norfolk when she was 11 . At the age of ten , she went to stay with cousins in Mexico to learn Spanish .
She has a half @-@ brother named Jace , whom her father had adopted and with whom she shares the same mother . Her parents divorced in 1990 when she was 14 , and in 1993 , her father married Vickie McMillan , which resulted in a much younger half @-@ sister and half @-@ brother , Ellie and Jacob . Guillory attended Gresham 's School in Holt , Norfolk , where she took part in numerous school productions .
Guillory has been an equestrian since the age of two . At 14 , she was given a horse , which she named The Night Porter , or " Porty " , after the film The Night Porter ; Guillory was a fan of its leading actress Charlotte Rampling .
In December 2000 , Guillory 's father died of cancer at the age of 53 .
= = Career = =
= = = Modelling = = =
In 1997 , Guillory accompanied a ballerina friend to the London modelling agency Select and was soon signed . She modelled solely to support her acting career . As a model , she worked in campaigns for Armani , Dolce & Gabbana , Burberry , and Paul Smith and appeared on the covers of several fashion magazines . In 1999 , she became the face of the Hugo Boss fragrance campaign , succeeding model Karen Ferrari and continuing the campaign for three years . After modelling for a few years , Guillory returned her focus to acting in 2000 . She is signed to Independent Models in London .
= = = Acting = = =
Guillory explained that she " became an actor because I wanted to know what it was like to be other people . Because possibly I don 't like myself " , and later said " I hate acting , really hate it . I kind of fell into it sideways ... I started acting because I got offered a job when I was 16 , and they wanted to pay me £ 8 @,@ 000 , and we 'd always lived on Family Support ... " She went on to say that her frustration with later film roles left her bitter , but after seeing Helen Mirren onstage she was inspired again .
In 1993 , Guillory made her screen debut in a TV adaptation of Jilly Cooper 's novel , Riders , for which the casting directors needed a young actress who was able to ride a horse . Her performance landed her in another small role in the miniseries The Buccaneers , opposite Mira Sorvino .
Before becoming a model to support her acting career , Guillory waited tables at a club . In an interview in 2000 , she said about the experience " Supporting my acting habit with waitressing was probably the most useful thing I 've done . " During her time as a model , she studied acting at the New World School of the Arts and the Paris Conservatoire , also taking small television and film roles in The Future Lasts a Long Time ( 1996 ) , The Rules of Engagement ( 1999 ) , Star ! Star ! ( 1999 ) , Kiss Kiss ( Bang Bang ) ( 2000 ) , The 3 Kings ( 2000 ) , and Two Days , Nine Lives ( 2000 ) . During this time , Guillory decided to go on with her acting career because " I was so scared of going to university and being with people my own age again , having been with that tiny little sect of girls in Norfolk whose daddies were farmers and politicians , who didn 't trust me and didn 't know where I was coming from " .
She returned to film with a more substantial role in the thriller Sorted ( 2000 ) . Guillory went on to appear in the BBC production Take a Girl Like You , a television adaptation of Kingsley Amis 's novel of the same name . She portrayed Jenny Bunn , the story 's virginal heroine , and gained critical attention for her part in the period piece . Guillory was pleased to have played a more innocent character , saying " I 've played floozies , psychopaths , assassins , crackheads ... It 's nice to do something with a lighter touch . " The production did not fare well in the ratings .
In 2001 , Guillory continued with other roles in predominantly British films , including Oblivious , Late Night Shopping ( with husband Enzo Cilenti ) , The Last Minute , and Superstition . 2002 saw Guillory appear in The Time Machine , alongside Guy Pearce and Jeremy Irons . She was pleased to take on a larger scale film , after having worked on low @-@ budget independent films , and compared the experience with " finding an unicorn in your sock drawer " . She played Emma , the fiancée of Pearce 's character , who was killed early in the film and whose death set off its main events .
In 2003 , after a friend had received a script for The Principles of Lust , Guillory claims she " read it and couldn 't put it down , and begged to read for the part " . She was impressed by director Penny Woolcock 's unconventional style of shooting , without rehearsing the actors , using raw takes and improvisational performances . For the role of Juliette , Guillory performed nude in the film 's sex scenes which were filmed during the first week of filming , making her somewhat nervous . She later went on to say that it was one of her favorite acting experiences . Afterwards , Guillory had a small role in the romantic comedy Love Actually before taking the starring role in the television miniseries Helen of Troy . The series was mostly based on Homer 's epic poem Iliad and focuses on the mythological life of Helen . Helen of Troy was nominated for best miniseries at the Satellite Awards .
In May 2004 , Guillory starred in a new stage production of The Shape of Things at the New Ambassadors Theatre in London , with husband Cilenti . 2004 also saw Guillory in her first big Hollywood role . She was cast as Jill Valentine , one of the lead characters in the video game adaptation sequel Resident Evil : Apocalypse . The film makers had searched widely for an actress to portray the video game character and found her in Guillory , who had to " please not only the movie @-@ going audience but also the gamers " . She was , however , " a dead ringer for Jill Valentine " . Guillory was reported to have studied the original character 's movements by watching playthroughs of the video game Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis . Before getting the script for the film , she had not been familiar with the video games or seen Resident Evil . She said about her role :
Resident Evil : Apocalypse , although it was not well received by critics , grossed $ 23 @,@ 036 @,@ 273 on its opening weekend ( 10 – 12 September 2004 ) and took a total of $ 51 @,@ 201 @,@ 453 in the United States and $ 129 @,@ 394 @,@ 835 worldwide .
After the success of Resident Evil : Apocalypse , Guillory went on to appear in other film and television roles , including Beauty ( 2004 ) , Marple : A Murder Is Announced ( 2005 ) , In the Bathroom ( 2005 ) , The Virgin Queen ( 2005 ) , Silence Becomes You ( 2005 ) , and Rabbit Fever ( 2006 ) .
In 2006 , Guillory was a lead in the ensemble cast of the fantasy Eragon , the film adaptation of the novel by Christopher Paolini ; the role had reunited her with The Time Machine co @-@ star Jeremy Irons . She portrayed Arya Dröttningu , an elf princess . She had not read the novels before filming , but after accepting the role she soon became a fan of Paolini 's work . Although Arya is a key character in the film , Guillory had little screen time and went on to say jokingly : " I 've been trying to explain to friends who 've seen the trailer [ ... ] I 'm like , " [ ... ] but that 's my whole part ! " " Eragon was not well received by the critics , but was nominated as Best Fantasy Film at the 2006 Saturn Awards . The film went on to gross approximately $ 75 million in the US and $ 173 @.@ 9 million elsewhere , totalling $ 249 million worldwide . Guillory was also invited to reprise her role as Jill Valentine in Resident Evil : Extinction , the sequel to Resident Evil : Apocalypse , but could not accept due to scheduling conflicts with Eragon .
In 2007 , she starred in the Spanish production El Corazón de la tierra , or The Heart of the Earth , and later in the year finished filming the horror / thriller Victims and the fantasy novel adaptation Inkheart . In Inkheart , she plays Resa , the wife of Brendan Fraser 's character and the mother of Eliza Bennett 's . Inkheart sees Guillory acting alongside Helen Mirren , a friend of the Guillory family who was a role model when she first had aspirations towards acting .
Guillory will be a lead in the forthcoming television series The Oaks , expected to begin airing in 2008 . She joins Bahar Soomekh , Matt Lanter , Romy Rosemont , Jeremy Renner , Michael Rispoli and Shannon Lucio in the series which follows the intertwining stories of three families — a young couple in 1968 that have lost a child , a family of four in 1998 , and a pregnant couple in 2008 — who are haunted by the same spirit in their house . The television series began filming on 5 November 2007 on location in Pasadena , California . Guillory will play Jessica , the 2008 couple 's neighbour , a woman who has Asperger syndrome who went to school with the husband ( and father @-@ to @-@ be ) and shares a secret with him .
In May 2010 , Shock Till You Drop.com confirmed the return of Jill Valentine in the Resident Evil film franchise 's fourth instalment , Resident Evil : Afterlife , with Guillory reprising the role . On 31 May , Jovovich also confirmed that Guillory would return as Jill . Guillory reappears in the film in a mid @-@ end credit scene . She returned to a starring role in the following film , Resident Evil : Retribution as the main antagonist of the film .
In 2015 she joined the main cast as scientist Natalie Yelburton in the new thriller series Fortitude , commissioned by Sky Atlantic and set in the fictional Arctic Norwegian oil settlement of the same name . She will return to the role for the show 's second series in 2016 .
In January 2016 she also joined the cast of Sky One 's new series , Stan Lee 's Lucky Man , playing the character Eve .
= = Media = =
In 2001 , readers of Esquire UK voted Guillory " Britain 's Most Eligible Woman " and featured her in a pictorial in the magazine . Guillory was photographed for the cover and shoot by photographer Jonathan Glynn Smith . In 2002 , she was number 89 on Maxim 's list of " The 100 Sexiest Women " , and in 2007 Guillory was voted number 54 at Askmen.com 's Top 99 Countdown .
Guillory has also been quoted as disliking the Hollywood culture , saying she does not wish to be part of it :
= = Personal life = =
In 2000 , Guillory began dating English actor Enzo Cilenti , and they married in 2002 . The couple appeared in the 2001 film Late Night Shopping , and have continued to appear together in various works . In August 2004 , Guillory and Cilenti cycled five stages of the Tour de France to raise money for charity .
In February 2011 , Guillory gave birth to their twin daughters , Valentina and Lucia , named after Guillory 's grandmother and great aunt , who were also twin sisters .
= = Filmography = =
= 1992 European Community Monitor Mission helicopter downing =
The 1992 European Community Monitor Mission helicopter downing was an incident that occurred on 7 January 1992 , during the Croatian War of Independence , in which a European Community Monitor Mission ( ECMM ) helicopter carrying five European Community ( EC ) observers was downed by a Yugoslav Air Force Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 21 , in the air space above the village of Podrute , near Novi Marof , Croatia . An Italian and a French officer and three Italian non @-@ commissioned officers were killed . Another ECMM helicopter flying in formation with the attacked helicopter made an emergency landing . The second helicopter carried a crew and a visiting diplomat , all of whom survived . The incident was condemned by the United Nations Security Council and the EC . As a result of the incident , the Yugoslav authorities suspended the head of the air force , and the Yugoslav defense minister , General Veljko Kadijević , resigned his post . The events followed the end of the first stage of the war in Croatia and closely preceded the country 's international recognition .
The MiG @-@ 21 pilot , Lieutenant Emir Šišić , disappeared after the incident . He was tried in absentia together with his superiors by Croatian authorities , convicted , and sentenced to extended imprisonment . Šišić was subsequently arrested in Hungary in 2001 and extradited to Italy , where he was tried , convicted and sentenced to 15 years in prison . In 2006 , he was turned over to Serbia for the remainder of the sentence , but released in 2008 . Two other Yugoslav officers were tried in absentia in Italy and convicted in 2013 , while Serbia was ordered to pay monetary damages to the victims ' families . The victims were posthumously decorated by Italy and France , respectively .
= = Background = =
In 1990 , following the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia , ethnic tensions worsened . The Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) confiscated Croatia 's Territorial Defence ( Teritorijalna obrana - TO ) weapons to minimize resistance . On 17 August , the tensions escalated into an open revolt by Croatian Serbs , centered on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin , parts of the Lika , Kordun , Banovina and eastern Croatia .
Following the Pakrac clash between Serb insurgents and Croatian special police in March 1991 , the conflict had escalated into the Croatian War of Independence . The JNA stepped in , increasingly supporting the Croatian Serb insurgents . In early April , the leaders of the Croatian Serb revolt declared their intention to integrate the area under their control , known as SAO Krajina , with Serbia .
In May , the Croatian government responded by forming the Croatian National Guard ( Zbor narodne garde - ZNG ) , but its development was hampered by a United Nations ( UN ) arms embargo introduced in September .
The Brioni Agreement established an observer mission which was eventually called the European Community Monitor Mission ( ECMM ) . The mission was tasked with monitoring the disengagement of belligerents in the Ten @-@ Day War in neighbouring Slovenia , and the withdrawal of the JNA from Slovenia . However , on 16 August , an ECMM helicopter was hit by Croatian Serb gunfire in western Slavonia , injuring one of the pilots . This caused the ECMM 's scope of work to be formally expanded to include Croatia on 1 September .
On 8 October , Croatia declared independence from Yugoslavia , and a month later the ZNG was renamed the Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska - HV ) . The fiercest fighting of the war occurred around this time , when the 1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia culminated in the Siege of Dubrovnik , and the Battle of Vukovar . In November , Croatia , Serbia and the JNA agreed upon the Vance plan entailing a ceasefire , protection of civilians in specific areas designated as United Nations Protected Areas , and the presence of UN peacekeepers in Croatia . The ceasefire came into effect on 3 January 1992 . In December 1991 , the European Community ( EC ) announced its decision to grant formal diplomatic recognition to Croatia as of 15 January 1992 .
= = Incident = =
On 7 January 1992 , a pair of Italian Army Agusta @-@ Bell AB @-@ 206L LongRanger helicopters operated by ECMM observers entered Croatian air space from Hungary . The helicopters were white @-@ painted and unarmed . They were flying from the Yugoslav capital of Belgrade to Zagreb via Kaposvár , Hungary . Authorities in Belgrade claim the helicopters were authorised to fly to Hungary , but that the pilots were warned they were not allowed to fly to Zagreb because no flights in Croatian airspace were permitted . The EC dismissed those claims , saying that the flight was approved in advance by Yugoslav air controllers . The approval was forwarded to the Yugoslav Air Force operations centre , but the order was never forwarded to the 5th Aviation Corps in Bihać , Bosnia and Herzegovina .
After the two helicopters were spotted by a Yugoslav Air Force tracking radar near Bihać , a pair of Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 21s , which were on standby at the Željava Air Base near Bihać , were ordered to take off and intercept the aircraft . The MiG @-@ 21s , assigned to the 125th Squadron of the 117th Fighter Aviation Regiment , were piloted by Lieutenant Emir Šišić and Captain Danijel Borović . However , Borović declared that his aircraft had a problem with its engine , and Šišić took off alone . Šišić was guided to the incoming helicopters at an altitude of 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 800 feet ) , and then ordered to make a full circle with his jet . As he turned around , he spotted the helicopters flying below his plane , at an altitude of 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 feet ) . Šišić requested further orders and was told to shoot the helicopters down . The order was issued by the duty officer at the Željava Air Base , Lieutenant Colonel Dobrivoje Opačić .
Šišić pursued the helicopters , firing aircraft gun in front of the helicopters , but his aircraft was not armed with tracer ammunition and the helicopter pilots were not able to observe that they were fired upon . Flying at a speed of 1 @,@ 000 kilometres per hour ( 540 knots ) , he switched to missiles and registered that the missile seekers had acquired the targets . Šišić fired two infrared homing R @-@ 60 missiles . One of the missiles flew between the two helicopters , while the other struck the engine of the lead helicopter . The helicopter was shot down near the village of Podrute , located in an area administered by the city of Novi Marof , north of Zagreb . The second helicopter had to crash @-@ land to evade the attack .
= = Aftermath = =
Five ECMM observers were killed in the attack , including four Italians and one Frenchman . The victims were Lieutenant Colonel Enzo Venturini , helicopter pilot , Staff Sergeant Marco Matta , co @-@ pilot , Sergeant Major Fiorenzo Ramacci , Sergeant Major Silvano Natale , and Ship @-@ of @-@ the @-@ line Lieutenant Jean @-@ Loup Eychenne . The Italian personnel were drawn from the 5th Army Aviation Regiment Rigel . The second helicopter carried a diplomat and three Italian ECMM observers , none of whom were harmed . The crash site was toured by the police , ECMM staff and journalists , and EC representatives visited Belgrade to receive a report on the incident from Yugoslav authorities . The action of the Yugoslav Air Force was condemned by the Conference on Security and Co @-@ operation in Europe , the United Nations Security Council , and the EC Council of Ministers . The Italian ambassador to Yugoslavia was recalled to Rome for consultations . Subsequently , Italy cancelled an air traffic agreement with Yugoslavia , causing Jat Airways to cancel Belgrade – Rome flights . In addition , ECMM operations were suspended for several days .
Yugoslav Ministry of Defence announced that it had initiated criminal proceedings against an officer , with four other officers facing military disciplinary action . The commander of the Yugoslav Air Force , Colonel General Zvonko Jurjević was suspended . The federal defense minister , General Veljko Kadijević officially apologized for the incident and resigned his post . Šišić was court @-@ martialled in Belgrade in 1992 , and acquitted based on claims that he shot at a ZNG helicopter illegally escorting the two ECMM helicopters . In a 2008 interview , Šišić claimed that the ECMM helicopter crashed after being hit by a fireball caused by the exploding third helicopter . His account is contradicted by crash scene eyewitnesses , as well as Željava Air Base radar data , both of which indicate that only two aircraft were flying to Zagreb .
Šišić and Opačić were tried in absentia in Croatia , and both were convicted and sentenced to 20 years in prison . Borović , who defected to Croatia a month after the attack , testified against Šišić . Šišić was arrested by Hungarian police at the Horgoš – Röszke border crossing on 9 May 2001 . His extradition was requested by both Croatia and Italy . He was ultimately extradited to Italy in June 2002 , where he was subsequently tried , convicted , and sentenced to 15 years in prison for five counts of homicide and causing an aircraft disaster . In 2006 , he was transferred to Serbia for the remainder of the prison term . He was released by Serbian authorities in 2008 .
In 2013 , the Appeals Court in Rome tried Opačić , General Ljubomir Bajić , commander of the 5th Aviation Corps , and Colonel Božidar Martinović , head of the Yugoslav Air Defence operational centre in Belgrade in absentia for the attack . Opačić and Bajić were convicted and each sentenced to 28 years in prison , while Martinović was acquitted . The court also ordered Serbia to pay compensation to families of those killed in the attack , in the provisional amount of 950 @,@ 000 Euros . In a 2008 interview , Šišić said he regretted the deaths of the crew but felt no remorse for his actions .
On 25 May 1993 , Italy posthumously decorated the four Italian ECMM observers killed in the attack with the Gold Medal of Military Valor , and the surviving three Italians aboard the second helicopter with the Silver Medal of Military Valor . Eychenne was posthumously promoted to lieutenant commander effective 7 January 1992 , and attributed Mort pour la France on 14 April of the same year . He was decorated as the Chevalier of the Legion of Honour . The incident is commemorated annually in Podrute and the ceremonies held there are regularly attended by representatives of the Croatian government and military , representatives of Italian and French Armed Forces , along with European Union , French and Italian diplomats .
= Vincent Valentine =
Vincent Valentine ( ヴィンセント ・ ヴァレンタイン , Vinsento Varentain ) is a player character in Square 's ( now Square Enix ) 1997 role @-@ playing video game Final Fantasy VII . Designed by Tetsuya Nomura , he also appears in various titles from the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII , a metaseries set in the Final Fantasy VII continuity . Specifically , he is the protagonist in the 2006 third @-@ person shooter Dirge of Cerberus : Final Fantasy VII and its mobile phone tie @-@ in Dirge of Cerberus : Lost Episode . Vincent is voiced in Japanese by Shōgo Suzuki and in English by Steven Blum .
In the backstory to Final Fantasy VII , Vincent is a Turk who is assigned to guard the scientist Lucrecia Crescent , with whom he falls in love . After a series of scientific experiments involving the cells of the extraterrestrial lifeform Jenova , Crescent gives birth to the game 's antagonist , Sephiroth . Soon thereafter , Vincent himself became subject to experiments performed by Crescent 's boss , Professor Hojo , resulting in genetic modification that means he will not age . If the player unlocks Vincent , he will join Cloud Strife 's group to stop Sephiroth , as well as to seek revenge on Hojo .
Due to time constraints , Vincent was originally not intended to be playable in Final Fantasy VII ; however , he was ultimately made an optional character . Despite his optional status and lack of concrete detail as to his background , he proved very popular with both fans and critics , and his history was developed greatly in other installments of the Compilation , primarily Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children and Dirge of Cerberus .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Final Fantasy VII = = =
Players can unlock Vincent by the halfway point of Final Fantasy VII , when Cloud Strife and his allies find him sleeping in a coffin in the basement of Shinra Mansion in Nibelheim . Cloud mentions his quest to stop the game 's antagonist , Sephiroth , who Vincent recognizes as the son of Lucrecia Crescent . Vincent joins the group when he learns that they may eventually meet up with Hojo , against whom Vincent has an unexplained vendetta . Later , Vincent finds Lucrecia inside a cave , and his backstory is partly revealed . Vincent was a member of the Turks , an elite group of Shinra agents . While serving as Lucrecia 's guard , he fell in love with her , but she ultimately decided to remain faithful to Hojo , who persuaded her to use her unborn baby in his experiments . When protesting about the nature of these experiments , Vincent was shot by Hojo , who subsequently began to experiment on him as well . This resulted in him not aging and having the ability to transform in various demons . Not being able to protect Lucrecia , Vincent felt a strong guilt which led him to his isolation . Overcome by guilt , Lucrecia sealed herself away in Mako crystals . Upon entering the cave in the game , Lucrecia revives and asks Vincent if Sephiroth is still alive , but Vincent lies and tells her that he is dead .
= = = Compilation of Final Fantasy VII = = =
In Before Crisis : Final Fantasy VII , which is set six years prior to Final Fantasy VII , Vincent is seen in his Turk attire having a conversation with Veld , leader of the Turks . He subsequently helps Veld obtain some Materia needed for a mission . In the film Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children , set two years after Final Fantasy VII , Vincent rescues Cloud from Kadaj and his gang . He reveals to Cloud Kadaj 's intentions to merge with the remaining Jenova cells so as to bring about Sephiroth 's rebirth . Vincent later helps Cloud and his Final Fantasy VII allies defeat the summon creature Bahamut SIN . In the On the Way to a Smile novella " Case of Nanaki " , set between the original game and Advent Children , Vincent encounters his former comrade , Red XIII ( Nanaki ) , who is fearful that he will soon be alone due to his lifespan being much longer than humans . Vincent explains to Red that he is immortal and promises to meet with him every year to prevent his loneliness .
In Dirge of Cerberus : Final Fantasy VII , which takes place one year after Advent Children , Vincent is seen working with Reeve Tuesti and the World Regenesis Organization to eliminate an organization called Deepground , who have targeted Vincent because he carries " Protomateria " inside his body , implanted by Lucrecia after he was shot by Hojo . The purpose of the Protomateria was to enable Vincent to control the Chaos gene , with which he was injected by Lucrecia to save his life . The Protomateria is eventually ripped from his body by Rosso the Crimson , leading to Vincent being unable to control Chaos . Eventually he confronts the Deepground leader , Weiss the Immaculate , who is possessed by the digitalized mind of Hojo . Hojo reveals that his plan is to awaken Omega WEAPON , who will absorb the Lifestream and leave the Planet , resulting in the death of all living things . After Omega 's awakening , the renegade Deepground member , Shelke , returns the Protomateria to Vincent , and he is once again able to control Chaos , ultimately destroying both Hojo and Omega . The mobile game Dirge of Cerberus Lost Episode : Final Fantasy VII takes place during Dirge of Cerberus and also features Vincent as the protagonist .
= = = Other appearances = = =
Outside the Final Fantasy VII series , Vincent appears in the fighting game Ehrgeiz as an unlockable character , with his Turk uniform as an alternate costume . Like the other Final Fantasy VII characters in the game , Vincent does not serve a role in the main storyline . Although he was meant to appear in Kingdom Hearts , his design was instead used as the basis for Cloud 's redesign . Vincent 's popularity has seen merchandise related to the character , including the release of action figures .
= = Character design = =
Character designer Tetsuya Nomura has explained that Vincent 's character shifted from that of horror researcher , to detective , to chemist , and finally to the figure of a former Turk with a tragic past . Director Yoshinori Kitase was in charge of the cutscene in which Vincent joins the party , while scenario writer Kazushige Nojima wrote his backstory . Nojima had a great deal of trouble with Vincent 's dialogue , as he very rarely speaks . In the original script of the game , Vincent was introduced in a similar fashion , but was a handsome , sarcastic personality . He would join Cloud 's group after learning they were in pursuit of Hojo , but he had no knowledge of the results of the experimentation to which he was subjected . Additionally , he would be also privy to more information regarding Shinra 's involvement with the creation of Sephiroth , and it is he who would explain to Cloud the story of Sephiroth 's origins . When the game was still in development , Nomura and his staff considering removing Vincent and Yuffie Kisaragi altogether , as they did not have enough time to work them into the story properly . As a result , Vincent and Yuffie ultimately appeared as optional characters in the game .
Vincent 's Japanese voice actor , Shōgo Suzuki , explained that he tries " to hold back as much emotion as possible when playing Vincent , " noting that Vincent is " a bit of a loner " and " appears cold on the surface . " Nomura wanted Cloud and Vincent 's voices to contrast with each other due to their similarities in terms of personality . He felt Vincent was older and more mature than Cloud , and as a result he cast Suzuki , who has a very low voice .
Vincent is shown as a tall , lean young man with long black hair and a ragged red cloak and mantle over black underclothes . He wears a metallic , golden gauntlet on his left forearm . Vincent 's cloak covers the lower half of his face and is held closed by a series of buckles . His eyes are naturally red . His crimson cloak was added to symbolize the idea of Vincent carrying a heavy weight connected to death . While other characters were given simple costumes in Advent Children , Vincent was given something more complex . Nomura felt that changing his design to something complicated would " conflict with his personality , " which is relatively straightforward , and he was thus given attire consisting of " various , complex parts . " His cloak was difficult to animate due to it being very organic ; the overall complexity of Vincent 's design led to his scenes being " especially hard to create . " These scenes were constantly being adjusted so as " to convey [ their ] elusive nature of seemingly having shape , but not . " These adjustments concluded six months before the films completion .
Vincent was chosen as the protagonist of Dirge of Cerberus due to his strong connections to the setting of Final Fantasy VII and the room available for expanding on his background . Due to the staff 's desire to make Dirge a shooter , Vincent was also chosen because of his weaponry , while his transformations into different type of beasts in the original Final Fantasy VII was something the staff wanted to work into the gameplay . For the game , Nomura redesigned Vincent 's gun in the same way that Cloud 's Buster Sword was redesigned for Advent Children , so as to demonstrate that Vincent is the protagonist of the game . The gun was named Cerberus in reference to the multi @-@ headed hound with the same name from Greek and Roman mythology ; the gun has three barrels as Cerberus has three heads .
= = Reception = =
The character has received primarily positive reviews by video games publications . In GameSpot 's article " The History of Final Fantasy " , Vincent was comically referred to as the Final Fantasy VII character who female players found to be " the most alluring undead man they 've ever met . " GameSpot writer Greg Mueller regarded Vincent as one of " the more interesting characters from Final Fantasy VII , " and liked how Dirge of Cerberus was focused on him and explained his origins more clearly . His character design and abilities have been praised by GameSpy 's Justin Speer , who felt that with such traits he " capably steps into a leading role " of Dirge of Cerberus . IGN 's Jeremy Dunham had a similar opinion , noting that Vincent " is exposed pretty convincingly here . "
On the other hand , Eurogamer 's Rob Fahey criticized Vincent as not being familiar enough to players , even to those who played the original Final Fantasy VII , to warrant his role as protagonist in Dirge of Cerberus . However , Fahey still recognized him as very popular character , commenting that he is one of the most common characters from Final Fantasy VII to be featured in fan fiction and fan art . Although RPGamer 's Michael " CactuarJoe " Beckett said that Vincent was one of the " less well @-@ developed " characters from Final Fantasy VII , he found his development in Dirge of Cerberus to be satisfying . According to GamesRadar , Dirge of Cerberus focused on developing Vincent due to his lack of backstory in Final Fantasy VII , and regarded the mobile phone spin @-@ off as " Vincent fanservice instead of FFVII canon . "
In IGN 's 2008 list top ten Final Fantasy VII characters , Vincent was given an honorable mention by Dave Smith . He received praise for his " striking " character design , as well as the fact that " FFVII 's 3D engine made his shape @-@ shifting Limit Breaks some surprisingly scary stuff . " He has been held as an example of the recurring character categories of " The Kickass Quiet Guy " by 1UP.com and " The Brooding Pretty Boy " by GamesRadar . In 2013 , Vincent was included among the ten most notable vampire characters in video games by Gergo Vas of Kotaku . That same year , Gus Turner Complex ranked Vincent as the 13th greatest Final Fantasy character of all time .
= Sino @-@ Tibetan relations during the Ming dynasty =
The exact nature of relations between Tibet and the Ming dynasty of China ( 1368 – 1644 ) is unclear . Analysis of the relationship is further complicated by modern political conflicts and the application
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271 – 1368 ) . Van Praag writes that this conquest " marked the end of independent China , " which was then incorporated into the Yuan dynasty that ruled China , Tibet , Mongolia , Korea , parts of Siberia and Upper Burma . Morris Rossabi , a professor of Asian history at Queens College , City University of New York , writes that " Khubilai wished to be perceived both as the legitimate Khan of Khans of the Mongols and as the Emperor of China . Though he had , by the early 1260s , become closely identified with China , he still , for a time , claimed universal rule " , and yet " despite his successes in China and Korea , Khubilai was unable to have himself accepted as the Great Khan " . Thus , with such limited acceptance of his position as Great Khan , Kublai Khan increasingly became identified with China and sought support as Emperor of China .
= = = Overthrow of the Sakya and Yuan = = =
In 1358 , the Sakya viceregal regime installed by the Mongols in Tibet was overthrown in a rebellion by the Phagmodru myriarch Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen ( 1302 – 1364 ) . The Mongol Yuan court was forced to accept him as the new viceroy , and Changchub Gyaltsen and his successors , the Phagmodrupa Dynasty , gained de facto rule over Tibet .
In 1368 , a Han Chinese revolt known as the Red Turban Rebellion toppled the Mongol Yuan dynasty in China . Zhu Yuanzhang then established the Ming dynasty , ruling as the Hongwu Emperor ( r . 1368 – 1398 ) . It is not clear how much the early Ming court understood the civil war going on in Tibet between rival religious sects , but the first emperor was anxious to avoid the same trouble that Tibet had caused for the Tang dynasty . Instead of recognizing the Phagmodru ruler , the Hongwu Emperor sided with the Karmapa of the nearer Kham region and southeastern Tibet , sending envoys out in the winter of 1372 – 1373 to ask the Yuan officeholders to renew their titles for the new Ming court .
As evident in his imperial edicts , the Hongwu Emperor was well aware of the Buddhist link between Tibet and China and wanted to foster it . Rolpe Dorje , 4th Karmapa Lama ( 1340 – 1383 ) rejected the Hongwu Emperor 's invitation , although he did send some disciples as envoys to the court in Nanjing . The Hongwu Emperor also entrusted his guru Zongluo , one of many Buddhist monks at court , to head a religious mission into Tibet in 1378 – 1382 in order to obtain Buddhist texts .
However , the early Ming government enacted a law , later rescinded , which forbade Han Chinese to learn the tenets of Tibetan Buddhism . There is little detailed evidence of Chinese — especially lay Chinese — studying Tibetan Buddhism until the Republican era ( 1912 – 1949 ) . Despite these missions on behalf of the Hongwu Emperor , Morris Rossabi writes that the Yongle Emperor ( r . 1402 – 1424 ) " was the first Ming ruler actively to seek an extension of relations with Tibet . "
= = Assertions in the Mingshi of Ming claims over Tibet = =
According to the official Twenty @-@ Four Histories , the History of Ming compiled in 1739 by the subsequent Qing dynasty ( 1644 – 1912 ) , the Ming dynasty established the " É @-@ Lì @-@ Sī Army @-@ Civilian Marshal Office " ( Chinese : 俄力思軍民元帥府 ) in western Tibet and installed the " Ü @-@ Tsang Itinerant High Commandery " and " Amdo @-@ Kham Itinerant High Commandery " to administer Kham . The Mingshi states that administrative offices were set up under these high commanderies , including one Itinerant Commandery , three Pacification Commissioner 's Offices , six Expedition Commissioner 's Offices , four Wanhu offices ( myriarchies , in command of 10 @,@ 000 households each ) and seventeen Qianhu offices ( chiliarchies , each in command of 1 @,@ 000 households ) .
The Ming court appointed three Princes of Dharma ( 法王 ) and five Princes ( 王 ) , and granted many other titles , such as Grand State Tutors ( 大國師 ) and State Tutors ( 國師 ) , to the important schools of Tibetan Buddhism , including the Karma Kagyu , Sakya , and Gelug . According to Wang Jiawei and Nyima Gyaincain , leading officials of these organs were all appointed by the central government and were subject to the rule of law . Yet Van Praag describes the distinct and long @-@ lasting Tibetan law code established by the Phagmodru ruler Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen as one of many reforms to revive old Imperial Tibetan traditions .
The late Turrell V. Wylie , a former professor of the University of Washington , and Li Tieh @-@ tseng argue that the reliability of the heavily censored History of Ming as a credible source on Sino @-@ Tibetan relations is questionable , in the light of modern scholarship . Other historians also assert that these Ming titles were nominal and did not actually confer the authority that the earlier Yuan titles had . Van Praag writes that the " numerous economically motivated Tibetan missions to the Ming Court are referred to as ' tributary missions ' in the Ming Shih . " Van Praag writes that these " tributary missions " were simply prompted by China 's need for horses from Tibet , since a viable horse market in Mongol lands was closed as a result of incessant conflict . Morris Rossabi also writes that " Tibet , which had extensive contacts with China during the Yuan , scarcely had diplomatic relations with the Ming . "
= = Modern scholarly debates on Tibet @-@ Ming relations = =
= = = Inheritance , reappointments , and titles = = =
= = = = Transition from Yuan to Ming = = = =
Historians disagree on what the relationship was between the Ming court and Tibet and whether or not Ming China had sovereignty over Tibet . Van Praag writes that Chinese court historians viewed Tibet as an independent foreign tributary and had little interest in Tibet besides a lama @-@ patron relationship . The historian Tsepon W. D. Shakabpa supports van Praag 's position . However , Wang Jiawei and Nyima Gyaincain state that these assertions by van Praag and Shakabpa are " fallacies " .
Wang and Nyima argue that the Ming emperor sent edicts to Tibet twice in the second year of the Ming dynasty , and demonstrated that he viewed Tibet as a significant region to pacify by urging various Tibetan tribes to submit to the authority of the Ming court . They note that at the same time , the Mongol Prince Punala , who had inherited his position as ruler of areas of Tibet , went to Nanjing in 1371 to pay tribute and show his allegiance to the Ming court , bringing with him the seal of authority issued by the Yuan court . They also state that since successors of lamas granted the title of " prince " had to travel to the Ming court to renew this title , and since lamas called themselves princes , the Ming court therefore had " full sovereignty over Tibet . " They state that the Ming dynasty , by issuing imperial edicts to invite ex @-@ Yuan officials to the court for official positions in the early years of its founding , won submission from ex @-@ Yuan religious and administrative leaders in the Tibetan areas , and thereby incorporated Tibetan areas into the rule of the Ming court . Thus , they conclude , the Ming court won the power to rule Tibetan areas formerly under the rule of the Yuan dynasty .
Journalist and author Thomas Laird , in his book The Story of Tibet : Conversations with the Dalai Lama , writes that Wang and Nyima present the government viewpoint of the People 's Republic of China in their Historical Status of China 's Tibet , and fail to realize that China was " absorbed into a larger , non @-@ Chinese political unit " during the Mongol Yuan dynasty , which Wang and Nyima paint as a characteristic Chinese dynasty succeeded by the Ming . Laird asserts that the ruling Mongol khans never administered Tibet as part of China and instead ruled them as separate territories , comparing the Mongols with the British who colonized India and New Zealand , yet stating this does not make India part of New Zealand as a consequence . Of later Mongol and Tibetan accounts interpreting the Mongol conquest of Tibet , Laird asserts that " they , like all non @-@ Chinese historical narratives , never portray the Mongol subjugation of Tibet as a Chinese one . "
The Columbia Encyclopedia distinguishes between the Yuan dynasty and the other Mongol Empire khanates of Ilkhanate , Chagatai Khanate and the Golden Horde . It describes the Yuan dynasty as " A Mongol dynasty of China that ruled from 1271 to 1368 , and a division of the great empire conquered by the Mongols . Founded by Kublai Khan , who adopted the Chinese dynastic name of Yüan in 1271 . " The Encyclopedia Americana describes the Yuan dynasty as " the line of Mongol rulers in China " and adds that the Mongols " proclaimed a Chinese @-@ style Yüan dynasty at Khanbaliq ( Beijing ) . " The Metropolitan Museum of Art writes that the Mongol rulers of the Yuan dynasty " adopted Chinese political and cultural models ; ruling from their capitals in Dadu , they assumed the role of Chinese emperors , " although Tibetologist Thomas Laird dismissed the Yuan dynasty as a non @-@ Chinese polity and plays down its Chinese characteristics . The Metropolitan Museum of Art also noted that in spite of the gradual assimilation of Yuan monarchs , the Mongol rulers largely ignored the literati and imposed harsh policies discriminating against southern Chinese . In his Kublai Khan : His Life and Times , Rossabi explains that Kublai " created government institutions that either resembled or were the same as the traditional Chinese ones " , and he " wished to signal to the Chinese that he intended to adopt the trappings and style of a Chinese ruler " .
Nevertheless , the ethno @-@ geographic caste hierarchy favoring the Mongols and other ethnicities were accorded higher status than the Han Chinese majority . Although Han Chinese who were recruited as advisers were often actually more influential than high officials , their status was not as well defined . Kublai also abolished the imperial examinations of China 's civil service legacy , which was not reinstated until Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan 's reign ( 1311 – 1320 ) . Rossabi writes that Kublai recognized that in order to rule China , " he had to employ Chinese advisors and officials , yet he could not rely totally on Chinese advisers because he had to maintain a delicate balancing act between ruling the sedentary civilization of China and preserving the cultural identity and values of the Mongols . " And " in governing China , he was concerned with the interests of his Chinese subjects , but also with exploiting the resources of the empire for his own aggrandizement . His motivations and objectives alternated from one to the other throughout his reign , " according to Rossabi . Van Praag writes in The Status of Tibet that the Tibetans and Mongols , on the other hand , upheld a dual system of rule and an interdependent relationship that legitimated the succession of Mongol khans as universal Buddhist rulers , or chakravartin . Van Praag writes that " Tibet remained a unique part of the Empire and was never fully integrated into it , " citing examples such as a licensed border market that existed between China and Tibet during the Yuan .
The early Ming Emperors from Hongwu to Zhengde continued Yuan practices such as hereditary military institutions , demanding Korean concubines and eunuchs , having Muslim eunuchs , wearing Mongol style clothing and Mongol hats , engaging in archery and horseback riding , having Mongols serve in the Ming military , patronizing Tibetan Buddhism , with the early Ming Emperors seeking to project themselves as " universal rulers " to various peoples such as Central Asian Muslims , Tibetans , and Mongols , modeled after the Mongol Khagan , however , this history of Ming universalism has been obscured and denied by historians who covered it up and presented the Ming as xenophobes seeking to expunge Mongol influence and presenting while they presented the Qing and Yuan as " universal " rulers in contrast to the Ming .
= = = = Ming practices of giving titles to Tibetans = = = =
The official position of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People 's Republic of China is that the Ming implemented a policy of managing Tibet according to conventions and customs , granting titles and setting up administrative organs over Tibet . The State Council Information Office of the People 's Republic states that the Ming dynasty 's Ü @-@ Tsang Commanding Office governed most areas of Tibet . It also states that while the Ming abolished the policy council set up by the Mongol Yuan to manage local affairs in Tibet and the Mongol system of Imperial Tutors to govern religious affairs , the Ming adopted a policy of bestowing titles upon religious leaders who had submitted to the Ming dynasty . For example , an edict of the Hongwu Emperor in 1373 appointed the Tibetan leader Choskunskyabs as the General of the Ngari Military and Civil Wanhu Office , stating :
I , the sovereign of the Empire , courteously treat people from all corners of the Empire who love righteousness and pledge allegiance to the Court and assign them official posts . I have learned with great pleasure that you , Chos @-@ kun @-@ skyabs , who live in the Western Region , inspired by my power and reputation , are loyal to the Court and capable of safeguarding the territory in your charge . The mNgav @-@ ris Military and Civil Wanhu Office has just been established . I , therefore , appoint you head of the office with the title of General Huaiyuan , believing that you are most qualified for the post . I expect you to be even more conscientious in your work than in the past , to comply with discipline and to care for your men so that security and peace in your region can be guaranteed .
Chen Qingying , Professor of History and Director of the History Studies Institute under the China Tibetology Research Center in Beijing , writes that the Ming court conferred new official positions on ex @-@ Yuan Tibetan leaders of the Phachu Kargyu and granted them lower @-@ ranking positions . Of the county ( zong or dzong ) leaders of Neiwo Zong and Renbam Zong , Chen states that when " the Emperor learned the actual situation of the Phachu Kargyu , the Ming court then appointed the main Zong leaders to be senior officers of the Senior Command of Dbus and Gtsang . " The official posts that the Ming court established in Tibet , such as senior and junior commanders , offices of Qianhu ( in charge of 1 @,@ 000 households ) , and offices of Wanhu ( in charge of 10 @,@ 000 households ) , were all hereditary positions according to Chen , but he asserts that " the succession of some important posts still had to be approved by the emperor , " while old imperial mandates had to be returned to the Ming court for renewal .
According to Tibetologist John Powers , Tibetan sources counter this narrative of titles granted by the Chinese to Tibetans with various titles which the Tibetans gave to the Chinese emperors and their officials . Tribute missions from Tibetan monasteries to the Chinese court brought back not only titles , but large , commercially valuable gifts which could subsequently be sold . The Ming emperors sent invitations to ruling lamas , but the lamas sent subordinates rather than coming themselves , and no Tibetan ruler ever explicitly accepted the role of being a vassal of the Ming .
Hans Bielenstein writes that as far back as the Han dynasty ( 202 BCE – 220 CE ) , the Han Chinese government " maintained the fiction " that the foreign officials administering the various " Dependent States " and oasis city @-@ states of the Western Regions ( composed of the Tarim Basin and oasis of Turpan ) were true Han representatives due to the Han government 's conferral of Chinese seals and seal cords to them .
= = = = Changchub Gyaltsen = = = =
Wang and Nyima state that after the official title " Education Minister " was granted to Tai Situ Changchub Gyaltsen ( 1302 – 1364 ) by the Yuan court , this title appeared frequently with his name in various Tibetan texts , while his Tibetan title " Degsi " ( sic properly sde @-@ srid or desi ) is seldom mentioned . Wang and Nyima take this to mean that " even in the later period of the Yuan dynasty , the Yuan imperial court and the Phagmodrupa Dynasty maintained a Central @-@ local government relation . " The Tai Situpa is even supposed to have written in his will : " In the past I received loving care from the emperor in the east . If the emperor continues to care for us , please follow his edicts and the imperial envoy should be well received . "
However , Lok @-@ Ham Chan , a professor of history at the University of Washington , writes that Changchub Gyaltsen 's aims were to recreate the old Tibetan Kingdom that existed during the Chinese Tang dynasty , to build " nationalist sentiment " amongst Tibetans , and to " remove all traces of Mongol suzerainty . " Georges Dreyfus , a professor of religion at Williams College , writes that it was Changchub Gyaltsen who adopted the old administrative system of Songtsän Gampo ( c . 605 – 649 ) — the first leader of the Tibetan Empire to establish Tibet as a strong power — by reinstating its legal code of punishments and administrative units . For example , instead of the 13 governorships established by the Mongol Sakya viceroy , Changchub Gyaltsen divided Central Tibet into districts ( dzong ) with district heads ( dzong dpon ) who had to conform to old rituals and wear clothing styles of old Imperial Tibet . Van Praag asserts that Changchub Gyaltsen 's ambitions were to " restore to Tibet the glories of its Imperial Age " by reinstating secular administration , promoting " national culture and traditions , " and installing a law code that survived into the 20th century .
According to Chen , the Ming officer of Hezhou ( modern day Linxia ) informed the Hongwu Emperor that the general situation in Dbus and Gtsang " was under control , " and so he suggested to the emperor that he offer the second Phagmodru ruler , Jamyang Shakya Gyaltsen , an official title . According to the Records of the Founding Emperor , the Hongwu Emperor issued an edict granting the title " Initiation State Master " to Sagya Gyaincain , while the latter sent envoys to the Ming court to hand over his jade seal of authority along with tribute of colored silk and satin , statues of the Buddha , Buddhist scriptures , and sarira .
Dreyfus writes that after the Phagmodrupa lost its centralizing power over Tibet in 1434 , several attempts by other families to establish hegemonies failed over the next two centuries until 1642 with the 5th Dalai Lama 's effective hegemony over Tibet .
= = = = Je Tsongkhapa = = = =
The Ming dynasty granted titles to lamas of schools such as the Karmapa Kargyu , but the latter had previously declined Mongol invitations to receive titles . When the Ming Yongle Emperor invited Je Tsongkhapa ( 1357 – 1419 ) , founder of the Gelug school , to come to the Ming court and pay tribute , the latter declined . Wang and Nyima write that this was due to old age and physical weakness , and also because of efforts being made to build three major monasteries . Chen Qingying states that Tsongkhapa wrote a letter to decline the Emperor 's invitation , and in this reply , Tsongkhapa wrote :
It is not that I don 't know it is the edict of the Great dominator of the world for the sake of Buddhist doctrine , or that I do not obey the edict of Your Majesty . I am seriously ill whenever I meet the public , so I cannot embark on a journey in compliance with the imperial edict . I wish that Your Majesty might be merciful , and not be displeased ; it will really be a great mercy .
A. Tom Grunfeld says that Tsongkhapa claimed ill health in his refusal to appear at the Ming court , while Rossabi adds that Tsongkhapa cited the " length and arduousness of the journey " to China as another reason not to make an appearance . This first request by the Ming was made in 1407 , but the Ming court sent another embassy in 1413 , this one led by the eunuch Hou Xian ( 候顯 ; fl . 1403 – 1427 ) , which was again refused by Tsongkhapa . Rossabi writes that Tsongkhapa did not want to entirely alienate the Ming court , so he sent his disciple Chosrje Shākya Yeshes to Nanjing in 1414 on his behalf , and upon his arrival in 1415 the Yongle Emperor bestowed upon him the title of " State Teacher " — the same title earlier awarded the Phagmodrupa ruler of Tibet . The Xuande Emperor ( r . 1425 – 1435 ) even granted this disciple Chosrje Shākya Yeshes the title of a " King " ( 王 ) . This title does not appear to have held any practical meaning , or to have given its holder any power , at Tsongkhapa 's Ganden Monastery . Wylie notes that this — like the Karma Kargyu — cannot be seen as a reappointment of Mongol Yuan offices , since the Gelug school was created after the fall of the Yuan dynasty .
= = = = Implications on the question of rule = = = =
Dawa Norbu argues that modern Chinese Communist historians tend to be in favor of the view that the Ming simply reappointed old Yuan dynasty officials in Tibet and perpetuated their rule of Tibet in this manner . Norbu writes that , although this would have been true for the eastern Tibetan regions of Amdo and Kham 's " tribute @-@ cum @-@ trade " relations with the Ming , it was untrue if applied to the western Tibetan regions of Ü @-@ Tsang and Ngari . After the Phagmodrupa Changchub Gyaltsen , these were ruled by " three successive nationalistic regimes , " which Norbu writes " Communist historians prefer to ignore . "
Laird writes that the Ming appointed titles to eastern Tibetan princes , and that " these alliances with eastern Tibetan principalities are the evidence China now produces for its assertion that the Ming ruled Tibet , " despite the fact that the Ming did not send an army to replace the Mongols after they left Tibet . Yiu Yung @-@ chin states that the furthest western extent of the Ming dynasty 's territory was Gansu , Sichuan , and Yunnan while " the Ming did not possess Tibet . "
Shih @-@ Shan Henry Tsai writes that the Yongle Emperor sent his eunuch Yang Sanbao into Tibet in 1413 to gain the allegiance of various Tibetan princes , while the Yongle Emperor paid a small fortune in return gifts for tributes in order to maintain the loyalty of neighboring vassal states such as Nepal and Tibet . However , Van Praag states that Tibetan rulers upheld their own separate relations with the kingdoms of Nepal and Kashmir , and at times " engaged in armed confrontation with them . "
Even though the Gelug exchanged gifts with and sent missions to the Ming court up until the 1430s , the Gelug was not mentioned in the Mingshi or the Mingshi Lu . On this , historian Li Tieh @-@ tseng says of Tsongkhapa 's refusal of Ming invitations to visit the Yongle Emperor 's court :
In China not only the emperor could do no wrong , but also his prestige and dignity had to be upheld at any cost . Had the fact been made known to the public that Ch 'eng @-@ tsu 's repeated invitations extended to Tsong @-@ ka @-@ pa were declined , the Emperor 's prestige and dignity would have been considered as lowered to a contemptible degree , especially at a time when his policy to show high favours toward lamas was by no means popular and had already caused resentment among the people . This explains why no mention of Tsong @-@ k 'a @-@ pa and the Yellow Sect was made in the Ming Shih and Ming Shih lu .
Wylie asserts that this type of censorship of the History of Ming distorts the true picture of the history of Sino @-@ Tibetan relations , while the Ming court granted titles to various lamas regardless of their sectarian affiliations in an ongoing civil war in Tibet between competing Buddhist factions . Wylie argues that Ming titles of " King " granted indiscriminately to various Tibetan lamas or even their disciples should not be viewed as reappointments to earlier Yuan dynasty offices , since the viceregal Sakya regime established by the Mongols in Tibet was overthrown by the Phagmodru myriarchy before the Ming existed .
Helmut Hoffman states that the Ming upheld the facade of rule over Tibet through periodic missions of " tribute emissaries " to the Ming court and by granting nominal titles to ruling lamas , but did not actually interfere in Tibetan governance . Melvyn C. Goldstein writes that the Ming had no real administrative authority over Tibet , as the various titles given to Tibetan leaders did not confer authority as the earlier Mongol Yuan titles had . He asserts that " by conferring titles on Tibetans already in power , the Ming emperors merely recognized political reality . " Hugh Edward Richardson writes that the Ming dynasty exercised no authority over the succession of Tibetan ruling families , the Phagmodru ( 1354 – 1435 ) , Rinpungpa ( 1435 – 1565 ) , and Tsangpa ( 1565 – 1642 ) .
= = = Religious significance = = =
In his usurpation of the throne from the Jianwen Emperor ( r . 1398 – 1402 ) , the Yongle Emperor was aided by the Buddhist monk Yao Guangxiao , and like his father , the Hongwu Emperor , the Yongle Emperor was " well @-@ disposed towards Buddhism " , claims Rossabi . On March 10 , 1403 , the Yongle Emperor invited Deshin Shekpa , 5th Karmapa Lama ( 1384 – 1415 ) , to his court , even though the fourth Karmapa had rejected the invitation of the Hongwu Emperor . A Tibetan translation in the 16th century preserves the letter of the Yongle Emperor , which the Association for Asian Studies notes is polite and complimentary towards the Karmapa . The letter of invitation reads ,
My father and both parents of the queen are now dead . You are my only hope , essence of buddhahood . Please come quickly . I am sending as offering a large ingot of silver , one hundred fifty silver coins , twenty rolls of silk , a block of sandalwood , one hundred fifty bricks of tea and ten pounds of incense . "
In order to seek out the Karmapa , the Yongle Emperor dispatched his eunuch Hou Xian and the Buddhist monk Zhi Guang ( d . 1435 ) to Tibet . Traveling to Lhasa either through Qinghai or via the Silk Road to Khotan , Hou Xian and Zhi Guang did not return to Nanjing until 1407 .
During his travels beginning in 1403 , Deshin Shekpa was induced by further exhortations by the Ming court to visit Nanjing by April 10 , 1407 . Norbu writes that the Yongle Emperor , following the tradition of Mongol emperors and their reverence for the Sakya lamas , showed an enormous amount of deference towards Deshin Shekpa . The Yongle Emperor came out of the palace in Nanjing to greet the Karmapa and did not require him to kowtow like a tributary vassal . According to Karma Thinley , the emperor gave the Karmapa the place of honor at his left , and on a higher throne than his own . Rossabi and others describe a similar arrangement made by Kublai Khan and the Sakya Phagpa lama , writing that Kublai would " sit on a lower platform than the Tibetan cleric " when receiving religious instructions from him .
Throughout the following month , the Yongle Emperor and his court showered the Karmapa with presents . At Linggu Temple in Nanjing , he presided over the religious ceremonies for the Yongle Emperor 's deceased parents , while twenty @-@ two days of his stay were marked by religious miracles that were recorded in five languages on a gigantic scroll that bore the Emperor 's seal . During his stay in Nanjing , Deshin Shekpa was bestowed the title " Great Treasure Prince of Dharma " by the Yongle Emperor . Elliot Sperling asserts that the Yongle Emperor , in bestowing Deshin Shekpa with the title of " King " and praising his mystical abilities and miracles , was trying to build an alliance with the Karmapa as the Mongols had with the Sakya lamas , but Deshin Shekpa rejected the Yongle Emperor 's offer . In fact , this was the same title that Kublai Khan had offered the Sakya Phagpa lama , but Deshin Shekpa persuaded the Yongle Emperor to grant the title to religious leaders of other Tibetan Buddhist sects .
Tibetan sources say Deshin Shekpa also persuaded the Yongle Emperor not to impose his military might on Tibet as the Mongols had previously done . Thinley writes that before the Karmapa returned to Tibet , the Yongle Emperor began planning to send a military force into Tibet to forcibly give the Karmapa authority over all the Tibetan Buddhist schools but Deshin Shekpa dissuaded him . However , Hok @-@ Lam Chan states that " there is little evidence that this was ever the emperor 's intention " and that evidence indicates that Deshin Skekpa was invited strictly for religious purposes .
Marsha Weidner states that Deshin Shekpa 's miracles " testified to the power of both the emperor and his guru and served as a legitimizing tool for the emperor 's problematic succession to the throne , " referring to the Yongle Emperor 's conflict with the previous Jianwen Emperor . Tsai writes that Deshin Shekpa aided the legitimacy of the Yongle Emperor 's rule by providing him with portents and omens which demonstrated Heaven 's favor of the Yongle Emperor on the Ming throne .
With the example of the Ming court 's relationship with the fifth Karmapa and other Tibetan leaders , Norbu states that Chinese Communist historians have failed to realize the significance of the religious aspect of the Ming @-@ Tibetan relationship . He writes that the meetings of lamas with the Emperor of China were exchanges of tribute between " the patron and the priest " and were not merely instances of a political subordinate paying tribute to a superior . He also notes that the items of tribute were Buddhist artifacts which symbolized " the religious nature of the relationship . " Josef Kolmaš writes that the Ming dynasty did not exercise any direct political control over Tibet , content with their tribute relations that were " almost entirely of a religious character . " Patricia Ann Berger writes that the Yongle Emperor 's courting and granting of titles to lamas was his attempt to " resurrect the relationship between China and Tibet established earlier by the Yuan dynastic founder Khubilai Khan and his guru Phagpa . " She also writes that the later Qing emperors and their Mongol associates viewed the Yongle Emperor 's relationship with Tibet as " part of a chain of reincarnation that saw this Han Chinese emperor as yet another emanation of Manjusri . "
The Information Office of the State Council of the PRC preserves an edict of the Zhengtong Emperor ( r . 1435 – 1449 ) addressed to the Karmapa in 1445 , written after the latter 's agent had brought holy relics to the Ming court . Zhengtong had the following message delivered to the Great Treasure Prince of Dharma , the Karmapa :
Out of compassion , Buddha taught people to be good and persuaded them to embrace his doctrines . You , who live in the remote Western Region , have inherited the true Buddhist doctrines . I am deeply impressed not only by the compassion with which you preach among the people in your region for their enlightenment , but also by your respect for the wishes of Heaven and your devotion to the Court . I am very pleased that you have sent bSod @-@ nams @-@ nyi @-@ ma and other Tibetan monks here bringing with them statues of Buddha , horses and other specialties as tributes to the court .
Despite this glowing message by the Emperor , Chan writes that a year later in 1446 , the Ming court cut off all relations with the Karmapa hierarchs . Until then , the court was unaware that Deshin Shekpa had died in 1415 . The Ming court had believed that the representatives of the Karma Kagyu who continued to visit the Ming capital were sent by the Karmapa .
= = = Tribute and exchanging tea for horses = = =
Tsai writes that shortly after the visit by Deshin Shekpa , the Yongle Emperor ordered the construction of a road and of trading posts in the upper reaches of the Yangzi and Mekong Rivers in order to facilitate trade with Tibet in tea , horses , and salt . The trade route passed through Sichuan and crossed Shangri @-@ La County in Yunnan . Wang and Nyima assert that this " tribute @-@ related trade " of the Ming exchanging Chinese tea for Tibetan horses — while granting Tibetan envoys and Tibetan merchants explicit permission to trade with Han Chinese merchants — " furthered the rule of the Ming dynasty court over Tibet " . Rossabi and Sperling note that this trade in Tibetan horses for Chinese tea existed long before the Ming . Peter C. Perdue says that Wang Anshi ( 1021 – 1086 ) , realizing that China could not produce enough militarily capable steeds , had also aimed to obtain horses from Inner Asia in exchange for Chinese tea . The Chinese needed horses not only for cavalry but also as draft animals for the army 's supply wagons . The Tibetans required Chinese tea not only as a common beverage but also as a religious ceremonial supplement . The Ming government imposed a monopoly on tea production and attempted to regulate this trade with state @-@ supervised markets , but these collapsed in 1449 due to military failures and internal ecological and commercial pressures on the tea @-@ producing regions .
Van Praag states that the Ming court established diplomatic delegations with Tibet merely to secure urgently needed horses . Wang and Nyima argue that these were not diplomatic delegations at all , that Tibetan areas were ruled by the Ming since Tibetan leaders were granted positions as Ming officials , that horses were collected from Tibet as a mandatory " corvée " tax , and therefore Tibetans were " undertaking domestic affairs , not foreign diplomacy " . Sperling writes that the Ming simultaneously bought horses in the Kham region while fighting Tibetan tribes in Amdo and receiving Tibetan embassies in Nanjing . He also argues that the embassies of Tibetan lamas visiting the Ming court were for the most part efforts to promote commercial transactions between the lamas ' large , wealthy entourage and Ming Chinese merchants and officials . Kolmaš writes that while the Ming maintained a laissez @-@ faire policy towards Tibet and limited the numbers of the Tibetan retinues , the Tibetans sought to maintain a tributary relationship with the Ming because imperial patronage provided them with wealth and power . Laird writes that Tibetans eagerly sought Ming court invitations since the gifts the Tibetans received for bringing tribute were much greater in value than the latter . As for the Yongle Emperor 's gifts to his Tibetan and Nepalese vassals such as silver wares , Buddha relics , utensils for Buddhist temples and religious ceremonies , and gowns and robes for monks , Tsai writes " in his effort to draw neighboring states to the Ming orbit so that he could bask in glory , the Yongle Emperor was quite willing to pay a small price " . The Information Office of the State Council of the PRC lists the Tibetan tribute items as oxen , horses , camels , sheep , fur products , medical herbs , Tibetan incenses , thangkas ( painted scrolls ) , and handicrafts ; while the Ming awarded Tibetan tribute @-@ bearers an equal value of gold , silver , satin and brocade , bolts of cloth , grains , and tea leaves . Silk workshops during the Ming also catered specifically to the Tibetan market with silk clothes and furnishings featuring Tibetan Buddhist iconography .
While the Ming dynasty traded horses with Tibet , it upheld a policy of outlawing border markets in the north , which Laird sees as an effort to punish the Mongols for their raids and to " drive them from the frontiers of China . " However , after Altan Khan ( 1507 – 1582 ) — leader of the Tümed Mongols who overthrew the Oirat Mongol confederation 's hegemony over the steppes — made peace with the Ming dynasty in 1571 , he persuaded the Ming to reopen their border markets in 1573 . This provided the Chinese with a new supply of horses that the Mongols had in excess ; it was also a relief to the Ming , since they were unable to stop the Mongols from periodic raiding . Laird says that despite the fact that later Mongols believed Altan forced the Ming to view him as an equal , Chinese historians argue that he was simply a loyal Chinese citizen . By 1578 , Altan Khan formed a formidable Mongol @-@ Tibetan alliance with the Gelug that the Ming viewed from afar without intervention .
= = = Armed intervention and border stability = = =
Patricia Ebrey writes that Tibet , like Joseon Korea and other neighboring states to the Ming , settled for its tributary status while there were no troops or governors of Ming China stationed in its territory . Laird writes that " after the Mongol troops left Tibet , no Ming troops replaced them . " Wang and Nyima state that , despite the fact that the Ming refrained from sending troops to subdue Tibet and refrained from garrisoning Ming troops there , these measures were unnecessary so long as the Ming court upheld close ties with Tibetan vassals and their forces . However , there were instances in the 14th century when the Hongwu Emperor did use military force to quell unrest in Tibet . John D. Langlois writes that there was unrest in Tibet and western Sichuan , which the Marquis Mu Ying ( 沐英 ) was commissioned to quell in November 1378 after he established a Taozhou garrison in Gansu . Langlois notes that by October 1379 , Mu Ying had allegedly captured 30 @,@ 000 Tibetan prisoners and 200 @,@ 000 domesticated animals . Yet invasion went both ways ; the Ming general Qu Neng , under the command of Lan Yu , was ordered to repel a Tibetan assault into Sichuan in 1390 .
One of the Ming Princes was noted for delinquent behavior . Zhu Shuang 朱樉 ( Prince Min of Qin 秦愍王 ) while he was high on drugs , had some Tibetan boys castrated and Tibetan women seized after a war against minority Tibetan peoples and as a result was reprimanded after he died from overdose .
Discussions of strategy in the mid Ming dynasty focused primarily on recovery of the Ordos region , which the Mongols used as a rallying base to stage raids into Ming China . Norbu states that the Ming dynasty , preoccupied with the Mongol threat to the north , could not spare additional armed forces to enforce or back up their claim of sovereignty over Tibet ; instead , they relied on " Confucian instruments of tribute relations " of heaping unlimited number of titles and gifts on Tibetan lamas through acts of diplomacy . Sperling states that the delicate relationship between the Ming and Tibet was " the last time a united China had to deal with an independent Tibet , " that there was a potential for armed conflict at their borders , and that the ultimate goal of Ming foreign policy with Tibet was not subjugation but " avoidance of any kind of Tibetan threat . " P. Christiaan Klieger argues that the Ming court 's patronage of high Tibetan lamas " was designed to help stabilize border regions and protect trade routes . "
Historians Luciano Petech and Sato Hisashi argue that the Ming upheld a " divide @-@ and @-@ rule " policy towards a weak and politically fragmented Tibet after the Sakya regime had fallen . Chan writes that this was perhaps the calculated strategy of the Yongle Emperor , as exclusive patronage to one Tibetan sect would have given it too much regional power . Sperling finds no textual evidence in either Chinese or Tibetan sources to support this thesis of Petech and Hisashi . Norbu asserts that their thesis is largely based on the list of Ming titles conferred on Tibetan lamas rather than " comparative analysis of developments in China and Tibet . " Rossabi states that this theory " attributes too much influence to the Chinese , " pointing out that Tibet was already politically divided when the Ming dynasty began . Rossabi also discounts the " divide @-@ and @-@ rule " theory on the grounds of the Yongle Emperor 's failed attempt to build a strong relationship with the fifth Karmapa — one which he hoped would parallel Kublai Khan 's earlier relationship with the Sakya Phagpa lama . Instead , the Yongle Emperor followed the Karmapa 's advice of giving patronage to many different Tibetan lamas .
The Association for Asian Studies states that there is no known written evidence to suggest that later leaders of the Gelug — Gendün Drup ( 1391 – 1474 ) and Gendün Gyatso ( 1475 – 1571 ) — had any contacts with Ming China . These two religious leaders were preoccupied with an overriding concern for dealing with the powerful secular Rinpungpa princes , who were patrons and protectors of the Karma Kargyu lamas . The Rinpungpa leaders were relatives of the Phagmodrupa , yet their authority shifted over time from simple governors to rulers in their own right over large areas of Ü @-@ Tsang . The prince of Rinbung occupied Lhasa in 1498 and excluded the Gelug from attending New Years ceremonies and prayers , the most important event in the Gelug . While the task of New Years prayers in Lhasa was granted to the Karmapa and others , Gendün Gyatso traveled in exile looking for allies . However , it was not until 1518 that the secular Phagmodru ruler captured Lhasa from the Rinbung , and thereafter the Gelug was given rights to conduct the New Years prayer . When the Drikung Kagyu abbot of Drigung Monastery threatened Lhasa in 1537 , Gendün Gyatso was forced to abandon the Drepung Monastery , although he eventually returned .
The Zhengde Emperor ( r . 1505 – 1521 ) , who enjoyed the company of lamas at court despite protests from the censorate , had heard tales of a " living Buddha " which he desired to host at the Ming capital ; this was none other than the Rinpung @-@ supported Mikyö Dorje , 8th Karmapa Lama then occupying Lhasa . Zhengde 's top advisors made every attempt to dissuade him from inviting this lama to court , arguing that Tibetan Buddhism was wildly heterodox and unorthodox . Despite protests by the Grand Secretary Liang Chu , in 1515 the Zhengde Emperor sent his eunuch official Liu Yun of the Palace Chancellery on a mission to invite this Karmapa to Beijing . Liu commanded a fleet of hundreds of ships requisitioned along the Yangtze , consuming 2 @,@ 835 g ( 100 oz ) of silver a day in food expenses while stationed for a year in Chengdu of Sichuan . After procurring necessary gifts for the mission , he departed with a cavalry force of about 1 @,@ 000 troops . When the request was delivered , the Karmapa lama refused to leave Tibet despite the Ming force brought to coerce him . The Karmapa launched a surprise ambush on Liu Yun 's camp , seizing all the goods and valuables while killing or wounding half of Liu Yun 's entire escort . After this fiasco , Liu fled for his life , but only returned to Chengdu several years later to find that the Zhengde Emperor had died .
= = = Tibetans as a " national minority " = = =
Elliot Sperling , a specialist of Indian studies and the director of the Tibetan Studies program at Indiana University ’ s Department of Central Eurasia Studies , writes that " the idea that Tibet became part of China in the 13th century is a very recent construction . " He writes that Chinese writers of the early 20th century were of the view that Tibet was not annexed by China until the Manchu Qing dynasty invasion during the 18th century . He also states that Chinese writers of the early 20th century described Tibet as a feudal dependency of China , not an integral part of it . Sperling states that this is because " Tibet was ruled as such , within the empires of the Mongols and the Manchus " and also that " China 's intervening Ming dynasty ... had no control over Tibet . " He writes that the Ming relationship with Tibet is problematic for China ’ s insistence of its unbroken sovereignty over Tibet since the 13th century . As for the Tibetan view that Tibet was never subject to the rule of the Yuan or Qing emperors of China , Sperling also discounts this by stating that Tibet was " subject to rules , laws and decisions made by the Yuan and Qing rulers " and that even Tibetans described themselves as subjects of these emperors .
Josef Kolmaš , a sinologist , Tibetologist , and Professor of Oriental Studies at the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic , writes that it was during the Qing dynasty " that developments took place on the basis of which Tibet came to be considered an organic part of China , both practically and theoretically subject to the Chinese central government . " Yet he states that this was a radical change in regards to all previous eras of Sino @-@ Tibetan relations .
P. Christiaan Klieger , an anthropologist and scholar of the California Academy of Sciences in San Francisco , writes that the vice royalty of the Sakya regime installed by the Mongols established a patron and priest relationship between Tibetans and Mongol converts to Tibetan Buddhism . According to him , the Tibetan lamas and Mongol khans upheld a " mutual role of religious prelate and secular patron , " respectively . He adds that " Although agreements were made between Tibetan leaders and Mongol khans , Ming and Qing emperors , it was the Republic of China and its Communist successors that assumed the former imperial tributaries and subject states as integral parts of the Chinese nation @-@ state . "
Marina Illich , a scholar of Indo @-@ Tibetan Buddhism , while discussing the life of the Gelug lama Chankya Rolpe Dorje ( 1717 – 1786 ) , mentions the limitations of both Western and Chinese modern scholarship in their interpretation of Tibetan sources . As for the limitations imposed on scholars by the central government of the People 's Republic of China on issues regarding the history of Tibet , Illich writes :
PRC scholars ... work under the strict supervision of censor bureaus and must adhere to historiographic guidelines issued by the state [ and ] have little choice but to frame their discussion of eighteenth @-@ century Tibetan history in the anachronistic terms of contemporary People 's Republic of China ( P.R.C. ) state discourse ... Bound by Party directives , these scholars have little choice but to portray Tibet as a trans @-@ historically inalienable part of China in a way that profoundly obscures questions of Tibetan agency .
China Daily , a CCP @-@ controlled news organization since 1981 , states in a 2008 article that although there were dynastic changes after Tibet was incorporated into the territory of Yuan dynasty 's China in the 13th century , " Tibet has remained under the jurisdiction of the central government of China . " It also states that the Ming dynasty " inherited the right to rule Tibet " from the Yuan dynasty , and repeats the claims in the Mingshi about the Ming establishing two itinerant high commands over Tibet . China Daily states that the Ming handled Tibet 's civil administration , appointed all leading officials of these administrative organs , and punished Tibetans who broke the law . The party @-@ controlled People 's Daily , the state @-@ controlled Xinhua News Agency , and the state @-@ controlled national television network China Central Television posted the same article that China Daily had , the only difference being their headlines and some additional text .
= = Mongol @-@ Tibetan alliance = =
= = = Altan Khan and the Dalai Lama = = =
During the reign of the Jiajing Emperor ( r . 1521 – 1567 ) , the native Chinese ideology of Daoism was fully sponsored at the Ming court , while Tibetan Vajrayana and even Chinese Buddhism were ignored or suppressed . Even the History of Ming states that the Tibetan lamas discontinued their trips to Ming China and its court at this point . Grand Secretary Yang Tinghe under Jiajing was determined to break the eunuch influence at court which typified the Zhengde era , an example being the costly escort of the eunuch Liu Yun as described above in his failed mission to Tibet . The court eunuchs were in favor of expanding and building new commercial ties with foreign countries such as Portugal , which Zhengde deemed permissible since he had an affinity for foreign and exotic people .
With the death of Zhengde and ascension of Jiajing , the politics at court shifted in favor of the Neo @-@ Confucian establishment which not only rejected the Portuguese embassy of Fernão Pires de Andrade ( d . 1523 ) , but had a predisposed animosity towards Tibetan Buddhism and lamas . Evelyn S. Rawski , a professor in the Department of History of the University of Pittsburgh , writes that the Ming 's unique relationship with Tibetan prelates essentially ended with Jiajing 's reign while Ming influence in the Amdo region was supplanted by the Mongols .
The Chinese Ming dynasty also deliberately helped to propagate Tibetan Buddhism instead of Chinese Buddhism among the Mongols . The Ming assisted Altan Khan , King of the Tümed Mongols , when he requested aid in propagating Lamaism .
Meanwhile , the Tumed Mongols began moving into the Kokonor region ( modern Qinghai ) , raiding the Ming Chinese frontier and even as far as the suburbs of Beijing under Altan Khan ( 1507 – 1582 ) . Klieger writes that Altan Khan 's presence in the west effectively reduced Ming influence and contact with Tibet . After Altan Khan made peace with the Ming dynasty in 1571 , he invited the third hierarch of the Gelug — Sönam Gyatso ( 1543 – 1588 ) — to meet him in Amdo ( modern Qinghai ) in 1578 , where he accidentally bestowed him and his two predecessors with the title of Dalai Lama — " Ocean Teacher " . The full title was " Dalai Lama Vajradhara " , " Vajradhara " meaning " Holder of the Thunderbolt " in Sanskrit . Victoria Huckenpahler notes that Vajradhara is considered by Buddhists to be the primordial Buddha of limitless and all @-@ pervasive beneficial qualities , a being that " represents the ultimate aspect of enlightenment . " Goldstein writes that Sönam Gyatso also enhanced Altan Khan 's standing by granting him the title " king of religion , majestic purity " . Rawski writes that the Dalai Lama officially recognized Altan Khan as the " Protector of the Faith " .
Laird writes that Altan Khan abolished the native Mongol practices of shamanism and blood sacrifice , while the Mongol princes and subjects were coerced by Altan to convert to Gelug Buddhism — or face execution if they persisted in their shamanistic ways . Committed to their religious leader , Mongol princes began requesting the Dalai Lama to bestow titles on them , which demonstrated " the unique fusion of religious and political power " wielded by the Dalai Lama , as Laird writes . Kolmaš states that the spiritual and secular Mongol @-@ Tibetan alliance of the 13th century was renewed by this alliance constructed by Altan Khan and Sönam Gyatso . Van Praag writes that this restored the original Mongol patronage of a Tibetan lama and " to this day , Mongolians are among the most devout followers of the Gelugpa and the Dalai Lama . " Angela F. Howard writes that this unique relationship not only provided the Dalai Lama and Panchen Lama with religious and political authority in Tibet , but that Altan Khan gained " enormous power among the entire Mongol population . "
Rawski writes that Altan Khan 's conversion to the Gelug " can be interpreted as an attempt to expand his authority in his conflict with his nominal superior , Tümen Khan . " To further cement the Mongol @-@ Tibetan alliance , the great @-@ grandson of Altan Khan — the 4th Dalai Lama ( 1589 – 1616 ) — was made the fourth Dalai Lama . In 1642 , the 5th Dalai Lama ( 1617 – 1682 ) became the first to wield effective political control over Tibet .
= = = Contact with the Ming dynasty = = =
Sonam Gyatso , after being granted the grandiose title by Altan Khan , departed for Tibet . Before he left , he sent a letter and gifts to the Ming Chinese official Zhang Juzheng ( 1525 – 1582 ) , which arrived on March 12 , 1579 . Sometime in August or September of that year , Sonam Gyatso 's representative stationed with Altan Khan received a return letter and gift from the Wanli Emperor ( r . 1572 – 1620 ) , who also conferred upon Sonam Gyatso a title ; this was the first official contact between a Dalai Lama and a government of China . However , Laird states that when Wanli invited him to Beijing , the Dalai Lama declined the offer due to a prior commitment , even though he was only 400 km ( 250 mi ) from Beijing . Laird adds that " the power of the Ming emperor did not reach very far at the time . " Although not recorded in any official Chinese records , Sonam Gyatso 's biography states that Wanli again conferred titles on Sonam Gyatso
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000 @-@ person venue had sold out , but because of the inclement weather , only about 4 @,@ 400 fans attended .
= = = Filming = = =
Taylor had a crew of six camera operators , including three Denver cinematographers and three others brought in by Taylor . Due to the thick fog and heavy rain on the night of the concert , very little aerial footage was suitable for the final edit . Although two " master angle " cameras on tripods provided wide and overview shots , most of the camera operators filmed with hand @-@ held cameras . The video cameras used had tube sensors , which created trails in the footage when they were pointed at direct light sources . As a result , much of the concert footage contains red streaks , prompting a notice on the future home video release informing viewers that the coloured lines in the footage " are a result of special lighting effects , and are not caused by a tape defect or your equipment " . The weather was cold enough that steam was coming out of the band members ' mouths , and The Edge had difficulty playing guitar because his hands felt " frozen stiff " . Drummer Larry Mullen , Jr. believes the weather contributed a dramatic atmosphere to the concert . Reduced attendance at the event was largely obscured in the concert footage by the thick mist that filled the air that evening , as well as strategic shots of the crowd . Taylor had a B @-@ stage built onto the set to reduce the gap between the audience and Bono , allowing him to perform close to the audience , surrounded by fans on three sides . Sound mixing was managed by Steve Lillywhite , who produced U2 's first three studio albums . Randy Ezratty 's portable 24 @-@ track recording system , Effanel Music , was used because a conventional mobile recording studio could not be moved close enough to the stage .
Before U2 took the stage , Fey introduced the concert , making a reference to Bob Dylan 's live album Hard Rain . The concert itself featured 20 songs , with a set list identical to that of several previous shows on the tour . " Out of Control " opened the 16 @-@ song main set , which concluded with " Gloria " . A four @-@ song encore followed , with " 40 " being the final song performed . The band played songs from the tour 's supporting album War ( 1983 ) , as well as material from their first two albums , Boy ( 1980 ) and October ( 1981 ) . " Party Girl " — a B @-@ side from the single " A Celebration " ( 1982 ) , and the non @-@ album single " 11 O 'Clock Tick Tock " ( 1980 ) were played during the encore .
During the song " The Electric Co . " , Bono left the stage and climbed up a lighting rig to display a white flag . In a 2004 interview , The Edge said that Bono " scared the shit out of [ him ] " by climbing onto the rig and risking electrocution by the live wires in close proximity . Bono said " good night " to the crowd on nearly a half a dozen occasions so that the post @-@ production crew would have several choices of songs with which to end the film . Backstage , the band members were disappointed that the crowd did not initially chant " how long to sing this song ? " after the band had left the stage following the final song , " 40 " , which had become a tradition . However , tour manager Dennis Sheehan hid underneath the crowd barrier and began singing the refrain into a microphone without being asked . Eventually , the crowd joined in ; the film was edited to disguise the fact that the singing was organised .
= = Release = =
= = = Broadcasts and home video = = =
The concert was first broadcast on 8 , 9 and 10 July 1983 on NBC 's radio network The Source under the title War Is Declared . The broadcast was sponsored by Budweiser and the United States Army , and was distributed to radio stations on two LP records , which included the full 20 @-@ song concert . Twelve of the concert 's songs were later broadcast on American television network Showtime , and nine songs were broadcast on MTV . The film 's performance of " Sunday Bloody Sunday " became the song 's music video ; Malcolm Gerrie , Rick Wurpel and Paul McGuinness were credited as producers . In June 1986 , the video was one of 10 concert films aired on television stations throughout the US as part of a series of music specials presented by the Coors Brewing Company and Radio Vision International . The concert has also been broadcast on VH1 and affiliates of the Public Broadcasting Service .
The Red Rocks film was screened at the CMJ Music Marathon in October 1983 to promote U2 's companion live mini @-@ LP Under a Blood Red Sky , which was released the following month . The mini @-@ LP , whose name was later used as a subtitle for the concert film , features eight live songs from the War Tour , two of which ( " Gloria " and " Party Girl " ) were taken from the Red Rocks concert ; the other tracks were taken from performances in Boston and West Germany , as U2 thought they were " more developed performances " .
U2 Live at Red Rocks : Under a Blood Red Sky was U2 's first home video release , initially released on VHS and Betamax by MCA Home Video in 1984 . The video recording was re @-@ released in August 1986 by RCA / Columbia Pictures Home Video , followed by a LaserDisc release from RCA / Columbia and Image Entertainment in 1988 , and two additional VHS re @-@ releases by Virgin Video in 1987 and PolyGram in 1991 .
The image of Bono atop the lighting rig during his performance of " The Electric Co . " was used as the cover of the video with the text Under a Blood Red Sky . The film begins with a brief montage that includes an interview with U2 , preparations being made by the concert crew and reactions by anxious fans . The Clannad song " Theme from Harry 's Game " , which was played after many of U2 's shows at the time , is heard in the film 's opening montage and during the end credits . The film 's subtitle " Under a Blood Red Sky " , also the title of the companion live album , originates from a lyric in " New Year 's Day " . This lyric is not sung in the film ; instead Bono sang " under a thundercloud and rain " , in reference to the weather conditions .
During the band 's performance of " Cry / The Electric Co . " , Bono sang excerpts of Stephen Sondheim 's " Send in the Clowns " . The band failed to get permission or to pay the appropriate licensing and royalty fees to use the song . Initial pressings of U2 Live at Red Rocks , and the accompanying live album — which contains a different performance of the song from August 1983 — featured " Send in the Clowns " . U2 were forced to pay US $ 50 @,@ 000 in an out @-@ of @-@ court settlement . The initial release of the video was 55 minutes long and featured 13 songs from the film , including " Cry / The Electric Co . " , which was omitted from the track listing for legal reasons related to the excerpt of " Send in the Clowns " .
Recordings of " Twilight " and " An Cat Dubh " from the concert were featured on U2 's single " Sweetest Thing " in 1998 . In 2004 , the concert recording of " Sunday Bloody Sunday " appeared on the compilation album Carved in Stone Vol . 2 : Live at Red Rocks , a charity record to raise funds for the " Preserve the Rocks Fund " , which aimed to renovate and preserve Red Rocks Park .
Following the release of the official concert recordings , video and audio bootleg recordings circulated that featured the entirety of the band 's performance .
= = = DVD re @-@ release = = =
In 2005 , after Rick Wurpel re @-@ opened his production business , he realised that neither he nor TTS had the master tapes in their inventory and feared that the tapes had been lost . He discovered the Denver City Council possessed the tapes among an inventory of 164 recordings . A former employee of Wurpel had been storing the tapes and intended to dispose of them unless the city was interested . The city had paid her $ 3 @,@ 000 for the storage costs and took possession of the tapes . Legal proceedings subsequently ensued to return the tapes to Wurpel and U2 .
Barry Fey later signed paperwork for a future DVD release at U2 's request . U2 Live at Red Rocks was re @-@ released on 30 September 2008 on DVD by Interscope Records , Island Records , and Universal Music Enterprises . The " 2008 Edition " of the film was remastered , and the audio remastering was directed by The Edge . The DVD features several tracks that were previously unreleased , extending the film from 55 minutes to 82 minutes . " Cry / The Electric Co . " was included on the video 's track listing ; the performance was edited to remove the excerpt of " Send in the Clowns " that was present on the previous videocassette and LaserDisc releases . The editing @-@ out of the song created a continuity error in the video ; the previous versions showed Bono climbing the lighting rig and singing . The new edition removes that sequence , resulting in Bono leaving the stage and appearing on top of the lighting rig in the following shot .
The remastered DVD also features a version of " Two Hearts Beat as One " that was edited to remove an excerpt of " Let 's Twist Again " . The only song performed at the concert that does not appear in the remastered film is " I Fall Down " — played between " Cry / The Electric Co . " and " October " — which was omitted because of a camera malfunction . The DVD features a PCM stereo soundtrack , 5 @.@ 1 surround sound mixes in Dolby Digital and DTS sound , and an audio commentary by director Gavin Taylor . The re @-@ release of the film coincided with the release of a remastered version of its companion live album , Under a Blood Red Sky . These re @-@ releases were available separately or bundled together in a CD / DVD deluxe package . The liner notes for the film re @-@ release were written by music critic Anthony DeCurtis . Remastered versions of U2 's first three albums — Boy , October , and War — had been released earlier in 2005 , and a box set with the three albums and an open slot for the deluxe version of Under a Blood Red Sky was sold exclusively by Amazon.com.
= = Reception = =
Both the concert and the U2 Live at Red Rocks video received positive reviews from critics . In a review of the show , G. Brown of The Denver Post wrote , " A lot of things had to go so wrong for U2 's show at Red Rocks Amphitheater ... to come off so right . " Jon Pareles of The New York Times praised the film , saying , " The setting lent even more urgency to U2 's hypercharged songs about apocalypse , pacifism and existential terror " . Pareles said , " Although there are a few too many exaggerated camera angles , the tape captures U2 's earnest intensity . " A review in the Philadelphia Daily News described the camerawork as " artful " and praised the visuals of the concert and the natural surroundings . Perry Seibert of Allmovie gave the film four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars , praising the band 's performance and the venue 's role in the concert , saying , " the historic Red Rocks venue provides a stirring backdrop for the band 's sweeping sound " .
In November 1984 , the video was nominated for the Best Long Form award at Billboard magazines 's Video Music Conference and the performance of " Sunday Bloody Sunday " was nominated for the Best Concert Performance award . When Billboard debuted the Top Music Videocassettes chart ( later renamed Top Music Videos ) in the 30 March 1985 issue , U2 Live at Red Rocks was ranked at number seven , and was included in the year @-@ end Top 10 Music Videocassettes charts for 1985 and 1987 . Following the 2008 DVD release , the video re @-@ entered the chart for the first time since 1989 , listed at number 3 ; overall , U2 Live at Red Rocks spent 148 weeks on the Top Music Videocasettes / Top Music Videos chart . In April 1985 , the video appeared on Billboard 's Top Videocassette Sales chart at number 29 , and remained on the chart for 14 weeks . Billboard attributed the late increase in the video 's sales to U2 's sold @-@ out Unforgettable Fire Tour , and called it " a textbook example of a group 's current status having a direct influence on video sales " .
Following the release of the DVD in 2008 , Record Collector stated that " 25 years on , [ U2 Live at Red Rocks has ] lost none of its power " . Rocky Mountain News recalled that the video is " still a thrilling performance , raw but polished , passionate and sincere " . Andrew Gilstrap of PopMatters gave the remastered version of the film a rating of 8 out of 10 , stating , " It 's rare that a band can totally transform a scene — especially one with a stage show that boasts charisma as its only special effect — but it 's not hyperbole to say that U2 put on a dominating , flawless @-@ despite @-@ mistakes performance . This is the one that put U2 on the map . " In its review of the remastered version of Under a Blood Red Sky , online magazine Pitchfork Media said , " when the group performed at Red Rocks on a rainy June night , with lit torches above a panoramic skyline , the venue provided an ideal backdrop for U2 's literally flag @-@ waving music , with everything — earth , wind , fire — in place to maximise and heighten the drama of the moment and the songs . " James Wigney of The Sunday Telegraph and the Sunday Herald Sun gave the DVD a score of 5 out of 5 , praising the film 's concert , but stated that the " footage is still on the fuzzy side " . The Advertiser said the DVD 's audio commentary was very informative , but criticised the picture quality , stating , " even the remastered version looks like it was shot on a mobile phone " .
= = Legacy = =
U2 Live at Red Rocks is often cited as a watershed moment in U2 's history which established their reputation as an exceptional live act . In the liner notes of the remastered version of the film , music journalist Anthony DeCurtis wrote , " this concert set goals for U2 that might have daunted any other young band . But in the shadow of their wild ambitions at Red Rocks , these four boys met , once again , the men of their future , and became who they would become . " Rolling Stone called the band 's performance of " Sunday Bloody Sunday " from the film one of the " 50 Moments that Changed the History of Rock and Roll " . The magazine said , " [ t ] he sight of Bono singing the anti @-@ violence anthem ' Sunday Bloody Sunday ' while waving a white flag through crimson mist ( created by a combination of wet weather , hot lights and the illumination of those crags ) became the defining image of U2 's warrior @-@ rock spirit and — shown in heavy rotation on MTV — broke the band nationwide . " Director Gavin Taylor said that the video " kick @-@ started their career " and " fired them like a rocket into the sky " . In 2009 , Relix named U2 's performance at Red Rocks the 24th @-@ best concert of all time . The Denver Post said the concert affirmed Red Rocks Amphitheatre 's status as a premier outdoor venue . Rocky Mountain News said that the concert was " [ e ] asily one of the most famous , acclaimed concerts of the 1980s ( if not all time ) " , and that people who have visited the Amphitheatre ever since have been disappointed to learn that the pyres are not part of the venue and were only used for the U2 concert . Music biographer Dave Thompson said the concert " transformed U2 ... into a very successful rock band " , and that without U2 , " Red Rocks would be just another smartly lit amphitheater " .
Prior to the recording sessions for the band 's 1984 album The Unforgettable Fire , U2 wanted to work with Brian Eno on the album . However , Eno assumed that they were an " uninteresting rock band " and he was not interested in working with them . He changed his mind after listening to the Red Rocks concert and produced The Unforgettable Fire and several other U2 records — including The Joshua Tree , Achtung Baby , and All That You Can 't Leave Behind , which are among the band 's most successful — alongside his sound engineer Daniel Lanois .
In June 2007 , a U2 tribute band named Under a Blood Red Sky performed a note @-@ for @-@ note recreation of U2 's performance at Red Rocks . That same week , the City of Denver unsuccessfully tried to persuade U2 to return to Red Rocks . During the PopMart Tour in 1997 , Bono stated that because of low ticket sales for their Denver concert at Mile High Stadium , a return to the more intimate Red Rocks setting held appeal . However , in a 2008 interview , Barry Fey said that he had questioned U2 about performing at Red Rocks again , to which they replied , " Absolutely not " . On both occasions , Fey said that U2 could never top their original performance and that returning to Red Rocks would be " foolish " and " a no @-@ win situation " for the group .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
U2
Bono – vocals , guitar on " A Day Without Me "
Adam Clayton – bass guitar , guitar on " 40 "
The Edge – guitar , keyboards , backing vocals , lap steel guitar on " Surrender " , bass guitar on " 40 " , lead vocals on " Seconds "
Larry Mullen , Jr . – drums , backing vocals
Film crew
Malcolm Gerrie – production associate
Paul McGuinness for U2 at Red Rocks Associates – executive producer
Doug Stewart – producer
Gavin Taylor – director
Rick Wurpel – producer
= HMS Agincourt ( 1913 ) =
HMS Agincourt was a dreadnought battleship built in the United Kingdom in the early 1910s . Originally part of Brazil 's role in a South American naval arms race , she held the distinction of mounting more heavy guns ( fourteen ) and more turrets ( seven ) than any other dreadnought battleship , in keeping with the Brazilians ' requirement for an especially impressive design .
Brazil ordered the ship in 1911 as Rio de Janeiro from the British company Armstrong Whitworth . However , the collapse of Brazil 's rubber boom and a warming in relations with Argentina , the country 's chief rival , led to the ship 's sale while under construction to the Ottoman Empire . The Ottomans renamed her Sultan Osman I , after the empire 's founder , and the ship was nearly complete when World War I broke out . British fears of a coming Ottoman – German alliance led to her seizure for use by the Royal Navy , together with another Ottoman dreadnought being constructed in Britain . This act was a significant contributor to the decision of the Ottoman government to join the Central Powers , as the payments for both ships were complete .
Renamed HMS Agincourt by the Royal Navy , she joined the Grand Fleet in the North Sea . During the war , the ship spent the bulk of her time on patrols and exercises , although she did participate in the Battle of Jutland in 1916 . Agincourt was put into reserve in 1919 and sold for scrap in 1922 to meet the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty .
= = Background = =
In the unstable period during and following the 1889 revolution in Brazil , which deposed Emperor Dom Pedro II , and the 1893 – 94 navy revolt , the Brazilian Navy found itself unable to care for its own ships , let alone acquire new vessels . Meanwhile , Chile had agreed to a naval @-@ limiting pact in 1902 with Brazil 's principal rival , Argentina , as part of solving a larger boundary dispute , but they both retained the vessels built in the interim , many of which were significantly more modern and powerful than Brazil 's ships . The Brazilian Navy was left behind its Argentine and Chilean counterparts in quantity as well — by the turn of the 20th century , Chile 's total naval tonnage was 36 @,@ 896 long tons ( 37 @,@ 488 t ) , Argentina 's 34 @,@ 425 long tons ( 34 @,@ 977 t ) , and Brazil 's 27 @,@ 661 long tons ( 28 @,@ 105 t ) — even though Brazil had nearly three times the population of Argentina and almost five times that of Chile .
Rising international demand for coffee and rubber in the early 20th century brought Brazil an influx of revenue . Simultaneously , the Baron of Rio Branco spearheaded a drive by prominent Brazilians to force the leading world nations to recognize Brazil as an international power . The National Congress of Brazil inaugurated a large naval acquisition program in late 1904 . They ordered three small battleships in 1906 , but the launch of HMS Dreadnought caused the Brazilian Navy to reconsider their purchase . In March 1907 , they signed a contract for three Minas Geraes @-@ class battleships . Two ships would be constructed immediately by the British companies Armstrong Whitworth and Vickers , with the third to follow .
Alarmed at the Brazilian move , Argentina and Chile quickly nullified their 1902 pact and sought dreadnoughts of their own . Argentina 's orders , after a drawn @-@ out bidding process , went to an American company , Fore River Shipbuilding Company , while Chile 's orders , delayed by the 1906 Valparaíso earthquake , went to Armstrong . Since Brazil 's relations with Argentina were warming and the country 's economic boom was losing steam , the government negotiated with Armstrong to remove the third dreadnought from the contract , but without success . They borrowed the necessary money , and Armstrong laid down Rio de Janeiro 's keel in March 1910 .
The Brazilian Navy had divided into two distinct factions , based on the size of the main battery . The outgoing naval minister favoured an increase over the 12 @-@ inch guns mounted on board the Minas Geraes class , while his incoming counterpart , Admiral Marques Leão , favoured keeping the smaller but faster @-@ firing gun . While the exact influences upon the Brazilian government are unclear , Leão was advocating strongly for his position in meetings with the President . Other events probably influenced them as well , such as the November 1910 Revolt of the Lash , payments on loans taken out for the dreadnoughts , and a worsening economy that had led to high government debt compounded by budget deficits . By May 1911 , the President had made up his mind :
When I assumed office , I found that my predecessor had signed a contract for the building of the battleship Rio de Janeiro , a vessel of 32 @,@ 000 tons , with an armament of 14 in. guns . Considerations of every kind pointed to the inconvenience of acquiring such a vessel and to the revision of the contract in the sense of reducing the tonnage . This was done , and we shall possess a powerful unit which will not be built on exaggerated lines such as have not as yet stood the time of experience .
A contract to build the ship that would become Agincourt was signed on 3 June 1911 , and its keel was laid on 14 September 1911 . The design called for a staggering fourteen 12 @-@ inch guns , something historian David Topliss attributed to political necessity : the ship had to appear more powerful to the Brazilian populace than her predecessors ( with twelve 12 @-@ inch guns ) but , without increasing the gun size , the only option left was increasing the total number of guns .
= = Design = =
= = = General characteristics = = =
Agincourt had an overall length of 671 ft 6 in ( 204 @.@ 7 m ) , a beam of 89 feet ( 27 m ) , and a draught of 29 feet 10 inches ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) at deep load . She displaced 27 @,@ 850 long tons ( 28 @,@ 297 t ) at load and 30 @,@ 860 long tons ( 31 @,@ 355 t ) at deep load . The ship had a metacentric height of 4 @.@ 9 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) at deep load . She had a large turning circle , but manoeuvred well despite her great length . She was considered to be a good gun platform .
When she came to serve in the Royal Navy , Agincourt was considered a particularly comfortable ship and very well @-@ appointed internally . A knowledge of Portuguese was necessary to work many of the fittings — including those in the heads — as the original instruction plates had not all been replaced when she was taken over by the British . In 1917 , her crew numbered 1 @,@ 268 officers and men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Agincourt had four Parsons direct @-@ drive steam turbines , each of which drove one propeller shaft . The high @-@ pressure ahead and astern turbines drove the wing shafts while the low @-@ pressure ahead and astern turbines drove the inner shafts . The three @-@ bladed propellers were 9 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 9 m ) in diameter . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) , but achieved more than 40 @,@ 000 shp ( 30 @,@ 000 kW ) during her sea trials , slightly exceeding her designed speed of 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) .
The steam plant consisted of twenty @-@ two Babcock & Wilcox water @-@ tube boilers with an operating pressure of 235 psi ( 1 @,@ 620 kPa ; 17 kgf / cm2 ) . Agincourt normally carried 1 @,@ 500 long tons ( 1 @,@ 500 t ) of coal , but could carry a maximum of 3 @,@ 200 long tons ( 3 @,@ 300 t ) , as well as 620 long tons ( 630 t ) of fuel oil to be sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . At full capacity , she could steam for 7 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 13 @,@ 000 km ; 8 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Electrical power was provided by four steam @-@ driven reciprocating electrical generators .
= = = Armament = = =
Agincourt mounted fourteen BL 12 @-@ inch Mk XIII 45 @-@ calibre guns in seven twin hydraulically powered turrets , unofficially named after the days of the week , starting from Sunday , forward to aft . This was the largest number of turrets and heavy guns ever mounted on a dreadnought battleship . The guns could be depressed to − 3 ° and elevated to 13 @.@ 5 ° . They fired 850 @-@ pound ( 386 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 725 ft / s ( 831 m / s ) ; at 13 @.@ 5 ° , this provided a maximum range of just over 20 @,@ 000 yards ( 18 @,@ 000 m ) with armour @-@ piercing ( AP ) shells . During the war the turrets were modified to increase their maximum elevation to 16 ° , but this only extended the range to 20 @,@ 435 yards ( 18 @,@ 686 m ) . The rate of fire of these guns was 1 @.@ 5 rounds per minute . When a full broadside was fired , " the resulting sheet of flame was big enough to create the impression that a battle cruiser had blown up ; it was awe inspiring . " No damage was done to the ship when firing full broadsides , despite the common idea that doing so would break the ship in half , but much of the ship 's tableware and glassware did shatter when Agincourt fired her first broadside .
As built , Agincourt mounted eighteen BL 6 @-@ inch Mk XIII 50 @-@ calibre guns . Fourteen were placed in armoured casemates on the upper deck and two each in the fore and aft superstructures , protected by gun shields . Two more were added abreast the bridge in pivot mounts protected by gun shields when the ship was purchased by the British . The guns could be depressed to − 7 ° and elevated to 13 ° , later increased to 15 ° . They had a range of 13 @,@ 475 yards ( 12 @,@ 322 m ) at 15 ° when firing a 100 @-@ pound ( 45 kg ) shell with a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 770 ft / s ( 840 m / s ) . Their rate of fire was about five to seven rounds per minute , but this dropped to about three rounds per minute after the ready ammunition was used up because the ammunition hoists were too slow or few to keep the guns fully supplied . About 150 rounds were carried per gun .
Close @-@ range defence against torpedo boats was provided by ten 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) 45 @-@ calibre quick @-@ firing guns . These were mounted in the superstructure in pivot mounts and protected by gun shields . Agincourt also carried three 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) submerged torpedo tubes ; one was on each beam and the last was in the stern . The water that entered the torpedo tubes when they were fired was discharged into the torpedo flat to facilitate reloading the tube and then pumped overboard . This meant that the torpedo crewmen would be operating in 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) of water if rapid fire was required . Ten torpedoes were carried for them .
= = = Fire control = = =
Each turret was fitted with an armoured rangefinder in the turret roof . In addition , another one was mounted on top of the foretop . By the time of the Battle of Jutland in 1916 , Agincourt was possibly the only dreadnought of the Grand Fleet not fitted with a Dreyer fire @-@ control table . A fire @-@ control director was later fitted below the foretop and one turret was modified to control the entire main armament later in the war . A director for the 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns was added on each side in 1916 – 17 . A high @-@ angle rangefinder was added in 1918 to the spotting top .
= = = Armour = = =
So much weight had been devoted to Agincourt 's armament that little remained for her armour . Her waterline belt was just 9 inches ( 229 mm ) thick , compared with twelve inches or more found in other British dreadnoughts . It ran some 365 feet ( 111 @.@ 3 m ) , from the forward edge of " Monday " barbette to the middle of " Friday " barbette . Forward of this the belt thinned to six inches for about 50 feet ( 15 @.@ 2 m ) before further reducing to 4 inches ( 102 mm ) all the way to the bow . Aft of the midships section the belt reduced to six inches for about 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) and then thinned to four inches ( 102 mm ) ; it did not reach the stern , but terminated at the rear bulkhead . The upper belt extended from the main to the upper deck and was six inches thick . It ran from " Monday " barbette to " Thursday " barbette . The armour bulkheads at each end of the ship angled inwards from the ends of the midships armoured belts to the end barbettes and were three inches thick . Four of Agincourt 's decks were armoured with thicknesses varying from 1 to 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 25 to 64 mm ) .
The armour of the barbettes constituted a major weakness in Agincourt 's protection . They were 9 inches thick above the upper deck level , but decreased to 3 inches between the upper and main decks and had no armour at all below the main deck except for " Sunday " barbette ( which had 3 inches ) , and " Thursday " and " Saturday " barbettes ( which had 2 inches ) . The turret armour was 12 inches thick on the face , 8 inches ( 203 mm ) on the side and 10 inches ( 254 mm ) in the rear . The turret roofs were 3 inches thick at the front and 2 inches at the rear . The casemates for the secondary armament were protected by 6 inches of armour and were defended from raking fire by 6 @-@ inch @-@ thick bulkheads .
The main conning tower was protected by 12 inches of armour on its sides and it had a 4 @-@ inch roof . The aft conning tower ( sometimes called the torpedo control tower ) had 9 @-@ inch sides and a 3 @-@ inch roof . The communications tube down from each position was 6 inches thick above the upper deck and 2 inches thick below it . Each magazine was protected by two armour plates on each side as torpedo bulkheads , the first one an inch thick and the second one and a half inches thick .
Agincourt had another weakness in that she was not subdivided to Royal Navy standards as the Brazilians preferred to eliminate all possible watertight bulkheads that might limit the size of the compartments and interfere with the crew 's comfort . One example was the officer 's wardroom , which was 85 by 60 feet ( 25 @.@ 9 by 18 @.@ 3 m ) in size , much larger than anything in the Grand Fleet .
= = = Wartime modifications = = =
Approximately 70 long tons ( 71 t ) of high @-@ tensile steel was added to the main deck after the Battle of Jutland to protect the magazines . Two 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) anti @-@ aircraft guns were added to the quarterdeck in 1917 – 18 . A 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) rangefinder was added to the former searchlight platform on the foremast at the same time . A high @-@ angle rangefinder was added to the spotting top in 1918 .
= = Construction and seizure = =
Rio de Janeiro , as Agincourt was named by her first owners , was laid down on 14 September 1911 by Armstrongs in Newcastle upon Tyne and launched on 22 January 1913 . After the keel @-@ laying the Brazilian government found itself in an unenviable position : a European depression after the end of the Second Balkan War in August 1913 reduced Brazil 's ability to obtain foreign loans , while at the same time Brazil 's coffee and rubber exports collapsed , the latter due to the loss of the Brazilian rubber monopoly to British plantations in the Far East . In addition , reports on new dreadnought construction coming in from overseas indicated that the vessel would be outclassed upon completion . These factors caused Brazil to put the ship up for sale in October 1913 , and she was sold to the Ottoman Navy for £ 2 @,@ 750 @,@ 000 on 28 December 1913 . Renamed Sultân Osmân @-@ ı Evvel , she underwent trials in July 1914 and was completed in August , just as World War I began .
The war broke out during her sea trials before delivery . Even though the Ottoman crew had arrived to collect her , the British Government took over the vessel for incorporation into the Royal Navy . The Turkish captain , waiting with five hundred Turkish sailors aboard a transport in the Tyne , threatened to board his ships and hoist the Turkish flag ; Churchill gave orders to resist such an attempt " by armed force if necessary . " At the same time the British also took over a second Ottoman battleship , a King George V class @-@ derived vessel being built by Vickers — Reşadiye — which was renamed HMS Erin . Such an action was allowed for in the contracts , as First Lord of the Admiralty Winston Churchill did not want to risk the ships being used against the British , but it had consequences .
The takeover caused considerable ill will in the Ottoman Empire , where public subscriptions had partially funded the ships . When the Ottoman government had been in a financial deadlock over the budget of the battleships , donations for the Ottoman Navy had come in from taverns , cafés , schools and markets , and large donations were rewarded with a " Navy Donation Medal " . The seizure , and the gift of the German battlecruiser Goeben to the Ottomans , influenced public opinion in the Empire to turn away from Britain , and they entered the war on the side of Germany and the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire against the Triple Entente of Britain , France , and Russia on 29 October 1914 , after Goeben had attacked Russian facilities in the Black Sea .
The Royal Navy made modifications to Agincourt before commissioning her : in particular it removed the flying bridge over the two centre turrets . The ship was also initially fitted with Turkish @-@ style lavatories that had to be replaced . Her name , " Agincourt " , was a favourite of Churchill 's , and had initially been allocated to a sixth vessel of the Queen Elizabeth class ordered under the 1914 – 15 Naval Estimates , but not yet begun at the war 's outbreak . Her nickname , The Gin Palace , came from her luxurious fittings and a corruption of her name ( A Gin Court ) , pink gin being a popular drink among Royal Navy officers at the time .
The Admiralty was unprepared to man a ship of Agincourt 's size on such short notice and her crew was drawn " from the highest and lowest echelons of the service : the Royal yachts , and the detention barracks . " Agincourt 's captain and executive officer came from HMY Victoria and Albert III , most of whose crew was also transferred to Agincourt on 3 August 1914 . Most of the naval reservists had already been called up by this time and sent to other ships , so a number of minor criminals who had had their sentences remitted were received from various naval prisons and detention camps .
= = Service = =
Agincourt was working up until 7 September 1914 , when she joined the 4th Battle Squadron ( BS ) of the Grand Fleet . The fleet anchorage at Scapa Flow was not yet secure against submarine attack and much of the fleet was kept at sea , where Agincourt spent forty of her first eighty days with the Grand Fleet . This was the beginning of " a year and a half of inaction , only broken by occasional North Sea ' sweeps ' intended to draw the enemy from his bases . "
On 1 January 1915 , Agincourt was still assigned to the 4th BS , but had been assigned to the 1st Battle Squadron before the Battle of Jutland on 31 May 1916 . She was the last ship of the Sixth Division of the 1st BS , along with HMS Hercules , HMS Revenge and the flagship , HMS Marlborough , the most heterogeneous group possible as each ship was from a different class . The Sixth Division was the starboardmost column of the Grand Fleet as it headed south to rendezvous with the ships of Admiral Beatty 's Battlecruiser Fleet , then engaged with their opposite numbers from the German High Seas Fleet in the North Sea . Admiral Jellicoe , commander of the Grand Fleet , kept it in cruising formation until 6 : 15 p.m. when he ordered it to deploy from column into a single line based on the port division , each ship turning 90 ° in succession . This turn made the Sixth Division the closest ships in the Grand Fleet to the battleships of the High Seas Fleet and they fired on each ship as they made their turn to port . This concentration of fire later became known as " Windy Corner " to the British as the ships were drenched by German shell splashes although none were hit .
At 6 : 24 Agincourt opened fire on a German battlecruiser with her main guns . Shortly afterwards her six @-@ inch guns followed suit as German destroyers made torpedo attacks on the British battleships to cover the turn to the south of the High Seas Fleet . Agincourt successfully evaded two torpedoes , although another struck Marlborough . Visibility cleared around 7 : 15 and she engaged a Kaiser @-@ class battleship without result before it was lost in the smoke and haze . Around 8 : 00 Marlborough was forced to reduce speed because of the strain on her bulkheads from her torpedo damage and her division mates conformed to her speed . In the reduced visibility the division lost sight of the Grand Fleet during the night , passing the badly damaged battlecruiser SMS Seydlitz without opening fire . Dawn found them with only the detritus from the previous day 's battle in sight and the division arrived back at Scapa Flow on 2 June . Agincourt fired 144 twelve @-@ inch shells and 111 six @-@ inch shells during the battle , although she is not known to have hit anything .
Although the Grand Fleet made several sorties over the next few years it is not known if Agincourt participated in them . On 23 April 1918 , Agincourt and Hercules were stationed at Scapa Flow to provide cover for the Scandinavian convoys between Norway and Britain when the High Seas Fleet sortied in an attempt to destroy the convoy . The reports from German Intelligence were slightly off schedule , as both the inbound and outbound convoys were in port when the Germans reached their normal route so Admiral Scheer ordered the fleet to return to Germany without spotting any British ships .
Agincourt was later transferred to the 2nd Battle Squadron and was present at the surrender of the High Seas Fleet on 21 November 1918 . She was placed in reserve at Rosyth in March 1919 . After unsuccessful attempts to sell her to the Brazilian Government , she was listed for disposal in April 1921 , but was used for experimental purposes later that year . She was sold for scrap on 19 December 1922 to comply with the tonnage limitations of the Washington Naval Treaty , although she was not actually broken up until the end of 1924 .
= Ben May =
Ben Steven May ( born 10 March 1984 ) is an English semi @-@ professional footballer who plays as a striker for National League club Bromley .
May began his career at Southampton 's youth academy in 1998 , before playing at Fulham 's centre of excellence for a year . In 2000 , he re @-@ moved , this time joining Millwall 's youth set @-@ up . Ahead of the 2002 – 03 season , May signed his first professional contract with the club , making his debut in August 2002 . He was loaned out to Brentford , and then Colchester United , during his six @-@ year tenure at Millwall . In September 2007 , May joined Scunthorpe United on a three @-@ month loan deal , which was made permanent in January 2008 . However , his time at Scunthorpe was plagued with injuries , and he was subsequently released in May 2010 . May signed for Stevenage on a free transfer in October 2010 , and was part of the squad that earned promotion to League One during the 2010 – 11 season . After struggling for first @-@ team appearances the following season , May joined League Two side Barnet on loan . He was released by Stevenage in May 2012 , and subsequently signed for Dover Athletic ahead of the 2012 – 13 season . After a successful season at Dover , May then joined Ebbsfleet United in June 2013 .
= = Career = =
= = = Millwall = = =
May started his career at Southampton 's youth academy in 1998 , and went on to play at Fulham 's centre of excellence for one season . In 2000 , at the age of 16 , May moved to Millwall , progressing through the youth system and onto the periphery of the first @-@ team . In November 2001 , May was an unused substitute in Millwall 's 2 – 1 home defeat to Gillingham . He made his debut for Millwall at the start of the 2002 – 03 season , coming on as a 62nd @-@ minute substitute in Millwall 's 0 – 0 draw away at Watford on 13 August 2002 . Four days later , May started his first match for Millwall , playing 68 minutes in Millwall 's 1 – 0 away loss at Gillingham . He scored his first goal in the club 's following match against Ipswich Town , scoring after four minutes to give Millwall the lead in a game that ended 1 – 1 – the club 's website reported that " May was perfectly placed to stab home from close @-@ range after Neil Harris worked well to carve out an opening " . May featured periodically as a substitute in the opening months of the 2002 – 03 season , although he did not play a first @-@ team game for three months after being substituted after 59 minutes in a 1 – 0 loss at Crystal Palace on 7 December 2002 . He made a late substitute appearance in Millwall 's 2 – 0 home loss against Norwich City in March 2003 , before 27 March , when he joined Colchester United on loan until the end of the season . He made his Colchester debut two days after signing for the club , playing the whole match as Colchester secured a 1 – 0 victory over Swindon Town . May made five further appearances for Colchester , hitting the crossbar with a header in his final game against Queens Park Rangers after coming on as a late substitute . He made six appearances for Colchester , before returning to Millwall in May 2003 .
May did not play for Millwall at the start of the 2003 – 04 season , and was consequently loaned out once more , this time to Brentford on 25 August 2003 . He joined the club on an initial three @-@ month loan deal . He made his debut in Brentford 's 2 – 1 home win against Oldham Athletic , playing the whole match . May scored his first goal for Brentford two weeks later , on 6 September 2003 , in a 3 – 1 loss against Plymouth Argyle , scoring the goal that briefly tied the game at 1 – 1 . He received the first red card of his career when he was sent @-@ off for violent conduct in a Football League Trophy match against Barnet on 14 October 2003 . Four days later , he scored Brentford 's fourth goal in the 87th minute in a 4 – 2 victory against Luton Town , turning in Jay Tabb 's cross . In Brentford 's next league fixture , May scored his third goal of the season , " bundling home Brentford 's third " in a 4 – 0 win against Brighton & Hove Albion at Griffin Park . In November 2007 , May 's loan deal was extended until the end of the 2003 – 04 season . Millwall manager Dennis Wise stated " He will do very well under Brentford manager Wally Downes and will learn a lot under him . I didn 't feel he was quite ready for our first @-@ team just yet " . A month later , he scored the opening goal of the game in a 2 – 1 home defeat against Bristol City on 26 December 2003 , scoring with a header from Stephen Hunt 's corner . May scored two goals in the space of a week in January 2004 , scoring the equaliser in games against Oldham and Tranmere Rovers respectively . He scored his seventh goal of the 2003 – 04 campaign in a 2 – 1 loss at Swindon Town — " confidently firing home a left @-@ footed shot from ten yards " , although Brentford went on to lose their fourth consecutive match . It was May 's last goal of the season , in all he scored seven goals in 43 appearances as Brentford finished the season in 17th place . He returned to his parent club in May 2004 .
Ahead of the 2004 – 05 campaign , May re @-@ joined Colchester United on a two @-@ month loan deal . He impressed in a friendly match against Premier League side Charlton Athletic , scoring in a 2 – 2 draw , and this resulted in Phil Parkinson bringing May back to Layer Road for a second time . May started the season making four late substitute appearances as Colchester started the campaign by winning three of their four opening fixtures . He started his first game in a 4 – 1 home victory over Doncaster Rovers on 28 August 2004 . He scored his first goal for Colchester in September 2004 , scoring the club 's third goal in a 3 – 1 away victory at Bournemouth . Ten days later , May scored again in Colchester 's 2 – 1 victory over Premier League side West Bromwich Albion , coming on as a substitute in the 73rd minute and scoring from a " goalmouth scramble deep into extra time " . In October 2004 , May 's loan deal was extended for a further month . Colchester manager Phil Parkinson stated — " We 've extended the deal because he has done well and scored one or two vital goals for us . He is still developing but he has the potential to keep improving and he is an excellent lad to have around " . After Colchester 's 1 – 1 draw at Blackpool on 16 October 2004 , May and Colchester team @-@ mate Craig Fagan were charged by the Football Association after " a brawl broke out late in the game following an off @-@ the @-@ ball incident " — with May being charged with violent conduct . Two days later , it was announced that May would serve a three @-@ match suspension , with Colchester being fined £ 6 @,@ 000 after failing to control their players . As a result of his three @-@ game ban , May made his last appearance for Colchester as a 74th @-@ minute substitute in a 2 – 1 home defeat to Wrexham on 19 October 2004 . He made 15 appearances during his three @-@ month loan spell at Colchester , scoring twice . In December 2004 , May signed for Brentford on a one month 's loan deal , having previously spent the 2003 – 04 season with the club . After playing in the club 's FA Cup draw with Hinckley United , he scored in a 2 – 0 win over Luton Town two days later when he " touched home Kevin O 'Connor 's near post cross " . His loan spell was subsequently extended for a further month in January 2005 . May provided assists in away victories at Luton Town and Port Vale respectively , and his loan was again extended for another month in February 2005 – with Brentford manager Martin Allen " delighted " with May 's development . May returned to Millwall in March 2005 , having scored one goal in 16 appearances during his loan spell at Brentford . He made eight appearances for Millwall towards the latter stages of the 2004 – 05 season , scoring one goal – a penalty in a 4 – 3 home win against Crewe Alexandra on 9 April 2005 – in a game that Millwall had thrown away a three @-@ goal lead before May 's goal proved to be the winner .
In May 2005 , Millwall took up the option to extend May 's contract for a further year , meaning he was contracted to the club throughout the 2005 – 06 season . He made his first appearance of the season in Millwall 's opening match of the campaign away at Leeds United on 7 August 2005 , coming on as a 79th @-@ minute substitute for Jay Simpson in a 2 – 1 defeat . May made his first starting appearance of the season in a 5 – 0 defeat at Reading , before scoring his first goal in late August 2005 , " levelling with a spectacular strike " in a 2 – 1 home loss against Ipswich Town . He scored again two days later , " firing a shot into the bottom corner " to restore parity in a game against Luton Town that Millwall went on to lose 2 – 1 . May 's third goal of the campaign came in a 3 – 2 away win at Mansfield Town in the League Cup in October 2005 . His fourth goal of the season came in a 1 – 1 away draw with Crystal Palace , heading in Jody Morris ' free @-@ kick to give Millwall the lead . May scored three goals in three games in February 2006 , the first of which came in another 1 – 1 stalemate with Crystal Palace , with May scoring an equaliser from eight yards in the 89th minute to salvage a point for Millwall . His other goals came in the following two games against Stoke City and Luton Town respectively . May 's fine form continued when he scored in Millwall 's surprise victory at promotion @-@ chasing Watford – the BBC reported that the goal came " in injury @-@ time , as Watford hunted for an equaliser ... Ben May drilled in a low shot after a swift counter @-@ attack " . He took his 2005 – 06 goal tally to eleven goals when he scored twice on the final day of the season in a 4 – 2 defeat at Crewe Alexandra . May finished as Millwall 's top goalscorer for the season with 11 goals in 44 games , although Millwall were relegated to League One as a result of finishing in 23rd place . In April 2006 , May was offered a new two @-@ year contract with the club , which he signed after speaking to new Millwall manager Nigel Spackman in May 2006 — " I spoke with the new manager briefly and I cannot wait to start working with him now " .
During pre @-@ season , ahead of the 2006 – 07 campaign , May injured his shoulder in training , resulting in him missing the club 's pre @-@ season tour of Iceland . Millwall manager Nigel Spackman revealed that May 's injury would rule him out of the first two months of the season — " He fell over during the close season , and it looks like he is going to be out for a couple of months " . He made his first appearance of the season in October 2006 , coming on as a second @-@ half substitute in Millwall 's 2 – 0 home win against Bournemouth in the Football League Trophy , scoring Millwall 's second goal with his first touch of the game . In his first start of the season , he scored after six minutes in the club 's 2 – 1 FA Cup win against Havant & Waterlooville in a game played at Fratton Park , netting from close range after good work from Chris Hackett . Five days later , he provided the assist for Darren Byfield 's goal in a 2 – 2 home draw with Doncaster Rovers . May scored his third goal in five appearances when he scored in Millwall 's 3 – 1 loss at Nottingham Forest on 24 November 2006 . After Millwall 's 2 – 0 home win against Bradford City , a game in which May assisted Filipe Morais in scoring Millwall 's first goal , Millwall manager Willie Donachie stated — " There 's more to come from this team , especially Darren Byfield and Ben May , who are as good as anyone in this league . They 're committed , honest players who want to work for each other " . Three days later , on 12 December 2006 , May 's pacey cross resulted in Nathan Doyle putting the ball into his own net , giving Millwall a 1 – 0 win against Bradford City after extra @-@ time in the FA Cup . May scored the only goal of the game in a 1 – 0 victory at Yeovil Town on 3 February 2007 , converting Darren Byfield 's cross to give Millwall the three points . However , he was substituted after 53 minutes in the same game with an ankle injury , and in March 2007 , he was ruled out of first @-@ team action for the rest of the 2006 – 07 season . Despite this , he made a second @-@ half substitute appearance on the last day of the season in a 2 – 2 draw at Bradford City , assisting Darren Byfield 's goal just after coming on . May scored four times in 19 appearances in a season disrupted by injuries .
May started the first four of Millwall 's games at the start of the 2007 – 08 season , before scoring his first goal of the campaign in a 3 – 2 away loss at Swansea City in the Football League Trophy on 4 September 2007 . After making a spate of substitute appearances for Millwall at the start of the campaign , May joined Championship side Scunthorpe United on a three @-@ month loan deal . He made his debut in Scunthorpe 's 1 – 0 win at Colchester United on 29 September 2007 . May made a total of five appearances for Scunthorpe , but was recalled by Millwall in November 2007 due to a number of injuries in their squad . On his return to Millwall , May played in four games for the club , scoring one goal and setting up another in a 2 – 1 FA Cup home win against Walsall on 15 January 2008 . It was to be May 's last game for the club . During his seven years at Millwall , May scored 19 goals in 95 appearances .
= = = Scunthorpe United = = =
In January 2008 , he signed a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract with Scunthorpe United for an undisclosed fee . A day after signing for Scunthorpe , May made his debut for the club , coming on as a substitute in the 58th minute in a 2 – 0 defeat against Wolverhampton Wanderers . He scored his first goal for the club in a 2 – 1 defeat to Ipswich Town on 22 March 2008 , scoring a consolation goal in injury @-@ time . May made a total of 21 appearances for Scunthorpe during the second half of the 2007 – 08 season , of which six were starting appearances , scoring one goal . May featured predominantly as a substitute during the first half of Scunthorpe 's 2008 – 09 season , scoring his first goal of the season in a 4 – 0 FA Cup victory against Alfreton Town in November 2008 . Two weeks later , he scored twice in Scunthorpe 's 4 – 4 draw with Northampton Town , before scoring his fourth goal in as many games three days later in a 2 – 1 victory over Tranmere Rovers in the Football League Trophy . He suffered an ankle ligament injury in January 2009 , ruling him out of first @-@ team action for two months . On his return , May made four late substitute appearances , although he was not involved in Scunthorpe 's successful play @-@ off campaign as the club were promoted back to the Championship after a 3 – 2 victory over May 's former employers , Millwall , in May 2009 . May made 29 appearances during the 2008 – 09 season , scoring four goals .
Ahead of the club 's 2009 – 10 campaign , May scored five second @-@ half goals in Scunthorpe 's 12 – 0 pre @-@ season victory against Brigg Town . He also scored in friendlies against Jersey and Lincoln City . Despite his impressive pre @-@ season form , he was an unused substitute in the club 's first three fixtures of the 2009 – 10 season , before suffering an ankle injury that ruled him out for a month . Having returned to training in October 2009 , May suffered another setback after injuring his other ankle – ruling him out of first @-@ team action for six weeks . He made his first appearance of the 2009 – 10 season as a late substitute in a 3 – 1 home defeat against West Bromwich Albion on 28 December 2009 . It was to be May 's only appearance of the season , and he was released by Scunthorpe in May 2010 . May made 51 appearances during his two and a half @-@ year tenure at Scunthorpe , scoring five times .
= = = Stevenage = = =
In October 2010 , May went on trial with League Two club Stevenage , and featured in a " behind closed doors " friendly against Dagenham & Redbridge , scoring in a 4 – 3 win . Shortly after , May signed for Stevenage on a permanent basis , and was assigned the number 12 shirt on his arrival . Due to May 's past history in terms of injuries , he signed a contract that was largely appearance based . Stevenage manager Graham Westley said " it 's fantastic to see a player putting their football before pound notes " . May made his debut for Stevenage three days after signing for the club , coming on as an 80th @-@ minute substitute in a 0 – 0 draw with Morecambe . May scored his first goal for Stevenage on 7 May 2011 , in the club 's 3 – 3 draw with Bury , a result that meant Stevenage reached the play @-@ offs in their first ever Football League season . However , he was injured after he scored the goal , and was substituted immediately after for Chris Beardsley . As a result , May missed Stevenage 's three play @-@ off fixtures as the club was promoted to League One following a 1 – 0 victory over Torquay United . May 's season was disrupted by injuries , making a total of 22 appearances for the club , of which seven were starting appearances .
In March 2012 , May joined League Two side Barnet on loan until the end of the 2011 – 12 season . He made a scoring debut for the club , scoring from close range as Barnet came from a goal down to win 2 – 1 at Port Vale . May was ever @-@ present during his time at Barnet , making eleven appearances , as the club narrowly avoided relegation on the last day of the season . During his two @-@ months with Barnet , he scored four times . He was released by Stevenage in May 2012 .
= = = Dover Athletic = = =
Ahead of the 2012 – 13 season , May went on trial with League Two club Gillingham , training with the club for a number of weeks and playing in several pre @-@ season friendlies . However , no move materialised , and May signed for Conference South side Dover Athletic on a free transfer on 8 August 2012 . May made his competitive debut for Dover in a 2 – 2 away draw against Sutton United on 21 August 2012 , coming on as an 86th @-@ minute substitute . He made his first start four days later as Dover defeated AFC Hornchurch 1 – 0 at Hornchurch Stadium , before scoring his first goal for the club in a 3 – 1 away win at Eastleigh on 1 September . May went on to score in seven consecutive games running from September to November , five of which in the league and a further two in the FA Cup , subsequently taking his goal tally for the season to eight . Goals in convincing victories over Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare and Truro City took May 's goal count into double figures . He ended the year with a run of five goals in three matches , scoring braces in wins against Eastleigh and Hayes & Yeading United , as well as scoring a late consolation strike in a 2 – 1 defeat to Tonbridge Angels on 26 December 2012 . It took May a month to get off the mark at the start of the new year , controlling the ball and scoring on the turn in a 3 – 2 win over Welling United at the Crabble Athletic Ground on 9 February 2013 . He scored four times in March 2013 , subsequently taking his tally for the season to over 20 goals – the first time May had reached this milestone in his career . He scored two further times during the regular season , in away victories against Chelmsford City and Staines Town . Dover finished the season in third place , meaning they would play fourth placed Eastleigh in the two legged play @-@ off semi @-@ finals . May scored a dipping volley as Dover took a 3 – 1 lead in the first leg , controlling the ball on his chest with his back to goal , turning and hitting the ball from 25 @-@ yards past Ross Flitney in the Eastleigh goal . Dover progressed to the final , but lost 3 – 2 to Salisbury City after extra @-@ time , with May playing in all three play @-@ off matches . During his one season at Dover , May finished the season as the club 's top goalscorer , scoring 24 times in 45 matches .
= = = Ebbsfleet United = = =
In June 2013 , May signed for Conference South side Ebbsfleet United . On joining Ebbsfleet , May said — " It 's all exciting stuff ; Steve Brown showed an interest in signing me as soon as he knew he would be manager of Ebbsfleet . I ’ m currently enjoying a nice little break from football but I ’ m itching to lace my boots up and get back on the pitch " . He eventually left the club in January 2015 .
= = = Bromley = = =
Following his departure from Ebbsfleet , May signed for league rivals Bromley , the team for which his brother , Jay , had played for the previous season .
= = Personal life = =
May was born in Gravesend , Kent . May states that his favourite footballers when growing up were Alan Shearer and Ian Wright as he believed they were " great goalscorers and always entertaining " . He enjoys watching the television sitcom Only Fools and Horses . May is good friends with England international footballer Glen Johnson , as well as Celtic striker Gary Hooper . He attended Leigh CTC School in Dartford alongside Johnson .
In January 2007 , it was reported that May and England defender Glen Johnson were caught at a B & Q store in Dartford , Kent , attempting to steal bathroom fittings . They both received £ 80 fines . Johnson described the incident as " comical " because it was a misunderstanding — " Ben was doing up his bathroom so we went to B & Q and found one of those sets where you get everything in one box . But he wanted a seat with a slow @-@ close lid , so we took out the seat and put in another one . What we didn 't know was that the new seat was £ 2 @.@ 35 more expensive . We went through the till , paid for it and then the security guard stopped us and said he had been watching on CCTV . We just burst out laughing . Where 's Jeremy Beadle then ? But he said , ' No , this is serious , the police are on their way . ' The police turned up and they were laughing . I said to the security guard , ' Can we not just pay the £ 2 @.@ 35 ? ' " He said , ' No , this is a serious offence . ' So the police gave us two options : go to court and fight it out , or pay an on @-@ the @-@ spot fine . We couldn 't be bothered going to court so we paid the fine but doing that made us look guilty " .
His older brother , Jay ( engaged to Gina Riley ) and younger cousin , Alfie are also footballers . Alfie currently plays for Erith & Belvedere , while Jay is with Maidstone United .
= = Honours = =
Scunthorpe United
League One play @-@ offs ( 1 ) : 2008 – 09
Stevenage
League Two play @-@ offs ( 1 ) : 2010 – 11
= = Career statistics = =
As of 26th March 2016
= Diet of Galicia and Lodomeria =
The Diet of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria , and of the Grand Duchy of Cracow was the regional assembly of the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria , a crown land of the Austrian Empire , and later Austria @-@ Hungary . In the history of the Polish parliaments , it is considered the successor of the former sejm walny , or general sejm of the Kingdom of Poland and the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth , and also of the sejmik , or local councils , in the territories of the Austrian Partition . It existed from 1861 until the dissolution of Austria @-@ Hungary in 1918 .
= = Name = =
The multi @-@ ethnic nature of the Kingdom resulted in the diet having multiple different names . In German , the lingua franca of Cisleithania ( north @-@ western part of the monarchy ) , it was called Landtag von Galizien und Lodomerien , meaning ' Diet of Galicia and Lodomeria ' . In Polish , it was called either Sejm krajowy , meaning ' Sejm of the Land ' , or sejm lw
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not want to shortchange Mitchell 's emotional journey and chose to not shy away from violence in the episode . Browder played another sword fight in " Camelot " , and was involved in an extended hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat with a Replicator @-@ possessed IOA member James Marrick ( played by Currie Graham ) in The Ark of Truth .
= = Reception = =
Although TV Zone 's Stephen Graves believed that Ben Browder and Claudia Black 's first post @-@ Farscape encounter in " Avalon " was " somewhat underplayed " , he considered Mitchell 's introduction entertaining , with Mitchell 's " excruciating " interviews with potential new recruits as " a particular highlight " . However , Graves was disappointed that Mitchell did not contribute much to the story after the knight fight , and that Mitchell 's " frantic " efforts to get the old SG @-@ 1 team back together hinted too much at the production team 's efforts to turn around the season 8 finale . While some fans were upset that Carter did not resume command of the SG @-@ 1 team after her return , Leonard Fischer of The Seattle Times considered Browder and Michael Shanks to have developed " some fun on @-@ screen rapport " by the middle of season 9 .
By season 10 's " Memento Mori " , TV Zone 's Anthony Brown felt that " Ben Browder and Claudia Black have [ ... ] reached a point where they can play out an amusing take on Misery without you feeling that [ their Farscape characters ] have somehow starbursted onto SG @-@ 1 's Earth " . Maureen Ryan of The Chicago Tribune called Browder and Black 's interaction in season 10 " great fun ; the rapport they developed on the stellar Farscape was still much in evidence , even though they played radically different characters on SG @-@ 1 . "
For his portrayal of Cameron Mitchell , Ben Browder was nominated for a Saturn Award in the category " Best Supporting Actor on Television " in 2006 . Per popular demand , Diamond Select Toys included Mitchell in their third series of Stargate action figures .
= = Awards and decorations = =
The following are the medals and service awards fictionally worn by Colonel Mitchell .
= Cooter ( 30 Rock ) =
" Cooter " is the fifteenth episode of the second season of 30 Rock and thirty @-@ sixth episode of the series . It was written by series ' creator Tina Fey and was directed by one of the season 's producers , Don Scardino . The episode first aired on May 8 , 2008 on the NBC network in the United States . " Cooter " follows Jack Donaghy 's ( Alec Baldwin ) attempt to get fired from his new job in politics ; Liz Lemon 's ( Fey ) pregnancy scare and decision to adopt a baby ; Tracy Jordan 's ( Tracy Morgan ) creation of a pornographic video game ; and Kenneth Parcell 's ( Jack McBrayer ) aspiration to be an NBC page at the Beijing Olympics .
" Cooter " received positive review from critics , and several considered it to be among the series ' best episodes . Several critics noted that Liz had a pregnancy scare the same week that Fey 's film Baby Mama was released , possibly used as cross promotion . The episode was watched by 5 @.@ 61 million American viewers on its original broadcast , and was nominated for two awards , winning one .
= = Plot = =
Jack gets a job in politics as the " Homeland Security Director for Crisis and Weather Management " ; however , it is not what he expected . When he learns that Don Geiss ( Rip Torn ) , the CEO of General Electric , said " Jackie Boy " while in his coma , he schemes with another government employee , Cooter ( Matthew Broderick ) , to get fired after his letter of resignation is rejected . Jack also enlists the help of Celeste " C.C. " Cunningham ( Edie Falco ) , his Congresswoman ( D @-@ VT ) ex @-@ girlfriend , to approve research into a " gay bomb " . Jack hopes that the bomb , an old Pentagon project that is expensive , inefficient and offensive to " both the red states and the gayer blue states " will ultimately result in their dismissal .
Meanwhile , Liz thinks she may be pregnant and is horrified when she discovers it is most likely the baby of her ex @-@ boyfriend , Dennis Duffy ( Dean Winters ) . After several pregnancy tests , she tells a visiting Jack that the positive tests are a result of her eating " Sabor de Soledad " ( " Taste of Loneliness " in Spanish ) cheese puffs , which contain bull semen . Nevertheless , she tells Jack that she is ready to have a child and wants to adopt . Kenneth learns of an opportunity to be an NBC page at the Beijing Olympics , however head page Donny Lawson ( Paul Scheer ) tries to make sure that he does not submit his essay on time . Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) helps him complete his essay , but Donny stalls Kenneth by forcing him to deliver paper . Pete shoots Donny in the leg with an arrow and Kenneth delivers his essay in time . Tracy 's invention , the world 's first pornographic video game , is nearly complete . He gives Frank , who has helped him , the prototype copy of the game .
The episode shows what happens three months later , in August 2008 . Jack and Cooter present their " gay bomb " to the Pentagon , which only works in closed areas , thus useless in combat . However , Cooter accidentally breaks the vial , causing everybody in the room , including Vice @-@ president Dick Cheney , to " feel funny " . Frank emerges from his office after playing Tracy 's game non @-@ stop for three months , not realizing the amount of time that has passed . While in Beijing , Kenneth gets involved with a Chinese woman who wants his kidneys . The last point was said in Mandarin without subtitles , leaving the English @-@ speaking audience unaware of Kenneth 's trouble .
The conversation roughly translates as :
Lady : " Kenneth , I like you , because I am attracted to your two healthy kidneys . "
Kenneth : " What ? "
( Man breaks down the door with gun drawn )
Kenneth : " I had no idea ! "
The conversation in Mandarin : Lady : Kenneth , 我喜歡你 ， 因為我看上了你那兩個健壯的腎 。
Kenneth : 什麼 ？
( Man breaks down the door with gun drawn )
Kenneth : 真沒想到 ！
= = Production = =
The title of the episode is one of Fey 's favorite words , which she used multiple times when she appeared as an anchor on the Saturday Night Live sketch Weekend Update . Fey explains that she likes the word because " it 's one of the least graphic ways to describe the female genitals " . This episode marks the final appearance of Edie Falco , who was hired for a three episode arc . Falco made her debut in the episode " Somebody to Love " as Celeste Cunningham , a Congresswoman and romantic interest of Jack . She appeared in " Secrets and Lies " , where James Carville helps the fledgling relationship . The pair breaks up in Episode 210 , when they realize their careers prevent them from staying together . Falco said that she was " thrilled for the opportunity to work with such great comic actors " , and expressed her enjoyment of watching the series . Fey was " thrilled to have such an amazing actress come join us " , and joked that " a lot of guys on our crew want The Sopranos ending explained to them " , in which Falco was a series star .
= = Reception = =
" Cooter " was watched by 5 @.@ 6 million viewers , and received a 2 @.@ 6 rating and 7 share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The 2 @.@ 6 refers to 2 @.@ 6 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds in the U.S. , and the 7 refers to 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television in the U.S. at the time of the broadcast . By comparison CBS 's CSI was viewed by 17 @.@ 82 million viewers , ABC 's Grey 's Anatomy received 15 @.@ 60 million viewers , Fox 's Don 't Forget the Lyrics ! received 6 @.@ 22 million viewers , and The CW 's Supernatural received 2 @.@ 53 million viewers . The finale was watched by 206 @,@ 000 more viewers than the previous episode .
Terry Morrow of the Knoxville News Sentinel said that although 30 Rock is struggling to find viewers , this " tiny show ... shines with absolute brilliance " , and declared " Cooter " one of its best episodes . He speculated that the lack of viewers may be because the show has failed to create an emotional bond with its audience , and is " happy to be a very witty sitcom " . He felt the entire cast was " spot on " , but singled out Jane Krakowski for her " scene @-@ stealing " moments when she revealed the art of backhanded compliments . Verne Gay of Newsday praised Jenna and Kenneth 's storylines , and liked the cameo by Broderick , stating his " comic chops [ were ] on full display . " Robert Canning of IGN praised Kenneth and Tracy 's storylines , and described Tracy 's voice recording session for his porn video game as " thank @-@ goodness @-@ this @-@ is @-@ airing @-@ later @-@ than @-@ 8 : 30 " . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger felt the " nearly @-@ perfect " episode was marred by Kenneth 's page rivalry which " didn 't work . " Time called " Cooter " the eighth best episode of 2008 .
Mark A. Perigard of the Boston Herald felt " Cooter " was one of the best episodes of 30 Rock 's shortened season , with something for everyone in the ensemble cast to do . He noted that Fey 's character Liz has a pregnancy scare the same week that Fey 's film Baby Mama was in theaters , asking " how much mama drama does Tina Fey think viewers want " ? Bob Sassone of TV Squad originally thought the episode might have been secretly cross promoting Baby Mama , but ultimately decided against his judgment . Jeff Labrecque of Entertainment Weekly was disappointed that Liz was not actually pregnant , and hoped that her former boyfriend Dennis would continue to reappear in the next season . Oscar Dahl of BuddyTV speculated that the episode may have been hinting at Alec Baldwin 's real life political plans , who was considering running for office .
The episode was nominated for Primetime Emmy Awards , winning one . Tina Fey won for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series and Ken Eluto was nominated for Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series .
= Revelations : Persona =
Revelations : Persona , released in Japan as Megami Ibunroku Persona ( Japanese : 女神異聞録ペルソナ , lit . " Goddess ' Odyssey : Persona " ) , is a role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Atlus . It is the first entry in the Persona series , itself a subseries of the Megami Tensei franchise , and the first role @-@ playing entry in the series to be released in the west . Originally released for the PlayStation in 1996 in Japan and North America , the title was ported to Microsoft Windows in 1999 . A port to the PlayStation Portable retitled Shin Megami Tensei : Persona was released in 2009 in North America and Japan , and 2010 in Europe . This port featured new cutscenes and a redone localization .
The story focuses on a group of high school students as they are confronted by a series of supernatural incidents . After playing a fortune @-@ telling game , the group each gain the ability to summon Personas , the multiple selves within them . Using this power under the guidance of Philemon , a benevolent being representing humanity 's subconscious , the group face off against multiple forces that threaten the world . Gameplay revolves around the characters navigating environments around their town and fighting enemies using their Personas . During the course of the game , the player can create new Personae for battle using spell cards gained in battle or by talking with enemies .
Persona began development after the release of Shin Megami Tensei If ... , with the idea of creating a subseries around the positively received high school setting of If .... Multiple staff members from previous Megami Tensei titles were involved in development , including character designer Kazuma Kaneko , and director Kouji Okada . Multiple aspects of the story , including the Persona and the character Philemon , were taken from Jungian psychology , while Kaneko 's character designs were based on both staff members , and celebrities and fictional characters of the time . Reception to the game has generally been positive , with most praising its approach to the genre , while its navigation and localization were criticized . Its PSP port shared most points of praise with the original , along with the improved localization , but also drew negative comments for its by @-@ then dated mechanics and graphics .
= = Gameplay = =
Revelations : Persona is a role @-@ playing video game in which the player takes control of a group of high school students . A mixture of navigation styles are used : navigation round the students ' hometown is done using an overhead view , navigation of standard environments such as outside areas and story locations use an angled third @-@ person view , and dungeons and most buildings are navigating in first @-@ person . An icon in the top right @-@ hand corner of the screen displays a lunar phase : this display shows the passage of in @-@ game time , and its status determines the activity patterns and moods of enemy demons . Battles are both triggered by story events and through random encounters around the world map and dungeon environments . If the player attacks an enemy from behind , the party is given a set of attacks costing no magic points or health points .
Battles take place on a grid @-@ based battle arena , with characters and enemies moving according to their position on the grid . Four commands are available to the party : Attack ( fight enemies ) , Contact ( talk with an enemy ) , Analyze ( check an enemy for its strength and weaknesses ) , and Form ( rearrange the party on the grid ) . The character 's main means of attack is their Persona , beings summoned into battle to cast a spell that can heal the party , and inflict physical or elemental damage on an enemy . Each Persona has access to up to eight skills , and each character can change their Persona during their turn . Personas earn experience points independent of the characters they are assigned to , and gain new abilities through extended use . Experience is awarded based on how often the player uses certain characters or Personas . Alongside their Personas , each character is able to attack with an equipped melee weapon or firearm , use an item , or attempt to talk with the demons that act as the game 's standard enemies .
Talking to a demon has different effects based on its personality , responding in a specific way to certain actions . There are four emotional responses that the player can elicit from a demon : anger , fear , joy , and interest . Triggering one of these emotions three times will cause the demon to perform an action : an angry demon will attack the party , a frightened demon will flee the battle , a joyful demon will give the player an item , and an interested demon will either leave the battle , give the player an item , or give the player a special spell card ( tarot cards aligned with a particular Persona family or Arcanum ) . Functions related to the customization of Personas are performed in a special place called the Velvet Room : there , the character Igor can summon new Personas from among the various enemies defeated for a fee . He can also use two spell cards along with a special item to create a new Persona , which can inherit skills from the Personas used in the fusion . A Persona can only be fused using cards from certain Persona families . Personas can also be deleted if the player so chooses .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
The game takes place in Japan in 1996 , in the town of Mikage @-@ cho . All the main characters attend St. Hermelin High , the town 's high school , being in Class 4 taught by Saeko Takami . The other main feature of the town is the local branch of SEBEC ( Saeki Electronics & Biological & Energy Corporation ) . All the main characters have the power to summon Personas , described in the manual as " the power of their hidden selves " . The power to call Personas is granted by Philemon , a being born from the Collective Unconscious who acts as the party 's spiritual guide and helper . He appears both in a human form and as a butterfly .
The player controls a silent protagonist , a second @-@ year student who acts as their in @-@ game representation . The rest of the cast are Maki Sonomura , whose near @-@ constant ill health has made her inwardly bitter ; Kei Nanjō , a self @-@ confident heir to an important family business ; Yukino Mayuzumi , a former gang member reformed through the efforts of Saeko ; Hidehiko Uesugi , a man who puts on a facade of strength to cover his weaknesses ; Yuka Ayase , a girl who consciously acts like a stereotypical " high school girl " ; Masao Inaba , a spoiled and rebellious youth ; and Eriko Kirishima , a woman with half @-@ American parentage with an interest in the occult . The main antagonist is Takahisa Kandori , who runs the local SEBEC facility . During the SEBEC route , the player has the option of recruiting Reiji Kido , a student with a vendetta against Kandori .
= = = Plot = = =
The game starts with the protagonist , along with schoolmates Hidehiko , Yuka and Masao , playing a fortune @-@ telling parlor game called " Persona " while Kei and Yukino watch . After playing the game , the group see a ghostly figure , and the protagonist , Masao , Kei and Yukino are rendered unconscious . The protagonist is then drawn into the realm of Philemon , who grants him the power of Persona and warns him that his new power will soon be needed . After the four recover and at the suggestion of their teacher Saeko , they go to have a check @-@ up and visit classmate Maki at the hospital . While visiting , Maki is taken ill , and while they are waiting for news , the ICU where Maki is being treated vanishes and the town is attacked by demons , the summoned manifestations of people 's inner darkness . Using their Personae , the four defend themselves , and after meeting up with Eriko , they head to the town 's Ayama Shrine to find Maki 's mother Setsuko . Upon arrival , they find Setsuko wounded after an attack by Kandori . Setsuko reveals him to be the culprit behind the changes to the town , caused by a reality @-@ altering machine called the Deva System . Nanjo and Masao head out to confront SEBEC , while the protagonist , Eriko and Yukino bring Setsuko back to the school . After this point , the game splits into two story routes : the main SEBEC route , and the alternate Snow Queen route .
In the SEBEC route , should the protagonist decide to confront SEBEC , he is first joined by an apparently @-@ recovered Maki , then asked by Nanjo to help save Masao , who is captured by demons . The protagonist , Maki and Nanjo rescue Masao , but on the way Maki displays an odd lack of certain memories including being hospitalized . After rescuing Masao and infiltrating SEBEC , the group confront Kandori . After cornering him inside the Deva System , a girl in black called Aki appears and knocks the party unconscious . When they awake , they find themselves in a duplicate , idealized version of their world . The group eventually find and corner Kandori , whose ultimate goal was to become a deity and find meaning in life . After an initial fight , Kandori is possessed by his Persona Nyarlathotep , then finally defeated . Before dying , Kandori reveals that the Maki who has been traveling with the party is the " Ideal Maki " , a version of herself from the true Maki 's heart . Aki and a girl in white called Mai are also pieces of Maki , and the idealized Mikage @-@ cho was created by Maki , and brought into reality when she unexpectedly linked with the Deva System . The group must help Maki avoid Kandori 's path towards isolation and his current actions . The group manage to convince Ideal Maki to overlook her original self 's unconscious actions and join them in fixing the problem . After rescuing the true Maki 's self from the Sea of Souls , where all human life begins , the group must then confront Pandora , an aspect of Maki that wants to use the Deva System to destroy everything . When Pandora is defeated , all the pieces of Maki merge back into one , reversing the effects on the town and restoring her to full health . Philemon meets with the group and congratulates them on their success .
The Snow Queen route , which takes place in the real town of Mikage @-@ cho , is unlocked by investigating an urban legend within the school surrounding a theatrical mask used in performances of " The Snow Queen " : nearly everyone who wears the mask to play the title role has died . After finding the mask , the protagonist encounters Saeko , who puts on the mask and is possessed by a spirit within it . Freezing the entire town , the possessed Saeko generates three towers , with the spirits of those previously killed by the mask as their guardians , whilst setting up her Ice Castle within the high school . Along with Yukino , Ayase , Eriko , and Hidehiko , the protagonist heads out to save Saeko . Philemon contacts them and tells them that the only way to save Saeko is the Demon Mirror , which can remove the source of the mask 's curse . The spirit possessing Saeko turns out to be former classmate Tomomi Fujimori , who was horribly disfigured by the mask when she wore it in place of Saeko . Using the mirror , the group are able to free Saeko and bring Tomomi peace . It is then revealed that Tomomi herself was controlled by the Night Queen Asura , a powerful entity who wants to cloak the world in darkness . Upon defeating the Night Queen , the town is freed from her power .
= = Development = =
The development of Revelations : Persona began in 1994 , after the release of Shin Megami Tensei If .... The high school setting of If ... was received positively upon release , so Atlus decided to create a dedicated subseries focusing on the inner struggles of young adults . This concept eventually evolved into Persona , and its underlying focus on the " human soul " would become a mainstay of the Persona series . The title Megami Ibunroku was designed to show the title 's status as a spin @-@ off directly related to the Megami Tensei series , although it was removed for later Persona titles . The Persona system was directly inspired by the Guardian system used in If ... , originally designed by future Persona director Katsura Hashino . Veteran Megami Tensei producer Kouji Okada , and character designer Kazuma Kaneko took over these respective staff roles . New to the production team was writer Satomi Tadashi . The script took about a year to write , with the staff going through twenty drafts . The first draft involved the students going on a field trip and being caught in a series of mysterious events . This was one of the more fondly @-@ remembered versions . Shigenori Soejima , a future designer for the series , was involved in designing minor characters and coloring promotional and cover artwork . The main concept behind Persona was a Megami Tensei game that could be enjoyed by people new to the series . The popularity of casual games on the PlayStation was a key factor in making this decision . The development team 's focus on Persona resulted in development on Shin Megami Tensei : Nocturne coming to a near @-@ halt .
Kaneko designed the main cast around multiple notable celebrities and fictional characters of the time , along with members of Atlus staff . While the characters wearing the same uniform helped designate them as a single group , it also made them look the same . To balance against this , Kaneko expressed their individuality through accessories . Atlus staff members also made cameos as minor characters . The character of Philemon was based on Carl Jung 's titular wise old man archetype , described as a contradictory existence . His appearance in @-@ game was based on paintings of Chinese philosopher Zhuang Zhou . Multiple ideas and terms used in @-@ game were based on Jungian psychology and archetypes . The Velvet Room , a key gameplay location , was based on the Black Lodge from Twin Peaks . One of the characters focused on by Kaneko was Maki , who was given multiple forms throughout the story . The first versions created were the original Maki , who had been bed @-@ ridden for a long time , and the " ideal " version , whose inexperience with the outside world and interactions with others made her an expressionless doll . In addition to these forms , black @-@ clothed " Aki " and white @-@ clothed " Mai " were created when Maki 's personality split , representing her extremes . The true Maki represented balance , so Kaneko made her uniform grey . Because of this , the school uniform had to be grey . To represent her psychological immaturity , she was given a ribbon to represent her girlishness , along with a locket she believes can grant wishes .
= = = Ports and localization = = =
Persona was released in Japan on September 20 , 1996 for the PlayStation . The game was ported to Microsoft Windows and released on March 25 , 1999 by ASCII Corporation . The game was compatible with Windows 95 and 98 operating systems . The PlayStation Portable version was directed by Shoji Meguro , the original game 's composer . It was Meguro 's first project as a director . It was decided to remake the original Persona as a large number of new fans had been brought to the series by Persona 3 and 4 , so Atlus decided to give them easier access to the beginning of the series . The game was announced in February 2009 , and released on April 29 of that year . Along with gameplay adjustments and balancing , such as adding adjustable difficulty levels and modifying enemy encounter rates , full @-@ motion cutscenes produced by anime studio Kamikaze Douga were created . The cutscenes were voiced , while the rest of the game used text @-@ based dialogue as in the original . In Europe and Australia , the title was released by Atlus as a digital title on PlayStation Network .
Persona was the first role @-@ playing entry in the Megami Tensei series to be released in the west , with the first Megami Tensei release being action game Jack Bros. in 1995 . While the main Megami Tensei series ' use of Christian imagery made it unsuitable for localization at the time , Persona employed a different naming system to make it more acceptable . Persona was localized by Atlus ' then @-@ new North American branch Atlus USA . Persona was chosen as a series that could help define the company and compete with the likes of Final Fantasy , Suikoden and Breath of Fire . The team that localized Persona was quite small , which made the process quite difficult : not only was there a large amount of text to translate , but the team needed to adjust or change the Japanese references as they feared it might alienate western players . Among the changes were altering the player character 's hairstyle , the ethnic origins of multiple characters , the character and location names , and multiple pieces of dialogue . The entire Snow Queen route was also cut from the game , leaving only the SEBEC story route open for exploration .
The PSP remake 's localization was similar to those done for Persona 3 and 4 , with the dialogue being in tune with modern youth and keeping as close to the original dialogue as possible except for Japan @-@ specific cultural references . To provide a reference for their work , the localization team played through the original version of Persona . The changes made to character names and appearances were all changed back to how they appeared in the original Japanese release , with the exception of a couple of lines that had become fan favorites . These were included as a kind of homage to both players and the company 's history of game localization . The entire Snow Queen quest was also reinstated .
= = = Music = = =
The music for Persona was written by Hidehito Aoki , Kenichi Tsuchiya , Misaki Okibe and Shoji Meguro . Persona was Tsuchiya and Meguro 's first major work , with Meguro beginning shortly before he officially joined Atlus ' internal staff . Meguro worked on the title for approximately a year , composing ten to twenty percent of the score . The first piece composed by Meguro was " The Aria of the Soul " , the theme for the Velvet Room , originally commissioned by Aoki . " The Aria of the Soul " would become a mainstay in future Persona titles . For the PSP re @-@ release , Meguro composed new music alongside remixing original tracks . While he kept the original atmosphere , he also used the experience and musical techniques gained from his work on Persona 3 and 4 . He also tried some new techniques , such as with the opening theme , which began with a pop motif before transitioning into heavy metal , along with changing the important lyrics from English to Japanese .
The official soundtrack album , Persona Be Your True Mind Original Soundtrack , was released on June 17 , 1999 . An arrange album , Megami Ibunroku Persona Original Soundtrack & Arrange Album , was released April 18 , 1999 . In Japan , the official soundtrack for the PSP port was released on April 29 , 2009 . In the United States , the Persona soundtrack was packaged with the game 's retail release .
= = Reception = =
During its year of release in Japan , Persona sold 391 @,@ 556 units , reaching # 21 in the 100 best @-@ selling games of that year . Persona was described at the time of its original western release as a " sleeper hit " . The PSP port of the game was also highly successful : while Atlus estimated sales of 50 @,@ 000 and 35 @,@ 000 in Japan and North America , respectively , actual sales reached 160 @,@ 000 and 49 @,@ 000 .
Famitsu was generally positive about the setting and plot , and enjoyed the careful incorporation of Megami Tensei gameplay mechanics alongside new features . GameSpot 's Jeff Gerstmann called it " a truly different RPG " , praising the story , setting and gameplay , while criticizing the quality of the localization and feeling indifferent about the graphics and level layout . IGN called the game " an RPG masterpiece " , praising its departure from fantasy @-@ based RPGs of the time . Game Informer variously complemented the game for its challenging gameplay , and story and setting , with one reviewer calling it " the best PlayStation RPG available . " Jeff Walker , writing a retrospective review of the game for RPGamer , generally shared points of praise and criticism with Gerstmann , summing the game up as " a sure winner " . RPGFan writer EsquE was positive overall about the game , calling it " an achievement in dedicated game design " , and saying in closing that " [ Revelations : Persona ] deserves much more respect than it has received . "
Reviewing the PSP port , Eric L. Patterson of Play was highly positive about the game 's old @-@ school mechanics and the chance to replay it with an improved localization and the Snow Queen route reinstated . He did say that for fans of the PlayStation 2 Persona games , " [ Persona ] could very well feel like a punch to the face and a boot to the crotch . " Jeremy Parish , writing for 1UP.com , said that the way Persona broke away from RPG norms through the communication with demons during battle made it essential playing for fans of the genre . He was generally positive about most aspects apart from its visuals . Game Informer 's Joe Juba , despite noting awkward navigation and the inability to appreciate character and enemies designs due to their small sprite size , generally praised the game for improving on the original game 's flaws . Ben Reeves , giving a second opinion on the game as part of the review , generally shared Juba 's points of praise , though found the minimap inadequate . GameSpot 's Lark Anderson was more critical than most , praising the story and improved localization , but finding the combat , navigation and graphics fairly dated compared to both recent and contemporary RPGs . IGN 's Sam Bishop shared critiques about the graphics with other reviewers , but enjoyed most other parts of the game , and particularly appreciated the inclusion of the Snow Queen route . RPGamer 's Glenn Wilson and RPGFan 's Neal Chandran generally echoed other reviewers ' sentiments : Wilson cited it as a less enjoyable game than the PlayStation 2 Persona entries while still being a quality project , and Chandran called it " a killer trip down memory lane with a pair of high @-@ definition rose @-@ colored glasses . " Shin Megami Tensei : Persona was also awarded RPGFan 's Editor 's Choice Award .
= = Legacy = =
Revelations : Persona was successful enough to establish the Persona series in North America and become a cult classic . The games success prompted the development of a sequel . Persona 2 : Innocent Sin , which was released in 1999 and involved many of the same staff . Persona was adapted into a manga titled Megami Ibunroku Persona . Originally serialized in 1996 , it was later reissued in 2009 . In 2006 , Atlus and mobile company Bbmf released a mobile version of the game , Megami Ibunroku Persona : Chapter of the Foreign Tower of Emptiness . The game is a 3D dungeon crawler set within the locations of Persona . The unexpected success of the PSP port led to the development of enhanced remakes for both Innocent Sin and its sequel , Persona 2 : Eternal Punishment . Both these ports were also directed by Meguro .
= Craigflower Manor and Schoolhouse =
The Craigflower Manor and Craigflower Schoolhouse are National Historic Sites of Canada located in View Royal , British Columbia ( the Manor ) and Saanich ( the Schoolhouse ) near Victoria . The centerpiece of each historic site is a 19th @-@ century building — a manor and schoolhouse commissioned by the Hudson 's Bay Company to provide education and lodging for their employees . Built as part of the agricultural community Craigflower Farm , the buildings served as a focal point for the community into the modern era ; they remain open to the public today as museums devoted to the colonial history of Victoria .
The sites also have unique archaeological merit , encompassing three distinct periods , and types , of human habitation which span thousands of years . In addition , the existing structures have great historical and cultural value , remaining some of the best , and last , examples of their kind in Canada . These factors combine to make these two sites important National Historic Sites , and have been given government protection for the public trust .
= = Site history = =
The land in the area was formed during the last ice age in North America , approximately 13 @,@ 000 years ago , when receding glaciers carved a deep gouge into the earth , which became a number of small lakes and streams . Over time , these lakes rejoined the ocean , becoming a salt @-@ water inlet known today as the Gorge waterway , which the indigenous people call " Kosapsom " . The Lekwungen , a Coast Salish tribe and ancestors of the modern Esquimalt and Songhees First Nations , settled in the area , calling the whole region " Camossung " , after the legend of a girl they believed was turned to stone there .
Archaeologists working in the Gulf of Georgia , Vancouver Island , and the Lower Mainland have identified several distinct periods of cultural activity , known as " culture types " in the region . The site at Craigflower Farm exhibits three of these culture types , known as " Locarno Beach " , " Gulf of Georgia " and " Historic " . The " Historic " culture type refers to the colonial settlement of the area , and is contiguous with the European colonization ; a majority of the artifacts recovered from the site have been dated to this period .
The other two periods of human habitation are discernible mainly by the presence of a large shell midden on the site ; testifying to the abundant shellfish and game in the area . The earliest of the periods , the " Locarno Beach " type , used many different types of stone tools , including microblades , adzes , and other shaped or sharpened objects . The next culture type , dating from around 2500 years ago and known as the " Gulf of Georgia " type , is characterized by an increased use of bone tools , such as wedges and awls made from antlers , as well as different kinds of wood . This culture type 's presence on the site ends with the arrival of Europeans , and the colonization of Vancouver Island — altogether , around 1000 indigenous artifacts were recovered from the site during two separate archaeological digs .
Both the manor and the schoolhouse were part of a settlement known as Craigflower Farm , which was one of Western Canada 's first farming communities . Established in 1853 by the Puget Sound Agricultural Company , a subsidiary of the Hudson 's Bay Company , the farm was to supply fresh produce to the nearby Fort Victoria , and to aid in settlement of lower Vancouver Island . The farm was named after Craigflower Farm in England which was owned by Andrew Colville , Governor of the Hudson 's Bay Company from 1852 to 1856 . The land for the farm , was purchased from the Esquimalt First Nation ( recorded as the " Kosapsom " on the treaty ) in 1850 , who relocated nearby .
= = Craigflower Schoolhouse = =
Originally called Maple Point School , the schoolhouse was commissioned by first farm director , Kenneth McKenzie , to provide education for the children of farm employees . This was to be the third school constructed in the colony of Vancouver Island , following Governor James Douglas ' call " to give a proper moral and religious training to the children of the settlers who are growing up in ignorance and the utter neglect of all their duties to God and society . " The need was judged to be most severe for children of Protestant denomination , as Roman Catholics received ( until 1851 ) " very able and zealous " instruction from a priest from the Society des Oblats . Construction was commenced , using timber milled on the farm , in August 1854 and continued until late February 1855 . The first students took classes there in March of the same year , and were charged a fee of between 30 shillings and 1 pound .
The two @-@ story building was built in Georgian Revival style , and boasted a single schoolroom on the first floor , as well as six rooms for the teacher , their family , and student boarders from other parts of Vancouver Island . A large brick fireplace , as well as a stove , provided heating for the building , and a bell salvaged from the wrecked steamship Major Tompkins was hung in the yard to call students to class . Initially , the school was accessible from the main part of the farm only by boat , but the 1856 completion of the first Craigflower bridge linked the two parts of the farm together .
The schoolhouse became the focal point of social and religious events on the farm , and saw continuous use until 1872 when town council neglected to provide funding for Victoria 's schools . However , Education Act amendments returned the school to operation soon after , and in 1873 education was made mandatory for students aged seven to 14 . The school continued to operate until 1911 , when it was replaced by the second Craigflower school , built across the road . The current school , called Craigflower Elementary School , was built in 1964 to replace the aging 1911 building . The schoolhouse , however , was converted into a museum in 1931 and run by a local service club until 1975 when the provincial Historical Parks board acquired it and restored the structure . It was briefly run as a museum by The Land Conservancy of British Columbia in public trust — it is the oldest surviving schoolhouse in Western Canada , though it is often erroneously referred to as " the first school built in British Columbia " . The Schoolhouse is now the home of the Hallmark Heritage Society , The Capital Regional District 's oldest heritage preservation organization , and is open to the public for special presentations during the summer and will be the site of heritage workshops beginning in the fall of 2015 .
= = Craigflower Manor = =
The manor house was built shortly after the completion of the schoolhouse , to serve as a home and office for the management of the Craigflower farm , and their family . The house was constructed as a Georgian Revival version of a Scottish manor house , at the request of Kenneth McKenzie 's wife , Agnes . The foundation was laid in 1853 , prior to the McKenzies ' arrival , and was completed in May 1856 .
A grand , two @-@ story structure , the manor was over 900 square feet ( 84 m2 ) in size and second only to the first Government House in elegance . The building boasted a dining room , sitting room , office , music room , kitchen , and four bedrooms for the large McKenzie family . Heat was provided by several fireplaces , serviced by two large brick chimneys . The manor was used as lodging up until 1922 , when the Hudson 's Bay Company converted it into a community centre . It eventually became a hotel , before being sold to the government in 1965 . As the building is the earliest , and one of the few remaining , examples of its type in Western Canada , it was extensively restored in 1967 by the province , before being run as a museum . It is currently leased by the Highland Games Society .
= Nicki Minaj =
Onika Tanya Maraj ( born December 8 , 1982 ) , known professionally as Nicki Minaj , is a Trinidadian @-@ born American rapper , singer and songwriter . Born in Saint James , Trinidad and Tobago and raised in South Jamaica , Queens , New York , Minaj earned public attention after releasing three mixtapes between 2007 – 09 . She has been signed to Young Money Entertainment since 2009 .
Minaj 's first and second studio albums , Pink Friday ( 2010 ) and Pink Friday : Roman Reloaded ( 2012 ) , both peaked at number one on the U.S. Billboard 200 and produced the successful singles " Super Bass " and " Starships " , respectively . In 2010 , Minaj became the first female solo artist to have seven singles simultaneously charting on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 . Her third studio album , The Pinkprint ( 2014 ) , was preceded by its second single , " Anaconda " , which peaked at number two on the Hot 100 and is her highest @-@ charting single in the U.S. to
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date . Minaj made her film debut in the 2012 animated film Ice Age : Continental Drift , followed by supporting roles in The Other Woman ( 2014 ) and Barbershop : The Next Cut ( 2016 ) . In 2013 , she was a judge on the twelfth season of American Idol .
Minaj was the first female artist included on MTV 's Annual Hottest MC List , with a The New York Times editor saying that some consider her to be " the most influential female rapper of all time " . In 2016 , Minaj was included on the annual Time 100 list of the most influential people in the world . Her rapping is distinctive for its fast flow and the use of alter egos and accents , primarily British cockney . Early in her career , Minaj was known for her colorful costumes and wigs . According to Billboard , Minaj has the most Hot 100 entries in history amongst female rappers , and also has the third @-@ most entries amongst women of all genres . Minaj has received ten Grammy nominations throughout her career , and has won six American Music Awards , eleven BET Awards , three MTV Video Music Awards , four Billboard Music Awards , and was the recipient of Billboard 's Women in Music 2011 Rising Star award . She has further endorsed Adidas , MAC Cosmetics and Pepsi .
= = Early life = =
Onika Tanya Maraj was born in Saint James , Trinidad and Tobago on December 8 , 1982 . Her parents Robert Maraj , a financial executive and part @-@ time gospel singer , and Carol Maraj , also a gospel singer , are Trinidadians of African heritage , with Robert additionally of Asian Indian heritage . Carol worked in payroll and accounting departments during Minaj 's youth . Minaj 's father was addicted to alcohol and other drugs , and had a violent temper , burning down their house in December 1987 . She has two siblings .
As a small child , Minaj and a sibling lived with her grandmother in Saint James . Her mother , who had moved to The Bronx , New York to attend Monroe College and brought her husband six months later , brought them to Queens , New York , when Minaj was 5 . By then the family had a house on West 147th Street . Minaj recalled , " I don ’ t think I had a lot of discipline in my household . My mom motivated me , but it wasn ’ t a strict household . I kind of wanted a strict household . " Minaj successfully auditioned for admission to LaGuardia High School in Manhattan , which focuses on visual and performing arts . After graduation , Minaj wanted to become an actress , and she was cast in the Off @-@ Broadway play In Case You Forget in 2001 . When her acting career failed to take off , at age 19 she worked as a waitress at Red Lobster in the Bronx , but was fired for discourtesy to customers . She said she was fired from " at least fifteen jobs " for similar reasons . She also worked as an administrative assistant , in customer service and as an office manager for a Wall Street business .
= = Career = =
= = = 2004 – 09 : Career beginnings = = =
Minaj briefly signed with Brooklyn group Full Force , in which she rapped in a quartet called " The Hoodstars " composed of Lou $ tar ( son of " Bowlegged Lou " ) , Safaree Samuels ( Scaff Beezy ) and 7even Up . In 2004 the group recorded the entrance song for WWE Diva Victoria , " Don 't Mess With " , which was featured on the compilation album ThemeAddict : WWE The Music , Vol.6. Minaj left Full Force and uploaded songs on her Myspace profile , sending several of her songs to people in the music industry . At the time , she was managed by Debra Antney . Fendi , CEO of Brooklyn label Dirty Money Entertainment , signed Minaj to his label in 2007 under a 180 @-@ day contract . Originally adopting the stage name " Nicki Maraj " , she changed it to Nicki Minaj stating that " My real name is Maraj . Fendi flipped it when he met me because I had such a nasty flow ! I eat bitches ! "
Minaj released her first mixtape , Playtime is Over , on Dirty Money Records on July 5 , 2007 and her second , Sucka Free , on April 12 , 2008 . That year , she was named Female Artist of the Year at the 2008 Underground Music Awards . In 2009 Minaj was involved in a conflict with ego trip 's Miss Rap Supreme winner Rece Steele , who was annoyed when Minaj interrupted her interview and put a sign behind Steele 's head ; Minaj hung up on interviewers from Spate magazine when they asked about the incident . She released her third mixtape , Beam Me Up Scotty , on April 18 , 2009 and it received favorable coverage on BET and MTV . One of its tracks , " I Get Crazy " , reached number 20 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Rap Songs chart and number 37 on the magazine 's Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart .
After Minaj was discovered by fellow rapper Lil Wayne , in August 2009 it was reported that she signed a recording contract with his Young Money Entertainment . That November , she appeared with Gucci Mane and Trina on the remix of " 5 Star Bitch " by Yo Gotti . Minaj also appeared on " BedRock " and " Roger That " on the compilation album , We Are Young Money ( 2009 ) . The singles peaked at numbers two and 56 , respectively , on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 ; their parent album reached number @-@ nine on the U.S. Billboard 200 , and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Minaj was featured on Mariah Carey 's " Up Out My Face " , which reached number 100 on the Billboard Hot 100 . At Jay @-@ Z 's suggestion , that February Robin Thicke featured Minaj on " Shakin ' It 4 Daddy " .
= = = 2010 – 11 : Breakthrough with Pink Friday = = =
Minaj released the intended lead single from her upcoming debut album , " Massive Attack " on March 29 , 2010 . Plans for the single were scrapped after an underwhelming commercial performance . As a result , " Your Love " was released as the album 's lead single on June 1 , peaking at number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number @-@ one on the Billboard Rap Songs chart . In August Minaj announced that the album would be entitled Pink Friday , a play on " Black Friday " . The following month she released " Check It Out " and " Right Thru Me " as follow @-@ up singles . In October , Minaj became the first female solo artist to have seven songs on the Billboard Hot 100 simultaneously and the first woman to appear on MTV 's Annual Hottest MC List .
Pink Friday was released on November 19 , debuting at number @-@ two on the Billboard 200 with first @-@ week sales of 375 @,@ 000 copies . " Moment 4 Life " was released as the fourth single shortly after . The album was certified platinum in December , and eventually reached number @-@ one in the United States in February 2011 . Minaj performed " Right Thru Me " and " Moment 4 Life " as the musical guest on the January 29 episode of Saturday Night Live . " Super Bass " , the album 's fifth single , was released in April 2011 . The song peaked at number @-@ three on the Billboard Hot 100 and has been certified octuple @-@ platinum in the U.S. Minaj credited the song 's initial exposure to its mention by Taylor Swift , after videos of Swift and Selena Gomez rapping along to the song went viral , paving the way for Minaj 's first big crossover pop moment . Minaj was one of the opening acts on Britney Spears ' June 16 – August 13 Femme Fatale Tour . She and Kesha appeared on the remix of Spears ' " Till the World Ends " , which peaked at number @-@ three on the Billboard Hot 100 . On August 7 , 2011 , Nicki experienced a " nip slip " during a live performance on Good Morning America . Minaj was criticized for wearing the low @-@ cut shirt during her performance which led to the brief exposure of her breast on a live telecast . ABC apologized for incident . Minaj , while interviewed on ABC 's Nightline show , apologized for the incident and denied that she intentionally sought to expose herself on live television as a publicity stunt . The incident soaked protest from the Parents Television Council . President of the PTC president Tim Winter stated , " the Parents Television Council has something to say about Nicki Minaj ’ s wardrobe malfunction this morning . For the umpteenth time in recent memory a morning news show has included inappropriate content for children and families . " Winter called out Good Morning America for not using the five @-@ second delay to prevent the broadcast of the exposure . Minaj has been invited to perform at fashion events ; Donatella Versace invited her to perform with Prince for the introduction of a Versace collection for H & M , and she performed " Super Bass " at the 2011 Victoria 's Secret Fashion Show .
Since her breakout with Pink Friday , Minaj has been involved in a feud with rapper Lil ' Kim , who accused Minaj of copying her style . Although Minaj 's " Roman 's Revenge " was thought to be directed at Kim , she said she was " talking about everyone who has been in interviews talking ... no one is worth being singled out . No one is worth having their name mentioned out of my mouth and they never will get that . " Kim escalated the feud with her mixtape , Black Friday ( 2011 ) , whose title and artwork mimic Pink Friday ; a fragment from Minaj 's diss track , " Tragedy " , previewed that April . Their conflict sparked a feud between Minaj and rapper Foxy Brown , who said Minaj misrepresented their conversation about Kim . Brown released the diss tracks " Hold Yuh " and " Massacre " ( directed at Kim and Minaj ) in November 2010 and January 2011 , respectively , but Brown and Minaj settled their dispute in June 2012 .
= = = 2012 – 13 : Pink Friday : Roman Reloaded and American Idol = = =
Minaj released her second studio album Pink Friday : Roman Reloaded in April 2012 . The album was preceded by the promotional singles " Roman in Moscow " and " Stupid Hoe " . Critics suggested that the latter song was directed at Lil ' Kim , who said : " If you have to make a song called ' Stupid Hoe , ' you must be a stupid hoe . " Minaj and rapper M.I.A. joined Madonna to perform their single , " Give Me All Your Luvin ' " , on the Super Bowl XLVI halftime show on February 6 , 2012 . She was the first solo female rapper to perform at the Grammy Awards , premiering " Roman Holiday " during the 2012 ceremony on February 12 . Her exorcism @-@ themed performance was controversial , with the American Catholic League criticizing Minaj for bringing a fake " Pope " to escort her on the red carpet . The " exorcism " scene that was performed during her appearance was criticized as well . According to the Catholic League president Bill Donohue " Perhaps the most vulgar part was the sexual statement that showed a scantily clad female dancer stretching backwards while an altar boy knelt between her legs in prayer . Finally , ' Come All Ye Faithful ' was sung while a man posing as a bishop walked on stage ; Minaj was shown levitating . "
" Starships " was released in February 2012 as the lead single from Pink Friday : Roman Reloaded . The song reached number @-@ five on the Billboard Hot 100 , and was the fifth best @-@ selling single of 2012 . For the most part , mainstream critics didn 't receive well the pop crossover move . Minaj was sued by Chicago artist Clive Tanaka in September 2013 for its alleged copyright infringement . Follow @-@ up singles " Beez in the Trap " and " Right by My Side " were released shortly after . Pink Friday : Roman Reloaded was released on April 2 , two months later than planned . The album debuted at number @-@ one on the Billboard 200 , with first @-@ week sales of 253 @,@ 000 copies , and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America in June 2012 . However , its mix of hip @-@ hop songs and mainstream pop material received mixed reviews from music critics . " Pound the Alarm " and " Va Va Voom " were released as the final singles from the album . Minaj began her headlining Pink Friday Tour on May 16 , 2012 , which was followed by the Pink Friday : Reloaded Tour beginning October 14 . Although she was scheduled to headline the June 3 Hot 97 Summer Jam at MetLife Stadium in New Jersey , at the request of Lil Wayne she canceled her appearance the day of the show after Peter Rosenberg of the station called " Starships " not " real hip @-@ hop " . The following month , Minaj voiced Steffie in the animated film Ice Age : Continental Drift ( 2012 ) . She won awards for Best Female Video ( for " Starships " ) at the 2012 MTV Video Music Awards and Best Hip @-@ Hop at the 2012 MTV Europe Music Awards . An expanded version of Pink Friday : Roman Reloaded , subtitled The Re @-@ Up , was released on November 19 . That month , Minaj was the subject of a three @-@ part E ! documentary titled Nicki Minaj : My Truth . She announced plans for her own record label after signing Parker Ighile , Brinx , Keisha and Blackout Movement .
In September Minaj joined the judges ' panel for the twelfth season of American Idol with fellow new judges Mariah Carey and Keith Urban and the returning Randy Jackson . That October a leaked video circulated , with Minaj and Carey in a heated argument during auditions in Charlotte , North Carolina . Carey accused Minaj of saying , " If I had a gun , I would shoot that bitch " , but Minaj denied the allegation . Carey said that Minaj created an " unsafe work environment " , increasing her security as a result . Tensions escalated after Carey said that Minaj did not have a number @-@ one song on the Billboard Hot 100 during a live broadcast in May 2013 , to which Minaj responded in a series of " extremely harsh " tweets directed at the singer . Minaj and Carey left the series that month , at the end of the season . That year Minaj was the most @-@ charted female rapper in the history of the Billboard Hot 100 , with 44 entries . Her seven nominations led those for rap musicians at the 2013 Billboard Music Awards , and she was the first rapper to win the BET Best Female Hip @-@ Hop Artist Award four consecutive times .
= = = 2014 – 15 : The Other Woman and The Pinkprint = = =
Minaj 's first live @-@ action theatrical film The Other Woman was filmed in spring 2013 and premiered on April 25 , 2014 . She played Lydia , assistant to Carly ( played by Cameron Diaz ) . In 2013 , Minaj described her then @-@ forthcoming third album , The Pinkprint as " a continuation of The Re @-@ Up with a lot more " and said it would focus on her " hip @-@ hop roots " . During an MTV interview , she said that her third album would be " next level " and have " much to talk about " : " I 'm really excited and the people that have been working with me now , have been people that I haven 't worked with before so it 's like they 're bringing a new sound to the album that I 've never experimented with . " " Pills n Potions " was released as the lead single from The Pinkprint in May 2014 . " Anaconda " was released in August as the second single , peaking at number @-@ two on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming her highest @-@ charting single in the U.S. to date . The video set a 24 @-@ hour Vevo record , accumulating 19 @.@ 6 million views on its first day of release , breaking the record previously held by Miley Cyrus for " Wrecking Ball " . The album was officially released on December 15 , 2014 , peaking at number @-@ two on the Billboard 200 chart . In support of the album , Minaj embarked on her third international concert tour entitled The Pinkprint Tour .
On June 29 , Minaj became the only artist to win the BET Award for Best Female Hip @-@ Hop Artist for five consecutive years , while also tying Missy Elliott for the most wins with five . In November 2014 , Minaj released a video containing Nazi @-@ style imagery for her third single " Only " . There was immediate backlash from the Anti Defamation League , who stated that it was " troubling that no one among Minaj 's group of producers , publicists and managers raised a red flag about the use of such imagery before ushering the video into public release . " They called the video " insensitive to Holocaust survivors and a trivialization of the history of that era . "
On November 9 , 2014 , Minaj hosted the 2014 MTV Europe Music Awards at The SSE Hydro , Glasgow , Scotland . She also won an award for Best Hip @-@ Hop . In December , Minaj received two Grammy nominations : for Best Rap Song for " Anaconda " and Best Pop Duo / Group Performance for " Bang Bang " with Jessie J and Ariana Grande . In March 2015 , Minaj embarked on her third world tour entitled The Pinkprint Tour . The tour kicked off in Europe . It is scheduled to travel to the United States , Canada , Brazil , Mexico , Dubai , Philippines , Australia and New Zealand . In March 2015 , she became the first female artist to chart four songs simultaneously in the top 10 of Billboard 's Mainstream R & B / Hip @-@ Hop airplay chart . At the 2015 BET Awards , Minaj won her sixth consecutive award for Best Female Hip @-@ Hop Artist , becoming the female rapper with most wins in that category .
= = = 2016 : Barbershop : The Next Cut and Nicki = = =
In May 2015 , it was announced that Minaj would feature in the third installment of the Barbershop film series , alongside Ice Cube , Cedric the Entertainer , Eve , and other original cast members . Titled Barbershop : The Next Cut , the film was released on April 15 , 2016 and received critical acclaim , earning an average score of 93 % on Rotten Tomatoes . Minaj 's character in the film is a " sassy " hairdresser named Draya .
It was announced that Minaj will executive produce and appear in a scripted single @-@ camera comedy series for ABC Family ( now Freeform ) based on her life growing up in Queens , New York . The show has been titled Nicki and is scheduled to be broadcast in 2016 . The project , from Aaron Kaplan ’ s Kapital Entertainment , filmed the pilot episode in Minaj ’ s hometown in January 2016 , and production has since continued . Ariana Neal will play a young Minaj in the series , alongside Selita Ebanks ( her mother ) , Wesley Jonathan ( her father ) , and McCarrie McCausland ( her older brother ) .
= = Public image = =
Minaj 's physique has attracted positive attention from the media . In 2010 , she said that although she originally felt obligated to mimic the provocative behavior of the " female rappers of [ her ] day " , she intended to subdue her sexuality because she " [ wants ] people — especially young girls — to know that in life , nothing is going to be based on sex appeal . You 've got to have something else to go with that . " The rapper has made autographing breasts part of her movement to empower women . In a Guardian interview , Minaj said she competes with male and female rappers . In " Moment 4 Life " , she refers to herself as a " king " rather than a queen . Early in her career Minaj claimed to be bisexual , but eventually she said she just did that to get attention . " I think girls are sexy , but I 'm not going to lie and say that I date girls . "
Minaj has been called the " black Lady Gaga " because of her costumes and wigs . In one interview , Minaj rejected the comparison , but in another interview , she said that she is inspired by Gaga 's creativity . Minaj has cited Alexander McQueen , Gianni Versace and Christian Louboutin as her favorite designers . The Huffington Post described her style as " risk @-@ taking " and " far @-@ out " , with " bold sartorial choices " ; Yahoo ! called her dress " colorful " and " crazy " , and " the fashion and music world would certainly be very quiet without Ms Minaj " .
Billboard listed Minaj the fourth @-@ most @-@ active musician on social media on its March 2011 Social 50 chart . On Twitter , she is the world 's most @-@ followed rapper . There , in public appearances and interviews Minaj calls her fans " Barbs " collectively and her male heterosexual and LGBT followers " boys " and " Ken Barbs " respectively ( alluding to her Barbie persona ) . She deleted her Twitter account for eight days in April 2012 after a dispute with fans who leaked snippets from her then @-@ unreleased album . Minaj lost about nine million of her 11 million followers at the time . In 2013 Minaj introduced a more " natural " look , including less @-@ colorful makeup and wigs , during later episodes of American Idol to be taken more seriously .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Musical style = = =
Minaj is known for her animated rapping style , her flow in particular . She often combines metaphors , punch lines and word play into her work , which has been compared to her mentor Lil Wayne . The New York Times called Minaj " a sparkling rapper with a gift for comic accents and unexpected turns of phrase . She 's a walking exaggeration , outsize in sound , personality and look . And she 's a rapid evolver , discarding old modes as easily as adopting new ones . " Although many critics describe her technique as bubblegum rap , Minaj said : " What people don 't know is that before I was doing that craziness I was doing me , I was just doing regular sounding rap that anyone could hear and identify with . But once I started doing all that weird shit — I 'm not mad at it because it got everyone 's attention . " Noted as a rap artist , she lends herself to electronic music genres ( especially electropop ) . Pink Friday marked her exploration of the genres , spawning electro songs including the pop @-@ laden " Super Bass " . Also combining rap with synthesizer music , Minaj 's second album had a number of electropop songs : " HOV Lane " , " Whip It " , " Automatic " , " Come On A Cone " , " Young Forever " , " Fire Burns " , " Roman Holiday " and " Beez in the Trap " ; while " Starships " is an europop and dance song . She collaborated with other artists , producing more electronic songs : " The Boys " with " Me & U " singer Cassie and " Beauty and a Beat " with Justin Bieber .
Her verse in Kanye West 's " Monster " was appreciated by critics , who said she had the best verse in the song . Her alter egos are incorporated with her lyrics in British accents ( Roman Zolanski ) or soft @-@ spokenness ( Harajuku Barbie ) . Ice @-@ T said about Minaj 's rapping style , " [ Minaj ] does her thing . She has her own way of doing it . She has an ill [ sic ] vocal delivery . She kind of reminds me of a female Busta Rhymes , like how she throws her voice in different directions . "
= = = Alter egos = = =
With her parents frequently fighting during her childhood , Minaj lived through characters she created as a means of escape . She recalled that " fantasy was my reality " and her first identity was Cookie , who became Harajuku Barbie and ( later ) Nicki Minaj . In November 2010 , Minaj assumed the alter ego Nicki Teresa , wearing a colorful headdress and calling herself " healer to her fans " during a visit to the Garden of Dreams Foundation at Fuse Studios in New York . She introduced another alter ego , Rosa ( pronounced with an exaggerated R ) , to commemorate her December 2010 appearance on Lopez Tonight .
For Pink Friday , Minaj created another alter ego : Roman Zolanski , " a demon inside her " , Minaj 's " twin brother " whose character she assumes when she is angry . Roman has been compared to Eminem 's alter ego Slim Shady , and on " Roman 's Revenge " Minaj and Eminem collaborate as their alter egos . On her next album , she said that there would be a lot of Roman : " And if you 're not familiar with Roman , then you will be familiar with him very soon . He 's the boy that lives inside of me . He 's a lunatic and he 's gay and he 'll be on there a lot . " Roman has a mother , Martha Zolanski , who appeared on " Roman 's Revenge " with a British accent and singing on " Roman Holiday " for the first time . Martha appeared in the " Moment 4 Life " video as Minaj 's apparent fairy godmother . Although Minaj was rapping in songs such as " All I Do Is Win ( Remix ) " , she promised to introduce Nicki , Roman and Onika on her first album .
= = = Influences = = =
Minaj has said that artists who have influenced her musical style include Lisa " Left Eye " Lopes , Lil Wayne , Smokey Robinson , Lauryn Hill , Jadakiss , Natasha Bedingfield , Remy Ma , Lil ' Kim , Missy Elliott , Janet Jackson , Madonna , Beyoncé , Britney Spears , Marilyn Monroe , Grace Jones , M.I.A. , Cyndi Lauper and TLC . She cites Foxy Brown and Jay @-@ Z as major influences : " I really loved [ Foxy ] as a female rapper . I was really interested in her mind and her aura [ and ] I was really , really into Jay @-@ Z. Me and my friends in high school , we were reciting all of the Jay lyrics . His words were our words in our conversations all the time . " She said : " I never really told Foxy how much she has influenced me and how much she changed my life , and you 've gotta tell people that when they 're alive to even be able to take the compliment , instead of paying tribute to them when they 're no longer here " , adding that Foxy Brown was " the most influential female rapper " for her , though she initially was compared to Lil Kim when she first debuted . Nicki and Lil Kim , often cited as Foxy 's main rap rival , have reportedly exchanged words with each other , on social media and in their music .
Jada Pinkett Smith is one of Minaj 's role models in her acting career . Minaj was inspired by R & B singer Monica , singing " Why I Love You So Much " at every talent show she entered . Performing in Atlanta on her Pink Friday Tour , she called Monica one of her all @-@ time greatest musical influences . Minaj has also cited Kanye West , Trina and Drake as influences .
She called Betsey Johnson a fashion inspiration : " [ Betsey ] is a free spirit . When I met her the other day , I felt like I knew her for my whole life . She 's so warm and considerate and caring . She 's amazingly talented and I 've been wearing her clothes forever , so to meet her was like , ' Yay ! ' [ I was ] bowing down to her ; she 's dope ! " Minaj has also expressed appreciation for Cyndi Lauper 's style and how her videos inspired her as a teenager : " When I first went to get my hair colored , I was about 14 and I wanted blonde highlights . The beautician said , ' No , you have to get your mother on the phone , ' and I was just crying and begging . I 've always been experimenting . Cyndi Lauper 's videos - that 's what intrigued me . "
= = Products and endorsements = =
Minaj has been affiliated with several manufacturing companies and has endorsed a number of products during her career . Her first collaboration was a November 2010 endorsement deal with MAC Cosmetics which sold a lipstick , " Pink 4 Friday " , for four consecutive Fridays to promote her album Pink Friday . In 2011 , Minaj helped introduce the Casio TRYX in Times Square , and created a six @-@ piece nail polish collection for OPI Products with colors named after her songs . That December , Mattel produced a custom @-@ made , Minaj @-@ themed Barbie doll valued at about $ 15 @,@ 000 for auction on charitybuzz .
In April 2012 , Minaj helped launch the Nokia Lumia 900 in Times Square . The following month , Minaj appeared in television and internet advertisements for Pepsi 's " LiveForNow " campaign , which featured a remix of her single " Moment 4 Life " . She endorsed the 2012 Viva Glam campaign with Ricky Martin , which raised $ 270 million for the Mac AIDS Fund . With designer Jeremy Scott , Minaj signed an endorsement deal with Adidas ' fall and winter 2012 campaign to appear in internet advertisements and commercials for Adidas Originals . Set to her song , " Masquerade " , her segment of the advertisement was filmed in Brooklyn and also featured Big Sean , Derrick Rose , Sky Ferreira and 2NE1 in other locations worldwide .
Early 2013 , Minaj fronted the Viva Glam campaign by herself , which included the introduction of " Nicki 2 lipstick and lip gloss " . She also introduced the " Nicki Minaj Collection " clothing line for Kmart , composed of clothing , accessories and housewares . In February 2013 , Bluewater Comics announced that Minaj would star in the Fame biographical @-@ comic series , debuting in Fame : Nicki Minaj . She partnered with Beats Electronics to introduce her " Pink Pill " speakers in April 2013 , appearing with DeRay Davis in a commercial for the speakers that same month . In June 2013 , Minaj lead an ad campaign for Myx Fusions , a fruit @-@ infused , single serve moscato wine beverage of which she is a part owner .
Minaj has a prominent fragrance line , which was launched in September 2012 . She partnered with ' Give Back Brands ' to introduce her first fragrance , Pink Friday . A " Pink Friday : Special Edition " was released in April 2013 . A deluxe edition version of the fragrance , titled " Pink Friday : Deluxe Edition " , was also launched in December 2013 . Her second fragrance line , Minajesty , was launched in September 2013 . A flanker fragrance , " Minajesty : Exotic Edition " , was released exclusively to the Home Shopping Network in June 2014 . This was followed by the launch of her third fragrance line , " Onika " , in September 2014 .
In December 2014 , Minaj was announced as the new face of the Roberto Cavalli spring / summer 2015 campaign . The campaign images , shot in Los Angeles by Italian photographer Francesco Carrozzini , see Minaj posing in flowy bohemian dresses , defined by embroideries and animal prints typical of the Cavalli brand . On March 30 , 2015 , it was announced that Minaj is a co @-@ owner of the music streaming service Tidal . The service specializes in lossless audio and high definition music videos . In addition to Minaj and company owner Jay Z , sixteen stakeholders including Beyoncé , Madonna , Rihanna and Kanye West own a 3 % equity stake in the service .
= = Personal life = =
Minaj is the only woman to be featured on the Forbes Hip Hop Cash Kings list . She made her first appearance on the list in 2011 , earning U.S. $ 6 @.@ 5 million from May 2010 to May 2011 . In 2012 , she placed eighth on the list , earning U.S. $ 15 @.@ 5 million from May 2011 to May 2012 . Minaj rose to the fourth position on the list in 2013 , earning U.S. $ 29 million from June 2012 to June 2013 . She made her fourth consecutive appearance on the list in 2014 , earning U.S. $ 14 million from June 2013 to June 2014 . In the aftermath of Hurricane Sandy , Minaj donated $ 15 @,@ 000 to the Food Bank For New York City and held a turkey drive at her alma mater , PS 45 .
Minaj has stated that after her father went to rehab and began attending church , " he got saved and started changing his life " . In July 2011 , Minaj 's cousin , Nicholas Telemaque , was murdered near his home in Brooklyn , which she references in her songs " Champion " : " Cause they killed my little cousin , Nicholas / But my memory 's only happy images " , and " All Things Go " : " I lost my little cousin to a senseless act of violence " . In late 2014 , Minaj separated from her longtime boyfriend Safaree Samuels . Several tracks on The Pinkprint are believed to have been inspired by the end of their relationship . She also revealed she had an abortion as a teenager in her song " All Things Go " . Minaj began dating rapper Meek Mill in early 2015 .
= = Awards and nominations = =
Throughout her career , Minaj has won numerous awards including : six American Music Awards , ten BET Awards , seven BET Hip Hop Awards , four Billboard Music Awards , three MTV Video Music Awards , three MTV Europe Music Awards , two People 's Choice Awards , one Soul Train Music Award , and four Teen Choice Awards .
Throughout 2011 – 16 , Minaj has received a total of 10 Grammy Award nominations . She received her first Grammy nomination in 2011 for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group for the single " My Chick Bad " with fellow rapper Ludacris . For the 54th Grammy Awards in 2012 , Minaj received three nominations , including Best New Artist and Best Rap Album for her debut album Pink Friday . Minaj received her second nomination for Best Rap Album at the 58th Grammy Awards for The Pinkprint .
Minaj won the American Music Awards for Favorite Rap / Hip @-@ Hop Artist and Favorite Rap / Hip @-@ Hop Album in three different years for her first three albums . She has won twice MTV Video Music Award for Best Hip @-@ Hop Video for " Super Bass " and " Anaconda " , and one Best Female Video for " Starships "
= = Discography = =
Pink Friday ( 2010 )
Pink Friday : Roman Reloaded ( 2012 )
The Pinkprint ( 2014 )
= = Filmography = =
Ice Age : Continental Drift ( 2012 )
The Other Woman ( 2014 )
Barbershop : The Next Cut ( 2016 )
= = Tours = =
Headlining tours
Pink Friday Tour ( 2012 )
Pink Friday : Reloaded Tour ( 2012 )
The Pinkprint Tour ( 2015 )
Opening act
America 's Most Wanted Tour ( 2008 )
I Am Still Music Tour ( 2011 )
Femme Fatale Tour ( 2011 )
= Skullgirls =
Skullgirls is a 2D fighting game independently developed by Reverge Labs and co @-@ published by Autumn Games and Konami . The game was released through the PlayStation Network and Xbox Live Arcade in North America , Europe , and Australia from April to May 2012 , and later received a Japanese release by CyberFront for the PlayStation Network in February 2013 . A Microsoft Windows version , developed by Lab Zero Games and co @-@ published by Autumn Games and Marvelous , was released in August 2013 . A mobile version of the game , developed by Hidden Variable Studios , will be released for Android and iOS devices in late 2016 .
In Skullgirls , players engage in combat against one another with teams of one , two , or three characters , attempting to knock out their opponents or have the most cumulative health when time runs out . The setting of the game revolves around the " Skull Heart " , an artifact which grants wishes for women . If a wisher with an impure soul uses the Skull Heart , she is transformed into the next " Skullgirl " , a monster bent on destruction . Skullgirls received generally positive reviews from critics , who praised the animation and gameplay mechanics , while criticizing its limited roster size and online multiplayer features .
Development of post @-@ release content faced numerous setbacks . In May 2012 , publisher Autumn Games was sued over allegations of fraud regarding an unrelated property , Def Jam Rapstar , cutting off Skullgirls ' financial support and forcing developer Reverge Labs to lay off the entire development team . The core team would eventually reform as Lab Zero Games in November 2012 , launching a successful crowdfunding campaign to raise funds to continue their work . After Autumn Games severed ties with co @-@ publisher Konami in December 2013 , the latter formally requested to have the game removed from the PlayStation Network and Xbox Live Arcade . The game was later re @-@ released on both platforms as Skullgirls Encore .
= = Gameplay = =
The engine and playstyle for Skullgirls were intentionally modeled after Marvel vs. Capcom 2 : New Age of Heroes , incorporating several similar game mechanics such as tag team @-@ based combat , character assists , snapbacks , and delayed hyper combos . The game can be played using different ratios of characters , with each player able to select up to three fighters on their team . The teams are then balanced based on the number of team members . A single character possesses more health and deals more damage , while larger teams gain the ability to perform character assists and recover health when tagged out . Players can also customize their character assist attacks .
The game includes a story mode , arcade mode , versus mode , training room , tutorial mode , and online play using the GGPO networking library . Skullgirls includes various unique features to address system and balance problems , such as infinite combo detection . When the game detects a looping combo through monitoring the players ' attacks , the other player can break free of the infinite by hitting any button . In addition , Skullgirls offers protection against " unblockable attacks " , which occur when a player , for example , uses a low @-@ hitting move and a high @-@ hitting assist attack at the same time , making it nearly impossible for the opponent to block . The game attempts to remedy the issue by offering a brief period of unblockable protection after successfully blocking any attack .
At release , Skullgirls Encore saw numerous gameplay adjustments and additions , including character balance tweaks , faster gameplay , an online training mode , and a stun meter designed to limit lengthy combos without compromising creativity . A new local game mode called " Typing of the Skullgirls " , a mode inspired by games like The Typing of the Dead , was also added . When enabled , teams automatically generate meter and all attacks deal negligible damage . Super moves give typing prompts to the player , awarding damage for typing accuracy . In addition to fully voiced story modes and cross @-@ platform play across the entire PlayStation family , Skullgirls 2nd Encore introduced challenges , where players fight against opponents under unique battle conditions ; trials , which test players ' skills by having them perform combos ; and survival mode , which pits players against endless waves of enemies . The mobile version of Skullgirls will incorporate RPG @-@ like progression , customization , and deck @-@ building mechanics .
= = Setting = =
Skullgirls takes place in the fictional Canopy Kingdom , a country reminiscent of 1940s postwar America . In a corrupt and war @-@ torn world , several individuals and organizations seek to obtain an artifact known as the Skull Heart . Once every seven years , the Skull Heart grants one woman 's wish . However , if a woman with an impure soul attempts to use the Heart , her wish will be corrupted and she will be transformed into a monster known as the Skullgirl . Hundreds have sought after the Skull Heart , yet none of its wielders have been deemed worthy and spared of its curse .
Seven years following the Grand War , a battle fought between three nations , the newest Skullgirl , Marie , has emerged and begun to terrorize the Canopy Kingdom . The game follows several fighters and their journeys to confront Marie and claim the Skull Heart . Each character has their own motive for seeking the Heart , whether to destroy the artifact or use its power for their own interests .
= = = Characters = = =
The Skullgirls roster initially consisted of eight playable characters : Filia , Cerebella , Peacock , Parasoul , Ms. Fortune , Painwheel , Valentine , and Double . Following the conclusion of the game 's Indiegogo crowdfunding campaign , an additional five downloadable characters were developed : Squigly , Big Band , Eliza , Beowulf , and Robo @-@ Fortune . On April 1 , 2014 , a clone of Filia , named Fukua , was added to the game . The character was intended to be a temporary inclusion for April Fools ' Day , but was kept in response to fan feedback .
= = Development = =
Skullgirls was originally conceived as several stray character designs that illustrator Alex " o _ 8 " Ahad had been creating since high school . While attending college , Ahad had the hypothetical idea to use the characters concepts for a fighting game roster . The idea would later become a reality when Ahad was introduced to fighting game enthusiast and tournament @-@ goer Mike " Mike Z " Zaimont , who had been working on a fighting game engine during his own spare time . Early work on their new Skullgirls project began in 2008 . Engine development and pre @-@ production began in 2009 . Ahad and Zaimont pitched Skullgirls to several companies , eventually teaming up with recently founded independent developer Reverge Labs in 2010 . They later went on to sign with publisher Autumn Games . At the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2011 , Japanese developer and publisher Konami announced that they would help distribute the game .
Following the game 's release , the Skullgirls team began teasing future content for the game , including new voice packs , color palettes , and downloadable characters . However , shortly thereafter , Autumn Games was hit with a series of lawsuits regarding Def Jam Rapstar , which " gummed up everything related to Autumn 's funding . " The entire Skullgirls development team was laid off by Reverge Labs in June 2012 after Autumn Games and Reverge Labs allowed their contract to expire without agreeing upon a new one . This prompted the team to reform under a new moniker , Lab Zero Games , to continue work on the PC release and downloadable content . Autumn Games , revealed to be in full possession of the IP , claimed it was " fully behind the new studio " and promised to " continue to work with [ Lab Zero Games ] in the future on all Skullgirls @-@ related endeavors . "
From January through February 2013 , fighting game website Shoryuken hosted a charity donation drive to determine the final game to be featured in the 2013 Evolution Championship Series ' tournament lineup , with all proceeds sent to the Breast Cancer Research Foundation . The Skullgirls community raised over US $ 78 @,@ 000 , placing second to eventual winner Super Smash Bros. Melee , which raised over $ 94 @,@ 000 . Although the game did not win , Shoryuken announced that EVO 2013 event organizers would support the Skullgirls side tournament by providing prize money and exhibition support due to their effort in the fundraiser .
= = = Crowdfunding and publisher transition = = =
Despite Autumn Games ' support and desire to expand Skullgirls , their continued litigation prevented the publisher from providing any financial backing . Attempting to pick up where they left off , Lab Zero Games decided to ask its fanbase for help once more , following the success of the EVO 2013 charity drive . On February 25 , 2013 , Lab Zero Games set up an Indiegogo page for Skullgirls , in an effort to raise $ 150 @,@ 000 for the development of the game 's first DLC character , Squigly . Contributors received various rewards , including desktop wallpapers , a digital copy of the official soundtrack , Steam keys for the PC release , Steam keys for Half @-@ Minute Hero , and the chance to add a background character to the game , among others . The campaign reached its initial goal in less than 24 hours , while the stretch goal of a second DLC character , Big Band , secured funding in just over 2 weeks . A third DLC character , determined by fan vote , was funded during the final two days , along with a playable robotic version of Ms. Fortune named Robo @-@ Fortune . With minutes left before the end of the drive , the last stretch goal was met , securing funding for another fan @-@ selected DLC character . The Indiegogo campaign raised nearly $ 830 @,@ 000 of its original $ 150 @,@ 000 goal . Several alternate character and announcer voice packs were also funded . All downloadable characters and voice packs were free to download on all platforms within the first three months of their release .
On November 7 , 2013 , Lab Zero Games announced that Autumn Games had severed ties with Konami , citing Konami 's unresponsiveness as a major hurdle to the release of further console patches . Following the dissolution of the partnership , Konami requested the removal of Skullgirls from the PlayStation Network and Xbox Live Arcade by the end of 2013 . In response , Lab Zero Games announced on December 17 , 2013 that Skullgirls would be re @-@ released on consoles as Skullgirls Encore , a new build including up @-@ to @-@ date changes and additions , in January 2014 . Encore marked the transition of the console versions to its new publishers
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, Marvelous and CyberFront , and coincided with the console releases of Squigly and the " Character Color Bundle " DLC . While Encore was released as a title update for the Xbox 360 version , the PlayStation 3 version required owners to re @-@ download the game at no cost ; leaderboard rankings , save data , and trophies were not carried over . The PC version was later patched to reflect the new title .
= = Soundtrack = =
The Skullgirls Original Soundtrack consists of 28 original compositions . The album features music by Michiru Yamane , Vincent Diamante , Blaine McGurty , and Brenton Kossak . The soundtrack was released on April 24 , 2012 on iTunes . People who donated at least $ 10 to the Skullgirls Indiegogo crowdfunding campaign received a digital copy of the soundtrack . An exclusive , physical CD release of the Skullgirls Original Soundtrack was offered , among other rewards , to those who donated $ 150 or more to the drive .
On April 20 , 2011 , Reverge Labs officially announced that they had enlisted Yamane , primarily known for her work on Konami 's Castlevania series , to help create the soundtrack for Skullgirls . According to Richard Wyckoff , CEO of Reverge Labs , the developers sought out Yamane because " [ they ] knew her mixture of haunting gothic themes , jazz and rock would lend itself perfectly to Skullgirls ' ' Dark Deco ' style . " When Reverge Labs requested Yamane to write " jazzy " music , she " played a bit with the rhythm and different sounds to try and heighten the impact and almost primal nature of the unique graphics . "
= = Release = =
Skullgirls was released on the PlayStation Network in North America on April 10 , 2012 , and the Xbox Live Arcade on April 11 , 2012 . Europe and Australia later received the PlayStation Network version on May 2 , 2012 . The game was released in Japan by CyberFront on the PlayStation Network in February 14 , 2013 , and was also brought to Japanese arcades through the NESiCAxLive digital distribution system . The public beta test for the Microsoft Windows version of Skullgirls began on July 4 , 2013 . The official Microsoft Windows version was released by Marvelous on August 22 , 2013 .
Skullgirls Encore launched on the PlayStation Network in North America on February 11 , 2014 , and Europe on March 19 , 2014 . The Xbox Live Arcade version of Skullgirls received an update for Encore on April 22 , 2014 . On July 10 , 2014 , Lab Zero Games announced that Skullgirls Encore would be released on PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita sometime in 2014 . The PlayStation 4 and Vita port , later titled Skullgirls 2nd Encore , would eventually be delayed until 2015 . 2nd Encore was released for the PlayStation 4 on July 7 , 2015 . The Android and iOS versions will be released in late 2016 .
In May 2013 , when Lab Zero Games was asked on their official Twitter account about a potential release for Nintendo 's Wii U console , the developer replied that while it was possible , it " [ wasn 't ] looking likely " , citing the console 's low sales and not having an established " digital presence " at the time .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Skullgirls received " generally positive " reviews , according to video game review aggregator Metacritic .
Several reviewers praised the presentation and animation . Ryan Clements of IGN praised the graphics , claiming that the game created " some of the best hand @-@ drawn character sprites ever used in gaming . " Clements also gave the game an Editor 's Choice award . John Learned of GamesRadar also praised the art style , stating that the art deco design gave playable characters and backgrounds added flair . However , some reviewers criticized the art style and overtly sexualized all @-@ female cast , including accusations of sexism . Dan Ryckert of Game Informer stated that while Skullgirls was beautifully animated , some animations were " juvenile and unnecessary " . Ryckert expressed disappointment with the artistic focus on " anatomy and fetishistic outfits . "
Reviewers also praised the gameplay and system mechanics . Maxwell McGee of GameSpot credited the ability to adjust team sizes , adding that the trade @-@ off between strength and versatility helped to accommodate a wider skill range of players . Neidel Crisan of 1UP praised the tutorial system for teaching beginner players about the fundamentals of the fighting game genre . Daniel Maniago of G4 complimented the custom assists , anti @-@ infinite system , and online play , praising Reverge Labs for utilizing feedback from the fighting game community during development .
Skullgirls received its share of criticism . IGN 's Ryan Clements criticized the small selection of gameplay modes , missing character move lists , and overly aggressive AI . GameTrailers criticized the limited roster size , stating that the tag @-@ based battling felt underdeveloped as a result . Simon Parkin of Eurogamer pointed out the lack of online features , such as a spectator mode , replays , and endless lobbies . Jordan Mallory of Joystiq reprimanded the game for its " goofy and immature " premise , sexualized art style , and unoriginal character movesets . Mallory concluded that the series would have been better off spending another year in development .
Skullgirls received Best Fighting Game nominations from IGN , 1UP , and the Official E3 Game Critics Awards . The game was nominated for 2012 Best Animated Video Game at the 40th Annual Annie Awards . Skullgirls was also recognized in the 2013 Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition for the most frames of animation per character , reaching 11 @,@ 515 total frames for its initial eight characters and averaging 1 @,@ 439 frames per fighter .
= = = Sales = = =
The game sold over 50 @,@ 000 copies across both platforms within the first ten days of its release date . Skullgirls became the highest selling game on the Xbox Live Arcade upon its release . It was also listed as the third best @-@ selling title on the PlayStation Network for April 2012 . The game saw a similar performance in Japan , climbing to the top spot on the PlayStation Network ’ s list of best @-@ selling downloadable PlayStation 3 titles within a week of its release . According to Peter Bartholow , CEO of Lab Zero Games , Skullgirls met Japanese publisher CyberFront 's lifetime sales estimates in the first two weeks of its release .
= Tajik alphabet =
The Tajik language has been written in three alphabets over the course of its history : an adaptation of the Perso @-@ Arabic script ( specifically the Persian alphabet ) , an adaptation of the Latin script , and an adaptation of the Cyrillic script . Any script used specifically for Tajik may be referred to as the Tajik alphabet , which is written as алифбои тоҷикӣ in Cyrillic characters , الفبای تاجیکی with Arabic script , and alifʙoji toçikī in Latin script .
The use of a specific alphabet generally corresponds with stages in history , with Arabic being used first , followed by Latin for a short period and then Cyrillic , which remains the most widely used alphabet in Tajikistan . The Bukhori dialect spoken by Bukharan Jews traditionally used the Hebrew alphabet but more often today is written using the Cyrillic variant .
= = Political context = =
As with many post @-@ Soviet states , the change in writing system and the debates surrounding it is closely intertwined with political themes . Although not having been used since the adoption of Cyrillic , the Latin script is supported by those who wish to bring the country closer to Uzbekistan , which has adopted the Latin @-@ based Uzbek alphabet . [ 1 ] The Persian alphabet is supported by the devoutly religious , Islamists , and by those who wish to bring the country closer to Iran and their Persian heritage . As the de facto standard , the Cyrillic alphabet is generally supported by those who wish to maintain the status quo , and not distance the country from Russia .
= = History = =
As a result of the influence of Islam in the region , Tajik was written in the Persian alphabet up to the 1920s . Until this time , the language was not thought of as separate and simply considered a dialect of the Persian language . The Soviets began by simplifying the Persian alphabet in 1923 , before moving to a Latin @-@ based system in 1927 . [ 2 ] The Latin script was introduced by the Soviet Union as part of an effort to increase literacy and distance the , at that time , largely illiterate population , from the Islamic Central Asia . There were also practical considerations . The regular Persian alphabet , being an abjad , does not provide sufficient letters for representing the vowel system of Tajik . In addition , the abjad is more difficult to learn , each letter having different forms depending on the position in the word . [ 3 ]
The Decree on Romanisation made this law in April , 1928 . [ 4 ] The Latin variant for Tajik was based on the work by Turcophone scholars who aimed to produce a unified Turkic alphabet , [ 5 ] despite Tajik not being a Turkic language . The literacy campaign was successful , with near @-@ universal literacy being achieved by the 1950s .
As part of the " russification " of Central Asia , the Cyrillic script was introduced in the late 1930s . The alphabet remained Cyrillic until the end of the 1980s with the disintegration of the Soviet Union . In 1989 , with the growth in Tajik nationalism , a law was enacted declaring Tajik the state language . In addition , the law officially equated Tajik with Persian , placing the word Fârsi ( the local name for Persian ) after Tajik . The law also called for a gradual reintroduction of the Persian ( Arabic ) alphabet .
The Persian alphabet was introduced into education and public life , although the banning of the Islamic Renaissance Party in 1993 slowed down the adoption . In 1999 , the word Fârsi was removed from the state @-@ language law . [ 6 ] As of 2004 the de facto standard in use is a Cyrillic alphabet , [ 7 ] and as of 1996 only a very small part of the population can read the Persian alphabet . [ 8 ]
= = Variants = =
The letters of the major variants of the Tajik alphabet are presented below , along with their phonetic values . There is also a comparative table below .
= = = Persian alphabet = = =
A variant of the Persian alphabet ( technically an abjad ) is used to write Tajik . In the Tajik version , as with all other versions of the Arabic script , with the exception of ' ا ' ( alef ) , vowels are not given unique letters , but rather optionally indicated with diacritic marks .
= = = Latin = = =
The Latin script was introduced after the Russian Revolution of 1917 in order to facilitate an increase in literacy and distance the language from Islamic influence . Only lowercase letters were found in the first versions of the Latin variant , between 1926 @-@ 9 . A slightly different version used by Jews speaking the Bukhori dialect , who included three extra characters for phonemes not found in the other dialects : ů , ə ̧ , and ḩ . [ 9 ] ( Note that " c " and " ç " are switched relative to their usage in the Turkish alphabet , which has formed the basis for other Latin scripts in the former Soviet Union . )
The unusual character Ƣ is called Gha and represents the phoneme / ɣ / . The character is found in the Common Turkic Alphabet in which most non @-@ Slavic languages of the Soviet Union were written until the late 1930s . The Latin alphabet is not used today , although the adoption of it is advocated by certain groups . [ 10 ]
= = = Cyrillic = = =
The Cyrillic script was introduced in Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic in the late 1930s , replacing the Latin script that had been used since the October Revolution . After 1939 , materials published in Persian in the Persian alphabet were banned from the country . [ 11 ] The alphabet below was supplemented by the letters Щ and Ы in 1952 .
In addition to these thirty @-@ five letters , the letters ц , щ , and ы can be found in loanwords , although they were officially dropped in the 1998 reform , along with the letter ь . Along with the deprecation of these letters , the 1998 reform also changed the order of the alphabet , which now has the characters with diacritics following their unaltered partners , e.g. г , ғ and к , қ etc . [ 12 ] leading to the present order : а б в г ғ д е ё ж з и ӣ й к қ л м н о п р с т у ӯ ф х ҳ ч ҷ ш ъ э ю я . In 2010 it was suggested that the letters е ё ю я might be dropped as well . [ 13 ] The letters е and э have the same function , except that э is used at the beginning of a word ( ex . Эрон , " Iran " ) .
The alphabet includes a number of letters not found in the Russian alphabet :
During the period when the Cyrillicization took place , Ӷ ӷ also appeared a few times in the table of the Tajik Cyrillic alphabet . [ 14 ]
= = = Transliteration standards = = =
The transliteration standards for the Tajik alphabet in Cyrillic into the Latin alphabet are as follows :
Notes to the table above :
ISO 9 — The International Organization for Standardization ISO 9 specification .
KNAB — From the placenames database of the Institute of the Estonian Language .
WWS — From World ’ s Writing Systems , Bernard Comrie ( ed . )
ALA @-@ LC — The standard of the Library of Congress and the American Library Association .
Edward Allworth , ed . Nationalities of the Soviet East . Publications and Writing Systems ( NY : Columbia University Press , 1971 )
BGN / PCGN — The standard of the United States Board on Geographic Names and the Permanent Committee on Geographical Names for British Official Use .
= = = Hebrew = = =
The Hebrew alphabet is , like the Persian alphabet , an abjad . It is used for the Jewish Bukhori dialect primarily in Samarkand and Bukhara . Additionally , since 1940 , when Jewish schools were closed in Central Asia , the use of the Hebrew Alphabet outside Hebrew liturgy fell into disuse and Bukharian Jewish publications such as books and newspapers began to appear using the Tajik Cyrillic Alphabet . Today , many older Bukharian Jews who speak Bukharian and went to Tajik or Russian schools in Central Asia only know the Tajik Cyrillic Alphabet when reading and writing Bukharian and Tajik .
Sample text : דר מוקאבילי זולם איתיפאק נמאייד . מראם נאםה פרוגרמי פירקהי יאש בוכארייאן . – Дар муқобили зулм иттифоқ намоед . Муромнома – пруграми фирқаи ёш бухориён . [ 15 ]
= = Samples = =
= = = Tajik Cyrillic , Tajik Latin and Persian alphabet = = =
For reference , the Arabic variant transliterated letter @-@ for @-@ letter into the Latin script appears as follows :
tmạm ậdmạn ậzạd bh dnyạ my ̱ ậynd w ạz lḥạẓ mnzlt w ḥqwq bạ hm brạbrnd. hmh ṣḥb ʿql w wjdạnnd , bạyd nsbt bh ykdygr brạdrwạr mnạsbt nmạynd .
And the ISO 9 transliteration of the Cyrillic text :
Tamomi odamon ozod ba dunë meoând va az liḩozi manzilatu ḩuķuķ bo ḩam barobarand . Ḩama soḩibi aķlu viçdonand , boâd nisbat ba âkdigar barodarvor munosabat namoând .
= = = Tajik Cyrillic and Persian alphabet = = =
Vowel @-@ pointed Persian includes the vowels that are not usually written .
= = Comparative table = =
A table comparing the different writing systems used for the Tajik alphabet . The Latin here is based on the 1929 standard , the Cyrillic on the revised 1998 standard , and Arabic letters are given in their stand @-@ alone forms .
= Salman Aristo =
Salman Aristo ( born 1976 ) is an Indonesian screenwriter and film director best known for his work on Ayat @-@ Ayat Cinta , Laskar Pelangi , Garuda di Dadaku , and Sang Penari .
Born in Jakarta , Aristo became interested in films from a young age , though he did not consider a career in the industry until after graduating from university . At the suggestion of a friend , he wrote his first screenplay , Tak Pernah Kembali Sama . With feedback on the script from director Rudy Soedjarwo and after a period reading old , successful scripts , Aristo – at the time a film reviewer for a magazine – was able to befriend Hanung Bramantyo , who asked him to write a script about brownies . The resulting film , a critical success , led to Aristo receiving numerous requests for screenplays , including several adaptations of novels . In 2010 , he released his directorial debut , Jakarta Maghrib .
Aristo , who is married to fellow screenwriter Ginatri S. Noer , is influenced by several Western and Indonesian screenwriters , including Woody Allen , Robert Altman , Richard Linklater , Richard Curtis , Arifin C. Noer , and Asrul Sani . He has been nominated for three Citra Awards for screenwriting , although he has yet to win .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and career = = =
Aristo was born in Jakarta in 1976 . As a child , he became interested in film when he and his family went to the movie theatre together ; in an interview with Tabloid Nova , he recalled that one of the first films he saw was a comedy starring Warkop . After beginning junior high school in 1988 , he began to go to the theatres to watch films on his own . Despite his enjoyment of film , he was initially active in an indie band .
After senior high school , Aristo studied journalism at Padjadjaran University in Bandung , from which he graduated in 1999 . While in university , he stayed active in the indie music scene with his band Silentium . After graduation he worked in journalism for a while before drifting to filmmaking upon the suggestion of Dedi Rakswaradana , later guitarist for the band Naff . Several months later , after moving back to Jakarta Aristo 's first screenplay , a 90 @-@ page work titled Tak Pernah Kembali Sama ( Never Been the Same Again ) , was read by director Rudy Soedjarwo . Soedjarwo gave the film several critiques , which drove Aristo to improve his writing .
To do so , beginning in 2002 Aristo began regularly going to Usmar Ismail Film Documentation Center in Kuningan , Jakarta , to read screenplays . Among the works he read were several by Asrul Sani , which he found highly useful ; he later recalled that the script for Kejarlah Daku Kau Kutangkap ( Chase Me , I 'll Catch You ) was one of the best . In the meantime , he took a job as a film reviewer for a local music magazine , which gave him greater access to the industry .
= = = Success and later career = = =
At a seminar , Aristo met director Hanung Bramantyo and showed him one of his screenplays . Bramantyo , who liked what he saw , asked Aristo to write a screenplay for a new film he was working on with Leo Sutanto of SinemArt . The resulting work , written after intensive research into the production of brownies and titled after the snack , was released in 2004 . It garnered a Citra Award for Best Director at the Indonesian Film Festival for Bramantyo and a nomination for best original screenplay for Aristo . While Brownies was in production , Aristo wrote four other screenplays , for Catatan Akhir Sekolah ( Notes from the End of School ) , Cinta Silver ( Silver Love ) , Jomblo ( Single ) , and Alexandria . All of these were made into films between 2005 and 2006 . After these successes , at the end of 2006 Bramantyo asked Aristo and his new wife , screenwriter Ginatri S. Noer , to adapt the novel Ayat @-@ Ayat Cinta ( Verses of Love ) by Habiburrahman El Shirazy , into a film . The resulting work , also entitled Ayat @-@ Ayat Cinta , was highly successful . This was followed by Karma ( 2007 ) , and Kambing Jantan : The Movie ( 2008 ) .
In 2008 , Aristo wrote a film adaptation of Andrea Hirata 's 2005 novel Laskar Pelangi ( Rainbow Troops ) after being asked by the film 's producer , Mira Lesmana . The film , directed by Riri Riza , was a critical and commercial success . He soon wrote another screenplay , for Garuda di Dadaku ( Garuda on my Chest ; 2009 ) upon request of producer Shanty Harmayn . The film , directed by Ifa Isfansyah , reportedly sold 1 @.@ 2 million tickets , a large number for the Indonesian film industry .
Aristo joined Twitter in September 2009 as a way to promote his films . That year , his short film Pasangan Baru ( New Partners ) was screened at the Balinale Film Festival in Sanur , Bali . He also wrote Sang Pemimpi ( The Dreamers ) , a film adaptation of the sequel to Laskar Pelangi . In 2010 he joined the online flash fiction Twitter community Fiksimini . His works , written in under 140 characters , were well received , and he soon became a moderator .
That same year , Aristo was a juror at the Asia Pacific Screen Awards , held in Gold Coast , Queensland , Australia . He also wrote the screenplay for Hari Untuk Amanda with Ginatri S. Noer ( Days for Amanda ) , which earned a Citra Award nomination at the 2010 Indonesian Film Festival . He made his feature film directorial debut that year with Jakarta Maghrib ( Jakarta at Maghrib ) , which details several families in the minutes before Maghrib prayers and how the call to prayer stops their daily activities . It premiered at the Jakarta International Film Festival .
In March 2011 , Aristo published Politweet , an illustrated collection of flash fiction mostly dealing with politics . That same year , he cowrote the screenplay for Sang Penari ( The Dancer ) with Ifa Isfansyah and Shanty Harmayn ; the work was an adaptation of Ahmad Tohari 's trilogy Ronggeng Dukuh Paruk ( The Ronggeng of Paruk Village ) . The trio were nominated for Best Screenplay at that year 's Indonesian Film Festival . Later that year , he wrote Lima Elang ( Five Eagles ) , a film directed by Rudy Soedjarwo . Focusing on five young children at camp , it was one of the first local films in decades to use Scouting as a central theme . Another film , Garuda di Dadaku 2 followed in December . As of 2011 , he and Noer have two children .
Aristo wrote a television adaptation of Laskar Pelangi in late 2011 . Directed by Guntur Soeharjanto , the series starred five youths from Bangka @-@ Belitung and was shown in early 2012 . Later in 2012 , Aristo adapted Ahmad Fuadi 's novel Negeri 5 Menara ( The Land of Five Towers ) into a film of the same name . Directed by Affandi Abdul Rachman , the film also featured Aristo as a producer .
= = Influences = =
In an interview with The Jakarta Post , Aristo called Richard Curtis a large inspiration ; he said that he really enjoyed Curtis ' film The Girl in the Café ( 2005 ) . He also cited Woody Allen , Richard Linklater and Robert Altman as further influences . His experience in journalism may have influenced his directing style .
= = Filmography = =
As writer unless specified .
Brownies ( 2004 )
Catatan Akhir Sekolah ( Notes from the End of School ; 2005 )
Cinta Silver ( Silver Love ; 2005 )
Alexandria ( 2007 )
Jomblo ( Single ; 2007 )
Ayat @-@ Ayat Cinta ( Verses of Love ; 2007 )
Karma ( 2008 )
Laskar Pelangi ( Rainbow Troops ; 2008 )
Kambing Jantan : The Movie ( 2008 )
Sang Pemimpi ( The Dreamers ; 2009 )
Garuda di Dadaku ( Garuda on my Chest ; 2009 )
Pasangan Baru ( New Partners ; 2010 ; short film ; as director )
Hari Untuk Amanda ( Days for Amanda ; 2010 )
Jakarta Maghrib ( Jakarta at Maghrib ; 2010 ; as director )
Sang Penari ( The Dancer ; 2011 )
Lima Elang ( Five Eagles ; 2011 )
Garuda di Dadaku 2 ( Garuda on my Chest 2 ; 2011 )
Negeri 5 Menara ( Land of Five Towers ; 2012 ; as writer and producer )
Ada Cinta Di SMA ( 2016 )
= The Best of Both Worlds ( song ) =
" The Best of Both Worlds " is a pop rock song performed by American singer – songwriter and actress Miley Cyrus , performing as Hannah Montana – the alter ego of Miley Stewart – a character she played on the Disney Channel television series Hannah Montana . It was released as the lead single from the Hannah Montana soundtrack album on March 18 , 2006 . " The Best of Both Worlds " is the theme song for the television series ; in the series ' third season , the 2009 Movie Mix is used as the theme . A live version is available on Hannah Montana & Miley Cyrus : Best of Both Worlds Concert ( 2008 ) , a karaoke version is included in the soundtrack 's karaoke series ( 2008 ) , and the 2009 Movie Mix is featured on Hannah Montana : The Movie soundtrack ( 2009 ) . The song has elements of bubblegum pop and pop rock . Lyrically , it is a showcase of the double life lived by the series ' protagonist Miley Stewart .
" The Best of Both Worlds " is considered to be one of Cyrus ' signature songs , introducing her to the music industry . The song received some critical praise , noting that the song was written well , but the concept was " weird " . " The Best of Both Worlds " reached number ninety @-@ two on the Billboard Hot 100 , making the song only one of two television themes of the decade ( the other being Leave It All to Me by Miranda Cosgrove ) to chart on the Hot 100 , and achieved average commercial success internationally . The song reached its highest international chart peak position in the Irish Singles Chart , at number seventeen . A promotional music video for the song was taken from a recording of a concert performance . Cyrus promoted the song by performing it in several venues , including during the opening act for the Cheetah Girls ' The Party 's Just Begun Tour and as the closing number on her own first headlining concert tour of the same name . Cyrus ' performances of the song on the Best of Both Worlds Tour were as herself , but when she performed the song on television , she did so in character as Hannah Montana .
= = Background = =
" The Best of Both Worlds " is a song that uses out of beat electric guitars , upbeat synths and backing vocals ' . Genre influences come from dance , rock and country music . It is set in common time with a moderately fast tempo of 130 beats per minute . The song is written in the key of C major . Cyrus ' vocals spans from A3 to D5 . The song has the following chord progression , C5 – G5 – D5 – F5 .
The song was written by Matthew Gerrard and Robbie Nevil . The duo wrote three other songs on the Hannah Montana soundtrack and continue writing songs for the franchise , including " Nobody 's Perfect " and " Ice Cream Freeze ( Let 's Chill ) . " Lyrically , the song is one of the three ( " Just Like You " and " The Other Side of Me " ) that explicitly allude to Stewart 's double life as Montana : regular adolescent that moved from Nashville , Tennessee to Malibu , California by day and pop star by night . In the song , Cyrus sings about the privileges and advantages that are faced in leading in two lives with references to Orlando Bloom , concerts , friendship and film premieres .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received generally positive reviews from critics . Heather Phares of Allmusic described the song as having " sharper @-@ than @-@ average songwriting " and one of the best tracks from the Hannah Montana soundtrack . Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly compared the song to the musical styles of Avril Lavigne , Ashlee Simpson and Britney Spears . However , Willman stated that the concept of " The Best of Both Worlds " was " a nice fantasy for Brangelina , but a weird one to push on little girls . "
= = Chart performance = =
The song received mediocre airplay due to it being released to Radio Disney , but not to other mainstream radio stations . The song debuted at number sixty @-@ four on Billboard 's Hot Digital Songs Chart which led to an appearance on the Billboard Hot 100 for the week ending August 12 , 2006 . It debuted and peaked at number ninety @-@ two on the Hot 100 , and stayed on the chart for two weeks . In the same week of its entry on the Hot 100 , the song charted at number seventy @-@ one on the Pop 100 and dropped from the chart the following week .
" The Best of Both Worlds " reached higher peak chart positions in Europe . For the week ending February 22 , 2007 , the song debuted and peaked at number seventeen in the Irish Singles Chart , and dropped out of the chart the following week . The song debuted and peaked at number forty @-@ three on the UK Singles Chart dated Feb. 24 , 2007 , and spent one week on the chart . It became Cyrus 's highest peaking single in the United Kingdom , when credited as Hannah Montana . In 2008 it charted in the German Singles Chart , debuting at number seventy @-@ one and eventually peaking at number sixty @-@ six . It spent a total of seven weeks on the chart .
= = Live performances = =
Cyrus often dressed as the Hannah Montana character when she performed " The Best of Both Worlds " at concerts and promotional television appearances . At the concert taping to promote the first season of Hannah Montana , Cyrus dressed in boots , jeans , a pink @-@ sequinned blouse , khaki jacket , and blonde wig , to perform " The Best of Both Worlds " and five other songs . She also performed complex choreography and acted out several of the song 's lyrics with the background dancers . This performance premiered on Disney Channel as the promotional video for the song and the television series on March 3 , 2006 . On June 23 , 2006 , Cyrus performed the song at Disney 's Typhoon Lagoon . Cyrus performed the song on twenty dates when she opened for the Cheetah Girls ' 2006 concert tour The Party 's Just Begun Tour . On October 23 , 2006 , she performed it on Good Morning America , and the following day , on Live with Regis and Kelly . The following month she performed it at the 2006 Macy 's Thanksgiving Day Parade .
On March 28 , 2007 , Cyrus appeared as Hannah Montana and performed the song for Hannah Montana : Live in London at Koko . The event was televised on several international Disney Channels . On December 20 , 2007 , Cyrus performed the song as herself on The Oprah Winfrey Show . " The Best of Both Worlds " was later performed as the closing number on Cyrus ' first headlining Best of Both Worlds Tour . She performed the song as herself , wearing an all @-@ pink outfit composed of a tank top , plaid mini @-@ skirt , sneakers , and a jacket . She most recently performed " The Best of Both Worlds : The 2009 Movie Mix " , from the Hannah Montana : The Movie soundtrack , with eight other songs , at the concert taping for the third season of Hannah Montana ; the concert was held on October 10 in Irvine , California at the Verizon Wireless Amphitheatre .
= = Track listings = =
= = Charts = =
= Make It Happen ( Mariah Carey song ) =
" Make It Happen " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Mariah Carey . Written and produced by Carey and C + C Music Factory 's David Cole and Robert Clivillés , it was released on April 4 , 1992 , by Columbia Records as the third single from her second studio album , Emotions ( 1991 ) . The pop- , R & B- , and dance @-@ influenced track incorporates traces of gospel in its bridge and crescendo . Described by author Chris Nickson as Carey 's most personal and inspirational song ( up until " Hero " ) , it tells of her personal struggles prior to her rise to fame , and how her faith in God helped sustain her .
The song was praised by music critics , many of whom applauded Carey 's incorporation of several musical genres , as well as the song 's personalized lyrical content . Aside from its critical acceptance , " Make It Happen " was successful in the United States , but charted weakly internationally compared to her previous singles . It peaked at number 5 on the Billboard Hot 100 and finished at number 42 on Billboard 's Year @-@ End Chart . The song reached number 7 in Canada and the top 40 in the United Kingdom and Australia , but did not reach the top 50 in the Netherlands and Germany .
The song 's music video was filmed in a cathedral @-@ like church . A benefit event inside , titled " Save Our Church " , features Carey as the main performer , leading a choir in song as she sings to the constant cheering and applause of the crowd . Aside from the video 's message of prayer and religion , the video features men and women of different backgrounds . Carey included the song on the set lists of all of her concert tours throughout her career , and the track was included on her compilation albums Greatest Hits ( 2001 ) , Playlist : The Very Best of Mariah Carey ( 2010 ) , and The Essential Mariah Carey ( 2012 ) .
= = Background = =
As a child , Carey lived with her mother Patricia in a small apartment on Long Island , New York . They were poor and had to move several times as Patricia found different jobs . As a result , Carey frequently transferred into different schools , and at the age of seventeen , she moved into a small Manhattan studio with other young women to pursue a career in music . She had already begun working on her demo tape with Ben Margulies , a classmate at her school in Huntington , Long Island . During this period , she lived a lifestyle of poverty , often sharing a box of spaghetti with her five roommates and wearing torn shoes . She held several jobs , while juggling school , writing , and recording music .
After graduating from high school , Carey invested more time into her music while working sporadically at different jobs . She began working for Puerto Rican singer Brenda K. Starr as a background singer , hoping to find new opportunities and meet important record executives along the way . At a gala for Sony executives , Starr gave a copy of Carey 's demo tape to Tommy Mottola , CEO of Columbia Records . Mottola was sufficiently impressed with the tape to sign Carey to the label . Two years later in 1991 , Carey was well under way writing and recording material for her second studio album , Emotions ( 1991 ) . During the months spent conceptualizing the album , Carey decided to write a song that would illustrate her lifestyle prior to her success . She felt listeners ' hearing her rags @-@ to @-@ riches story might inspire them to pursue their dreams . As a result , Carey wrote what was described by author Chris Nickson as her " most inspirational song " ( up until " Hero " ) , titled " Make It Happen " .
= = Composition = =
Following the success of her self @-@ titled debut album , Carey desired to pen her personal struggles prior to her signing with Columbia . She hoped to give her fans an idea of what her life two years prior and to instill relief or inspiration in them . In the song , Carey sings " Not more than three short years ago / I was abandoned and alone / Without a penny to my name / So very young and so afraid / No proper shoes upon my feet / Sometimes I couldn 't even eat / I often cried myself to sleep . " Later in the song , Carey sings " But still I had to keep on going / I struggled and I prayed / And finally found my way , " retelling how her faith helped guide her until her career blossomed and expressing to listeners the importance of finding and connecting with God . Author Chris Nickson wrote the following regarding the song , its lyrics and composition :
That wasn 't just a faith in herself and her talent , but also the ability to let herself go , to pray to God , and to trust in what would happen . These were , by far , her most inspiring words to date , letting others know that no matter what they were doing , no matter how difficult things were , with help they would win through . Musically , the piece had a restrained dance beat , very Mowtownish , that owed a little more to gospel , with a chorus - sung by Mariah , Trey and Patrique - that rose gloriously from the verse to repeat and drive and its very positive message home .
" Make It Happen " is a dance track that draws influence from pop , R & B , gospel , and dance @-@ pop genres ; its tempo is 108 beats per minute . The song was written and produced by Carey and C + C Music Factory 's David Cole and Robert Clivillés , and it was released as the third and final single from her second studio album , Emotions . It employs several musical instruments , including the piano , guitar , bass , organ , and tambourine . Additionally , Carey incorporated a church choir into the track 's bridge , which , according to Nickson , helped the song become even more of an anthem . The song is set in common time and is composed in the key of D major . Carey 's vocal range spans from the low @-@ note of C3 to the high @-@ note of G5 , while the song 's chorus follows a chord progression of Gsus2 – G – G / F ♯ – Em7 – G / D – C – G / B – Am7 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" Make It Happen " has received acclaim from music critics , many of whom complimented its uplifting lyrical content . Allmusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine named the song one of his top two picks from Emotions , while Jon Pareles from The New York Times called it an " uplifting pop @-@ gospel homily " . Steve Morse of The Boston Globe wrote : " [ Its ] positive message also soars through a gospel rearrangement . After hearing it , we understand why [ Carey named ] gospel star Shirley Caesar ... such a strong influence " . In a different review of the album , Morse called " Make It Happen " " glorious " and described it as " a clear slice of spiritual autobiography " . In a review for Carey 's Greatest Hits in December 2001 , Devon Powers from PopMatters called the song 's lyrics " power through prayer " and described some of its vocals as having " churchy overtones " . Rob Tannenbaum from Rolling Stone described the track as " a teary tale of how she kept her religious faith despite hard times " , while complimenting its " overheated [ vocal ] growling . " Chicago Tribune editor Jan DeKnock called it " upbeat " and " inspirational " , while Mellisa A. Jacque from the St. Petersburg Times wrote " Carey evokes a deep @-@ felt strength and love for life , and the music has a jazzy feel in its sparsity " . Chicago Sun @-@ Times critic Michael Corcoran called it a " so @-@ so composition " and described it as a " zombie dance @-@ pop " production , though he said the song was salvaged by Carey 's " stunning vocals " .
= = = Copyright lawsuit = = =
Carey , Cole , Clivillés and Sony Music Entertainment were sued in June 1994 by songwriter Kevin McCord , who accused the party of incorporating significant musical elements from his 1979 song , " I Want to Thank You " , into " Make It Happen " . McCord said , " If you listen to the chords at the beginning of the song , the similarity is obvious . It 's the exact same chords in a different key " ; he also noted lyrical similarities . Carey 's side initially claimed McCord had no standing to sue , but McCord 's attorney showed the song 's copyright owners had transferred their legal interest in " I Want to Thank You " to McCord " in an effort to adjudicate their claims " . Though a Carey spokesperson maintained the copyright infringement allegations were false , McCord said he had turned down settlement offers from Carey 's camp . McCord eventually accepted a settlement offer of about US $ 500 @,@ 000 .
= = Chart performance = =
Carey 's debut album sold over 15 million copies globally and produced four chart @-@ topping singles on the Billboard Hot 100 . Although " Emotions " became Carey 's fifth chart @-@ topping single in the US , sales for the album , Emotions , stalled . As sales of Emotions continued to plummet , Columbia released " Make It Happen " as the third worldwide single from the album . Following a strong promotional boost for the song , it only peaked at number 5 on the Hot 100 , becoming Carey 's lowest charting US single to that point . It remained in the top 40 for 16 weeks and was ranked at number 42 on Billboard 's 1992 Year @-@ End Chart . On the February 22 , 1992 , issue of RPM , " Make It Happen " debuted at number 97 on the Canadian singles chart . On May 16 , the song reached its peak position of number 7 , staying in the singles chart for 19 weeks .
The song 's charting throughout Australia and Europe was weak in comparison to Carey 's previous singles . On the May 10 , 1992 , Australian Singles Chart , " Make It Happen " debuted at number 45 . The following week , it rose to its peak of number 35 , and spent five weeks within the chart . Similarly , in the Netherlands , the song attained a peak of 59 and spent only five weeks in the Dutch Top 100 . The song entered the UK Singles Chart at number 20 on the week ending April 18 , 1992 . The following week , the song rose three spots to its peak position and charted for five weeks . " Make It Happen " was awarded a BMI Pop Award in 1992 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Make It Happen " was directed by Marcus Nispel and features Carey performing at a closing church . A benefit being depicted within , titled " Save Our Church " , involves several other churchgoers who have congregated there to raise money through song . As the video begins , inspectors enter the building , searching the premises prior to its closing . Soon after , however , Carey makes her way to the stage with a few background singers and is soon joined inside the edifice by swarming groups of religious individuals . As she begins playing the song , an additional choir forms on the small stage with several small children on the upper tiers . Several musicians enter the room as the video progresses .
Towards the video 's climax , the crowd cheers Carey and begin clapping and chanting praises . Nispel said he added additional raw sounds , such as cheers , praises , and shouts , into the video in order make it feel like a " real , live experience " . In his biography of Carey , Nickson noted the inclusion of men , women , and children of different races and ages : " The video tried to incorporate and further the song 's image of religious belief and racial equality . The audience , as they filled into the dusty and deserted building , was made up of the widest cross section possible : old and young ( with a strong emphasis on the children ) , abled and disabled , all races and color . "
= = Live performances = =
Carey has performed " Make It Happen " on live television , during charity appearances , and on numerous concert tours . Her first live performance of the song was an acoustic version on the television show MTV Unplugged in 1992 , which was later released on the EP entitled MTV Unplugged ( 1992 ) . Carey 's performance was recorded on March 16 , 1992 , at Kaufman Astoria Studios in Queens , New York . The show featured several musicians , back @-@ up vocalists , and a crew of ten just for the filming and recording . The show was directed by Larry Jordan , who had previously worked with Carey on the music video set for " Someday " . Nickson felt the song was superior to the studio version , due to its stripped performance and vocals :
The roughness of this version succeeded in a way the recorded version on ' Emotions ' could never manage . In the sterile atmosphere of a studio , where perfection , technology , and overdubbing were the rules , spontaneity had no place . On the stage , it was valued , and this performance had it . Everyone pushed everyone just a little further , to create something wonderful , and judging by the response , the audience realized it , as did Mariah when the song was finished . It was a rare moment , one that true performers strive for and don 't find often enough to satisfy themselves .
Carey performed " Make It Happen " at an intimate concert at Proctor Theatre in New York on July 15 , 1993 . The concert was released as the home video Here Is Mariah Carey ( 1993 ) . At the VH1 Divas taping in 1998 , Carey was the opening performer of the event , and after " My All " , her single at the time , she followed with " Make It Happen " . As during the usual live performances of the song , a gospel choir accompanied her . On July 2 , 2005 , a benefit concert was held in Hyde Park , London , titled Live 8 . The televised event was watched by over 9 @.@ 6 million Britons and attended by over 200 @,@ 000 . Carey performed a three song set list , opening with " Make It Happen " followed by " Hero " and " We Belong Together " , featuring a live choir of African children during the first two songs . On April 12 , 2005 , Carey performed the song as part of a three @-@ song concert for Good Morning America , drawing the biggest crowd in Times Square since December 2004 . Following a live rendition of " It 's Like That " with Jermaine Dupri , Carey was joined on stage by several male and female vocalists , all wearing white gowns and serving as a gospel choir . Similarly , on October 2 , 2009 , Carey played a four @-@ song set list at Rockefeller Center for a taping of The Today Show . " Make It Happen " was performed with a church choir and children 's quartet .
Aside from the televised appearances and charity events , " Make It Happen " was featured on the set lists of several of Carey 's world tours . The song was routinely performed on the Music Box Tour and the Daydream World Tour in 1993 and early @-@ mid 1996 , respectively . During her first show at Japan 's Tokyo Dome on March 7 , 1996 , Carey performed the song alongside a twenty @-@ five person choir and several additional musicians and background vocalists . " Make It Happen " was featured on Carey 's Butterfly World Tour in early 1998 , during which she was joined on stage by several choir members and musicians . Similarly , two years later , the song was placed as the ninth song on the set list during select dates of her Rainbow World Tour . Similar set @-@ ups were featured for her following Charmbracelet World Tour and The Adventures of Mimi Tour , where church choirs were brought out for the song , in addition to additional background vocalists and musicians . In the Angels Advocate Tour , the song served as a dancer 's interlude ; Carey entered during the bridge of the song . On September 26 , 2010 , during the song 's performance in a show in Singapore for that tour , Carey slipped on stage , and the small slip was blamed on Carey 's US $ 10 @,@ 000 heels . She asked her assistant to remove them and completed the concert barefoot .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Skyline Studios , Electric Lady Studios and Axis Studios , NYC .
Mixed at Axis Studios , NYC .
Personnel
Lyrics – Mariah Carey
Music – Mariah Carey , David Cole , Robert Clivillés
Production – Mariah Carey , David Cole , Robert Clivillés
Programming – Alan Friedman ( for YIPE ! )
Mixing – Bob Rosa
Engineers – Acar S. Key , John Mathias
Keyboards – David Cole
Guitar – Paul Pesco
Drum programming – David Cole , Robert Clivillés
Vocal arrangement – Mariah Carey , David Cole
Background vocals – Mariah Carey , Trey Lorenz , Patrique McMillan
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Emotions .
= = Charts = =
= Phaeacius =
Phaeacius is a spider genus of the family Salticidae ( jumping spiders ) , found in sub @-@ tropical China and between India and the Malay Peninsula , including Sri Lanka , Sumatra and the Philippines . Although other spiders can jump , salticids including Phaeacius have significantly better vision than other spiders , and their main eyes are more acute in daylight than a cat 's and 10 times more acute than a dragonfly 's . The main eyes focus accurately on an object at distances from approximately 2 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) to infinity , and in practice can see up to about 75 centimetres ( 30 in ) .
While most jumping spiders are active hunters , Phaeacius is unusually sedentary , generally resting in its unusual flattened pose for hours or days on logs , tree barks , pieces of wood or any other solid surface , where it is very well camouflaged . Its preferred prey is moths and other insects , and jumping spiders . Insects can usually move around an inactive Phaeacius , or even over its body , but if the insect moves between the spider 's first pair of legs , Phaeacius lunges extremely quickly to bite the prey . Sometimes Phaeacius takes a more active approach , especially if without prey for a week or more . Phaeacius does not enter webs voluntary , and moves away if it touches one accidentally . It can bite through the threads and pull strongly with its legs , but cannot escape from very sticky webs .
The closest relatives of Phaeacius are in the genus Holcolaetis , and the next closest genera are Portia and Spartaeus .
= = Body structure = =
Spiders are chelicerates , which differ from other arthropods in that the usual body segments are fused into only two tagmata , the cephalothorax and abdomen . Jumping spiders have a distinctive rectangular carapace . : 51 All spiders ' abdomens bear appendages that have been modified into spinnerets that extrude silk from up to six types of silk glands within their abdomen . The cephalothorax and abdomen are joined by a small , cylindrical pedicel , which allows the abdomen to move while spinning silk . : 571 – 574 While most jumping spiders do not build webs to catch prey , they use silk for other purposes , including moulting and laying eggs . : 495
The whole body of Phaeacius is 7 @.@ 5 to 11 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 30 to 0 @.@ 45 in ) long , and notably flattened , including the carapace , while the carapaces of some other groups are raised . : 495 The cepholothorax of Phaeacius ′ is relatively long , and the highest point is a little behind the last pair of eyes . : 204 , 206 @-@ 208 Phaeacius is very well camouflaged ; for example , P. malayensis has a body with dull grey and brown markings that resemble the surface of tree trunks in the rainforest .
Jumping spiders generally have large forelegs and short , powerful back legs , and can leap up to 50 times their own length by powerfully extending the third or fourth pairs of legs . : 578 : 495 In spiders and other chelicerates , there is only one pair of appendages before the mouth , and in spiders these are modified into fangs that inject poison into the prey . Behind the mouth is a pair of pedipalps ( " palps " for short ) , and those of male spiders are quite large and are used for displaying and mating .
= = Senses = =
Jumping spiders have eight eyes , the two large ones in the centre @-@ and @-@ front position ( the anterior @-@ median eyes , also called " principal eyes " : 51 ) providing acute vision and housed in tubes in the head . The other six are secondary eyes , positioned along the sides of the carapace and acting mainly as movement detectors . : 16 While the middle pair of secondary eyes in most jumping spiders are small , those of Phaeacius and other members of the sub @-@ family Spartaeinae are almost as large as the other secondary eyes . Although other spiders can jump , salticids including Phaeacius have significantly better vision than other spiders , : 521 and their main eyes are more acute in daylight than a cat 's and 10 times more acute than a dragonfly 's . The main eyes focus accurately on an object at distances from approximately 2 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) to infinity , : 51 and in practice can see up to about 75 centimetres ( 30 in ) . : 53
Spiders , like other arthropods , have sensors , often modified setae ( bristles ) , protruding through their cuticle ( " skin " ) for smell , taste , touch and vibration . : 532 – 533 Unlike insects , spiders and other chelicerates do not have antennae .
= = Movement and being undetected = =
While most jumping spiders walk quickly , in a stop @-@ go gait and jumping over obstacles , the movements of Phaeacius are very unusual . Phaeacius usually uses a " flattened posture " head @-@ down on a vertical surface , with the body , legs and palps pressed against the surface , the hindmost legs upwards and the other legs downwards , : 496 – 497 and its markings and flattened body make it easily hidden against the bark of a tree trunk . Its habit of walking with its body and legs flattened against a surface helps Phaeacius to be unobtrusive .
= = Feeding and defence = =
While almost all jumping spiders are predators , mostly preying on insects , on other spiders , and on other arthropods , Phaeacius does not use the usual hunting tactics . : 502 Most jumping spiders walk throughout the day , so that they maximise their chances of a catch , and jump on their prey and then bite it . Unlike most jumping spiders , Phaeacius and other spartaeines do not leap on prey , but lunge from about half the predator 's body length away .
Phaeacius is unusually sedentary for a jumping spider , generally resting in the flattened pose for hours or days on logs , pieces of wood or any other solid surface , : 502 and captures particular types of prey more often when the predator matches this background . Insects can usually move around an inactive Phaeacius , or even over its body or legs . However , if the insect moves between the spider 's first pair of legs , Phaeacius lunges extremely quickly , driving its body upward 2 to 3 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 079 to 0 @.@ 118 in ) and forward about half the length of its body . The lunge ends with the spider 's fangs in the prey and often with the foremost two pairs of legs forming a basket over the prey . When the prey stops struggling , Phaeacius resumes the flattened pose and then feeds . : 502
However , Phaeacius can adopt other , more active approaches , with different gaits for each . If an insect remains almost stationary while Phaeacius is in the flattened pose and facing the insect , the spider may step slowly forward to its prey , rocking and keeping its flattened pose . To rock , Phaeacius moves about half a body length forward then , without pausing , smoothly back almost to the previous position . It performs about 10 cycles of those movements , progressing by 1 to 2 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 039 to 0 @.@ 079 in ) per cycle , and then rests . : 502 – 504 This rocking motion may disguise Phaeacius as shadows on the tree trunk . : 514 – 515 The insect occasionally keeps stationary until Phaeacius reaches within about half a body length and then lunges . : 502 – 504
When hunting other jumping spiders and when the background matches its coloration , Phaeacius uses " insinuation " , in which it waits , sometimes up to an hour , while a jumping spider moves around nearby , and then Phaeacius suddenly turns up to 180 ° toward the prey and then resumes the flattened pose . Phaeacius then moves a few millimetres toward the prey and resumes the flattened pose . If the prey moves away , Phaeacius continues the insinuation manoeuvre , but if the prey moves toward it , Phaeacius lunges . Other jumping spiders show no awareness of a flattened Phaeacius on a matching background , and apparently survive by luck . : 502 – 504 When the background does not matches Phaeacius ′ coloration , other jumping spiders recognise Phaeacius as a threat .
Sometimes , especially if without prey for a week or more , Phaeacius may approach insects faster , from 50 to 100 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) away , and if necessary turning round to face the prey . Often Phaeacius then adopts the flattened pose after the turn , but sometimes it walks faster than usual and , without pausing , lunges from about half its body length . : 502 – 504
In a test on a background matching its own coloration , Phaeacius was most successful against other salticids and then against moths , and was also successful against flies and hunting spiders . On a non @-@ matching background , Phaeacius was most successful against moths .
Phaeacius does not try to eat other spiders ' eggs , does not enter webs voluntarily , and moves away if it touches one accidentally . It can bite through the threads and pull strongly with its legs , but cannot escape from very sticky webs . : 502 This behaviour is quite different from that of its close relative , Portia , which hunts actively and can enter any type of web to catch spiders and their eggs . : 491
When disturbed , some jumping spiders usually run away quickly and leap if chased . Phaeacius stays in its flattened posture unless harassed , when it runs quickly for about 100 to 300 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 to 11 @.@ 8 in ) and then adopts the flattened
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posture , and finally walks away about 10 minutes later . : 499 – 500
= = Reproduction = =
Before courtship , male spiders spin a small web and ejaculate on to it , and then store the semen in reservoirs on his pedipalps , : 581 – 583 which are larger than those of females . : 572 – 573 Phaeacius spins a flimsy silken , horizontal or vertical platform , about twice the spider 's length in diameter , to moult and lay eggs , but not at other times . After the moult , Phaeacius leaves the discarded exuvia hanging from the platform . A female 's egg sac is placed in a shallow cavity on the surface of a log . : 495
= = Taxonomy and distribution = =
Phaeacius is a spider genus of the Salticidae family ( jumping spiders ) . Phaeacius is in the subfamily Spartaeinae , which is thought to be primitive . : 491 Molecular phylogeny , a technique that compares the DNA of organisms to reconstruct the tree of life , indicates that Phaeacius is a member of the clade Spartaeinae , that Spartaeinae is basal ( quite similar to the ancestors of all jumping spiders ) , and that Phaeacius ′ s closest relative is the genus Holcolaetis , and that the next closest are Portia and Spartaeus . : 53
The genus is found in sub @-@ tropical China and between India and Malaya , including Sri Lanka , Sumatra and the Philippines .
= = Species = =
Phaeacius alabangensis Wijesinghe , 1991 — Philippines
Phaeacius azarkinae Prószyński & Deeleman @-@ Reinhold , 2010 — Sumbawa
Phaeacius biramosus Wijesinghe , 1991 — Sumatra
Phaeacius canalis Wanless , 1981 — Philippines
Phaeacius fimbriatus Simon , 1900 — Nepal , Java
Phaeacius hampi Freudenschuss & Seiter , 2016 — Philippines
Phaeacius lancearius ( Thorell , 1895 ) — India , Myanmar
Phaeacius leytensis Wijesinghe , 1991 — Philippines
Phaeacius mainitensis Barrion & Litsinger , 1995 — Philippines
Phaeacius malayensis Wanless , 1981 — China , Malaysia , Singapore , Sumatra
Phaeacius saxicola Wanless , 1981 — Nepal
Phaeacius wanlessi Wijesinghe , 1991 — Nepal , Sri Lanka
Phaeacius yixin Zhang & Li , 2005 — China
Phaeacius yunnanensis Peng & Kim , 1998 — China
= Førde Airport , Øyrane =
Førde Airport , Øyrane ( IATA : FDE , ICAO : ENFD ; Norwegian : Førde lufthavn , Øyrane ) was a regional airport located at Øyrane in Førde , Norway . The municipal airport first opened as a water aerodrome , receiving a runway in 1970 . Scheduled services started the following year , with Widerøe providing flights to Bergen with the de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 6 Twin Otter . In addition , Førdefly and Airlift operated general aviation services from the airport . Førde Airport , Øyrane was located in the middle of an industrial area and had severe safety shortcomings , such as lacking an instrument landing system and had a control tower without sight of the entire runway . Øyrane was therefore replaced with Førde Airport , Bringeland in 1986 .
= = History = =
Large @-@ scale construction of airports in Norway started in the 1950s , largely funded by the North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) . Bergen Airport , Flesland opened in 1955 , followed by Ålesund Airport , Vigra in 1958 . The first plans for an airport in Sunnfjord were launched by Engineer Arne Bengtsen , who proposed building an airfield in Florø and having Vestlandske Luftfartsselskap operate to it using the Scottish Aviation Twin Pioneer . Construction started in 1956 , but was halted after the airline could not guarantee operations during winter .
A committee , led by Erik Himle and later Preben Munthe , was appointed in 1962 to consider additional airports in Norway . The Sud Aviation Caravelle was about to the phased into use on the main domestic routes and the committee recommended in 1964 that nine new airports be built which could serve jetliners , including one airport in Florø . Widerøe came with an alternative proposal and suggested that a network of smaller airports be built instead , which could be served using short take @-@ off and landing aircraft , which were being developed at the time . Smaller airports could be built and operated at lower cost than larger airports , but both airports and airlines would need subsidies to operate . Håkon Kyllingmark was appointed Minister of Transport and Communications in 1965 and was a proponent of the STOLport proposal . The political rationale was that , despite that the total operating costs would rise , it would provide better services to rural areas and thus keep up their population .
The regional airports only received a simple terminal and a 800 @-@ meter ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) runway . The first such airports were opened in Helgeland in 1968 . Førde was declared as a " center of growth " in 1965 , which resulted in a series of public agencies and industrial enterprises being built in the town . The selection of Førde was tied to its central location within Sogn og Fjordane , as it was within a two @-@ hour drive from nearly the entire county . Immediately after the appointment , the Industrial Development Corporation of Norway started establishing an industrial facility at Øyrane . An industrial park opened 1968 , which included a shipyard . The surplus earthwork from dredging the port facilities was used to fill in land for a runway . The process went so quickly that the municipal council had not made a formal decision to build the airport before the groundwork was completed .
Andreas Hjelmeland established Førdefly in 1966 as the second airline based in Sogn og Fjordane . Førdefly never received a concession to operate scheduled services ; instead it flew a daily charter flight to Bergen Airport . The airline established a water aerodrome at Øyrane at the mouth of the river Jølstra . The aerodrome had a passenger and freight terminal , a quay , a hangar and a control tower . The municipality received permission from the Ministry of Transport and Communications in mid 1970 to operate a municipal airport , and chose to use the terminal facilities operated by Førdefly . Construction of the runway cost 1 @.@ 3 million Norwegian krone and the first aircraft landed on the strip on 14 July 1970 . Scheduled services commenced on 1 July 1971 , the same day as Florø Airport , Sogndal Airport , Haukåsen and Ørsta @-@ Volda Airport , Hovden opened .
From before the airport was built it was evident that the location was not well suited , and planning of an alternative location for the airport began in 1968 . The main concern was that the airport lacked an instrument landing system and could thus only be used during daylight and good weather . The first alternative location proposal was for Langelandsåsen , but was discarded by the Civil Aviation Administration because of the poor weather conditions . Later proposals were Espelandsmyrene and then Alværa on the Sognefjord . By 1972 , the CAA had concluded that there probably was not a suitable location for an airport near Førde and recommended that the town instead by served by Florø Airport , located 70 kilometers ( 43 mi ) away .
Bringelandsåsen , located 16 kilometers ( 10 mi ) south of town , in the neighboring municipality of Gaular , was proposed by the CAA in 1974 . Plans were developed , and in 1983 the Ministry of Transport and Communications recommended that Øyrane be closed and replaced with an all @-@ new airport at Bringeland . Construction started in 1985 and the new airport opened on 31 August 1986 , taking over all scheduled traffic . The helicopter operator Airlift was established in 1986 and was based at Øyrane until 1988 , when it also moved to Bringeland . The terminal building at Øyrane remains , including the control tower and wharfs , although the runway and taxiway have been demolished to make way for industry . A small part of the runway close to the marina remains as a parking lot .
= = Facilities = =
Førde Airport , Øyrane was located in the industrial area Øyrane , immediately west of the town center of Førde . The terminal facilities were located on the shore of the river of Jølstra and consisted of a control tower , a passenger terminal , a hangar for Førdefly and a wharf used by the seaplanes . The airport was owned by Førde Municipality . It consisted of a single 790 @-@ by @-@ 30 @-@ meter ( 2 @,@ 592 by 98 ft ) asphalt runway aligned 14 – 32 and with a 85 @-@ meter ( 279 ft ) stopway on each end . The runway length was limited by the fjord to the north and by National Road 5 to the south . From the northern end of the runway , a taxiway ran due south about 400 meters ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) to the terminal .
The airport had very poor operating conditions . Whenever an aircraft was to land , the cranes at the shipyard had to be moved to allow sufficient clearance . Conversely , the airport could not be used when ships were launched . The industrial buildings were located just next to the taxiway . The control tower was located such that it did not have visual sight of the entire runway . The surrounding terrain , consisting of deep fjords , mountains and a town , made it impossible to install an instrument landing system . This again meant that the airport could only be served during daylight . The airport never received a permanent operating license .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
Øyrane was served by Widerøe , which held the permission to operate all subsidized routes on the regional network . Widerøe served the airport with its fleet of 19 @-@ passenger de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 6 Twin Otter aircraft and provided flights to Bergen Airport , Flesland in multi @-@ legged flights which included other towns in Sogn og Fjordane . Airlift and Førdefly were also based at the airport for periods , although neither operated any scheduled services .
= Me Against the World =
Me Against the World is the third studio album by American hip hop artist 2Pac . It was released March 14 , 1995 on the Interscope Records label . It was his impending prison sentence , troubles with the police and Shakur being poor , which many believe might have contributed to Shakur 's artistic reemergence on record , as his material is believed by Steve Huey of AllMusic to have become markedly more " confessional " , " reflective " , and " soul @-@ baring " .
Me Against the World , released while Shakur was imprisoned , made an immediate impact on the charts , debuting at number one on the Billboard 200 . This made Shakur the first artist to have an album debut at number one on Billboard 200 while serving time in prison . The album served as one of Shakur 's most positively reviewed albums , with many calling it the magnum opus of his career , and is considered one of the greatest and most influential hip hop albums of all @-@ time . Me Against the World won best rap album at the 1996 Soul Train Music Awards .
= = Background = =
In 1993 , Tupac Shakur was already a success in the hip hop industry , with two gold @-@ certified singles that reached the top twenty on the pop charts ( " I Get Around " , " Keep Ya Head Up " ) , and a platinum @-@ selling sophomore album that would peak just inside the top twenty @-@ five of the Billboard 200 ( Strictly 4 My N.I.G.G.A.Z. ) . However , the 22 @-@ year @-@ old artist had a series of incidents and charges of breaking the law . In the summer of 1993 , Shakur was charged for assaulting director Allen Hughes while filming Menace II Society ; Shakur was later sentenced to fifteen days in jail . Later , in October 1993 , Shakur was charged with shooting two off @-@ duty police officers in Atlanta , though the charges would eventually be dismissed . In November , Shakur and two members of his entourage were charged with sexually assaulting a female fan , for which , 2Pac was the main person who was found guilty of sexual assault charges , including sodomy , in which he was sentenced to 1 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 5 years in Clinton Correctional Facility and Rikers ' Island , a maximum state penitentiary . According to Shakur , the album was made to show the hip hop audience his respect for the art form . Lyrically , Shakur intentionally tried to make the album more personal and reflective than his previous efforts .
= = Recording and production = =
The musical production on the album was considered by several music critics to be the best on any of Shakur 's albums up to that point in his career . Steve " Flash " Juon at RapReviews gave the production on the album a perfect 10 of 10 rating , particularly praising tracks like " So Many Tears " and " Temptations " . Jon Pareles of the New York Times remarked that the production had a " fatalistic calm , in a commercial mold " . He compared the album 's production and synthesized hooks to that of Dr. Dre 's G @-@ funk style , stating that " while 2Pac doesn 't sing , other voices do , providing smooth melody " . James Bernard at Entertainment Weekly was not quite as enthusiastic about the album 's production , remarking that Shakur 's " vocals are buried deep in the mix . That 's a shame — if they were more in @-@ your @-@ face , the lackluster beats might be less noticeable . " The album 's recording sessions took place at ten different studios , while it was mastered at Bernie Grundman Mastering . Although the album was originally released on Interscope . Amaru Entertainment , the label owned by Shakur 's mother Afeni Shakur , has since released the album twice .
= = Lyrical Themes = =
It was like a blues record . It was down @-@ home . It was all my fears , all the things I just couldn 't sleep about . Everybody thought I was living so well and doing so good that I wanted to explain it . And it took a whole album to get it all out . I get to tell my innermost , darkest secrets I tell my own personal problems .
Some of the album 's main themes concern the loss of innocence , paranoia , and occasional self @-@ loathing . Much attention is paid to subjects such as the pain of urban survival . Not all of the music deals with such extremely bleak subject matter , however . Some tracks , such as " Old School " , lean more to the nostalgic , though somewhat bittersweet side in Shakur 's remembrance of his youth and the early days of hip hop music . The album is also well known for the more sensitive tracks " Dear Mama " and " Can U Get Away " , which are both directed towards and reveal Shakur 's devotion to the women he loves . On " Dear Mama " , Shakur pays tribute to and expresses his undying affection for his own mother , continuously reminding her that though his actions might sometimes seem to state otherwise , " you are appreciated " . On the track " Can U Get Away " , Shakur attempts to impress a woman who has managed to gain his affections , away from the woman 's abusive relationship . Four of the most eerie and revered tracks on the album are " If I Die 2Nite " , " Lord Knows " " Outlaw " which directly references the shooting that Tupac went through before it happened , and " Fuck The World " . Throughout the entirety of the album Shakur employs various poetical deliveries , ranging from alliteration ( " If I Die 2Nite " ) , to the use of paired couplets ( " Lord Knows " ) .
= = Singles = =
" Dear Mama " was released as the album 's first single in February 1995 , along with the track " Old School " as the B @-@ side . " Dear Mama " would be the album 's most successful single , topping the Hot Rap Singles chart , and peaking at the ninth spot on the Billboard Hot 100 . The single was certified platinum in July 1995 , and later placed at number 51 on the year @-@ end charts .
The second single , " So Many Tears " , was released in June , four months after the first single . The single would reach the number six spot on the Hot Rap Singles chart , and the 44th on the Billboard Hot 100 .
" Temptations " , released in August , was the third and final single from the album . The single would be the least successful of the three released , but still did fairly well on the charts , reaching number 68 on the Billboard Hot 100 , 35 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles & Tracks , and 13 on the Hot Rap Singles charts .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
In a contemporary review , Cheo H. Coker at Rolling Stone called the album Shakur 's best and said it was " by and large a work of pain , anger and burning desperation — [ it ] is the first time 2Pac has taken the conflicting forces tugging at his psyche head @-@ on " . Jon Pareles , writing in The New York Times , called Shakur the " St. Augustine of gangster rap " due to his ambivalence towards the behavior and nature of the gangster lifestyle . In a negative review , Robert Christgau of The Village Voice felt that Shakur is " witless " when dealing with fundamental hip hop themes of persecution and accused him of " self @-@ pity " : " The subtext of his persecution complex is his self @-@ regard " . " This may be the first hip @-@ hop blues LP , " observed Matt Hall in Select . " Not so much in the music , although the harp blasts owe more to Howlin ' Wolf than Tupac 's previous two solo efforts , but more with Shakur 's vocals , which are at once rebellious and resigned . . . . Me Against the World is a statement of intent , a note from the depths of America , and a fine , thoughtful LP . "
Jaleel Abdul @-@ Adil of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times stated that " 2Pac 's latest also mixes toughness and tenderness . Desperation follows raw anger on " Fuck the World " and " It Ain 't Easy , " but most tracks confess frailties beneath the rapper 's tough exterior . " Dear Mama " is a tear @-@ jerking tribute to his mother ' " Lord Knows " discloses desperate considerations of suicide , and " So Many Tears " ponders a merciless world that wrecks young lives . 2Pac even includes a sorrowful " shout @-@ out " to Robert Sandifer , the Chicago teenager whose brief life ended in a brutal shooting . After earlier releases that lacked focus and consistency , 2Pac finally presents a polished project of self @-@ examination and social commentary . It 's ironic that it arrives as his sentence begins . "
= = = Retrospect = = =
In a retrospective review , AllMusic editor Steve Huey dubbed the album " [ Shakur 's ] most thematically consistent , least self @-@ contradicting work " , and stated , " it may not be his definitive album , but it just might be his best " . Steve " Flash " Juon of RapReview seemed to feel differently , remarking that the album " is not only the quintessential Shakur album , but one of the most important rap albums released in the 1990s as a whole " . Rap / Hip @-@ Hop Expert Henry Adaso from rap.about.com named it the 2nd best rap album from 1995 and then stating " Me Against The World was 2Pac at his very best : no excessive thug braggarts , no name @-@ inscribed lyrical missiles aimed at New York rivals . In fact , he stops to pay homage to rap pioneers on " Old School , " irrespective of region . "
On MTV 's Greatest Rappers of All Time list , Me Against the World was listed as one of 2Pac 's " certified classic " albums , along with 2Pacalypse Now , All Eyez On Me and The Don Killuminati : The 7 Day Theory . " One of the best five rap albums ever , " remarked Mojo , after Shakur 's death .
= = = Accolades = = =
In 1996 , at the 38th Grammy Awards , Me Against the World was nominated for Best Rap Album and the single " Dear Mama " was nominated for Best Rap Solo Performance . In 2008 , the National Association of Recording Merchandisers , in conjunction with the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , recognized Me Against the World as one of the " most influential and popular albums " , ranking it number 170 on a list of 200 other albums by artists of various musical genres .
• The information regarding accolades is adapted from Acclaimed Music , except for lists that are sourced otherwise . • ( * ) signifies unordered lists
= = = Commercial performance = = =
The album debuted at the number one spot on the Billboard 200 chart and stayed there for 4 weeks straight , it sold 240 @,@ 000 copies in the first week , and became certified double platinum by the end of the year . Likewise , it also debuted at number one on the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart , thus giving 2Pac the first number one album on both R & B and Pop charts . While Shakur was in prison , the album over @-@ took Bruce Springsteen 's Greatest Hits as the best @-@ selling album in the United States , a feat which he took pride in . Shakur became the first artist to have a number one album while serving a prison sentence . It achieved multi platinum status and has sold 3 @,@ 524 @,@ 567 copies in the United States as of 2011 .
Tupac Shakur 's virtual appearance at the annual Coachella Festival ( April 15 , 2012 ) led to the album selling 1 @,@ 000 copies the following week ( up by 53 % from the previous week ) .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ [ a ] signifies a co @-@ producer .
^ [ b ] signifies an additional producer .
Sample credits
" If I Die 2Nite " contains samples of " Tonight Is The Night " performed by Betty Wright , " Tonight " performed by Kleeer and " Deep Cover " performed by Dr. Dre and Snoop Dogg .
" Me Against the World " contains samples of " Walk on By " performed by Isaac Hayes and " Inside My Love " performed by Minnie Riperton .
" So Many Tears " contains samples of " That Girl " performed by Stevie Wonder and " The Dude " performed by Quincy Jones .
" Temptations " contains samples of " Sing a Simple Song " performed by Sly & the Family Stone , " Computer Love " performed by Zapp and " Watch Yo Nuggets " performed by Redman featuring Erick Sermon .
" Young Niggaz " contains samples of " She 's Strange " performed by Cameo .
" Heavy in the Game " contains an interpolation of " Just Be Good to Me " performed by The S.O.S. Band .
" Lord Knows " contains samples of " All I Ask " performed by The Blackbyrds .
" Dear Mama contains samples of " In All My Wildest Dreams " performed by Joe Sample and " Sadie " performed by The Spinners
" Can U Get Away " contains samples of " Happy Feelin 's " performed by Maze featuring Frankie Beverly .
" Old School " contains samples of " We Share " performed by The Soul Searchers and " Dedication " performed by Brand Nubian ; contains interpolations of " Brooklyn 's in the House " performed by Cutmaster D.C. , " Adventures of Super Rhyme ( Rap ) " performed by Jimmy Spicer , " My Adidas " performed by Run @-@ DMC , " Rock The Bells " performed by LL Cool J and " Eric B. Is President " performed by Eric B. & Rakim .
" Death Around the Corner " contains samples of " Winter Sadness " performed by Kool & the Gang , " When We Were Kids " from the movie American Me , " Piece of the Action " from the movie King of New York and " I Want Him Dead " from the movie The Untouchables .
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Me Against the World adapted from AllMusic
= = Charts and Certifications = =
= = = Certifications = = =
= = = Chart positions = = =
= Benjamin Morrell =
Benjamin Morrell ( July 5 , 1795 – 1838 or 1839 ? ) was an American sea captain , explorer and trader who made a number of voyages , mainly to the Atlantic , the Southern Ocean and the Pacific Islands . In a ghost @-@ written memoir , A Narrative of Four Voyages , which describes his sea @-@ going life between 1823 and 1832 , Morrell included numerous claims of discovery and achievement , many of which have been disputed by geographers and historians , and in some cases have been proved false . He ended his career as a fugitive , having wrecked his ship and misappropriated parts of the salvaged cargo .
Morrell had an eventful early career , running away to sea at the age of 17 and being twice captured and imprisoned by the British during the War of 1812 . He subsequently sailed before the mast for several years before being appointed as chief mate , and later as captain , of the New York sealer Wasp . In 1823 he took Wasp for an extended voyage into subantarctic waters , and on his return made unsubstantiated claims to have travelled beyond 70 ° S and to have sighted new coastlines in the area now known as the Weddell Sea . His subsequent voyages mainly centered on the Pacific , where he attempted to develop trading relations with the indigenous populations . Although Morrell wrote of the enormous potential wealth to be obtained from the Pacific trade , his endeavours were , in the main , commercially unprofitable .
Despite his reputation among his contemporaries for untruth and fantasy , Morrell has been defended by some later commentators who , while questioning his general reliability , maintain that not all his life was fraud and exaggeration . They believe that aside from the bombast and boastful tone of the account that carries his name , there is evidence that he carried out useful work , such his discovery of large @-@ scale guano deposits which led to the development of a full @-@ scale industry . He is believed to have died in 1838 or 1839 , in Mozambique ; there is , however , evidence to suggest that this death might have been staged , and that he lived on in exile , possibly in South America .
= = Early life and career = =
Morrell was born at Rye , in Westchester County , New York , on July 5 , 1795 . He grew up in Stonington , Connecticut , where his father , also named Benjamin , was employed as a shipbuilder . Morrell , after minimal schooling , ran away to sea at the age of 17 " without taking leave of any member of my family , or intimating my purpose to a single soul " . During the War of 1812 , which broke out while he was at sea , he was twice captured by the British ; on his first voyage his ship , carrying a cargo of flour , was intercepted off St John 's , Newfoundland , and Morrell was detained for eight months . His second voyage landed him in Dartmoor prison , England , for two years . After his release Morrell continued his seafaring career , sailing before the mast as an ordinary seaman since his lack of education prevented him advancing to officer rank . A sympathetic captain , Josiah Macy , taught him what he needed to know to qualify as an officer , and in 1821 he was appointed chief mate on the sealer Wasp , under Captain Robert Johnson .
Wasp was bound for the South Shetland Islands , which had been discovered three years earlier by the British Captain William Smith . Morrell , who had evidently heard stories of these islands , was keen to go there . On the ensuing voyage he was involved in a series of " remarkable adventures " which included a narrow escape from drowning , then being lost at sea in a small boat during a gale that swept him 50 nautical miles ( 58 mi ; 93 km ) from the ship , and leading efforts to extricate Wasp when she became trapped in the ice . On the day following his return to New York , Morrell was appointed captain of Wasp , while Johnson took over the schooner Henry . The two ships were jointly commissioned to return to the South Seas for sealing , trading and exploration , and " to ascertain the practicality , under favourable circumstances , of penetrating to the South Pole . "
= = Four voyages = =
= = = First voyage : South Seas and Pacific Ocean = = =
Wasp and Henry sailed from New York on June 21 , 1822 , and remained together as far as the Falkland Islands . They then separated , Wasp travelling east in search of sealing grounds . Morrell 's account of the next few months of the voyage , in Antarctic and subantarctic waters , is controversial . His claims of distances , latitudes and discoveries have been challenged as inaccurate or impossible , giving substance to his reputation among his contemporaries for untruth , and leading to much criticism by later writers .
= = = = Antarctic waters = = = =
Morrell 's journal indicates that Wasp reached South Georgia on November 20 , and then sailed eastwards towards the isolated Bouvet Island , which lies approximately midway between Southern Africa and the Antarctic continent and is known as the world 's remotest island . It had been discovered in 1739 by the French navigator Jean @-@ Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier , but his plotting of its position was inaccurate ; Captain James Cook , in 1772 , had been unable to find it and had assumed its nonexistence . It had not been seen again until 1808 , when the British sealing captains James Lindsay and Thomas Hopper reached it and recorded its correct position , though they were unable to land . Morrell , by his own account , found the island without difficulty — with " improbable ease " , in the words of historian William Mills — before landing and hunting seals there . In his subsequent lengthy description , Morrell does not mention the island 's most obvious physical feature , its permanent ice cover . This has caused some commentators to doubt whether he actually visited the island .
After leaving Bouvet Island Wasp continued eastward , reaching the Kerguelen Islands on December 31 , 1822 , where she remained for 11 days . The voyage then evidently continued to the south and east until February 1 , 1823 , when Morrell records his position as 65 ° 52'S , 118 ° 27'E . Here , Morrell says he took advantage of an eleven @-@ knot breeze and turned the ship , to begin a passage westward . Apart from one undated position at 69 ° 11'S , 48 ° 15'E , Morrell 's journal is silent until February 23 , when he records crossing the Greenwich ( 0 ° ) meridian . Historians have doubted whether such a long passage from 118 ° E , about 3 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 000 mi ; 6 @,@ 500 km ) , could have been made so quickly in ice @-@ strewn waters and against the prevailing winds . Although some writers , including former Royal Navy navigator Rupert Gould , have argued that Morrell 's claims as to speed and distance are plausible , Morrell 's undated interim latitude was later shown to be well inside the Antarctic mainland territory of Enderby Land . Gould , writing in 1928 before the continental boundaries of this sector of Antarctica were known , based his support for Morrell on the premise that Enderby Land was an island with a sea channel south of it . He added : " If at some future date Enderby Land is found to form part of the Antarctic continent , Morrell 's most inveterate champions will , perforce , have to throw up the sponge . "
According to Morrell , Wasp reached the South Sandwich Islands on February 28 . His presence there is corroborated by his descriptions of the harbour on Thule Island , confirmed by the early 20th century expeditions . In the next phase of the voyage Morrell records that he took Wasp southwards and , the sea being remarkably clear of ice , reached a latitude of 70 ° 14'S before turning north on March 14 as fuel for the ship 's stoves was running out . This journey , if Morrell 's account is true , made him the first American sea @-@ captain to penetrate the Antarctic Circle . He believed , he says , that but for this deficiency he could have " made a glorious advance directly to the South Pole , or to 85 ° without the least doubt " . Some credence to his claimed southern latitude is provided by James Weddell 's voyage on a similar track , a month earlier , which reached 74 ° 15'S before retreating . The words used by Weddell to express his belief that the South Pole lay in open water are replicated by Morrell , whose account was written nine years after the event . Thus it is suggested by geographer Paul Simpson @-@ Housley that Morrell may have plagiarised Weddell 's experiences , since Weddell 's account had been published in 1827 .
= = = = New South Greenland = = = =
Morrell 's account describes how on the day after turning north from his southernmost point , a large tract of land was sighted in the region of 67 ° 52'N , 44 ° 11'W . Morrell refers to this land as " New South Greenland " , and records that during the next few days Wasp explored more than 300 nautical miles ( 350 mi ; 560 km ) of coast . Morrell provided vivid descriptions of the land 's features , with observations of its abundant wildlife . No such land exists ; other appearances of land at or near this bearing , reported during the 1842 expedition of Sir James Clark Ross , have likewise proved imaginary . In 1917 the Scottish explorer William Speirs Bruce wrote that the existence of land in this area " should not be rejected until absolutely disproved . " By this time both Wilhelm Filchner and Ernest Shackleton , in their respective ice @-@ bound ships , had drifted close to the plotted positions of New South Greenland and reported no sign of it . It has been suggested that what Morrell saw was actually the eastern coast of the Antarctic Peninsula , some 400 nautical miles ( 460 mi ; 740 km ) further west from his sighting . This would require a navigational error of at least 10 ° , and a complete revision of Morrell 's timeline after leaving the South Sandwich Islands . Assuming that Morrell did not invent the experience , a possible explanation is that he witnessed a superior mirage .
= = = = Pacific and home = = = =
On March 19 Morrell " bade farewell to the cheerless shores of New South Greenland " , and sailed away from the Antarctic never to return . The remaining stages of the voyage are uncontroversial , involving a year @-@ long cruise in the Pacific Ocean . This took Wasp to the Galápagos Islands and also to the island of Más a Tierra where , a century earlier , the Scottish seaman Alexander Selkirk had been marooned , providing the inspiration for the Robinson Crusoe story . Wasp returned to New York in May 1824 . There , he found that his wife whom he had married in 1819 , not named in any accounts of Morrell 's life or career , and his two small children , likewise unnamed , had all died . He quickly married his 15 @-@ year @-@ old cousin , Abigail Jane Wood ( " Abby " ) .
= = = Second voyage : North and South Pacific = = =
For his second voyage Morrell took charge of a new ship , Tartar , which sailed from New York on July 19 , 1824 for the Pacific Ocean . In the next two years Tartar first explored the American coastline from the Straits of Magellan to Cape Blanco ( now in Oregon ) . He then sailed westward to the islands of Hawaii , known at that time as the Sandwich Islands , where Captain James Cook had met his death nearly 40 years earlier . Thereafter Tartar returned to the American coast and tracked slowly southwards back to the Straits of Magellan .
Among the events witnessed and recorded in Morrell 's journal were the siege of Callao , the main port of Peru , by Simón Bolívar 's liberators , and a spectacular volcanic eruption on Fernandina Island in the Galápagos archipelago , which Tartar visited during February 1825 . Fernandina , then known as Narborough Island , exploded on February 14 . In Morrell 's words " The heavens appeared to be one blaze of fire , intermingling with millions of falling stars and meteors ; while the flames shot upward from the peak of Narborough to the height of at least two thousand feet . " Morrell reports that the air temperature reached 123 ° F ( 51 ° C ) , and as Tartar approached the river of lava flowing into the sea , the water temperature rose to 150 ° F ( 66 ° C ) . Some of the crew collapsed in the heat .
Morrell also records how a hunting trip ashore in California led to a skirmish with the locals which turned into a full @-@ scale battle ending , he says , with seventeen natives dead and seven of Tartar 's men wounded . Morrell claims that he was among the casualties , with an arrow in his thigh . Of a visit to San Francisco Morrell writes : " The inhabitants are principally Mexicans and Spaniards who are very indolent and consequently very filthy . " After revisiting the Galapagos Islands and gathering a harvest of fur seal and terrapin , Tartar began a slow journey home on October 13 , 1825 . As they left the Pacific Morrell claimed to have personally inspected and identified every danger existing along the American Pacific coast . Tartar finally reached New York Harbour on May 8 , 1826 with a main cargo of 6 @,@ 000 fur seals . This haul did not please Morrell 's employers , who had evidently expected rather more . " The reception I met from my owners was cold and repulsive " , he wrote . " The Tartar did not return home laden with silver and gold , and therefore my toils and dangers counted for nothing " .
= = = Third voyage : West African coast = = =
In 1828 Morrell was engaged by Messrs. Christian Bergh & Co. to take command of the schooner Antarctic ( named , he claims , in honour of his earlier Antarctic achievements ) . Antarctic left New York on June 25 , 1828 , bound for Western Africa . During the following months Morrell carried out an extensive survey of the African coast between the Cape of Good Hope and Benguela , and led several short excursions inland . He was impressed by the commercial potential of this coast , recording that " many kinds of skins may be procured about here , including those of the leopard , fox , bullock , together with ostrich feathers and valuable minerals " . At Ichaboe Island he discovered huge deposits of guano , 25 feet thick . In the face of such opportunity he records his belief that a $ 30 @,@ 000 investment would produce in two years a profit " from ten to fifteen hundred per cent . "
During the voyage Morrell experienced several encounters with the slave trade , first at the Cape Verde Islands , then a centre for the trade because of its geographical position in relation to the Americas , Europe and Africa . He found the slaves ' conditions wretched , but was impressed by their passion for music which , he thought , " can alleviate even the pangs caused by the galling fetters of slavery " . Later in the voyage he witnessed what he describes as " horrid barbarity " , including the spectacle of two women slaves in their death agonies as a result of floggings . A lengthy soliloquy in his journal on the evils of slavery concludes : " [ T ] he root , the source , the foundation of the evil is the ignorance and superstition of the poor negroes themselves " . On June 8 , 1829 , Morrell wrote in his journal : " The voyage had been prosperous beyond our expectations , and any further stay on the African coast would have been a waste of time and money " . He arrived in New York on July 14 .
= = = Fourth voyage : South Seas and Pacific Ocean = = =
According to Morrell , Antarctic 's owners were unanimous that he should make another voyage with the ship , and in September 1829 Antarctic left New York , bound for the South Atlantic and Pacific in search of seals . At her own insistence , and against Morrell 's and the owners ' advice , his wife Abby accompanied him . By January 1830 Antarctic had reached the Auckland Islands , south of New Zealand , where Morrell had hoped for a rich harvest of seal , but found the waters empty . He sailed north for Manila in the Philippines , hoping to find a commercial cargo there , and arrived in March 1830 . No such cargo was available , but Morrell was persuaded by the American consul , George Hubbell , that a potentially profitable enterprise would be to collect sea cucumbers ( otherwise known as " Bêche @-@ du @-@ mer " ) , plentifully available in the islands now known as Micronesia . These could then be taken to China where they were much prized .
Hubbell would not permit Antarctic to sail with Abby on board ; possibly he had designs on her . Morrell sailed from Manila without her , and initially had little luck in finding sea cucumbers in any quantity . Eventually Antarctic reached the Carteret Islands , a small atoll which now forms part of Papua New Guinea , and found sea cucumbers in abundance . Morrell set up camp on one of the islands , where he faced a hostile reception from the population , who were nevertheless intrigued by their first sight of metal . There were thefts of tools ; Morrell responded by holding several chiefs as hostages , at which the islanders mounted a full @-@ scale attack on Morrell 's shore base . Fourteen crew members were killed ; Antactic was forced to make a hasty withdrawal , leaving much equipment behind .
Morrell retreated to Manila , planning retaliation . He hired a large number of Manilans to augment his crew , and with a help of a loan from the British consul , adapted Antarctica and fitted her with guns and cannons . The ship , with Abby now on board , returned to the Carteret Islands and attacked with gunfire . After a series of such assaults and heavy casualties , the population sued for peace . This enabled Morrell to occupy one of the islands in exchange for cutlery , trinkets , tools and other metal artefacts . The peace was temporary ; Morrell 's shore camp was continually harassed by the population . Finally , Morrell decided to abandon the enterprise , citing the " unappeasable vindictiveness and incessant hostilities " of the native population .
On November 13 , 1830 , while returning to Manila , Antarctica anchored off the coast of the island of Uneapa ( in today 's West New Britain Province ) . A flotilla of native canoes approached the ship , full of apparently well @-@ armed and aggressive islanders . After his experiences at Carteret Island , Morrell took no chances and ordered his crew to fire . The small craft were shattered ; many died , while others manage to regain the shore . One man , who had clung to Antarctic 's rudder , was hauled on board as a prisoner . The crew named him " Sunday " — his actual name was Dako . An account of this engagement was entered into the ship 's log by John Keeler , the ship 's young navigator . Just over a week later , on November 22 , a skirmish in the Ninigo Islands brought Morrell another captive , whom the crew named " Monday " ( his true name was never discovered ) . With two native prisoners , but little else to show from this venture , Antarctic returned to Manila in mid @-@ December .
By now desperate for some profitable activity , Morrell made some money by displaying Dako and Monday to a fascinated public . The only maritime opportunity available was to take a cargo to Cádiz , which he was obliged to accept . He left Manila on January 13 , 1831 , taking his captives with him . When Antarctic reached Cádiz five months later the port was under quarantine and closed . He was forced to discharge the cargo in Bordeaux , where Dako and Monday , rumored in the town to be cannibals , again attracted great curiosity . Antarctic finally reached New York on August 27 , 1831 ; despite his lack of commercial success , Morrell remained upbeat about future prospects in the Pacific . " I could , with only a modest share of patronage ... open a new avenue of trade more lucrative than any that our country has ever yet enjoyed , and further , it would be in my power , and mine alone , to secure the monopoly for any term I pleased . " In the final paragraph of his account of the Morrell records that his wife 's father , her aunt and her aunt 's child had all died during his absence , as had one of Morrell 's cousins and her husband .
= = Later career = =
= = = Money @-@ making = = =
When he returned to New York after his profitless fourth voyage , Morrell was heavily in debt and in urgent need of funds . Newspapers showed great interest in the story of the voyage , and Morrell was keen to cash in . Within a few days of his arrival he had organised a stage show , entitled " Two Cannibals of the Islands of the South Pacific " . This spectacle , embellished with accounts of the massacre at Carteret Island and other dramatic inclusions , played to large crowds at New York 's Rubens Peale museum . In October 1831 Morrell took the show on a tour , which began in Albany on October 10 . Among those who visited the show was the 12 @-@ year @-@ old Herman Melville , the future author of Moby @-@ Dick , who may have based the character of Queequeg on his memory of Dako . The tour proceeded to Philadelphia , Baltimore and finally Washington DC , before ending in January 1832 , at which point Morrell returned the show to Peale 's .
Morrell 's second projected source of funds was his account of his voyages , which the firm of J. and J. Harper were willing to publish . They engaged an experienced writer and dramatist , Samuel Woodworth , to make sense of Morrell 's notes and sea journals , although Woodworth 's role as ghost writer was not made public . Abby Morrell 's journals received similar treatment from another established author , Samuel Knapp . His book was published in December 1832 , hers early in 1833 . Morrell 's was very successful and sold well ; the New York Mirror found it " a highly interesting and instructive work " , with " stirring adventures and much geographical and nautical information " . France 's leading explorer Jules Dumont d 'Urville was complimentary , acknowledging Morrell as " courageous , skilled and dedicated " ; the explorer and journalist Jeremiah Reynolds , on the other hand , observed that the account contained more poetry than truth . Abby 's book attracted less attention . It purported to be written to promote " the amelioration of the condition of the American seaman " , a subject in which she had not otherwise evinced interest . Woodworth exploited the public 's curiosity by preparing a stage play , The Cannibals , which opened at the Bowery Theatre , New York , in March 1833 and had a lengthy and successful run . Morrell 's ghosted account was one of the sources used by Edgar Allan Poe in his novel The Narrative of Arthur Gordon Pym .
= = = Return to the Pacific = = =
With the restoration of his fortunes and his new @-@ found fame , Morrell began plans for a further Pacific voyage , intending to return Dako and Monday to their islands and exploit further trading opportunities . Having lobbied unsuccessfully for Congressional funding , Morrell eventually found backers who secured a converted brigantine , Margaret Oakley , in which he set sail from New York on March 9 , 1834 . Among the crew was Samuel Woodworth 's 18 @-@ year @-@ old son Selim Woodworth , whose journals and letters provided a record of the voyage . Monday was not with them ; he had died a year previously .
Margaret Oakley took the westerly route to the Pacific , across the Atlantic to the Cape Verde Islands , then south to the Cape of Good Hope and across the Indian Ocean , arriving in the vicinity of Dako 's home islands in November 1834 . Dako was received rapturously by his people , as one who had returned from the dead . Morrell remained in the area for several months , exploring and collecting artefacts , before departing in April 1835 for Port Jackson ( Sydney Harbour ) in Australia for repairs and repainting . By June , Morrell was back among the Pacific islands , where he took his final leave of Dako . After a fruitless interval prospecting for gold on the New Guinea mainland , Morrell took the ship to Canton in China , where he found a valuable cargo for New York on which he anticipated a profit of $ 100 @,@ 000 .
After leaving Canton on November 14 , Margaret Oakley was delayed in Singapore by bad weather , where some of the cargo was sold to pay for repairs . The ship left Singapore on December 31 , 1835 , and was seen off Mauritius in early February 1836 , but then disappeared . She was given up for lost with all her crew before , months later , news arrived in Mauritius that she had been wrecked on the coast of Madagascar . The crew was rescued , although much of the ship 's cargo was lost in the wreck , and more was used to pay off the rescuers and other of Morrell 's debts . When representatives of the insurers arrived in Madagascar to assess the loss , they discovered that Morrell had departed , taking part of the remaining cargo with him . He found his way to South Africa , where he boarded a British ship , Rio Packet , bound for London . Outside US jurisdiction , he was beyond the reach of the American authorities , who equated his actions with piracy .
= = = Final years and death = = =
In London early in 1837 , Morrell attempted to convert some of the purloined cargo into cash , but word of his activities had spread , and the proceeds were immediately confiscated by agents acting for Margaret Oakley 's insurers . His reputation as a probable fraud prevented him from finding new employment ; he sought work with the shipping firm of Enderby Brothers , but Charles Enderby said that " he had heard so much of [ Morrell ] that he did not think fit to enter into any engagement with him . " Thwarted in London , Morrell turned his attention to France . He had heard that d 'Urville was organising an expedition to the Antarctic , and on June 20 , 1837 , wrote to the French Geographical Society in Paris to offer his services : " I will engage to place the Proud Banner of France ten degrees nearer the Pole than any other Banner has ever been planted , providing I can obtain the command of a Small schooner ... properly manned and equipped " . His offer was declined ; Morrell was by now regarded as a fraud in France as well as in Britain and America .
It is not known how Morrell supported himself during his months in London ; it is possible that Abby sent him funds from America . Somehow , in the autumn of 1837 he made his way to Havana in Cuba , after which his movements are unclear . It appears that he eventually obtained command of a vessel , possibly the Christine , and that he sailed in September 1838 , probably planning a return to the Pacific . He got no further than Mozambique on the East African coast ; his ship was wrecked , and Morrell was stranded ashore . He is reported to have died , either of fever or during an insurrection , in late 1838 or early 1839 . This story is complicated by an alternative account indicating that Christine was wrecked a year later , early in 1840 , although whether Morrell was alive and in command by that date is unrecorded . Christine was known as a slave ship , which raises the possibility that in his final years Morrell was engaged with the slave trade . Fairhead suggests an alternative hypothesis : that Morrell staged his death in Mozambique , to evade Margaret Oakley 's insurers . In this scenario he may have escaped to South America and lived out his days there . A letter dated August 11 , 1843 , to the editor of The New York Commercial Advertiser and signed " Morrell " could , Fairhead maintains , only have been written by someone with intimate knowledge of the Oakley voyage . Fairhead offers no explanation why Morrell , if alive , should break his silence other than : " Perhaps , like many criminals
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, he could not resist flaunting himself " .
There is little documented history for Abby Morrell after 1838 : two records , respectively dated 1841 and 1850 , place her in New York , but details of her life and eventual death are unknown .
= = Assessment = =
Despite Morrell 's exposure as a fraud , following the Margaret Oakley debacle , his contemporaries did not uniformly denounce him . To some , he was " the biggest liar in the Pacific " , while d 'Urville , who had earlier warmly praised Morrell 's Four Voyages account , turned on the American and accused him of fabricating many of his supposed discoveries . However , Jeremiah Reynolds , who had expressed scepticism over the narrative , included Morrell 's Pacific discoveries in his report to Congress A Report in relation to islands , reefs , and shoals in the Pacific Ocean . This , says Simpson @-@ Housley , was surely a compliment to the otherwise disgraced navigator .
Later commentators and historians have tended to assess his career with a degree of sympathy . Hugh Robert Mill of the Royal Geographical Society , writing in 1905 , considered that a man may be ignorant and boastful , yet still do solid work . Mill thought Morrell " intolerably vain , and as great a braggart as any hero of autobiographical romance " , but still found the narrative itself " most entertaining " . Rupert Gould , writing in 1928 , thought that Morrell may have been boastful and self @-@ aggrandizing , but that did not make him a deliberate liar . Gould points to the accurate information provided by Morrell on the discovery of the guano deposits on Ichaboe Island , which laid the foundations of a flourishing industry .
William Mills , a much more recent commentator , echoes the view that " something may be salvaged from Morrell 's account , although much of it must be discarded " . In regard to the Antarctic discoveries , which are Mills 's particular concern , he points out that these are given no special emphasis . Morrell does not seem to regard the Antarctic expedition as particularly remarkable , and the discovery of " New South Greenland " is not claimed by Morrell himself but is credited to Captain Johnson in 1821 . In the preface to his Four Voyages book , Morrell admits that he incorporated the experiences of others into his account . Paul Simpson @-@ Housley suggests that as well as adapting Weddell 's narrative as his own experience , Morrell may have taken the details of his 1823 visit to Bouvet Island from the records of an 1825 visit by Captain George Norris ,
As a reminder of Morrell 's brief Antarctic exploits , Morrell Island , at 59 ° 27'S , 27 ° 19'W , is an alternative name for Thule Island in the Southern Thule sub @-@ group of the South Sandwich Islands . During his Pacific travels Morrell encountered groups of islands that were not on his charts , treated them as new discoveries and named them after various New York acquaintances – Westervelt , Bergh , Livingstone , Skiddy . One was named " Young William Group " after Morrell 's infant son . None of these names appear in modern maps , although the " Livingstone Group " has been identified with Namonuito Atoll , and " Bergh 's Group " with the Chuuk Islands .
= = = Books and journals = = =
= = = Online = = =
= Ring Line ( Oslo ) =
The Ring Line ( Norwegian : T @-@ baneringen or Ringbanen ) is the newest rapid transit line of the Oslo Metro of Oslo , Norway . It connects to the Sognsvann Line in the west and the Grorud Line in the east ; along with these two lines and the Common Tunnel , the Ring Line creates a loop serving both the city centre and Nordre Aker borough . The 5 @.@ 0 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) -long line has three stations : Nydalen , Storo and Sinsen . Four @-@ fifths of the line runs within two tunnels , with the 1 @.@ 0 @-@ kilometer ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) section between Storo and Sinsen , including both stations , being the only at @-@ grade part . The line connects to the Grorud Line north of Carl Berners plass and with the Sognsvann Line north of Ullevål stadion .
Planning for the line began in the late 1980s , and the city council approved the line 1997 . Construction started in 2000 ; Nydalen and Storo opened on 20 August 2003 , and Sinsen opened on 20 August 2006 . The line cost NOK 1 @,@ 348 million to build and was financed through Oslo Package 2 . The Ring Line is served by lines 4 , 5 and 6 of the metro , operated by Sporveien T @-@ banen on contract with the Ruter transport authority . All lines operate each fifteen minutes . Nydalen and Storo are such located that trains in either direction use the same time along the loop , effectively giving a five @-@ minute headway to the city centre . After the opening of the line , the areas around the stations have had increased urban redevelopment . The infrastructure is owned and maintained by the municipal company Sporveien .
= = History = =
By the 1960s , Oslo had a rapid transit network that branched out north @-@ east and north @-@ west from the city centre . In 1987 , the western and eastern network were connected , and through @-@ trains started operating between the two networks from 1993 . Plans to make a second connection through the borough of Nordre Aker were launched by politicians in the 1980s . It was argued that this was cheaper than building roads , with the per @-@ kilometre price being about a quarter of that for motorways . Some politicians also saw the Ring Line as an opportunity to close all parts of the Oslo Tramway , except the Ekeberg- and Lilleaker Line . Oslo Sporveier , the contemporary operator of the metro , started planning the line during the late 1980s . The plans would take advantage of the Gjøvik Line 's right @-@ of @-@ way between Storo and Sinsen , while the section from Storo to Tåsen would have to be built in a tunnel .
A projection for the line was presented in 1991 by Oslo Sporveier , where daily ridership was estimated to be 54 @,@ 000 passengers . The plans included a possibility for the high @-@ speed Gardermoen Line , that would be built to Oslo Airport , Gardermoen , to have a stop at Storo . This was later discarded when it was instead chosen to be built via Lillestrøm . There were also ideas to run trains from the Hoved Line from Lillestrøm to Grefsen Station via the Alnabru – Grefsen Line , located adjacent to Storo , that would allow the central parts of Groruddalen to connect with the Ring Line and Nordre Aker . When the operating company ordered new T2000 trains for the Holmenkoll Line , the design allowed future versions to have dual current systems , to handle both the 750 volts on the metro network ( from a third rail and overhead wire ) , and the 15 kV 16 2 ⁄ 3 Hz AC system of the main railways . This would allow the Ring Line to share the physical track with the Gjøvik Line on the section from Storo to Sinsen . The new T2ds were seen as a preparation for the Ring Line , and were optimised for higher speeds than the old stock , being capable of operating at 100 kilometres per hour ( 62 mph ) . At the same time , the Sognsvann Line was being upgraded to full metro standard , like the eastern part of the metro had , and would lose the overhead wires and get longer platforms .
In 1992 , the tram division of Oslo Sporveier launched an alternative Ring Line that would have been built as a light rail , using in part the existing tramway . In the west , it would follow the Sinsen Line via Sinsen to Storo . A new line would have to be built from Storo to Tåsen . The line would then use the existing Sognsvann Line to Majorstuen , where it would connect to the tramway and follow the Frogner Line into the city , via a new Vika Line through Aker Brygge . This alternative would cost NOK 61 million to build , compared to NOK 470 million estimated for the rapid transit solution . Named the Light Rail Ring ( Norwegian : Bybaneringen ) , it would have 38 stops instead of 16 stops , and a travel time of 34 minutes instead of 22 minutes . Annual operating costs for the light rail solution would be NOK 57 @.@ 5 million , compared to 43 @.@ 9 million for the rapid transit solution .
Between 1994 and 1998 , there was local political debate about how Rikshospitalet , that was moving to Gaustad , should be served by public transport . The state wanted to extend the Ullevål Hageby Line of the tramway to the new hospital , while many local politicians wanted to use the rapid transit . Since the Ring Line would increase traffic on the Songsvann Line , moving the line was considered to better serve the hospital . In 1998 , an agreement was reached whereby the light rail line would be built , and a new station for transfer from the metro would open at Forskningsparken .
A detailed proposal was presented by Oslo Sporveier in August 1996 . It became clear that Berg would not be served by the Ring Line . Many neighbours to the route of the Sognsvann Line complained about this proposal , stating that they had hoped that the section from Majorstuen to Berg would have been rebuilt as a tunnel . They also argued that it was irrational that the line was running at @-@ grade in densely populated areas , while it would run in a tunnel through the then mostly unpopulated Nydalen . To compensate , Oslo Sporveier stated that they would build noise screens along the line . Also , the Norwegian Public Roads Administration protested to the plans , and stated that funding should be allocated to upgrading Ring 3 to six lanes before public transport investments were made in the area .
The city council voted in favour of building the Ring Line on 25 June 1997 , against the votes of the Progress Party . However , the decision did not include how the line would be financed , and the politicians stated that they were hoping that the state would use national road funds to finance the project . This was partially ensured in December , when a political agreement was reached for Oslo Package 2 , a financing plan for investments in public transport in Oslo and Akershus between 2002 and 2011 .
In December 1999 , a disagreement arose between the Ministry of Transport and Communications and the city ; the city would not except the government 's promise to finance part of the line . Both Minister of Transport and Communications , Dag Jostein Fjærvoll from the Christian Democratic Party and Oslo City Commissioner of Transport and the Environment , Merete Agerbak @-@ Jensen from the Conservative Party , agreed upon the distribution of funding from the city and state , and both wanted construction to start as soon as possible . The city council did not accept the guarantees from the state until March 2000 . Construction started in June , with the Agency for Road and Transport of the municipality responsible for construction . The city would pay NOK 224 million , while the state would pay NOK 673 million .
The first section opened from Ullevål stadion via Nydalen to Storo on 20 August 2003 , costing NOK 590 million . With the opening , line 4 was extended from Ullevål stadion to Storo . Nydalen had grown up as an urban redevelopment area after the local industry had been abandoned in the 1980s , where 14 @,@ 800 jobs had been located by 2004 . On 20 August 2006 , the final section opened , from Storo via Sinsen to Carl Berners plass , with the whole project costing NOK 1 @,@ 348 million .
A report published by the city in 2007 declared the line a success and stated that all goals for the line had been exceeded . A survey conducted by the city in 2003 and 2007 showed that the Ring Line had a significant impact on the use of public transport in the area . Total public transport usage increased from 28 to 45 % ; use for commuting increased from 35 to 61 % . At the Norwegian School of Management ( BI ) , 85 % of the students used public transport . The Ring Line reduced the estimated number of daily car trips by 10 @,@ 000 , and generated 11 @,@ 000 more daily public transport trips . In 2007 , daily passenger numbers at the stations were 8420 for Nydalen , 3630 for Storo and 2300 at Sinsen . The line allowed travel time from the Nydalen and Storo to the city centre to be halved , and travel time from Nydalen to the city center is faster by metro than by taxi .
= = Route = =
The 5 @.@ 0 @-@ kilometer ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) Ring Line branches off from the Sognsvann Line after Ullevål stadion , just before Berg . It immediately enters a tunnel that runs via Nydalen to Storo . The station at Storo is just outside the entrance to the tunnel . From Storo to Sinsen , the tracks are laid parallel to the Gjøvik Line of the mainland railway . Also the Sinsen Line of the Oslo Tramway and the Ring 3 motorway follow the same corridor between the two stations . The section between Ullevål stadion and Storo is 3 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 1 mi ) , while the section from Storo to Carl Berners plass is 1 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 1 mi ) . Of these , 4 @.@ 0 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) are in tunnels .
The Nydalen district , formerly an industrial area , has since undergone urban redevelopment . The immediate vicinity of the station includes several large workplaces . In 2005 , BI , with 8000 students and faculty , moved into a new campus across the street from Nydalen Station . Nydalen is the only underground station on the Ring Line . The escalators leading down to the platform features The Tunnel of Light , an artistic presentation of sound and colour around the passengers as they ascend from or to descend to the station . The artwork contains 1800 lights and 44 speakers . Nydalen also serves as a bus hub .
Storo opened as a tram station as part of the Grünerløkka – Torshov Line on 28 November 1902 . It is located about 200 meters from Grefsen Station of the Gjøvik Line . The Norwegian National Rail Administration is planning to move the station platform so there can be direct transfer between NSB Gjøvikbanen 's commuter rail services , and the metro . Storo functions as a bus and tram hub ; it serves line 11 and 12 on the Grünerløkka – Torshov- and Kjelsås Line , and line 13 on the Sinsen Line .
Sinsen opened on 20 August 2006 , three years after the two other stations . The station is located close to , but not adjacent , to the tram stop Sinsenkrysset on the Sinsen Line ( tram no . 17 ) . Located at the interchange between Ring 3 and Trondheimsveien , it also serves as a bus hub .
The Løren Line is a proposed connection which would connect the Ring and Grorud Line . It would split from the Ring Line south of Sinsen , and run part in tunnel and part at @-@ grade until it connects to the Grorud Line west of Økern . In the tunnel section the new station , Løren , would be built . The day section would run parallel to part of the mainline Alnabru – Grefsen Line . The line will allow metro trains to run directly from the Grorud Line to the Ring Line , and thus pass from east to west without passing through the packed Common Tunnel . It is part of the political compromise Oslo Package 3 , and estimated to be completed by 2017 .
= = Service = =
When operating a full circle route , trains start through the Common Tunnel . If running clockwise , they pass through all the common stations ( Tøyen , Grønland , Jernbanetorget , Stortinget , Nationaltheatret and Majorstuen ) . They head north on the Sognsvann Line , stopping at Blindern , Forskningsparken and Ullevål stadion . The Ring Line proper then splits off , and the trains serve Nydalen , Storo and Sinsen , before Carl Berners plass on the Grorud Line . After that , the trains again enter the Common Tunnel at Tøyen .
Lines 3 , 4 and 6 operate on the Ring Line , each with a 15 @-@ minute headway . Line 3 and 6 operates on the west side of the line , with line 3 terminating at Storo and line 4 operating on the east side . Between Nydalen and Storo , lines 4 and 6 swap numbers . From the city centre , line 4 comes from the Lambertseter Line , line 3 from the Østensjø Line and line 6 from the Sognsvann Line . After line 4 and 6 have run through the loop , they continue though the city again before heading to the terminal destination . Travel time from Nydalen and Storo stations is about the same , independent of which direction on the Ring Line travellers choose . Passengers heading for the city centre can therefore take the first train that comes , independent of which direction it is heading , thus giving Nydalen and Storo a five @-@ minute headway service to the city centre . The trains are operated by Sporveien T @-@ banen , a subsidiary of Sporveien , on contract with the public transport authority Ruter .
Transfer to the Kolsås- , Røa- and Holmenkoll Line is available at Majorstuen ; transfer to the Lamberseter , Østensjø- and Furuset Line is available at Tøyen and transfer to the Grorud Line is available at Carl Berners plass . Transfer to Oslo Central Station , which serves all trains in Eastern Norway , is available at Jernbanetorget . Most west @-@ bound trains can also be reached at Nationaltheatret , and trains along the Gjøvik line can be reached at Grefsen Station , that is close , but not adjacent , to Storo . The Oslo Tramway can be reached from several stations . In the city centre , transfer to all lines is possible at Jernbanetorget ; all lines but no . 12 can also be reached at either Stortinget or Nationaltheatret . Lines 11 , 12 and 19 all terminate at Majorstuen ; lines 17 and 18 run via Forskningsparken ; lines 11 , 12 and 13 can be reached at Storo ; and line 17 runs past Carl Berners plass .
= Battle of Roatán =
The Battle of Roatán ( sometimes spelled " Rattan " ) was an American War of Independence battle fought on March 16 , 1782 , between British and Spanish forces for control of Roatán , an island off the Caribbean coast of present @-@ day Honduras .
A Spanish expeditionary force under Matías de Gálvez , the Captain General of Spanish Guatemala , gained control of the British @-@ held island after bombarding its main defences . The British garrison surrendered the next day . The Spanish evacuated the captured soldiers , 135 civilians and 300 slaves , and destroyed their settlement , which they claimed had been used as a base for piracy and privateering .
The assault was part of a larger plan by Gálvez to eliminate British influence in Central America . Although he met with temporary successes , the British were able to maintain a colonial presence in the area .
= = Background = =
Following the entry of Spain into the American War of Independence in 1779 , both Spain and Great Britain contested territories in Central America . Although most of the territory was part of the Spanish Captaincy General of Guatemala , the British had established logging rights on the southern coast of the Yucatan Peninsula ( present @-@ day Belize ) , and had established informal settlements ( lacking formal colonial authority ) on the Mosquito Coast of present @-@ day Honduras and Nicaragua . Guatemalan Governor Matías de Gálvez had moved quickly when the declaration of war arrived , seizing St. George 's Caye , one of the principal British island settlements off the Yucatan coast . Many of the British fled that occupation to the island of Roatán , another British @-@ controlled island about 40 miles ( 64 km ) off the Honduran coast . British commander Edward Marcus Despard used Roatán as a base for guerilla @-@ style operations to extend and maintain British influence on the Mosquito Coast , and for privateering operations against Spanish shipping . ( Sources do not indicate whether Despard was present on Roatán at the time of the Spanish attack ; if he was , he was probably not captured , since he continued to be active in the area . Stephens suggests that he was on Jamaica at the time . )
Gálvez , who had been ordered by King Charles to " dislocate the English from their hidden settlements on the Gulf of Honduras " , began planning offensive operations against the British mainland settlements as early as 1780 , after the British abandoned their failed expedition into Nicaragua . He raised as many as 15 @,@ 000 militia , and received financial and logistical support from many parts of the Spanish colonial empire in the Americas . For logistical and diplomatic reasons , no operations were launched until after the American victory at Yorktown in October 1781 . The British loss opened the possibility that the British would be able to deploy troops to Central America to better defend the area . Gálvez ' plans called for assaults on the British presence in the Bay Islands ( principally Roatán ) , followed by a sweep along the coast to eliminate the British from the mainland . Troops from central Guatemala were staged in early 1782 at Trujillo for the assault on Roatán , while additional forces moved overland from Nicaragua , Honduras , and Salvador toward the principal British settlement of Black River .
Gálvez arrived at Trujillo on March 8 to organise the assault on Roatán . Leaving a force of 600 at Trujillo to further harass the British and their partisan allies , he embarked another 600 troops onto transports , and sailed for Roatán on March 12 , escorted by three frigates ( Santa Matilde , the Santa Cecilia , and the Antiope ) and a number of smaller armed naval vessels , under the command of Commodore Enrique Macdonell .
The British residents of Roatán were aware of the ongoing Spanish military activities . The main settlement , New Port Royal , was defended by Forts Dalling and Despard , which mounted 20 guns . The island 's white non @-@ slave population was however quite small . In 1781 they appealed to the British commander at Bluefields for support , but he was only able to send additional weapons , which did not add significantly to the island 's defenses .
= = Battle = =
The Spanish fleet arrived off Roatán early on March 13 , and , after its defenders fired several ineffectual cannon shots , anchored out of range while Gálvez sent a party in to request the surrender of the island 's defenders . The defenders asked for six hours to consider their options , which Gálvez granted . After that time had elapsed , the defenders indicated that they were prepared to stand their ground , and refused to surrender . Immediate attack was not possible due to high winds and rough seas , so Gálvez then held council , and a plan of attack was formulated .
At about 10 : 15 am on March 16 , Spanish guns opened up against Forts Dalling and Despard , which guarded the mouth of New Port Royal 's harbour . By 1 : 00 pm the British guns there had been silenced , and Major General Gabriel Herbias began landing troops . After the two forts were secured , the Spanish warships entered the harbour and began raking the town with cannon fire , while British artillery fired back from positions in the hills above the town . This exchange continued until sunset , at which point the British defenders capitulated . The Spanish had two killed and four wounded in the battle , while only two slaves were wounded on the other side .
= = Aftermath = =
Terms of surrender were agreed the next day . Gálvez and his men remained on the island for several days , collecting weapons , rounding up slaves that had run away , destroying all the buildings and agriculture on the island , as well as burning many of the ships in the harbour , which they assumed to be used in smuggling and other illicit trade . The Spanish left the island on March 23 , carrying as prisoners of war 81 British soldiers , 300 slaves , and 135 British civilians . The prisoners were sent to Havana , where the slaves were auctioned off and the others held until they could be exchanged .
Gálvez was able to only temporarily partially eliminate British influences in the area . He followed up his success at Roatán with the capture of Black River in early April , but any attempt to advance further bogged down . James Lawrie , the commander at Black River , and Edward Marcus Despard successfully recaptured Black River , and were able to hold it until the end of the war .
= The Orphanage ( film ) =
The Orphanage ( Spanish : El orfanato ) is a 2007 Spanish horror film and the debut feature of Spanish filmmaker J. A. Bayona . The film stars Belén Rueda as Laura , Fernando Cayo as her husband , Carlos , and Roger Príncep as their adopted son Simón . The plot centers on Laura , who returns to her childhood home , an orphanage . Laura plans to turn the house into a home for disabled children , but after an argument with Laura , Simón is found to be missing .
The film 's script was written by Sergio G. Sánchez in 1996 and brought to the attention of Bayona in 2004 . Bayona asked his long @-@ time friend , director Guillermo del Toro , to help produce the film and to double its budget and filming time . Bayona wanted the film to capture the feel of 1970s Spanish cinema ; he cast Geraldine Chaplin and Belén Rueda , who were later praised for their roles in the film .
The film opened at the Cannes Film Festival on May 20 , 2007 . It received critical acclaim from audiences in its native Spain , winning seven Goya awards . On its North American release , The Orphanage was praised by English @-@ speaking critics , who described the film as well directed and well acted , and noted the film 's lack of " cheap scares " ; subsequently , New Line Cinema bought the rights to the film for an American remake .
= = Plot = =
In 1975 Spain , a young girl named Laura is given up for adoption . Years later , adult Laura ( Rueda ) returns to the closed orphanage , accompanied by her husband , Carlos ( Cayo ) , and their seven @-@ year @-@ old adopted son , Simón ( Príncep ) . She plans to reopen the orphanage as a facility for disabled children . Simón claims to see a boy named Tomás ( Óscar Casas ) . He befriends Tomás and draws pictures of him as a child wearing a sack mask . Social worker Benigna Escobedo ( Montserrat Carulla ) informs Laura that Simón 's adoption file indicates that Simón is HIV positive . Incensed at Benigna 's intrusion , Laura asks her to leave . She later finds Benigna in the orphanage 's coal shed , but Benigna flees the scene . Later , Simón teaches Laura a game which grants its winner a wish . Clues lead the two to Simón 's adoption file . Simón becomes angry , and says that his new friend told him that Laura is not his biological mother and that he is going to die soon .
During a party at the orphanage , Laura and Simón argue , and Simón hides from her . While looking for him , she encounters a child wearing a sack mask who shoves her into a bathroom and locks her inside . Escaping , she finds that Simón is missing and she is unable to find him . That night Laura hears several loud crashes . Police psychologist Pilar ( Mabel Rivera ) suggests to Laura and Carlos that Benigna may have abducted Simón .
Six months later , Simón is still missing . Searching in a Spanish city , Laura spots Benigna who is then struck and killed by a car . The police find evidence that Benigna once worked at the orphanage , and that she had a son named Tomás who was interned there . The children stole a mask that Tomás wore to conceal his deformed face . Embarrassed , Tomás hid in a local sea cave and was subsequently drowned . His death occurred weeks after Laura was adopted .
Laura asks for the assistance of a medium named Aurora ( Geraldine Chaplin ) in the search for Simón . Aurora conducts a seance during which she claims to see the ghosts of the orphans crying for help . Laura discovers the remains of the orphans she grew up with in the orphanage . They were killed by Tomás ' mother Benigna who wanted revenge on the children that were not blamed for the death of her son . She stored their remains in the orphanage 's coal shed . Unable to cope with the situation , Carlos leaves the orphanage .
Laura recreates the original orphanage layout and attempts to contact the children 's spirits by playing a version of Peek Behind the Curtain . The spirits lead her to the door of a hidden underground room . Inside is Simón 's corpse , wearing Tomás 's mask . Laura finally realizes what happened : while searching for Simón the night he disappeared , Laura moved pieces of construction scaffolding , blocking the entrance to the secret room . The crashes that night were caused by Simón trying to get out . He fell and broke his neck .
Laura takes an overdose of sleeping pills . Dying , she begs to be with Simón again and the children 's spirits appear , with Simón among them . Simón tells Laura that his wish was for her to stay and take care of the orphans . Sometime later , Carlos visits a memorial to Laura , Simón and the orphans . Carlos returns to the orphans ' old bedroom and finds a medallion that he had given to Laura . He turns to look as the door opens , and he smiles .
= = Cast = =
Belén Rueda as Laura , the wife of Carlos and mother of the adopted Simón . Laura returns to the orphanage that she spent some of her youth at to turn it into a home for disabled children . Mireia Renau portrays the younger Laura .
Fernando Cayo as Carlos , the husband of Laura and father of adopted Simón .
Roger Príncep as Simón , the young adopted son of Laura and Carlos . Simón meets new imaginary friends in the orphanage and eventually threatens to run away with them .
Mabel Rivera as Pilar , the head police psychologist who eventually discovers the truth of who Benigna really is .
Montserrat Carulla as Benigna Escobeda , a former worker at the orphanage who identifies herself as a social worker . When she is seen young in the film , she is portrayed by Carol Suárez . Production companies working with Bayona tried to urge him to keep this character alive until the end of the film .
Geraldine Chaplin as Aurora , the medium brought in to help find Simón when the police can 't find him .
Andrés Gertrúdix as Enrique , Aurora 's sound technician .
Edgar Vivar as Prof. Leo Balabán , the man who puts Laura in contact with Aurora and directs the spirit session in her house .
Óscar Casas as Tomás , the deformed son of Benigna who Simón claims to have befriended .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The first draft of the script of The Orphanage was written by Sergio G. Sánchez in 1996 . Sánchez was not sure why he chose to write a genre film for the screenplay , as he explains , " I ended up writing a film in the style of those I liked as a kid , movies like Poltergeist , The Omen , and Rosemary 's Baby which I ruined on the first VCR we owned at home . " Sánchez revealed the literary influences underlying his writing of the script , such as The Turn of the Screw and Peter Pan . Sánchez originally wanted to direct the script but he was repeatedly turned down by various Spanish production companies . While Sánchez was working on the short film 7337 in 2004 , he met with director Juan Antonio Bayona and offered him the script to direct . Bayona accepted the opportunity because he felt that a fantasy themed script like that of The Orphanage would allow him freedom as a director , saying the fantasy genre was a great tool for learning as it " allows manipulation of space and time as we wish or the use of certain camera moves with an immediate efficiency " .
Bayona cut parts of the script , including the outcome of the other orphanage children , because he wanted to focus on the character of Laura and what happens to her . To create the film as he wanted , Bayona had to double both the film 's budget and the amount of filming time . To accomplish this , Bayona received help from fellow film director Guillermo del Toro , whom he had met at Festival de Cine de Sitges when del Toro was presenting his film Cronos ( 1993 ) . Del Toro offered to co @-@ produce the film as soon as he learned about it . For the rest of his crew , Bayona worked with his regular team that he worked with on commercials and music videos .
= = = Casting = = =
During casting discussions between Bayona and del Toro , Bayona expressed a desire to see Belén Rueda in the lead . Bayona admired her after seeing her performance as Julia in Alejandro Amenabar 's The Sea Inside . Del Toro appreciated this choice , as he admired her as an actress and liked that Bayona was casting her against type . Bayona asked Rueda to watch The Innocents and Close Encounters of the Third Kind to prepare for the role . Another actress Bayona desired for the film was Geraldine Chaplin in the role of Aurora , the medium . Bayona stated that he wanted the film to have " the mood of 70s Spanish cinema and Geraldine starred in one of the best movies of that decade , Carlos Saura 's The Secret of Anna , as the ghost of the mother . It made sense to have her play the medium . " Bayona was nervous about filming with Chaplin . To break that tension , on the first day of shooting with her Bayona hid under a bed during a scene which required Chaplin to portray Anna kneeling down near it in the dark , and he grabbed Chaplin 's leg when she did so . Anna 's scream in the film is Chaplin 's actual frightened scream as Bayona grabbed her . Roger Príncep 's test @-@ screening was one of the first for the role of Simón . Bayona test @-@ screened over four @-@ hundred children during two months before making his choice to cast Princep . Edgar Vivar was cast in role of Balabán ; Bayona knew him through his work on the Mexican television series El Chavo and sent him an invitation for the role through e @-@ mail .
= = = Filming = = =
Production on The Orphanage began on May 15 , 2006 in Llanes , Asturias . This location was chosen due to the area 's diverse natural settings that include beaches , caves , cliffs , forests , a small village , and the Partarríu Manor where the orphanage scenes take place . The orphanage was an old colonial house from the end of the nineteenth century . Bayona wanted to use certain cinematographic techniques that were impossible to achieve in the house , so several parts of the house were reconstructed in sound stages . After four weeks in Llanes , the team moved to Barcelona to finish up the last ten weeks of filming in sound stages , making over 80 % of the film there . Bayona showed the films La residencia and The Innocents to his director of photography on the film , to make special notice of the Scope lensing used in both films .
= = Release = =
The Orphanage premiered at the Cannes Film Festival on May 20 , 2007 . The film was positively received with a ten @-@ minute ovation from the audience . The film 's Spanish debut took place at the Sitges Film Festival on October 4 , 2007 where it opened the festival . The Orphanage had a wide release in Spain on October 11 , 2007 and was immensely successful in Spain after an $ 8 @.@ 3 million four @-@ day launch from 350 screens . The film was the second highest @-@ grossing debut ever for a Spanish film and was the biggest opening of the year , making it even larger than the worldwide success of the Spanish @-@ Mexican film Pan 's Labyrinth . It opened in limited release in the United States on December 28 , 2007 and had a wide release on January 11 , 2008 . It opened in Mexico on January 25 , 2008 and earned over $ 11 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 at the box office .
In Spain , the film was nominated for 14 Goya Awards , including Best Picture and ended up winning awards for Best Art Direction , Best Director of Production , Best Makeup and Hair , Best New Director , Best Screenplay – Original , Best Sound Mixing , and Best Special Effects . The Orphanage was chosen by the Spanish Academy of Films as Spain 's nominee for the 2007 Academy Award for Best Foreign Film , but ultimately did not end up as one of the five final nominees in that category . The Orphanage was picked up by Picturehouse at the Berlin Film Festival for American distribution .
= = = Home media = = =
The Orphanage was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on April 22 , 2008 for a Region 1 release by New Line Cinema . Both discs featured the same bonus features . A Region 2 version was released on DVD by Optimum Releasing on July 21 , 2008 .
= = = Remake = = =
In 2007 , New Line Cinema bought the rights to produce an English @-@ language remake with Guillermo del Toro as producer . On remakes , director Bayona noted that " The Americans have all the money in the world but can 't do anything , while we can do whatever we want but don 't have the money " and " The American industry doesn 't take chances , that 's why they make remakes of movies that were already big hits " . On August 4 , 2009 , Larry Fessenden was announced as the director of the American remake . Fessenden was later announced that he will not be involved with directing the remake , stating " Working on the script with Guillermo was a very exciting experience , but then I got into a casting miasma and that 's where the thing is ; I think they 're gonna do it another way , actually . So I think I 'm out of it . Hopefully they 'll still use my script , but I 'm not sure I 'm directing it anymore " . In January 2010 , Mark Pellington replaced Larry Fessenden as director of the project .
On August 5 , 2011 , Guillermo del Toro stated that the remake would reflect his original vision for the film , and that it had been planned even when the first version was in production . " Even when we produced the Spanish movie , I had intended to remake it because we had a very different screenplay that , because of money and time , got turned into the movie you saw – which is great , but there was this other structure for the original script that I wanted to try . So even before we shot the first film it was an economic decision , a pre @-@ existing creative decision , to change it . " Del Toro also praised the new film 's director . " We have Mark Pellington attached as director – I 'm a big fan of his The Mo
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thman Prophecies and his video work – and we are out to actors , so we 're hoping to get things going soon . " On August 30 , 2011 , it was reported that American actress Amy Adams was in talks to star as Laura , the main character , who was played by Belén Rueda in the original film . It was also stated that the current incarnation of the remake screenplay had been written by Larry Fessenden and Sergio G. Sánchez , the sole writer of the original film .
= = Reception = =
The Orphanage was received very well by American critics on its original release . The film ranking website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 87 % of critics had given the film positive reviews , based upon a sample of 168 . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the film has received an average score of 74 , based on 33 reviews . Critics praised the film for its lack of cheap scares . Film critic for the Chicago Sun Times Roger Ebert approved of the film claiming it to be " deliberately aimed at viewers with developed attention spans . It lingers to create atmosphere , a sense of place , a sympathy with the characters , instead of rushing into cheap thrills " . Bill Goodykoontz of the Arizona Republic echoed this statement noting , " Bayona never lets The Orphanage descend into cheap horror . The scares here are expertly done and , placed in the context of Laura 's state of mind , well @-@ earned , perhaps even explainable ( or not ) . " Peter Howell of the Toronto Star wrote , " The year 's best horror picture is also one of the simplest . The Orphanage makes little if any use of digital tricks to present its numerous terrors . " The casting of Chaplin and Rueda was praised while the role of Carlos was called dull . Goodykoontz noted the role of Carlos , saying " Cayo is rather pedestrian as Carlos , but he isn 't given that much to do " . Michael Phillips of the Chicago Tribune shared this opinion saying , " Rueda has a great pair of peepers for this assignment . When she looks one way and then the other , while skulking through the hallways of her childhood home , every nerve @-@ wracking whatwasthat ? registers , and how . Cayo is pretty dull by comparison , but Chaplin certainly is not . " Liam Lacey of The Globe and Mail praised Rueda stating , " The strongest appeal of the film is the brooding , intense performance by Spanish actress , Belen Rueda . "
A negative review came from Lacey of The Globe and Mail , who felt that at " [ the film 's ] core , it seems intended as a sympathetic drama of a bereaved mother , who may have slipped into madness . What 's even more disquieting is the persistent undercurrent of exploitation – the mixture of grief and jarring shock effects and the pitiless use of a disfigured child as a source of horror . " A.O. Scott of The New York Times claimed the film to be a " diverting , overwrought ghost story " and that it " relies on basic and durable horror movie techniques " . Jack Matthews of New York Daily News found the ending of the film to be one of the worst of the season , but praised the acting of Belén Rueda .
The Orphanage listed as one of the top 10 best films of 2007 by several critics , including Lawrence Toppman of the Charlotte Observer , Marc Doyle of Metacritic and Tasha Robinson of The AV Club . Anthony Lane of The New Yorker included the film on his top ten list of 2008 . In the early 2010s , Time Out conducted a poll with several authors , directors , actors and critics who have worked within the horror genre to vote for their top horror films . The Orphanage placed at number 76 on their top 100 list .
= = Soundtrack = =
In 2007 , the film score was composed by Fernando Velázquez and released on compact disc by Rhino Records in Spain . The score for the film was nominated for film awards including the Goya Award for Best Score . The soundtrack has not been released locally in North America or the United Kingdom and is only available by import .
= = = Track listing = = =
All music composed by Fernando Velázquez .
= Russian battleship Oryol =
Oryol ( Russian : Орёл ) was a Borodino @-@ class battleship built for the Russian Imperial Navy in the first decade of the 20th century . The ship was completed a few months before the start of the Russo @-@ Japanese War in February 1904 and was assigned to the Second Pacific Squadron sent to the Far East six months later to break the Japanese blockade of Port Arthur . The Japanese captured the port while the squadron was in transit and their destination was changed to Vladivostok . Oryol was badly damaged during the Battle of Tsushima in May 1905 and surrendered to the Japanese who put her into service under the name of Iwami ( Japanese : 石見 ) .
Reconstructed by the Japanese in 1905 – 1907 , Iwami was reclassified by the Imperial Japanese Navy as a coastal defence ship in 1912 . She participated in the Battle of Tsingtao at the beginning of World War I and supported the Japanese troops that landed in Siberia in 1918 during the Russian Civil War . Iwami was used as a training ship beginning in September 1921 . The ship was disarmed in 1922 to comply with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty and sunk as a target ship in 1924 .
= = Design and description = =
The five Borodino @-@ class predreadnought battleships were the centerpiece of Tsar Nicholas II 's naval building program , " For the Needs of the Far East " , that was intended to defend his newly leased warm @-@ water port at Port Arthur , China . He had obtained the lease after the Triple Intervention by France , Russia , and Germany forced Japan to return it to China after the Japanese victory in the First Sino @-@ Japanese War of 1894 – 95 . The Russian lease was seen as adding insult to injury by the Japanese and confirmed that the two countries were on a collision course over their spheres of influence in Korea and China .
One of the first battleships ordered as part of the program was the French @-@ designed and built Tsesarevich and the Imperial Russian Navy also purchased a license to build more ships in domestic shipyards . The Borodinos were derived from the design of Tsesarevich , enlarged to suit Russian equipment , but with significantly thinner armor to reduce weight . Oryol was 397 feet ( 121 @.@ 0 m ) long overall , had a beam of 76 feet 1 inch ( 23 @.@ 19 m ) and a draft of around 29 feet 2 inches ( 8 @.@ 9 m ) at deep load . Designed to displace 13 @,@ 516 long tons ( 13 @,@ 733 t ) , she was more than 600 long tons ( 610 t ) overweight and actually displaced 14 @,@ 151 long tons ( 14 @,@ 378 t ) . This caused a problem during her sister 's sea trials on 6 October 1903 when Imperator Aleksandr III made a high @-@ speed turn that caused her to heel 15 ° and submerged the embrasures for the 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns . The ship 's crew consisted of 28 officers and 826 enlisted men . Her design was based on that of the Tsesarevich , modified to suit Russian machinery .
The ship was powered by two four @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines using steam generated by 20 Belleville boilers . The engines were rated at 15 @,@ 800 indicated horsepower ( 11 @,@ 800 kW ) and designed to reach a top speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . Oryol 's engines , however , only achieved 14 @,@ 176 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 571 kW ) during her official machinery trials on 10 September 1904 , although the ship was able to reach her designed speed . She carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 370 t ) of coal which allowed her to steam for 2 @,@ 590 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 800 km ; 2 @,@ 980 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ship 's main battery consisted of four 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one forward and one aft of the superstructure . The secondary armament consisted of 12 Canet 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns , mounted in twin @-@ gun turrets . A number of smaller guns were carried for defence against torpedo boats . These included twenty 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) QF guns and twenty 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns . She was also armed with four 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) torpedo tubes , one each at the bow and stern above water and two submerged on the broadside . Oryol 's waterline armor belt consisted of Krupp armor and was 5 @.@ 7 – 7 @.@ 64 inches ( 145 – 194 mm ) thick . The armor of her gun turrets had a maximum thickness of 10 in ( 254 mm ) and her deck ranged from 1 to 2 inches ( 25 to 51 mm ) in thickness . She had anti @-@ torpedo bulkheads 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) thick .
= = Service = =
Construction began on Oryol ( Eagle ) on 7 November 1899 at the Baltic Works in Saint Petersburg . The ship was laid down on 1 June 1900 and launched on 19 July 1901 . While fitting out in Kronstadt in May 1904 in preparation for the installation of her armor , some temporary sheathing was removed that allowed water to enter and sank the ship five days later . The water was pumped out and the ship refloated without incident . She was completed in October 1904 at the cost of 13 @,@ 404 @,@ 000 rubles .
On 15 October 1904 , Oryol set sail for Port Arthur from Libau along with the other vessels of the Second Pacific Squadron , under the overall command of Vice Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky . Rozhestvensky led his squadron down the Atlantic coast of Africa , rounding the Cape of Good Hope , and reached the island of Nosy Be off the north @-@ west coast of Madagascar on 9 January 1905 where they remained for two months while Rozhestvensky finalized his coaling arrangements . The squadron sailed for Camranh Bay , French Indochina , on 16 March and reached it almost a month later to await the obsolete ships of the 3rd Pacific Squadron , commanded by Rear Admiral Nikolai Nebogatov . The latter ships reached Camranh Bay on 9 May and the combined force sailed for Vladivostok on 14 May . With all of the additional coal and other supplies loaded for the lengthy voyage , the ship was 1 @,@ 785 long tons ( 1 @,@ 814 t ) overweight ; most of which was stored high in the ship and reduced her stability . The most important aspect of this , however , was that the additional weight completely submerged the ship 's main armor belt .
Rozhestvensky decided to take the most direct route to Vladivostok using the Tsushima Strait and was intercepted by the Japanese battlefleet under the command of Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō on 27 May 1905 . At the beginning of the battle , Oryol was the last ship in line of the 1st Division , which consisted of all four Borodino @-@ class battleships under Rozhestvensky 's direct command . The ship fired the first shots of the Battle of Tsushima when the ship 's captain , Nikolay Yung , ordered her to open fire at a Japanese cruiser that was shadowing the Russian formation at a range of 9 @,@ 000 meters ( 9 @,@ 800 yd ) . Rozhestvensky had not given any pre @-@ battle instructions to the fleet covering this situation , but he ordered Yung to cease fire after 30 rounds had been fired without effect .
Oryol was not heavily engaged during the early part of the battle , but she was set on fire by Japanese shells during this time . About an hour after the battle began , the Japanese cruiser Chihaya fired two torpedoes at a ship that may have been Oryol , although both torpedoes missed . The Russian formation had become disordered during the early part of the battle and Oryol was second in line after her sister Borodino by 16 : 00 . The Japanese battleships generally concentrated their fire on Borodino during this time and sank her around 19 : 30 . Oryol was hit a number of times as well , but was not seriously damaged .
Oryol took the lead after Borodino was sunk ; she was joined by Nebogatov 's Second Division after Tōgō ordered the Japanese battleships to disengage in the gathering darkness . Nebogatov assumed command of the remains of the fleet and they continued towards Vladivostok . The ships were discovered by the Japanese early the following morning and attacked by Tōgō 's battleships around 10 : 00 . The faster Japanese ships stayed beyond the range at which Nebogatov 's ships could effectively reply and he decided to surrender his ships at 10 : 30 as he could neither return fire nor close the range . The ship was formally stricken from the Navy List on 13 September 1905 .
During the battle , Oryol was probably hit by five 12 @-@ inch , two 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) , nine 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) , thirty @-@ nine 6 @-@ inch shells , and 21 smaller rounds or fragments . Although the ship had many large holes in the unarmored portions of her side , she was only moderately damaged as all of the four ( one 12 @-@ inch and three 6 @-@ inch ) shells that hit her side armor failed to penetrate . The left gun of her forward 12 @-@ inch turret had been struck by an 8 @-@ inch shell that broke off its muzzle and another 8 @-@ inch shell struck the roof of the rear 12 @-@ inch turret and forced it down , which limited the maximum elevation of the left gun . Two 6 @-@ inch gun turrets had been jammed by hits from 8 @-@ inch shells and one of them had been burnt out by an ammunition fire . Another turret had been damaged by a 12 @-@ inch shell that struck its supporting tube . Splinters from two 6 @-@ inch shells entered the conning tower and wounded Yung badly enough that he later died of his wounds . Casualties totaled 43 crewmen killed and approximately 80 wounded .
= = Japanese career as Iwami = =
As Oryol followed the First Division of the Combined Fleet back to Japan after the battle , she developed a list to starboard and her engines began to fail . Escorted ( and occasionally towed ) by the battleship Asahi and the armored cruiser Asama , she was diverted to Maizuru Naval Arsenal for emergency repairs that lasted until 29 July . While under repair , she was renamed Iwami on 6 June , after the eponymous province , now part of Shimane prefecture .
The Japanese substantially rebuilt Iwami at Kure Naval Arsenal and officially recommissioned her into the Imperial Japanese Navy on 2 November 1907 . To reduce her top weight , her funnels were shortened , her fighting tops removed , and her superstructure reduced in height . Her twin six @-@ inch gun turrets were removed and replaced by half a dozen eight @-@ inch guns on pedestal mounts that were protected by gun shields . The fore and aft eight @-@ inch guns were repositioned one deck lower , on the same level as the midships guns , and the midships 75 @-@ millimeter gun positions were plated over . The 75 @-@ millimeter guns were replaced by sixteen Japanese @-@ built QF 12 @-@ pounder , 12 cwt guns and two submerged broadside 18 @-@ inch torpedo tubes replaced her original torpedo armament . Her boilers were replaced by an unknown number of Japanese @-@ built Miyabara water @-@ tube boilers . These changes reduced her displacement to approximately 13 @,@ 500 long tons ( 13 @,@ 700 t ) and her crew now totaled 806 officers and crewmen .
Iwami was assigned to the 1st Fleet on 26 November 1907 although she participated in the 1908 naval maneuvers as part of the 2nd Fleet before rejoining the 1st Fleet the following year . On 1 September 1912 , the ship was reclassified as a second @-@ class coastal defense ship . Shortly after the start of World War I in 1914 , Iwami was assigned to the 2nd Division of the 2nd Fleet , formed from captured Russian ships . The division blockaded the port and bombarded German defenses during the Siege of Tsingtao in August – November 1914 . In 1915 Iwami was a guardship at Kure , but she did participate in that year 's naval maneuvers and subsequent fleet review .
She was assigned to the 5th Division of the 3rd Fleet on 7 January 1918 as its flagship and landed a company of marines in Vladivostok five days later at the start of the Japanese intervention in Siberia during the Russian Civil War . Iwami returned to Kure on 9 September and was subsequently relieved from her assignment with the 3rd Fleet . The ship was assigned to defend Kamchatka from 24 September 1920 to 30 June 1921 and was based in Vladivostok and Petropavlovsk . She was reclassified as a first @-@ class coast defense ship in September 1921 and was used as a training ship . In accordance with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty , Japan agreed to scrap Iwami . She was disarmed in April 1922 and used as a depot ship until she was struck on 1 September . Iwami moored to the west of the island of Jōgashima near the mouth of Tokyo Bay and used as a target by aircraft of the Yokosuka Naval Air Group from 5 – 8 July , finally sinking on 10 July 1924 .
= Giant mouse lemur =
The giant mouse lemurs ( members of the genus Mirza ) are a genus of strepsirrhine primates . Two species have been formally described ; the northern giant mouse lemur ( Mirza zaza ) and Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur ( Mirza coquereli ) . Like all other lemurs , they are native to Madagascar , where they are found in the western dry deciduous forests and further to the north in the Sambirano valley and Sahamalaza Peninsula . First described in 1867 as a single species , they were grouped with mouse lemurs and dwarf lemurs . In 1870 , British zoologist John Edward Gray assigned them to their own genus , Mirza . The classification was not widely accepted until the 1990s , which followed the revival of the genus by American paleoanthropologist Ian Tattersall in 1982 . In 2005 , the northern population was declared a new species , and in 2010 , the World Wide Fund for Nature announced that a southwestern population might also be a new species .
Giant mouse lemurs are about three times larger than mouse lemurs , weighing approximately 300 g ( 11 oz ) , and have a long , bushy tail . They are most closely related to mouse lemurs within Cheirogaleidae , a family of small , nocturnal lemurs . Giant mouse lemurs sleep in nests during the day and forage alone at night for fruit , tree gum , insects , and small vertebrates . Unlike many other cheirogaleids , they do not enter a state of torpor during the dry season . The northern species is generally more social than the southern species , particularly when nesting , though males and females may form pair bonds . The northern species also has the largest testicle size relative to its body size among all primates and is atypical among lemurs for breeding year @-@ round instead of seasonally . Home ranges often overlap , with related females living closely together while males disperse . Giant mouse lemurs are vocal , although they also scent mark using saliva , urine , and secretions from the anogenital scent gland .
Predators of giant mouse lemurs include the Madagascar buzzard , Madagascar owl , fossa , and the narrow @-@ striped mongoose . Giant mouse lemurs reproduce once a year , with two offspring born after a 90 @-@ day gestation . Babies are initially left in the nest while the mother forages , but are later carried by mouth and parked in vegetation while she forages nearby . In captivity , giant mouse lemurs will breed year @-@ round . Their lifespan in the wild is thought to be five to six years . Both species are listed as endangered due to habitat destruction and hunting . Like all lemurs , they are protected under CITES Appendix I , which prohibits commercial trade . Despite breeding easily , they are rarely kept in captivity . The Duke Lemur Center coordinated the captive breeding of an imported collection of the northern species , which rose from six individuals in 1982 to 62 individuals by 1989 , but the population fell to six by 2009 and was no longer considered a breeding population .
= = Taxonomy = =
The first species of giant mouse lemur was described by the French naturalist Alfred Grandidier in 1867 based on seven individuals he had collected near Morondava in southwestern Madagascar . Of these seven specimens , the lectotype was selected in 1939 as MNHN 1867 – 603 , an adult skull and skin . Naming the species after the French entomologist Charles Coquerel , Grandidier placed Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur ( M. coquereli ) with the dwarf lemurs in the genus Cheirogaleus ( which he spelled Cheirogalus ) as C. coquereli . He selected this generic assignment based on similarities with fork @-@ marked lemurs ( Phaner ) , which he considered to also be members of Cheirogaleus . The following year , the German naturalist Hermann Schlegel and Dutch naturalist François Pollen independently described the same species and coincidentally gave it the same specific name , coquereli , basing theirs on an individual from around the Bay of Ampasindava in northern Madagascar . Unlike Grandidier , they placed their specimen in the genus Microcebus ( mouse lemurs ) ; however , these authors also listed all Cheirogaleus under Microcebus and based the classification of their species on similarities with the greater dwarf lemur ( M. typicus , now C. major ) .
In 1870 , the British zoologist John Edward Gray placed Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur into its own genus , Mirza . This classification was widely ignored and later rejected in the early 1930s by zoologists Ernst Schwarz , Guillaume Grandidier , and others , who felt that its longer fur and bushy tail did not merit a separate genus and instead placed it in Microcebus . British anatomist William Charles Osman Hill also favored this view in 1953 , noting that despite its larger size ( comparable to Cheirogaleus ) , its first upper premolar was proportionally small as in Microcebus . In 1977 , French zoologist Jean @-@ Jacques Petter also favored the Microcebus classification , despite the threefold size difference between Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur and the other members of the genus .
The genus Mirza was resurrected in 1982 by American paleoanthropologist Ian Tattersall to represent an intermediate branch between Microcebus and Cheirogaleus , citing the Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur 's significantly larger size than the largest Microcebus and locomotor behavior more closely aligned with Cheirogaleus . Adoption of Mirza was slow , though in 1994 it was used in the first edition of Lemurs of Madagascar by Conservation International . In 1993 , primatologist Colin Groves initially favored the Microcebus classification in the second edition of Mammal Species of the World , but began supporting the resurrection of Mirza in 2001 . In 1991 , prior to adopting Mirza , Groves was the first to use the common name " giant mouse lemur " . Prior to that , they were popularly referred to as " Coquerel 's mouse lemur " .
In 2005 , Peter M. Kappeler and Christian Roos described a new species of giant mouse lemur , the northern giant mouse lemur ( M. zaza ) . Their studies compared the morphology , behavioral ecology , and mitochondrial cytochrome b sequences of specimens from both Kirindy Forest in central @-@ western Madagascar and around Ambato in northwestern Madagascar , part of the Sambirano valley . Their study demonstrated distinct differences in size , sociality , and breeding , as well as sufficient genetic distance to merit specific distinction between the northern and central @-@ western populations . Because Grandidier 's description was based on a southern specimen , they named the northern population as a new species .
The World Wide Fund for Nature ( WWF ) announced in 2010 that a biodiversity study from 2009 in the gallery forest of Ranobe near Toliara in southwestern Madagascar revealed a population of giant mouse lemurs previously unknown to science , and possibly a new species . They noted a significant difference in coloration between the two known species and the specimen they observed . However , further testing was required to confirm the discovery .
= = = Etymology = = =
The etymology of Mirza puzzled researchers for many years . Gray often created mysterious and unexplained taxonomic names — a trend not only continued with his description of Mirza in 1870 , but also with the genera Phaner ( fork @-@ marked lemurs ) and Azema ( for M. rufus , now a synonym for Microcebus ) , both of which were described in the same publication . In 1904 , American zoologist Theodore Sherman Palmer attempted to document the etymologies of all mammalian taxa , but could not definitively explain these three genera . For Mirza , Palmer only noted that it derived from the Persian title mîrzâ ( " prince " ) , a view tentatively supported by Alex Dunkel , Jelle Zijlstra , and Groves in 2012 . However , because the reference to Persian princes might have come from Arabian Nights , a popular piece of literature at the time , Dunkel et al. also searched the general literature published around 1870 . The origin of all three names was found in a British comedy The Palace of Truth by W. S. Gilbert , which premiered in London on 19 November 1870 , nearly one and a half weeks prior to the date written on the preface of Gray 's manuscript ( also published in London ) . The comedy featured characters bearing all three names : King Phanor ( sic ) , Mirza , and Azema . The authors concluded that Gray had seen the comedy and then based the names of three lemur genera on its characters .
= = = Evolution = = =
Based on studies using morphology , immunology , repetitive DNA , SINE analysis , multilocus phylogenetic tests , and mitochondrial genes ( mtDNA ) , giant mouse lemurs are most closely related to mouse lemurs within the family Cheirogaleidae , and together they form a clade with the hairy @-@ eared dwarf lemur ( Allocebus ) . Both dwarf lemurs and fork @-@ marked lemurs are more distantly related , with fork @-@ marked lemurs being either a sister group of all cheirogaleids , or more closely related to sportive lemurs ( Lepilemur ) .
Although Mirza , Microcebus , and Allocebus form a clade within Cheirogaleidae , the three lineages are thought to have diverged during a narrow window of time , so the relationships within this clade are difficult to determine and may change with further research . All three are thought to have diverged at least 20 mya ( million years ago ) , although another estimate using mtDNA places the divergence between Mirza and Microcebus at 24 @.@ 2 mya . Divergence between the two recognized species of giant mouse lemur is estimated at 2 @.@ 1 mya .
= = Description = =
Though giant mouse lemurs are relatively small cheirogaleids , they are more than three times larger than the smallest members of the family , the mouse lemurs . Their body weight averages 300 g ( 11 oz ) . At around 300 mm ( 12 in ) , their bushy and long tail is longer than their head @-@ body length , which averages 233 mm ( 9 @.@ 2 in ) . Their forelimbs are shorter than the hind limbs ( with an intermembral index of 70 ) , a trait shared with mouse lemurs . The skull is similar to that of dwarf and mouse lemurs , and the auditory bullae are small .
Like other cheirogaleids , the dental formula for giant mouse lemurs is 2 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 32 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 3 × 2 = 36 ; on each side of the mouth , top and bottom , there are two incisors , one canine , three premolars , and three molars — a total of 36 teeth . Their upper teeth converge towards the front of the mouth , but are straighter than those in mouse lemurs . The first upper premolar ( P2 ) is relatively small , but nearly as tall as the next premolar ( P3 ) . Unlike mouse lemurs and more like dwarf lemurs , giant mouse lemurs have a prominent anterior lower premolar ( P2 ) . Also more aligned with dwarf lemurs , the first two upper molars ( M1 – 2 ) have a more anterior hypocone that sits opposite the metacone , compared to the mouse lemurs ' more posterior hypocone , which is presumably a symplesiomorphic ( ancestral ) trait . Also on M1 and M2 , the cingulum ( a crest or ridge on the tongue side ) comprises two small cuspules . In all other dental characteristics , giant mouse lemurs are noticeably similar to both dwarf and mouse lemurs .
Giant mouse lemurs have two pairs of mammae , one on the chest ( pectoral ) and one on the abdomen ( abdominal ) . Their fur is typically grayish @-@ brown on the dorsal ( back ) side and more gray in color on the ventral ( front ) side . The tail is typically black @-@ tipped . The new population found by WWF in 2010 has an overall lighter color , along with reddish or rusty patches near the hands and feet on the dorsal side of the arms and legs . This population also has a red tail , which darkens at the end . Vibrissae are found above the eyes ( superciliary ) , above the mouth ( buccal ) , under the lower jaw ( genal ) , near the top of the jaw ( interramal ) , and on the wrist ( carpal ) . Like mouse lemurs , the ears are large and membranous .
Ear size is one differentiating factor between the northern giant mouse lemur and Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur , with the former having shorter , rounded ears , while the latter has relatively large ears . The northern giant mouse lemur is generally larger and also has a shorter tail and shorter canine teeth . This species also has the largest testicles relative to body size of any living primate , with an average volume of 15 @.@ 48 cm3 ( 0 @.@ 945 cu in ) , corresponding to 5 @.@ 5 % of its body weight . If human males had comparably sized testes , they would weigh 4 kg ( 8 @.@ 8 lb ) and be the size of a grapefruit .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur has a spotty distribution across western Madagascar 's dry deciduous forests due to the forest fragmentation throughout the region . The dry forests in this lowland region vary in elevation from sea level to 700 m ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) . The range of this species is divided into northern and southern subpopulations , which are separated by several hundred kilometers . Both historical and current populations between these ranges are uncertain . The southern region is bound by the Onilahy River in the south and the Tsiribihina River in the north , while the northern population is found in the northwestern corner of the island at Tsingy de Namoroka National Park . They are most commonly found in forests near rivers and ponds .
The northern giant mouse lemur is found in isolated forest patches along the northwest coast in both the more humid Sambirano valley and Sahamalaza Peninsula , as well as the Ampasindava Peninsula . Its range extends from the Maeverano River in the south to the Mahavavy River in the north . The new population reported by the WWF in 2010 is found in the gallery forests of Ranobe near Toliara in southwestern Madagascar .
= = Behavior = =
Giant mouse lemurs were first studied in the wild by Petter and colleagues in 1971 . His observations were secondary to his primary research interest , the fork @-@ marked lemurs north of Morondava . Both northern and southern populations were studied intermittently between 1978 and 1981 , and in 1993 , long @-@ term social and genetic studies began in Kirindy Forest . Behavioral studies of captive individuals have also been performed at the Duke Lemur Center ( DLC ) in Durham , North Carolina during the 1990s .
= = = Population density and territory = = =
Before the recognition of more than one species , differences in population density were noted between southern forests like Kirindy and northern forests near Ambanja . Later , it was recognized that Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur was found in lower densities than the northern giant mouse lemur . The former range between 30 and 210 individuals per square kilometer ( 250 acres ) , with lower densities in open areas of the forest , while the latter has been recorded with 385 to 1 @,@ 086 individuals per km2 . However , in the case of the northern giant mouse lemur , populations were found in more isolated forest fragments and it is thought that their consumption of introduced cashew and mango help sustain these higher populations .
According to studies of Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur , home ranges of both sexes vary from 1 to 4 hectares ( 2 to 10 acres ) with frequent overlap , particularly on the periphery of their range . Individuals most heavily use and aggressively defend a smaller core area within their range . Individuals can have up to eight neighbors . Home ranges of males tend to overlap with those of both females and other males , and typically expand to four times the size during the mating season . Female home ranges show no variability in size , and can remain stable for years . At Kirindy Forest , genetic studies showed that the home ranges of related females tend to clump closely together , while unrelated males may overlap their range , suggesting male dispersal and migration is responsible for gene flow .
= = = Activity patterns = = =
Both species are strictly nocturnal , leaving their nests around sunset to stretch and self @-@ groom for a few minutes . Both species typically forage between 5 and 10 m ( 16 and 33 ft ) above the forest floor , though Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur has been observed on the ground . They primarily move by quadrupedal running and occasionally leaping between branches , and use the same feeding postures as mouse lemurs , such as clinging to tree trunks . When moving through the trees , giant mouse lemurs scurry rapidly like mouse lemurs , unlike dwarf lemurs , which use more deliberate movement . Slow movements are usually seen in lower , denser foliage when hunting for insects , while more rapid motion and leaping is typically seen at moderate heights of 2 – 5 m ( 6 @.@ 6 – 16 ft ) . Surveillance of the home range involves slower movements in lighter foliage near the tops of large trees , while movements along the border of a home range is more rapid and occurs at a lower height . Similar movement patterns have been observed in captivity as well .
Giant mouse lemurs begin foraging moments before the sun disappears , occasionally participate in social activities during the last half of the night , and return to one of their nests prior to sunrise . Cold temperatures cause them to leave the nest later and return early , sometime during the second half of the night . During the first half of the night , giant mouse lemurs are more likely to rest for an hour or more , usually at the expense of social activities , but not feeding time . Rest periods are longer when temperatures are low . Unlike many other cheirogaleids , they remain active all year and do not enter daily or seasonal torpor .
= = = Nesting = = =
Both species sleep in round nests up to 50 cm ( 20 in ) across made of interlaced lianas , branches , leaves , and twigs gathered from nearby trees and woven using the mouth and hands . Nests are typically between 2 and 10 m ( 6 @.@ 6 and 33 ft ) above the ground in the fork of large tree branches or surrounded by dense lianas . Trees covered in thick lianas as well as trees with year @-@ round leaf cover ( e.g. Euphorbiaceae ) are favored for nest construction , though large bare trees may be used by building the nest higher . In addition to nesting in dense lianas , individual giant mouse lemurs will rotate between 10 and 12 nests every few days to avoid predators . Only females have been observed building nests in the wild , though males , females , and young have been observed building nests in captivity . Multiple nests are sometimes built in the same tree or in nearby trees and are shared by neighboring giant mouse lemurs , fork @-@ marked lemurs , and the introduced black rat ( Rattus rattus ) . Unlike most other nocturnal lemurs , giant mouse lemurs do not appear to sleep in tree holes .
= = = Social structure = = =
Both species usually are solitary foragers , although the northern giant mouse lemur tends to be the most social , possibly due to its higher population density . Up to eight ( typically four ) adult males , adult females , and juveniles may be found in a northern giant mouse lemur nest , whereas Coquerel 's giant mouse lemurs do not nest communally , except when females share their nest with their offspring . Males do groom and call to females when they come into contact , and according to radio @-@ tracking and direct observations at Analabe near Kirindy , they form pair bonds , sometimes briefly traveling together during the dry season . However , most interactions between adults are infrequent and typically occur later at night and particularly during the dry season in overlapping core areas , often involving chases and other agonistic behavior , and only rarely social grooming . During the mating season , males act aggressively towards one another , pulling out fur around the head and shoulders and biting the head .
Giant mouse lemurs use at least eight vocalizations , the most common of which are contact calls , which sound like " hum " or a " hein " and are used when moving and when meeting familiar individuals . A " mother @-@ infant meeting call " used at dawn before returning to the nest consists of short , modulated whistles . Both males and females have distinct single note calls used in territorial behavior ; the female call sounds like " pfiou " and the male call is a short , loud whistle . Both sexes use an alarm call , which sounds like a " croak " , and an agonistic call , which consists of repeated " tisk @-@ tisk @-@ tisk " sounds . Females exhibit a " waking call sequence " , sometimes referred to as " loud calls " , which start when foraging commences and then switch to quieter " hon " calls possibly to indicate their position to their neighbors . A long " sexual call sequence " consisting of soft whistle and several modulated , hoarse " brroak " calls is used by both sexes during estrus . Studies of captive individuals have found other vocalizations , but their purpose has not been determined . The northern giant mouse lemur appears to be the most vocal of the two species . Although vocalizations are the primary form of social communication , they also scent mark using saliva , urine , and secretions from the anogenital scent gland on small branches and other objects .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Reproduction starts in November for Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur at Kirindy Forest ; the estrous cycle runs approximately 22 days , while estrus lasts only a day or less . The mating season in this southern population is limited to a few weeks , whereas the northern giant mouse lemur is thought to breed throughout the year , a trend seen in only two other species of lemur : the aye @-@ aye ( Daubentonia madagascariensis ) and the red @-@ bellied lemur ( Eulemur rubriventer ) . The northern giant mouse lemur had been observed breeding year @-@ round in captivity if their litter did not survive or was removed , but at the time this population was thought to be Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur .
One to three offspring ( typically two ) are born after 90 days of gestation , weighing approximately 12 g ( 0 @.@ 42 oz ) . Because they are poorly developed , they initially remain in their mother 's nest for up to three weeks , being transported by mouth between nests . Once they have grown sufficiently , typically after three weeks , the mother will park her offspring in vegetation while she forages nearby . After a month , the young begin to participate in social play and grooming with their mother , and between the first and second month , young males begin to exhibit early sexual behaviors ( including mounting , neck biting , and pelvic thrusting ) . By the third month , the young forage independently , though they maintain vocal contact with their mother and use a small part of her range .
Females start reproducing after ten months , while males develop functional testicles by their second mating season . Testicle size in the northern giant mouse lemur does not appear to fluctuate by season , and is so large relative to the animal 's body mass that it is the highest among all primates . This emphasis on sperm production in males , as well as the use of copulatory plugs , suggests a mating system best described as polygynandrous where males use scramble competition ( roaming widely to find many females ) . In contrast , male Coquerel 's giant mouse lemurs appear to fight for access to females ( contest competition ) during their breeding season . Males disperse from their natal range , and the age at which they leave varies from two years to several . Females reproduce every year , although postpartum estrus has been observed in captivity . In the wild , the lifespan of giant mouse lemurs is thought to rarely exceed five or six years , though in captivity they can live up to 15 years .
= = Ecology = =
Both species are omnivorous , eating fruit , flowers , buds , insect excretions , tree gums , large insects , spiders , frogs , chameleons , snakes , small birds , and eggs . Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur is thought to opportunistically prey on mouse lemurs after an individual was found with a half @-@ eaten gray mouse lemur ( M. murinus ) in a trap . During June and July , at the peak of the dry season , this species relies on sugary excretions from the larvae of hemipteran and cochineal insects as well as tree gums . The sugary excretions are obtained by either licking them from the back of the insect or collecting the crystallized sugars that accumulate beneath the insect colony . During this time of year , feeding on insect secretions can account for 60 % of feeding activity . In contrast , the northern giant mouse lemur relies on cashew fruits during the dry season .
Giant mouse lemurs are often sympatric with mouse lemurs , such as M. murinus , though they are typically found higher in the canopy and favor thicker , taller gallery forests . At the Marosalaza forest ( north of Morondava ) , Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur is sympatric with four other nocturnal lemurs ( mouse lemurs , sportive lemurs , dwarf lemurs , and fork @-@ marked lemurs ) , but manages niche differentiation by feeding at different times and specializing on insect secretions during the dry season .
Diurnal birds of prey such as the Madagascar buzzard ( Buteo brachypterus ) are their most significant predators . Other documented predators of giant mouse lemurs include the fossa ( Cryptoprocta ferox ) , Madagascar owl ( Asio madagascariensis ) , and the narrow @-@ striped mongoose ( Mungotictis decemlineata ) .
= = Conservation = =
In 2012 , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) assessed both Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur and the northern giant mouse lemur as endangered . Prior to that , both species had been listed as vulnerable . Populations of both species are in decline due to habitat destruction , primarily for slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture and charcoal production . Also , they are both hunted for bushmeat . The population announced by the WWF in 2010 was found outside the limits of a nearby protected area , PK32 @-@ Ranobe , which was granted temporary protection status in December 2008 and is co @-@ managed by the WWF . Its forests were not included in the protected area due to existing concessions for mining activities .
As with all lemurs , giant mouse lemurs were first protected in 1969 when they were listed as " Class A " of the African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources . This prohibited hunting and capture without authorization , which would only be given for scientific purposes or the national interest . In 1973 , they were also protected under CITES Appendix I , which strictly regulates their trade and forbids commercial trade . Although enforcement is patchy , they are also protected under Malagasy law .
Giant mouse lemurs are rarely kept in captivity , though they breed easily . In 1989 , the Duke Lemur Center held more than 70 % of the captive population ( 45 of 62 individuals ) . At the time , the DLC was coordinating a captive breeding program for Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur , and all individuals kept at American facilities were descended from six individuals imported by the DLC in 1982 from the region around Ambanja . As of 2009 , the International Species Information System ( ISIS ) recorded only six remaining individuals registered in the United States and Europe , all reclassified as northern giant mouse lemurs and considered a non @-@ breeding population ; and in 2015 , only a single female remained on record .
= French cruiser Dupuy de Lôme =
Dupuy de Lôme was an armoured cruiser built for the French Navy ( Marine Nationale ) during the late 1880s and 1890s . She is considered by some to be the world 's first armoured cruiser and was intended to attack enemy merchant ships . The ship was named after the naval architect Henri Dupuy de Lôme . Dupuy de Lôme 's completion was delayed by almost two years by problems with her boilers , but she was finally commissioned in 1895 and assigned to the Northern Squadron ( Escadre du Nord ) , based at Brest , for most of her career . The ship made a number of visits to foreign ports before she began a lengthy reconstruction in 1902 . By the time this was completed in 1906 , the cruiser was regarded as obsolete and Dupuy de Lôme was placed in reserve , aside from one assignment in Morocco .
The ship was sold to the Peruvian Navy in 1912 , but they never paid the last two installments and the ship remained inactive at Brest during World War I. The French agreed to take the ship back in 1917 , keeping the money already paid , and they sold her in 1918 to a Belgian shipping company that converted her into a freighter . Renamed Péruvier , the ship 's engines broke down and she had to be towed to her destination where part of her cargo of coal was discovered to be on fire during her maiden voyage as a merchant vessel in 1920 . Deemed uneconomical to repair , Péruvier was towed to Antwerp and later scrapped in 1923 .
= = Design and description = =
Dupuy de Lôme was designed to fill the commerce @-@ raiding strategy of the Jeune École . Considered by some the first true armoured cruiser , she was superior to existing British and Italian protected cruisers , especially in her relatively thick steel armour . She could control the engagement range with her superior speed and her heavy armament of quick @-@ firing guns , all of which were mounted in gun turrets , in marked contrast to her intended opponents who mounted their guns in lightly protected casemates or pivot mounts .
The ship measured 114 metres ( 374 ft 0 in ) between perpendiculars , with a beam of 15 @.@ 7 metres ( 51 ft 6 in ) . Dupuy de Lôme had a mean draught of 7 @.@ 07 metres ( 23 ft 2 in ) and displaced 6 @,@ 301 tonnes ( 6 @,@ 201 long tons ) at normal load . At deep load , she displaced 6 @,@ 682 tonnes ( 6 @,@ 576 long tons ) and had a metacentric height of only 0 @.@ 695 metres ( 2 ft 3 @.@ 4 in ) . This gave the ship a long , slow roll and made her an uncertain gunnery platform . Her long , cut @-@ away bow resembled a spur @-@ type ram , but was not armoured . It was reduced in profile to reduce blast damage when the forward guns were fired . Dupuy de Lôme was fitted with two large military masts .
She had three triple @-@ expansion steam engines , a vertical type for the centre shaft and horizontal types for the outboard shafts . Each engine drove a single propeller shaft , with propellers 4 @.@ 2 metres ( 13 ft 9 in ) in diameter on the outboard shaft and a 4 @.@ 4 @-@ metre ( 14 ft 5 in ) propeller on the centre shaft . Steam for the engines was provided by 11 Amirauté fire @-@ tube boilers and they were rated at a total of 14 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 10 @,@ 000 kW ) . The ship had a designed speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) , but during sea trials on 2 April 1895 the engines only produced 13 @,@ 186 metric horsepower ( 9 @,@ 698 kW ) that gave a maximum speed of 19 @.@ 73 knots ( 36 @.@ 54 km / h ; 22 @.@ 70 mph ) . Dupuy de Lôme carried up to 1 @,@ 080 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 060 long tons ; 1 @,@ 190 short tons ) of coal and could steam for 4 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 400 km ; 4 @,@ 600 mi ) at a speed of 12 @.@ 5 knots ( 23 @.@ 2 km / h ; 14 @.@ 4 mph ) .
Dupuy de Lôme 's main armament consisted of two 45 @-@ calibre Canon de 194 mm Modèle 1887 guns that were mounted in single gun turrets , one on each broadside amidships . Her secondary armament comprised six 45 @-@ calibre Canon de 164 mm Modèle 1887 guns , three each in single gun turrets at the bow and stern . The three turrets at the stern were all on the upper deck and could interfere with each other . For anti @-@ torpedo boat defence , she carried ten 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) and four 37 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss guns . She was also armed with four 450 @-@ millimetre ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) pivoting torpedo tubes ; two mounted on each broadside above water .
The whole side of the ship was protected by 100 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) of steel armour , from the bottom edge of the protective deck 1 @.@ 38 metres ( 4 ft 6 in ) below the waterline to the edge of the weather deck . The curved protective deck had a total thickness of 30 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) and did not rise above the ship 's waterline . Protecting the boiler rooms , engine rooms , and magazines below it was a splinter deck 8 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) thick . The space between the protective and splinter decks could be filled with coal to increase the effective thickness of the ship 's armour . It was very cramped there and the coal was very difficult to access . A watertight internal cofferdam , filled with cellulose , ran the length of Dupuy de Lôme from the protective deck to a height of 1 metre ( 3 ft 3 in ) above the waterline . Below the protective deck the ship was divided by 13 watertight transverse bulkheads with three more above the protective deck . The ship 's conning tower was protected by 125 mm ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) and her turrets by 100 mm of armour .
= = Service = =
Dupuy de Lôme was laid down at the Brest shipyard on 4 July 1888 and she was launched on 27 October 1890 . A number of her forged steel armour plates proved to be defective during tests as the metallurgical techniques to harden it were still under development , but most plates were accepted anyway . The ship was commissioned for preliminary sea trials on 1 April 1892 and one boiler tube burst on 20 June , burning 16 men . The necessary modifications to fix the problem delayed the ship 's completion by almost a year . Further testing in October 1893 , showed that Dupuy de Lôme 's engines could only attain 10 @,@ 180 metric horsepower ( 7 @,@ 490 kW ) during a 24 @-@ hour trial and that the boilers were structurally unsound . The manufacturer agreed to replace them , but the necessary work delayed the ship 's completion by another year . She was commissioned again for a new set of sea trials on 15 November 1894 and proved reasonably satisfactory .
Dupuy de Lôme was finally commissioned on 15 May 1895 and was assigned to the Northern Squadron , based on the Atlantic coast . She represented France , together with the ironclad Hoche and the cruiser Surcouf , during the opening ceremony for the Kiel Canal the following month . She made port visits in Spain in June 1896 and escorted the Russian Imperial yacht into Cherbourg when Nicholas II of Russia began a state visit on 5 October . The ship escorted the President of France , Félix Faure , when he visited Russia in April 1897 . Bilge keels were fitted during a brief refit that began in October and effectively reduced the ship 's roll by half . In June 1899 , Dupuy de Lôme visited ports in Spain and Portugal and she represented France at Spithead during Queen Victoria 's funeral in January – February 1901 .
The ship began an extensive reconstruction in 1902 at Brest , with the installation of 20 new Guyot – du @-@ Temple water @-@ tube boilers , that took four years to complete . The boilers had an operating pressure of 11 @.@ 25 kg / cm2 ( 1 @,@ 103 kPa ; 160 psi ) and they required that a third funnel be added which necessitated extensive structural modifications . The rear military mast was replaced by a simple pole mast and sea trials in July 1906 showed that the ship could only attain 18 @.@ 27 knots ( 33 @.@ 84 km / h ; 21 @.@ 02 mph ) from 12 @,@ 887 metric horsepower ( 9 @,@ 478 kW ) . Dupuy de Lôme was placed in reserve after completing her refit in October 1906 and was not recommissioned until September 1908 for service on the Moroccan station . By this time many of the ship 's plates were rusting and her entire water distribution system had to be dismantled for cleaning in 1909 . Later that year , she was placed into reserve again and deemed uneconomical to repair . Dupuy de Lôme was decommissioned on 20 March 1910 , but the final decision to strike her from the Navy List was not made until 20 February 1911 .
Prompted by the rumoured purchase of the small Italian protected cruiser Umbria by Ecuador in 1910 , Peru offered to buy a French armoured cruiser . A price of three million francs was agreed upon , to be paid in three instalments , and Peru agreed to reimburse France for the costs of repairing Dupuy de Lôme . These repairs were completed by 6 March 1912 and the ship was formally transferred to the Peruvian Navy and renamed Commandante Aguirre after the first instalment was paid . After Umbria was bought by Haiti instead of Ecuador , the Peruvians lost interest in completing the purchase and the ship was left in the care of the French in October 1914 . Proposals to use her during World War I were rejected as she was thought to be too obsolete to be worth refitting . On 17 January 1917 the ship was officially returned to France and the money already paid was put against the cost to repair Commandante Aguirre . Any money in excess of the estimated 400 @,@ 000 francs that her scrapping would bring would be turned over to Peru .
In October 1918 , she was sold to the Belgian firm of Lloyd Royal Belge ( LRB ) and converted to a freighter under the name Péruvier by Forges et Chantiers de la Gironde . A conventional bow was built up over her pseudo @-@ ram and the space was used to accommodate her crew . The two outboard engines , their associated boilers and propeller shafts were removed as were the two forward funnels . The ship 's side and deck armour was removed wherever it did not compromise structural strength . Péruvier was delivered in December 1919 and she began her first voyage carrying 5 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 4 @,@ 900 long tons ) of coal from Cardiff to Rio de Janeiro on 20 January 1920 . Engine repairs had to be made at Falmouth the next day and were not completed until 14 February . Her engine broke down again in the mid @-@ Atlantic and she was towed to Las Palmas by a Spanish merchantman . Arriving there on 20 March , she was towed by another LRB ship to Pernambuco . After her arrival there on 1 June , the coal in her No. 3 hold was found to be on fire . This was not extinguished until 19 June and the ship remained in harbour until 14 October . Péruvier was towed to Antwerp , arriving on 18 November , and lay idle there until she was sold for scrap . On 4 March 1923 , she was towed to the shipbreakers in Flushing .
= The Kingston Trio =
The Kingston Trio is an American folk and pop music group that helped launch the folk revival of the late 1950s to late 1960s . The group started as a San Francisco Bay Area nightclub act with an original lineup of Dave Guard , Bob Shane , and Nick Reynolds . It rose to international popularity , fueled by unprecedented sales of 33 ⅓ rpm long @-@ playing record albums ( LPs ) , and helped to alter the direction of popular music in the U.S.
The Kingston Trio was one of the most prominent groups of the era 's pop @-@ folk boom that started in 1958 with the release of their first album and its hit recording of " Tom Dooley " , which sold over three million copies as a single . The Trio released nineteen albums that made Billboard 's Top 100 , fourteen of which ranked in the top 10 , and five of which hit the number 1 spot . Four of the group 's LPs charted among the 10 top @-@ selling albums for five weeks in November and December 1959 , a record unmatched for more than 50 years , and the group still ranks after half a century in the all @-@ time lists of many of Billboard 's cumulative charts , including those for most weeks with a number 1 album , most total weeks charting an album , most number 1 albums , most consecutive number 1 albums , and most top ten albums .
In 1961 , the Trio was described as " the most envied , the most imitated , and the most successful singing group , folk or otherwise , in all show business " and " the undisputed kings of the folksinging rage by every yardstick . " Music historian Richie Unterberger characterized their impact as " phenomenal popularity " , and the Kingston Trio 's massive record sales in its early days made acoustic folk music commercially viable , paving the way for singer @-@ songwriter , folk rock , and Americana artists who followed in their wake .
= = Formation , 1954 – 1957 = =
Dave Guard and Bob Shane had been friends since junior high school at the Punahou School in Honolulu , Hawaii where both had learned to play ukulele in required music classes . They had developed an interest in and admiration for native Hawaiian slack key guitarists like Gabby Pahinui . While in Punahou 's secondary school , Shane taught first himself and then Guard the rudiments of the six @-@ string guitar , and the two began performing at parties and in school shows doing an eclectic mix of Tahitian , Hawaiian , and calypso songs .
After graduating from high school in 1952 , Guard enrolled at Stanford University in Palo Alto , California , while Shane matriculated at nearby Menlo College . At Menlo , Shane became friends with Nick Reynolds , a native San Diegan with an extensive knowledge of folk and calypso songs — in part from his guitar @-@ playing father , a career officer in the U.S. Navy . Reynolds was also able to create and sing tenor harmonies , a skill derived in part from family singalongs , and could play both guitar and bongo and conga drums . Shane and Reynolds performed at fraternity parties and luaus for a time , and eventually Shane introduced Reynolds to Guard . The three began performing at campus and neighborhood hangouts , sometimes as a trio but with an aggregation of friends that could swell their ranks to as many as six or seven , according to Reynolds . They usually billed themselves under the name of " Dave Guard and the Calypsonians " . None of the three at that time had any serious aspirations to enter professional show business , however , and Shane returned to Hawaii following his graduation in late 1956 to work in the family sporting goods business .
Still in the Bay Area , Guard and Reynolds had organized themselves somewhat more formally into an entity named " The Kingston Quartet " with friends bassist Joe Gannon and vocalist Barbara Bogue , though as before they were often joined in their performances by other friends . At one engagement at Redwood City 's Cracked Pot beer garden , they met a young San Francisco publicist named Frank Werber , who had heard of them from a local entertainment reporter . Werber liked the group 's raw energy but did not consider them refined enough to want to represent them as an agent or manager at that point , though he left his telephone number with Guard . Some weeks later ( and following a brief period in which Reynolds was temporarily replaced in the quartet by Don MacArthur ) , Guard and Reynolds invited Werber to a performance of the group at the Italian Village Restaurant in San Francisco , where Werber was so impressed by the group 's progress that he agreed to manage them provided they replace Gannon , in whose professional potential Werber had no faith . Bogue left with Gannon , and Guard , Reynolds , and Werber invited Shane to rejoin the now more formally organized band . Shane , who had been performing part @-@ time as a solo act at night in Honolulu , readily assented and returned to the mainland in early March 1957 .
The four drew up a contract as equal partners in Werber 's office in San Francisco , deciding first on the name " Kingston Trio " because it evoked , through its association with Kingston , Jamaica , the calypso music popular at the time , and second on the uniform of three @-@ quarter @-@ length sleeved vertically striped shirts that the group hoped would help their target audience of college students to identify with them .
= = Era of peak success , 1957 – 61 = =
Werber imposed a stern training regimen on Guard , Shane , and Reynolds , rehearsing them for six to eight hours a day for several months , sending them to prominent San Francisco vocal coach Judy Davis to help them learn to preserve their voices , and working on the group 's carefully prepared but apparently spontaneous banter between songs . At the same time , the group was developing a varied and eclectic repertoire of calypso , folk , and foreign language songs , suggested by all three of the musicians though usually arranged by Guard with some harmonies created by Reynolds .
The first major break for The Kingston Trio came in late June 1957 when comedian Phyllis Diller canceled a week @-@ long engagement at The Purple Onion club in San Francisco . When Werber persuaded the club 's owner to give the untested Trio a chance , Guard sent out five hundred postcards to everyone that the three musicians knew in the Bay Area and Werber plastered the city with handbills announcing the engagement . When the crowds came , the Trio had been well prepared by months of work , and they achieved such local popularity that the initial week 's engagement stretched to six months . Werber built upon this initial success , booking a national club tour in early 1958 for the Trio that included engagements at such prominent
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atriot Li Jiawei beating her to take the gold .
Feng was a member of the silver medal @-@ winning team at the World Team Championships in Guangzhou in 2008 and defeated the top seed Zhang Yining from China in the Quarter @-@ finals of the Asian Cup held in Sapporo between 29 and 30 March 2008 , eventually achieving second place behind China 's Guo Yue . Due to her outstanding records in international competitions , she rose to the top 10 world rankings within a year .
= = = 2008 Summer Olympics = = =
Feng represented Singapore for the first time at the 2008 Summer Olympics in the women 's team tournament . She contributed significantly to Singapore 's 3 – 2 win against South Korea in the semifinals by defeating Dang Ye @-@ Seo and Park Mi @-@ Young in two singles matches . Feng 's match against Park was closely fought , with Feng eventually overcoming Park 3 – 1 . Singapore was assisted by the implementation of the expedite system when the game failed to be completed in ten minutes . Under the system , players serve on alternative points rather than on every two points . A receiving player scores a point if she manages 13 returns , which disadvantages defensive play by the server . The system unsettled Park , and Feng won two minutes after its introduction in the match when Park committed a service fault . Interviewed afterwards , Feng said : " I definitely did not expect that [ Park 's error ] . It was a surprise and the best birthday present I 've ever gotten . "
On 17 August 2008 , Feng and her teammates achieved a silver medal in women 's table tennis after losing to China in three matches . Feng played the starting singles match , winning the first game but eventually losing to China 's Wang Nan 1 @-@ 3 . This was the first time Singapore had won an Olympic medal since its independence in 1965 . The medal came 48 years after Tan Howe Liang won the country 's first medal , a silver in weightlifting in the lightweight category at the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome .
Feng received byes into the third round of the women 's singles tournament . Feng defeated South Korea 's Dang Ye @-@ Seo 4 – 0 in the third round , Netherlands ' Li Jie 4 @-@ 1 in the fourth round , but fell 1 @-@ 4 to China 's Zhang Yining in the quarter @-@ finals . Feng made the world number one work for her win , with the final scores being 11 – 13 , 14 – 12 , 12 – 14 , 10 – 12 , 11 – 13 . According to the Straits Times , Zhang leveraged on her experience by stalling for time at crucial stages of the game , which broke Feng 's rhythm . Interviewed after the match , Feng said : " I 'm sure I 'll win a medal at the next Olympics . "
At a victory celebration in Singapore on 25 August 2008 , Vivian Balakrishnan , the Minister for Community Development , Youth and Sports , announced that Feng , Li and Wang would be presented with the Pingat Jasa Gemilang ( Meritorious Service Medal ) . This is only the third time the medal will be awarded to athletes , the two previous recipients being weightlifter Tan Howe Liang ( 1962 ) and swimmer Joscelin Yeo ( 2006 ) .
= = = Competitions between 2008 and 2012 = = =
On 9 September 2008 , Feng beat her compatriot Wang to clinch the bronze medal at the ITTF Women 's World Cup in Kuala Lumpur . Despite crashing out of the singles event earlier , Feng and her teammates Li and Wang won the top title at the ITTF Pro Tour ERKE German Open in Berlin on 22 November 2008 . Feng won her first professional singles title at the Polish Open in Warsaw on 30 November 2008 , in an all @-@ Singapore final against Wang . Feng and Yu Mengyu also took silver in the doubles . On 2 December 2008 , the ITTF announced that Feng was ranked sixth in the world . This made her the top Singapore female table tennis player and the highest @-@ ranked player in the world not representing China . She was third in Today newspaper 's list of athletes of the year for 2008 .
On 23 August 2009 , Feng achieved her second Pro Tour singles title at the KAL Cup Korean Open in Seoul .
Feng took part in the 25th Southeast Asian Games in Vientiane , Laos . She was a member of the Singapore women 's team with Sun Beibei and Wang Yuegu that defeated Thailand 3 – 0 to win Gold on 10 December 2009 . On 14 December 2009 , she and her partner Wang Yuegu were defeated by compatriots Sun Beibei and Yu Mengyu in an all @-@ Singapore final in the women 's doubles . The following day , in her maiden appearance at the Games , she achieved gold in the singles competition after defeating Wang 4 – 1 .
The Singapore Table Tennis Association made Feng the inaugural winner of its Best Player of the Year award on 12 February 2010 . As of 8 April 2010 , she had worked her way up to a second @-@ place ranking in the world . On 3 May 2010 , the Singapore National Olympic Council named her Sportswoman of the Year for 2009 . The national table tennis women 's team , composed of Feng , Li Jiawei , Wang Yuegu and Sun Beibei were awarded the Team of the Year prize at the Singapore Sports Awards .
Together with Sun and Wang , Feng was a member of the team at the Liebherr World Team Table Tennis Championships in Moscow that defeated China , 17 @-@ time winner and the reigning world champion , with a score of 3 – 1 . In the two games she played , Feng defeated Liu Shiwen and Ding Ning , ranked number one and four in the world respectively and Wang contributing another point to the team by defeating Liu Shiwen . This was the first time Singapore had lifted the Corbillon cup .
= = = 2012 Summer Olympics = = =
Feng represented Singapore at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , and was the nation 's flagbearer at the Parade of Nations segment of the opening ceremony . She entered the women 's singles competition seeded sixth , and progressed until she was defeated 2 @-@ 4 by China 's Ding Ning in the semi @-@ finals . On 1 August 2012 , she overcame Kasumi Ishikawa of Japan 4 – 0 ( 11 – 9 , 11 – 6 , 11 – 6 , 11 – 5 ) to take the bronze medal , becoming the second Singaporean to win an individual Olympic medal . ( The first was Tan Howe Liang who won a silver for weightlifting in the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome . ) Interviewed after her win , Feng said : " I 'm really happy , although I feel it 's come a little too suddenly . My form wasn 't very good lately , so I didn 't dare to carry too much expectations coming into the London Olympics . It was just a relief to win . "
Feng also participated in the women 's team competition with Li Jiawei and Wang Yuegu . They were beaten 0 – 3 by Japan in the semifinals , but took the bronze medal by edging out South Korea 3 – 0 . Feng defeated Kim Kyung Ah 11 – 9 , 11 – 8 , 4 – 11 , 13 – 11 , Li also successfully fended off Seok Ha Jung 11 – 5 , 11 – 8 , 6 – 11 , 11 – 8 . Li and Wang then succeeded in the doubles game against Seok and Dang Ye Seo 11 – 9 , 11 – 6 , 6 – 11 , 11 – 5 . This marked the first time Singapore had won more than one medal at an Olympic Games . Feng commented : " Against Japan , we gave ourselves too much pressure and lost the psychological battle . After that , I told myself that I must prepare myself well mentally and it 's only when I do what I 'm capable of that I can win . "
Singles Event
Team Event
= = = 2016 Summer Olympics = = =
Feng participated in ITTF Asian @-@ Olympics Qualifier ( South @-@ East Asian region ) at Hong Kong from 13 @-@ 17 April 2016 . She was the winner for SEA group and was given a direct entry to the singles event at Rio de Janeiro Olympics . This will be her third Olympics participation . In the qualifier match , She defeated Nanthana Komwong in the Quarter @-@ Finals , Suthasini Sawettabut in Semi @-@ Finals & Yu Mengyu in the Finals .
According to July world ranking published by ITTF , Feng was seeded second in Olympics singles . This was her highest @-@ ever Olympic seeding .
= = Key Career Records = =
Legend : Gold Silver Bronze QR : Qualifying Round
= = Singapore Contingent in Summer Olympics = =
Singapore at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Table tennis at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Singapore at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Table tennis at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Singapore at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Table tennis at the 2016 Summer Olympics
= Robert of Cricklade =
Robert of Cricklade ( died after 1188 ) was a medieval English writer and prior of St Frideswide 's Priory in Oxford . He was a native of Cricklade and taught before becoming a cleric . He wrote a number of theological works as well as a lost biography of Thomas Becket , the murdered Archbishop of Canterbury .
= = Life = =
Robert was from Cricklade in Wiltshire , and was of Anglo @-@ Saxon descent . At some point he taught in the schools , where he was called " master " for his learning . He became an Augustinian canon at Cirencester Abbey before becoming prior of the priory of St Frideswide in Oxford , an office he occupied from sometime before the end of 1139 , when he is first securely attested in the office , until after 1174 , his last appearance as prior . In 1158 he went to Rome , extending his travels to Sicily and Paris on the same trip . Another trip was to Scotland in the 1160s . Possibly he also travelled to Rome in 1141 and Paris in 1147 , but these trips are not securely attested . Although earlier historians claimed that he was chancellor of Oxford , this office did not yet exist during Robert 's lifetime . There were students at Oxford in his lifetime , who probably did listen to Robert 's sermons and possibly his teaching at his priory . His successor was in office by 3 March 1185 .
= = Writings = =
Robert was the author of a number of works , including De connubio Iacob , which was dedicated to Lawrence of Westminster ; Defloratio Historiae naturalis Plinii , an epitome of Pliny the Elder 's Natural History which was dedicated to King Henry II of England ; Honiliae super Exechielem ; the Speculum fidei ; and Vita et miracula Sancta Thomae Cantuariensis , a story of the life and martyrdom of Thomas Becket . Two other works are attributed to him – a commentary on the Psalms , and a saint 's life of Frideswide . A letter of his to Benedict of Peterborough also survives in quotations by Benedict . Of these works , the life of Thomas Becket has been lost . The others survive in manuscript , though only one has been published – the Defloratio Historiae naturalis Plinii in the early 20th century .
The epitome of Pliny is of some importance in the transmission of Pliny 's ideas to medieval Europe . It appears to have originally been composed in the 1130s , perhaps as a text for his students , and only later dedicated it to King Henry . The De connubio Iacob was written while Robert was at Cirencester and was an allegorical treatment of the Jacob story from the Bible . The Speculum fidei was a theological work that mainly collected texts from the Old and New Testament discussing various theological concepts , only delving into great depth with the sections dealing with Robert 's refutation of the views of Peter Lombard 's theology . The Honiliae super Exechielem were 42 homilies on the Book of Ezekiel and were written about 1172 .
Robert 's life of Becket , written about 1173 to 1174 , was one of the main sources for an Icelandic saga on Becket titled Thómas saga Erkibyskups , which survives in a copy dating from the first half of the 14th century . This saga preserves a number of otherwise unknown details about Becket 's life and remains one of the main sources for Becket studies . Robert 's life also was a source for the work of Benet of St Albans , another biographer of Becket . From these sources , a modern historian reconstructed Robert 's biography partially and published the reconstituted work in the journal Analecta Bollandiana in 1966 . A major source for Robert 's work on Becket was the writings of John of Salisbury . Robert may have written the work on Becket because the saint cured the author 's bad leg .
= = Death and legacy = =
Robert died sometime after 1188 , and was probably buried in his priory . A modern biographer of Becket , the historian Frank Barlow , speculates that Robert 's biography was lost because it favoured the king 's side of the story , rather than Becket 's . Besides his theological works , Robert also searched throughout England for Hebrew texts of the works of Josephus , according to Gerald of Wales , who claimed that Robert had a knowledge of the Hebrew language .
= The World of Strawberry Shortcake =
The World of Strawberry Shortcake is a 1980 animated television special written by Romeo Muller , directed by Charles Swenson , and produced by Swenson , Muller and Fred Wolf . Starring the voices of Romeo Muller , Russi Taylor , Julie McWhirter and Joan Gerber , it was made by animators from Murakami @-@ Wolf @-@ Swenson in the United States and by Toei Doga in Japan . The music was written and performed by Flo & Eddie of the rock group , The Turtles .
The title character , Strawberry Shortcake , lives in a fictional place called Strawberryland . In the special , narrated by Romeo Muller ( as Mr. Sun ) , she and her friends celebrate her sixth birthday . While preparations for her party are underway , a villain called the Peculiar Purple Pieman plots to steal the berries from Strawberry 's home in order to make his pies .
Produced and sponsored by the Kenner toy company , The World of Strawberry Shortcake was the first special to feature the American Greetings character , Strawberry Shortcake . Bypassing network television , it debuted on March 28 , 1980 , in syndication across more than 90 U.S. cities , and was later released on 16 mm film , VHS , Beta and DVD . The special received generally favorable reviews in the School Library Journal , which reviewed it in 1983 and 2007 .
= = Plot = =
Strawberry Shortcake lives in a place called Strawberryland , with her calico cat Custard ; her house resembles a shortcake . Her friends – Huckleberry Pie , Blueberry Muffin , Raspberry Tart , Plum Puddin ' and toddler Apple Dumplin ' – also live close by . One morning , during their Market Day , Strawberry 's friends discuss plans for her sixth birthday – all except for lazy Huckleberry Pie .
Strawberry 's villain , the Peculiar Purple Pieman , lives atop the Pie Tin Palace on a black hill called Porcupine Peak . While she is doing chores , the Pieman sends his crows – " berry birds " – to retrieve some berries for his pies . Strawberry tries shooing the flock away with her broom , but a moving tree helps out as a scarecrow , and she thanks him for helping . In desperation , the Pieman heads down to Strawberryland himself to get his supply , dressed as a kind old peddler .
At noon , Strawberry calls her friends over for lunch , but they leave her behind and go to Lilac Park to prepare for her surprise party . Soon after , the disguised Pieman meets her and offers watering cans for sale . To his chagrin , Strawberry cannot afford to buy a magical one guaranteed to produce strawberries seven feet tall . Assisted by Lucky Bug , Huckleberry 's ladybug aide , he goes to the Park , where Huckleberry pays for the equipment .
Strawberry soon arrives at the venue to see her friends , who greet her with " Happy Birthday " and give her a present : the Pieman 's watering can . The device fails to grow anything and spills over instead , flooding the Park and much of Strawberryland . The children are dismayed that the Pieman tricked them for his berry @-@ stealing plot , and soon they harvest every bit of that supply over to him .
The group travels to the Pie Tin Palace on rafts made of flotsam . Landing upon a mud field , they find out from Lucky Bug that Apple Dumplin ' ended up at the Palace ; they now have no way to rescue her . Mr. Sun , the narrator of the story , grants Strawberry a wish . She wishes to defeat the Pieman , and a grove of marching trees help her accomplish this ; their stomping causes the Palace to collapse . Afterward , Apple Dumplin ' gives him a note demanding that he surrender and do good deeds ; he reluctantly does so , giving the toddler and berries back to Strawberry and company . At the end of the special , Strawberry Shortcake offers him a chance to sell his pies at Strawberry Market , and become friends with her .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
Produced and sponsored by the Kenner toy company , The World of Strawberry Shortcake was the first of six television specials to star the title character . The franchise began in 1977 , when American Greetings staff member Muriel Fahrion drew the first designs of Strawberry and her pet cat Custard . In 1979 , she appeared in greeting cards ; dolls , books and games soon followed .
The special was made by Murakami @-@ Wolf @-@ Swenson , which previously worked on The Point ! and Frank Zappa 's 200 Motels , both from 1971 ; RLR Associates of New York City was another production partner . Animation work was also handled by Japan 's Toei Doga . At the time of production , the producers called it a " morality play for tots " . One of the crewmembers was Romeo Muller , writer for several Rankin / Bass television specials . Muller served as writer , co @-@ producer and lyricist of the Strawberry Shortcake special ; he also voiced Mr. Sun , the narrator . After he proposed the idea to Kenner , the company and American Greetings agreed to do it . According to Jack Chojnacki , co @-@ president of Those Characters from Cleveland , a subsidiary of American Greetings , the card manufacturer considered new additions to the script , and reminded the writer that every character should be marketable . With those suggestions in mind , Muller came up with a villain called the Peculiar Purple Pieman . The Toy Group division of General Mills , which owned Kenner at the time , spent US $ 400 @,@ 000 on the special .
= = Release = =
Upon completion , Muller was satisfied with how The World of Strawberry Shortcake turned out . Although he pointed out the lack of such influences in the special , he told The New York Times in April 1981 : " I suppose the show is a commercial , in the largest sense of the word . " Some time after the title character 's debut at the 1980 American International Toy Fair , major television networks in the U.S. were offered a chance to air the special . They also deemed it an advertisement for the toy line , and rejected it . On March 28 , 1980 , the special debuted on independent stations in over 90 U.S. cities ; it aired on WNEW ( now WNYW ) in the New York City market , and on KTLA in Los Angeles . Kenner launched a collection of dolls and toys based on the special , concurrently with the original broadcast . This led John J. O 'Connor of The New York Times to proclaim , " Onward and upward with the art of marketing ! "
In 1981 , the Lexington Broadcast Services Company acquired syndication rights to The World of Strawberry Shortcake , along with its follow @-@ up , Strawberry Shortcake in Big Apple City . By 1986 , the Television Program Source took over the rights for the first special . It was released on 16 mm film by the Coronet company in 1982 , and on VHS and Beta in October 1985 by Family Home Entertainment . A Region 1 DVD from Allumination FilmWorks , featuring this special and Big Apple City , was released on March 6 , 2007 . In Germany , the original special premiered on ZDF on April 4 , 1983 , as Emily im Erdbeerland . A soundtrack album , with contributions by Flo & Eddie of The Turtles , was released by Kid Stuff Records the same year as the original airing . The track list featured the " Strawberry Shortcake Theme " , along with " Smile a Sunny Morning " , " Sunflower Market " , " Monster Trees " and " Berry Talk " .
= = Reception = =
The World of Strawberry Shortcake was reviewed twice by the School Library Journal . In the December 1983 issue , Margaret Bush said that the " Story , characters , dialogue and bits of stage business are busy , bright , contrived , and will appeal of young children . " She added , however , that " Some of the lyrics and dialogue are not easily understood – it sounds as if adult voices may be attempting to simulate the voices of small children . " In August 2007 , Kirsten Martindale gave the DVD set a positive review . She wrote that " Fans [ ... ] will be thoroughly engaged by these two episodes " , and recommended it " For nostalgic moms and their young daughters . " She however singled out the audio and video quality : " [ F ] or those who haven 't experienced the charm and simplicity of older cartoons , this may be annoying , but the nostalgic effect of the original presentation is relaxed and welcome . " In 1987 , Kathleen Pulcini of The Video Directory called it " Delightful fun for children . "
= Space Hulk ( 1993 video game ) =
Space Hulk is a 1993 real @-@ time tactical video game for DOS , Amiga and PC @-@ 98 . The game was based on Games Workshop 's 1989 board game of the same name . Set in the fictional Warhammer 40 @,@ 000 universe , the player directs squads of Space Marines , genetically enhanced armoured soldiers , in their missions to protect the human race from deadly aliens . Space Hulk was developed and published by Electronic Arts , with support from Games Workshop .
The game takes place aboard huge derelicts known as space hulks . Drifting in and out of the Warp — an alternate dimension used to cross interstellar distances — these vessels are infested with the four @-@ armed Genestealers . Using overhead maps , the player orders the Marine squads , and controls individual Marines via first @-@ person shooter interfaces . The game features a time @-@ limited option to pause the action while enabling the player to continue issuing commands .
Space Hulk 's theme of pitting slow and heavily armed Marines against fast , deadly Genestealers produced moments of frantic gameplay and a scary atmosphere for its reviewers , earning positive ratings for the game . A few reviewers , however , felt the game was too difficult and proved to be too frustrating . Space Hulk was followed up by Space Hulk : Vengeance of the Blood Angels in 1996 .
= = Gameplay = =
The game features 51 missions that involve exterminations , retrieval of objects , and rearguard actions . A campaign , comprising 21 of these missions played in sequence , centres around a story about a Space Marine investigation of a distress beacon in a region of space threatened by Genestealers . The remaining missions are tutorials designed to help players learn the game and standalone missions . Before a mission , the game briefs the player on the objectives and shows a small map of the operational area . Marines are equipped with a gun — the Storm Bolter — for long @-@ range combat , and an energised glove — the Power Fist — for hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting . For certain missions , the player can customise the squads ' armaments , selecting from 10 other weapons , such as Power Swords and Heavy Flamers . In the campaign , Marines who survive a mission gain experience , improving their combat abilities and chances of survival for future missions .
The player 's Marines begin each mission grouped together at one or two starting points of the operational area , while Genestealers continually enter the mission from marked entry points . Gameplay at this stage takes place between two separate interfaces : the Terminator View Screen , where the player takes direct control of individual Marines , and the Planning Screen , where orders are issued to the Marines by clicking on command icons . The Planning Screen has two maps ; the smaller one on the bottom @-@ left shows the operational area and the larger map a close @-@ up view of the region selected by the player . Shown on the maps are the continuously updated positions of the Marines and their enemies . The game simulates fog of war by blacking out unexplored areas on the maps and representing unseen Genestealers as blips , unveiling them as Marines come within sight .
Switching to the Terminator View Screen offers a first @-@ person perspective of the mission through the Marines ' eyes . The Screen contains five monitors : a large primary monitor at the bottom and four smaller secondary displays arrayed above . The primary monitor displays the view of the Marine under the player 's control . The character is moved by pressing the keyboard 's cursor keys or clicking the directional arrows next to the monitor . The mouse is also used to aim and shoot at targets , although the computer determines if an accurate shot kills the target . The secondary monitors show the views of other squad members . Although the player cannot control the movements of these Marines through these interfaces , he or she can click them to shoot the Marines ' weapons at the centre of their views . However , the player can take full control of a Marine by switching the character 's view to the primary monitor .
At any time , Marines armed with Storm Bolters and not under the player 's control assume " Overwatch " mode , automatically firing at obstacles and enemies that come into their paths . Storm Bolters may jam under sustained firing , rendering the weapon useless for a few seconds until the malfunction is cleared . Although the action unfolds in real @-@ time , the player can pause the game by clicking the " Freeze " button and entering " Freeze Time " . While in this mode , every unit stops its motion while a timer runs down ; the player can freely issue and modify orders to the Marines . Once the timer is depleted or the Freeze button is clicked again , every unit resumes its movement . The timer for Freeze Time slowly replenishes , as long as the game stays in real @-@ time .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Space Hulk is a video game based on a 1989 board game of the same name . Set in the fictional Warhammer 40 @,@ 000 universe , the video game tasks the player to take control of genetically enhanced soldiers called Space Marines . Wearing powered exoskeletons known as Terminator suits , these Marines embark on missions aboard the eponymous derelict starships that drift in and out of the Warp , an alternate region of space through which vast interstellar distances can be traversed in a short time . The vessels are infested with Genestealers , four @-@ armed aliens , who invade worlds encountered in the ships ' paths . Sworn to protect the human race , the Marines aim to eradicate the alien threat .
= = = Plot = = =
Space Hulk 's campaign is mostly exposited through pre @-@ mission briefings . The prologue in the game manual states the Dark Angels , a force of Space Marines , had repelled a Genestealer incursion in the Tolevi system many centuries before current events in the game . A Dark Angel hero was leading his men aboard the invading space hulk , Sin of Damnation , when it vanished into the warp . The first mission in the campaign sends the player 's squad to investigate the Tolevi system for a distress call of Dark Angels ' origin . A nest of Genestealers is uncovered on the planet Ma 'Caellia , and the player 's forces are ordered to destroy the aliens ' Hive Mind . However , there are too many Genestealers , and the Marines are forced to withdraw . Without any other options , the Marines destroy the infestation and all other life forms on the planet through exterminatus with virus bombs — biological weapons of mass destruction . As they are doing so , the Sin of Damnation re @-@ enters the system , and the player receives orders to invade the hulk . Aboard the vessel , the player 's squads destroy the Genestealers ' gene banks and their Patriarch . The end of the campaign tasks the player to control a lone Marine as he goes deep into the hulk to find the source of the distress call .
= = Development = =
The original Space Hulk board game was published by Games Workshop . It was the company 's third board game that was adapted as a video game ; the previous two board games were HeroQuest and Space Crusade , whose video game adaptations were both published by Gremlin Graphics . The board game version of Space Hulk is played between two players , who assume the roles of the Marines and Genestealers . The players take turns moving their pieces to accomplish their objectives ; the Marines ' player , however , is given a certain amount of time to complete each of his or her turn . The game is designed to encourage the two players to adopt different tactics in their play — the slow @-@ moving Space Marines with long @-@ range guns versus the fast @-@ moving Genestealers who fight hand @-@ to @-@ hand .
Conversion of Space Hulk into a video game was initiated in 1991 by video game company Electronics Arts , who also managed the project 's development . Instead of following Gremlin 's approach and creating exact copies of the board games in digital form , Electronic Arts and Games Workshop opted to develop a video game , based on Space Hulk , with features that took advantage of the personal computer 's technological advancements . The interior walls of the space hulks were rendered by ray tracing , passing much of the graphical work to computers . This method reduced the time needed to introduce new sets of walls into the game from two weeks to twelve hours . Although digital speech was a relatively new technology at the time , the team made use of sound card technologies to produce alien screeches and roars that permeate the hulks , and warning cries from Marines under attack . The game 's opening tune , " Get Out Of My Way " , was recorded by British hard rock band D @-@ Rok , with Brian May of Queen as guest guitarist . Games Workshop helped Electronic Arts keep the game true to its Warhammer 40 @,@ 000 roots by providing the writers with materials and answers on the fictional universe . The development team created the tutorial missions , but adapted the other missions straight from the board game and the Deathwing Campaign expansion set .
Initially released in June 1993 on floppy disks for IBM Personal Computers and their clones that ran DOS , Space Hulk was later published for other platforms and media . The CD @-@ ROM version of Space Hulk included nine new missions , new cinematic animations , and new digital sound effects and speech ( which required a sound card ) . Unlike the versions that ran on DOS , the Amiga version ( published in Autumn 1993 ) cannot be installed on a hard drive ; Amiga users have to swap floppy disks at several points of the game while playing it . In Japan , the game was ported to the NEC PC @-@ 9821 in Japan by a local video game company , Starcraft . In 1996 , Electronic Arts produced a sequel , Space Hulk : Vengeance of the Blood Angels , to Space Hulk .
= = Reception = =
Reviewers noted the atmosphere experienced while playing Space Hulk , describing it as similar to the science @-@ fiction film Aliens ( 1986 ) . Aside from the concept of pitting heavily armed soldiers against aliens that looked like H. R. Giger 's " exo @-@ skeletal nightmares " , Space Hulk 's Terminator View Screen was reminiscent of a sequence in the film where a marine lieutenant monitored and ordered his troops as they executed a mission in a dark , dank environment .
Handling slow , cumbersome Marines against fast , deadly Genestealers proved to be intense sessions of panic and fear for the game 's critics . They were stressed from monitoring several Marines at the same time while Genestealers probed the flanks and sent decoys to lure Marines to their deaths . Despite playing in a well @-@ lit , noisy office , David Upchurch of The One said the game " [ scared ] the pants off " him , and Jeff James of Computer Gaming World stated that because of the combination of " excellent use of digitized sound " and " Genestealers rendered in sickening purple hue " , " More than once I jumped out of my command chair " . Similarly , CU Amiga 's Tony Dillon believed the game was not for those with " a weak heart " . Compute ! ' s Scott May declared the game " a bug blaster 's nightmare come true . " The game further evoked a sense of esprit de corps with its monastic @-@ style briefings , according to Amiga User International . However , video game journalist Alec Meer remembered the briefings as " one of videogame history 's greatest atmosphere @-@ spoilers " for their flat deliveries .
Besides its atmosphere , Space Hulk 's game mechanics received close attention . Lester Smith of Dragon said the video game was an excellent adaptation of its original tabletop form . He praised Electronic Arts for conveying the " bug @-@ hunting experience on its own merits , using the computer 's strength " , rather than attempting to imitate those aspects of the board game . Upchurch , along with Rik Skews of Computer and Video Games , agreed , pointing out that the electronic version was better off with the concept of Freeze Time than implementing a recreation of dice rolls and sequence of turns found in the board game . A few reviewers disagreed . Dee and Jay of Dragon wanted a " computer game that was faithful to the elements of the board game " , and said the video game 's design proved too difficult for them ; they found controlling five or more Marines in real @-@ time against Genestealers impossible . Similarly , Amiga Force 's Mark Smith and Ian Osborne were flustered by having to command several Marines at the same time while they came under sudden attacks from several directions . The Marines ' slow speed were another frustration . Offering another insight , Meer opined the Marines ' slow response was integral to the game 's atmosphere : made slow and cumbersome by the game 's design and interface , the Marines ' battles against fast and deadly foes became nerve @-@ wrecking affairs for the player . Likewise , May found the multitasking nature of the game crucial to its intensity . Rob Mead offered an opinion not from a player of the board game in his article for Amiga Format . He rated the video game " very good but not brilliant " , and suggested it would appeal more to aficionados of the board game because such players tend to appreciate attention to detail , planning , and tactics .
Amiga reviewers had a common grouse : the frequent disk swaps required were tedious . Regardless , the game 's tense atmosphere — generated by the combination of game mechanics , use of sounds , and artificial intelligence — provided memorable moments to many reviewers . As one of them — Simon Clays of Amiga Computing — put it , Space Hulk was " a very difficult strategy @-@ cum @-@ 3D dungeon @-@ esque title with plenty of action and gripping play . " May said the game offered " demented " violence but was " irresistibly exhiliarating when the action erupts in nonstop , heartpounding carnage . " A decade after the game 's release , several reviewers mentioned Space Hulk as a Warhammer 40 @,@ 000 video game worthy of praise . Meer reflected on replaying the game fifteen years after its release , " The panic and terror of facing 90 degrees away from your enemy , and knowing that you can 't do a damn thing about it before your lower intestine spills onto your feet , is still something pretty special . "
= Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen =
Pokémon FireRed Version and LeafGreen Version are enhanced remakes of the original Pokémon Red and Green video games , which were released in 1996 . The new titles were developed by Game Freak and published by Nintendo for the Game Boy Advance and have compatibility with the Game Boy Advance Wireless Adapter , which originally came bundled with the games . FireRed and LeafGreen were first released in Japan in January 2004 and released to North America and Europe in September and October respectively . Nearly two years after their original release , Nintendo re @-@ marketed them as Player 's Choice titles .
FireRed and LeafGreen are members of the Pokémon series of role @-@ playing video games . As in previous games , the player controls the player character from an overhead perspective , and participates in turn @-@ based combat encounters . However , new features such as a contextual help menu and a new region the player may access have also been added . Throughout the games , the player captures and raises Pokémon for use in battle .
The games received mostly positive reviews , obtaining an aggregate score of 81 percent on Metacritic . Most critics praised the fact that the games introduced new features while still maintaining the traditional gameplay of the series . Reception of the graphics and audio was more mixed , with some reviewers complaining that they were too simplistic and lacked improvement compared to the previous games , Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire . FireRed and LeafGreen were commercial successes , selling a total of around 12 million copies worldwide .
= = Gameplay = =
As with all Pokémon role @-@ playing games released for handheld consoles , FireRed and LeafGreen are in third @-@ person , overhead perspective . The main screen is an overworld , in which the player navigates the protagonist . Here a menu interface may be accessed , in which the player may configure his or her Pokémon , items , and gameplay settings . When the player encounters a wild Pokémon or is challenged by a trainer , the screen switches to a turn @-@ based battle screen that displays the player 's Pokémon and the engaged Pokémon . During battle , the player may select a move for his or her Pokémon to perform , use an item , switch his or her active Pokémon , or attempt to flee . All Pokémon have hit points ( HP ) ; when a Pokémon 's HP is reduced to zero , it faints and can no longer battle until it is revived . Once an enemy Pokémon faints , all of the player 's Pokémon involved in the battle receive a certain amount of experience points ( EXP ) . After accumulating enough EXP , a Pokémon may level up .
Capturing Pokémon is another essential element of the gameplay . During battle with a wild Pokémon , the player may throw a Poké Ball at it . If the Pokémon is successfully caught , it will come under the ownership of the player . Factors in the success rate of capture include the HP of the target Pokémon and the type of Poké Ball used : the lower the target 's HP and the stronger the Poké Ball , the higher the success rate of capture .
While FireRed and LeafGreen are remakes of Red and Green ( Pokémon Green was only released in Japan , whereas the American version was Blue ) , they contain usability enhancements such as a contextual tutorial feature which allows players to look up data at any point in the game . Additionally , when continuing a saved game , players are shown the last four actions they performed , allowing them to remember what they were doing .
The games support the Game Boy Advance Game Link Cable , through which connected players may trade or battle . Players may also connect with Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire , as well as with Pokémon Colosseum , allowing them to obtain over 350 Pokémon . FireRed and LeafGreen also have the ability to connect to the Nintendo GameCube and interact with Pokémon Box : Ruby and Sapphire . In Box , the player may organize and view his or her collected Pokémon , and in Colosseum , Pokémon may be used in battle . FireRed and LeafGreen are also the first games in the series to be compatible with the Game Boy Advance Wireless Adapter , which comes prepackaged with the games . The adapter can be plugged into the link port of the Game Boy Advance system , and allows players within a radius of 30 – 50 feet ( 9 – 15 meters ) to wirelessly interact with each other . In addition , as many as 30 players at a time may join a special location called the " Union Room " , where they can trade , battle , or chat . Nintendo has set up " JoySpots " at Japanese retail locations for this purpose .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen takes place mostly in the fictional region of Kanto . This is one distinct region of many in the Pokémon world , which includes varied geographical habitats for the Pokémon species , human @-@ populated towns and cities , and routes between locations . Some areas are only accessible once the player acquires a special item or one of the player 's Pokémon learns a special ability . Near the end of the plot , the protagonist is able to venture to the Sevii Islands , a new area not present in the original Red and Blue games . The Sevii Islands are an archipelago of seven islands , and contain Pokémon normally exclusive to the Johto region , as well as several post @-@ game missions . After the aforementioned missions on the Sevii Islands are completed , trading with Pokémon of the Hoenn region becomes available .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The silent protagonist of FireRed and LeafGreen is a child who lives in a small town . After players start a journey and venture alone into deep grass , a voice warns them to stop . Professor Oak , a famous Pokémon researcher , explains to the player such grass is often the habitat of wild Pokémon , and encountering them alone can be very dangerous . He takes the player to his laboratory where the player meets Oak 's grandson , another aspiring Pokémon Trainer . The player and the rival are both instructed to select a starter Pokémon for their travels . The rival then challenges the player to a Pokémon battle with their newly obtained Pokémon , and continues to battle the player at certain points throughout the games .
After reaching the next city , the player is asked to deliver a parcel to Professor Oak . Upon returning to the laboratory , the player is presented with a Pokédex , a high @-@ tech encyclopedia that record the entries of any Pokémon that are encountered . Oak asks the player to fulfill his dream of compiling a comprehensive list of every Pokémon in the game .
While visiting the region 's cities , the player encounters special establishments called Gyms . Inside these buildings are Gym Leaders , each of whom the player must defeat in a Pokémon battle to obtain a Gym Badge . Once a total of eight badges are acquired , the player is given permission to enter the Pokémon League , which consists of the best Pokémon trainers in the region . There the player battles the Elite Four . Also throughout the game , the player has to fight against the forces of Team Rocket , a criminal organization that abuses Pokémon . They devise numerous plans to steal rare Pokémon , all of which the player must foil , meeting and defeating the organization boss Giovanni .
After the first time the player defeats the Elite Four one of the members , Lorelei , disappears . After gaining access to the Sevii Islands , an entirely new region , the player discovers Lorelei in her house and convinces her to come back with him . Once more , the protagonist must thwart the Team Rocket 's plans on several occasions , recover two artifacts , the Ruby and the Sapphire , and put them in the main computer at One Island . After that , the player can communicate , battle , trade , etc . , with games other than FireRed or LeafGreen .
= = Development = =
FireRed and LeafGreen were first announced in September 2003 as upcoming remakes of the original Pocket Monsters Red and Green games that were released in Japan in 1996 . Game director Junichi Masuda stated the new titles would be developed around the idea of simplicity , as the game engine was a slightly modified version of the one used in Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire . As a result , FireRed and LeafGreen were made fully backward compatible with Ruby and Sapphire , allowing players to trade Pokémon between games .
FireRed and LeafGreen 's connectivity with the Game Boy Advance Wireless Adapter was heralded by Nintendo president Satoru Iwata as being able " to enhance head @-@ to @-@ head battles , exchange of information , and communication with others . " An enhanced interface was created for the game to increase usability for new players , as well as a contextual in @-@ game help system that could aid lost or confused players during their journey . President of The Pokémon Company Tsunekazu Ishiharu noted , " We don 't feel that this a remake at all . We feel that this is a new game , with wireless technology " , referring to the bundled wireless adapter .
The music used in the titles was derived from the classic game consoles , and arranged by Go Ichinose . Masuda and Ichinose decided not to change the reused music from the basic background sounds used in the originals , and instead updated them by adding additional sounds . A two @-@ disc set of the music entitled GBA Pokémon FireRed & LeafGreen Super Complete was released , with the first disc featuring all the music used normally in @-@ game , while the second disc featured bonus tracks based on and inspired by the music in the games . Among these are two vocal tracks .
Track list of GBA Pokémon FireRed & LeafGreen Super Complete :
The exclusive Japanese production run for FireRed and LeafGreen was limited to half a million copies , despite the success of Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire . IGN speculated that Nintendo was expecting less demand for the new games , or that it was limited by the production of the bundled wireless adapter . The east American versions of FireRed and LeafGreen were secondly indirectly announced at DICE in 2004 . Although the original games were released as Red and Blue in North America , the remakes retained the Japanese names of " Red " and " Green " . Masuda noted this as a choice on his part , stating the leaf represented a peaceful icon , in contrast to the alternative of water which he saw as suggesting conflict with the icon of fire used by the other game .
= = Reception = =
During its first week of release in Japan , FireRed and LeafGreen sold a combined total of 885 @,@ 039 copies , which was less than the amount sold by Pokémon Ruby and Sapphire in that time period , but IGN reasoned that the smaller sales were due to the new titles being remakes . In the first half of August before FireRed and LeafGreen were released in the U.S. , the games received over 150 @,@ 000 pre @-@ orders , over twice the amount that Ruby and Sapphire received . Nintendo 's Senior Vice President of Marketing and Corporate Communication George Harrison remarked , " This pre @-@ sell indicates more than twice the player interest ! " Over one million copies of FireRed and LeafGreen were sold in the US less than one month after their release in that region . As of March 31 , 2008 , the games had sold 11 @.@ 82 million copies worldwide . The games later entered Nintendo 's Player 's Choice line in North America , and were re @-@ marketed with a significantly lower retail price . However , unlike the original release , the Player 's Choice edition games did not include a bundled Wireless Adapter .
Reviews of FireRed and LeafGreen were mostly positive , and the games currently hold an aggregate score of 81 percent on Metacritic . Craig Harris of IGN gave the games an " Outstanding " 9 @.@ 0 / 10 rating and praised the creators of the games for creating a game that " works extremely well for the handheld market . It doesn 't have quite the same variety as Ruby / Sapphire , but it 's still incredibly satisfying . " Harris was less positive about the games ' graphics , which he thought were " limited " and " basic " . GameSpot 's Greg Kasavin , who gave the games 8 @.@ 4 out of 10 , commented that " though Pokémon could probably use a few new twists after all these years , FireRed and LeafGreen are great role @-@ playing games on their own merits , filled with lots more content and more challenges than last year 's Ruby and Sapphire , and offering up plenty of addictive gameplay that can be a lot of fun for players of all ages . " Unlike Harris , Kasavin praised the games ' graphics for their " colorful good looks and the endearing character designs that the series is known for . " Game Informer rated the games a " Very Good " 8 / 10 for being " a lot of fun " , yet they saw the graphics as " utterly unremarkable " when compared to other handheld games .
GameSpy reviewer Phil Theobald , who awarded the games four out of five stars , stated , " Before I knew it , I was hooked all over again . The engrossingly simple gameplay combined with the more @-@ strategic @-@ than @-@ they @-@ first @-@ appear battles was just too much to resist . And yeah , the ' gotta catch ' em all ' gimmick is still effective , not to mention necessary to build a well balanced party . There 's just something about tracking down , capturing , and training all those Pokémon that really draw you into the game 's world . " He justified the games ' graphics by comparing them to the " ugly " original Red and Blue versions . Additional praise was given to the new features such as the contextual tutorial , and flashbacks when loading a saved game , as well as the games ' multiplayer capabilities via the Wireless adapter . Nintendo Power , which gave the games a 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 average , stated " [ t ] here 's a great game hiding under all the Pikachu cuteness , and you have to play it for only a bit to find yourself addicted . "
= Humbug ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Humbug " is the twentieth episode of the second season of American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was written by Darin Morgan and directed by Kim Manners . Morgan had previously appeared in a guest role as the Flukeman in an earlier episode of that season called " The Host " . " Humbug " aired in the United States on March 31 , 1995 on the Fox network . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Humbug " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 3 , being watched by 9 @.@ 8 million households in its initial broadcast . The episode received generally positive reviews and critics appreciated Morgan 's unique writing style .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate a series of murders in a community of former circus sideshow performers . Mulder believes the murderer to be the mysterious " Fiji mermaid " , which Scully argues is only a hoax — a mere humbug .
" Humbug " was the first explicitly comedic episode in the series and Morgan later wrote three more scripts for the series that continued his comic take on the show . According to critical analysis of the episode , " Humbug " explored themes of " Otherness " and difference . Guest stars included real @-@ life sideshow performers Jim Rose and The Enigma , as well as actors Michael J. Anderson and Vincent Schiavelli . " Humbug " was nominated for an Edgar Award and a Cinema Audio Society Award .
= = Plot = =
In the town of Gibsonton , Florida one night , two brothers are playing in their home outdoor swimming pool . A mysterious figure approaches them from the woods surrounding their home and jumps into the pool without them noticing . As the brothers play , they notice something is wrong and before they leave the pool , the figure emerges from the water . It 's revealed to be the boys ' father , " Alligator Man " , who scares his sons for fun . After some laughs in the pool , the " Alligator Man " tells his children to go back into the house as it 's late and time for them to go to bed . The boys leave the pool and their father stays behind to swim . An unknown mysterious figure approaches the pool from the woods . It attacks and kills " Alligator Man " in his pool .
Agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) travel to Gibsonton to investigate a 28 @-@ year series of attacks by an unknown assailant in a community of former circus sideshow performers . They attend the funeral of the " Alligator Man " ( who suffered from Ichthyosis ) . Among the people they meet afterwards are " self @-@ made freaks " human blockhead Dr. Blockhead ( Jim Rose ) ( who interrupted the funeral by hammering a railroad spike into his own chest ) and his " geek " sidekick The Conundrum ( The Enigma ) , who will eat anything , but says nothing . The agents also meet former performer Jim Jim , the Dogface Boy , who later became the local sheriff after his face went through hair loss .
Mulder and Scully stay at the Gulf Breeze trailer court , whose name is a reference to the 1987 Gulf Breeze UFO incident , also mentioned in season 1 episode , " Fallen Angel " . Here , they meet the distrustful manager Mr. Nutt ( Michael J. Anderson ) , and Lanny ( Vincent Schiavelli ) , an alcoholic with an underdeveloped conjoined twin named Leonard . The agents hear a story about the legendary Fiji mermaid , a common sideshow act in the 19th century that generally turned out to be a monkey with a fish tail attached — the " humbug " referred to by the episode 's title . Despite Scully 's usual skepticism , Mulder is intrigued because of what look like simian tracks left by the mystery attacker .
One night , Mr. Nutt is fatally attacked by a creature . The agents eventually discover that the attacker is Lanny 's twin , Leonard , who is able to detach himself from Lanny 's body . According to Lanny , Leonard attacks people and attempts to burrow into them because he is looking for a new brother to replace Lanny , who is dying from liver failure due to years of alcohol abuse . Lanny voluntarily locks himself in the local jail in an effort to keep Leonard from escaping , but dies during the night , and Leonard is able to slip through the bars on the cell window and flee . Mulder and Scully try to capture Leonard , who goes inside a funhouse , but he manages to get away . Upon leaving the funhouse , they find The Conundrum lying on the ground , rubbing his stomach , apparently having been attacked by Leonard . As Dr. Blockhead prepares to leave town with The Conundrum the following morning , he comments to Scully that with modern science eradicating genetic anomalies , it will be up to self @-@ made freaks like him to remind people that " nature abhors normality . " The Conundrum looks unwell and Mulder asks what the matter is . The Conundrum — in his only line of the episode — replies , " probably something I ate . " As Dr. Blockhead drives away with The Conundrum , Mulder and Scully turn to each other with confused and somewhat shocked expressions .
= = Production = =
" Humbug " was written by Darin Morgan ; it was his first script for the series . Earlier in the second season , he appeared in the second episode " The Host " as the Flukeman . He also helped his brother Glen Morgan — already a regular writer on The X @-@ Files — with the script for the following episode , " Blood " . Series creator Chris Carter offered Darin Morgan a permanent place on The X @-@ Files writing team , which he reluctantly accepted . Morgan said he was uncomfortable initially , stating " One of the reasons I was uncomfortable joining the staff is that I 'm a comedy writer and this isn 't a comedy show , so I was trying more or less to have an episode with a little bit of humor , without telling anybody what I was doing . " Glen suggested that he write an episode about sideshow performers . Before writing the episode Darin Morgan watched a tape of Jim Rose 's circus sideshow and subsequently cast Rose and The Enigma as Dr. Blockhead and The Conundrum , respectively . Other guest stars were Twin Peaks regular Michael J. Anderson as Mr. Nutt and Vincent Schiavelli as Lanny .
Morgan 's script turned out to be the most comedic episode of the series so far . The departure from The X @-@ Files ' usual style made some of the crew , including director Kim Manners , uncomfortable , and some of the more explicitly comic scenes were cut . After " Humbug " , Morgan went on to write three more comedy @-@ infused stories for the show : " Clyde Bruckman 's Final Repose " , " War of the Coprophages " and " Jose Chung 's From Outer Space " . David Duchovny later commented , " what I loved about his scripts was that he seemed to be trying to destroy the show . "
= = Themes = =
In his 2002 book Strange TV , M. Keith Booker describes " Humbug " as an important episode in the show 's " ironization " of its exploration of " Otherness " ; from the start it challenges the characters ' — and viewers ' — assumptions about difference . In the teaser , what appears to be a monster is in fact a suburban father and eventual murder victim . When Mulder and Scully are quick to suspect the freak show performers of murder , Dr. Blockhead , a self @-@ made freak and " postmodern celebration of difference " , confronts their prejudice and bemoans a future with no genetic anomalies . The agents , with their conventional appearance are considered outsiders , and are quickly ( and correctly ) judged to be working for the FBI . According to Booker , the freak show characters from the episode exemplify the concept of the Other . He contrasts the perspective of " Humbug " , which celebrates Otherness , with that of The X @-@ Files overall in which " Other " is generally synonymous with danger and evil , much like Leonard . Despite this association between difference and malevolence generally found in The X @-@ Files , the show meets the audience 's need for difference and diversity , in its sheer number of strange and different characters . This need for something beyond everyday existence is mirrored by the main characters in Mulder 's " wanting to believe " in the paranormal and Scully 's Catholic faith . In " Humbug " , this is highlighted by Dr. Blockhead 's argument that the freaks add a richness to life that will be eliminated by genetic advancements .
According to Rhonda Wilcox and J. P. Williams in " What Do You Think ? The X @-@ Files , Liminality , and Gender Pleasure " , " Humbug " is about " difference , sex , and looking " . Regarding The X @-@ Files as a whole , they say that the relationship between Mulder and Scully is non @-@ sexual and " quasi @-@ marital " . Although sharing a degree of intimacy that allows them to share each other 's space , they avoid a sexual or objectifying gaze : " They look into each other 's eyes and argue ideas , rather than gazing at each other 's bodies . " This status quo is challenged in this episode as the objectifying gaze is highlighted and deconstructed , although not between the partners themselves . According to Wilcox and Williams , a key scene involves Agent Scully and Lanny . When Lanny goes to wake Scully in her trailer one morning , he catches a glimpse of her breasts ; she inadvertently exposes herself as she in turn catches sight of Lanny 's uncovered parasitic twin ; " each gaze involves the objectification of difference " . This objectification is emphasized by the fact that Scully 's body is not normally revealed in this way .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Humbug " was first broadcast in the United States on March 31 , 1995 , on the Fox network . In its original broadcast it was watched by 9 @.@ 8 million households , according to the Nielsen ratings system . It received a 10 @.@ 3 rating / 18 share among viewers meaning that 10 @.@ 3 percent of all households in the US , and 18 percent of all people watching television at the time , viewed the episode . The episode was nominated for an Edgar Award for ' Best Episode in a Television Series ' and a Cinema Audio Society Award for ' Outstanding Achievement in Sound Mixing for a Series ' .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Humbug " received praise from critics . In a 2010 review of the episode , The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff gave it a " Grade A " rating . He noted the difference between the style of the episode and previous stories of the series , saying that at first , it " feel [ s ] like it might be a very special Murder , She Wrote or something , " and that later , " we 're clearly in some other show entirely , the only links in the continuity chain being Mulder and Scully themselves . " Including Morgan 's other scripts for the show , VanDerWerff called his writing " deeply , deeply funny " , but said that " Humbug " " may be [ his ] weakest script " . He particularly praised the ending of the episode , saying " there are few other TV writers that would come up with something as haunting and as perfectly understanding of the human condition as the final reveal of who the killer is . " Also writing for The A.V. Club in 2010 , Zack Handlen called it " a terrific episode ... well @-@ written and odd " . Ted Cox of the Daily Herald called " Humbug
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, director of the White House office .
At the conclusion of her time as Massachusetts First Lady , Romney said that the role " doesn 't need to change your life at all . I think it 's an opportunity for service and an opportunity to see people of all walks of life from across the Commonwealth ... It 's an enriching part of your life [ and one will ] treasure it forever . " Her health was still a primary factor in family decisions about her husband 's career , and Mitt said in 2005 that if her multiple sclerosis flared up , " I wouldn 't be involved in politics anymore ; that would be over . "
= = Role in 2008 presidential campaign = =
Ann Romney was an active participant in her husband 's 2008 presidential campaign . One past issue that arose involving her was disclosure of her donation of $ 150 to Planned Parenthood in 1994 , when her husband was a pro @-@ choice candidate for the U.S. Senate . She said she did not remember the contribution ; her own public stance on abortion has evolved in a similar manner to his , and by this time she was co @-@ chair of the capital campaign for Massachusetts Citizens for Life . By late 2007 , she had become an integral part of his campaign , and was doing more trips and appearances on her own , despite the risk that added stress would aggravate her condition .
Her political message was often mixed with discussions of her family , her recipes , or managing her affliction . Romney 's television advertisements in the early primary states prominently featured her and by the close of 2007 , she was the most visible of all the Republican candidates ' wives in campaigning . Regarding having to witness criticism of her husband , she later acknowledged that she sometimes wanted to " come out of my seat and clock somebody [ but ] you learn to just take a deep breath . " By the time he ended his campaign in February 2008 , she had become openly distasteful of the whole process .
= = Between campaigns = =
In late 2008 , Romney was diagnosed with mammary ductal carcinoma in situ , a non @-@ invasive type of breast cancer , and had the lump removed via lumpectomy ; she subsequently underwent radiation therapy . Her prognosis from this condition was excellent , and she later reflected that " I was really lucky " to have caught it so early . President @-@ elect Barack Obama was among the well @-@ wishers who called her . She has been cancer @-@ free since .
In June 2009 , due to her husband 's request , Ann Romney became the first spouse to be included in the official Massachusetts State House gubernatorial portrait .
For many years the couple 's primary residence was a house in Belmont , Massachusetts , but this and the Utah home were sold in 2009 . They resided in Wolfeboro , New Hampshire , along Lake Winnipesaukee , and at an oceanfront home in La Jolla , San Diego , California , that they had bought the year before . Both locations were near some of the Romneys ' grandchildren and the La Jolla location was near where she rides horses and was well @-@ situated for her multiple sclerosis therapies and for recovering from her cancer treatments . They also bought a smaller condominium in Belmont during 2010 .
= = Role in 2012 presidential campaign = =
Regarding another possible run for office by her husband in the 2012 presidential election , Romney said in March 2010 that this time the process would hold no surprises , and that if he decided in favor of doing it , " I 'm up to saying , go storm the castle , sweetie . " Although still not liking the political process , which she referred to as " a very difficult game " , she urged her husband to run again and was one of the few family members to initially support the notion .
Once the campaign began , she stumped for her husband in early primary states and criticized the record and ideological direction of the Obama administration . As part of trying to lighten her husband 's image , she sometimes participated in comic setup routines with him . Romney said that if she became First Lady of the United States , she would seek to work with at @-@ risk youths and on behalf of those with multiple sclerosis . She expressed admiration for three former first ladies , Mamie Eisenhower , Nancy Reagan , and Barbara Bush .
By December 2011 , Romney assumed an even more prominent role in the campaign , as she tried to offer a more rounded and compelling portrait of her husband while he fell behind Newt Gingrich for a stretch in polls . Her emphasis on their 42 years of marriage and his steadfastness following the onset of her disease offered an implicit but clear contrast with Gingrich 's own personal history . She had long been known within the family as the " Mitt @-@ stabilizer " , due to the calming effect she had on her husband , and continued to perform that role during the up @-@ and @-@ down campaign . In particular , she began appearing with him more often during February 2012 as he dueled with Rick Santorum during the Republican presidential primaries . Regarding the couple 's net worth , she alluded to her health problems and said , " Look , I don 't even consider myself wealthy , which is an interesting thing , it can be here today and gone tomorrow . And how I measure riches is by the friends I have and the loved ones that I have and the people that I care about in my life . "
In April 2012 , Ann Romney was spotlighted when Democratic commentator Hilary Rosen declared Romney to be unfit to address women 's economic issues because as a stay @-@ at @-@ home mother , she had " never worked a day in her life " . In response , Ann Romney issued her first tweet , saying " I made a choice to stay home and raise five boys . Believe me , it was hard work . " Rosen apologized the following day . Like all presidential candidates ' wives , her fashion choices came under scrutiny , with some critics praising her for a contemporary look that avoided standard campaign appearance clichés , while others said she lacked consistency and did not seem to be using the services of a stylist . On August 28 , Romney gave a prime @-@ time speech before the 2012 Republican National Convention in Tampa , Florida , in which she stressed her own background and her family experiences , in an appeal to women voters . By early October , she and son Tagg had convinced the campaign to spend more time emphasizing her husband 's personal nature and character , rather than simply present issue and record arguments against Obama .
In the November 6 , 2012 , general election , Mitt Romney lost as President Obama was re @-@ elected . The couple , along with the senior campaign staff , had thought they were going to win up until polls closed that evening and returns started coming in . Ann cried as her husband concluded their chances were over , then appeared stricken as she went on stage with him following his concession speech .
= = Subsequent activities = =
Following the election , Ann Romney received an offer to appear on the spring 2013 season of Dancing with the Stars , but although she was a fan of the show , she declined : " I would 've loved to have done it , and I am turning 64 , and I started thinking about it . I 'm not really as flexible as I should be . " She still mourned the election loss , perhaps more than her husband did . In a late February 2013 interview , she said , " And you know , the other part of it was an amazing thing , and it was really quite a lot of energy and a lot of passion and a lot of – a lot of people around us and all of a sudden , it was nothing , " then adding , " But the good news is we like each other . " In October 2013 , she published , and made promotional appearances for , The Romney Family Table : Sharing Home @-@ Cooked Recipes & Favorite Traditions , a cookbook that made the New York Times Best Seller list .
Most of the couple 's time was spent seeing their grandchildren , who by 2015 numbered twenty @-@ three . They purchased a house in the Deer Valley area of Park City , Utah , in a return to that state , followed by a property capable of equestrian use in Holladay , Utah , where they plan to tear down an existing house and build a new one . The Romneys also gained long @-@ sought permission to replace their La Jolla home with a much bigger one . With the new acquisitions the couple briefly had five homes , located near each of their five sons and respective families . They then sold the condominium in Belmont and decided to make their main residence in Utah , including switching voter registration .
In 2014 , the Ann Romney Center for Neurological Diseases was opened at the Brigham and Women 's Hospital in Boston . With a fundraising goal of $ 50 million , the center was created to focus on research into Alzheimer 's disease , multiple sclerosis , Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis , Parkinson 's disease , and brain tumors . The center has some 250 scientists and researchers on its staff . She gives inspirational talks based on overcoming the challenges of living with a disease .
During 2014 , speculation about Mitt Romney staging a third presidential run increased . Ann Romney 's reaction was to say it would not happen : " Done . Completely . Not only Mitt and I are done , but the kids are done . Done . Done . Done . " However , like her husband , she left open the slight possibility that things could change in this regard , and by January 2015 was reported by Romney advisors to be supporting the possibility as he seriously considered a third presidential bid . In any event , he soon decided against making a run .
In March 2015 , her book Whatever You Choose to Be : 8 Tips for the Road Ahead was published , based upon a commencement address she gave the year before at Southern Utah University . This was followed in September 2015 when her memoir In This Together : My Story was published . In it she discussed her diagnosis of multiple sclerosis , the different treatments she found beneficial , and the important role her family played . The book became popular among those afflicted with the disease .
During the course of the 2016 election cycle , Romney expressed sympathy toward Democratic front @-@ runner Hillary Clinton since she had also experienced claims of not being relatable . She was also puzzled by Republican front @-@ runner Donald Trump 's success despite touting his wealth whereas the Romneys had not , yet still were criticized for not relating to common voters because of theirs . Though highly critical of her husband after he spoke negatively of the Trump candidacy in March 2016 , Trump praised Ann Romney as " a lovely woman " .
= = Awards and honors = =
In 2005 , Ann Romney received an honorary degree from Mount Ida College . In 2006 , she received the MS Society Inspiration Award from the Central New England Chapter of the National Multiple Sclerosis Society and the 2006 Lifetime Achievement Award from Salt Lake City @-@ based Operation Kids . In May 2008 , she shared with her husband the Canterbury Medal from The Becket Fund for Religious Liberty , for " refus [ ing ] to compromise their principles and faith " during that year 's presidential campaign . In 2014 , Romney received an honorary degree in public service from Southern Utah University , for " her contributions of time , funding and support on behalf of children and families . "
= French ironclad Thétis =
The French ironclad Thétis was a wooden @-@ hulled armored corvette built for the French Navy in the late 1860s . She was named for the Greek sea @-@ goddess Thetis . During the Franco @-@ Prussian War she was assigned to a squadron of French ships that attempted to blockade the Prussian ports in the Baltic Sea in 1870 . She accidentally rammed her sister Reine Blanche in 1877 . En route to the Pacific in 1884 her propeller fell off and she had to return to France under sail . Thétis was eventually hulked in New Caledonia .
= = Design and description = =
The Alma @-@ class ironclads were designed as improved versions of the armored corvette Belliqueuse suitable for foreign deployments . Unlike their predecessor the Alma @-@ class ships were true central battery ironclads as they were fitted with armored transverse bulkheads . Like most ironclads of their era they were equipped with a metal @-@ reinforced ram .
Thétis measured 69 @.@ 03 meters ( 226 ft 6 in ) between perpendiculars , with a beam of 14 @.@ 13 meters ( 46 ft 4 in ) . She had a mean draft of 6 @.@ 26 meters ( 20 ft 6 in ) and displaced 3 @,@ 569 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 513 long tons ) . Her crew numbered 316 officers and men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ship had a single horizontal return connecting @-@ rod steam engine driving a single propeller . Her engine was powered by four oval boilers . On sea trials the engine produced 1 @,@ 676 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 250 kW ) and the ship reached 11 @.@ 99 knots ( 22 @.@ 21 km / h ; 13 @.@ 80 mph ) . Unlike all of her sisters except Jeanne d 'Arc , she had two funnels , mounted side @-@ by @-@ side . Thétis carried 250 metric tons ( 250 long tons ) of coal which allowed the ship to steam for 1 @,@ 620 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 000 km ; 1 @,@ 860 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She was barque @-@ rigged and had a sail area of 1 @,@ 453 square meters ( 15 @,@ 640 sq ft ) .
= = = Armament = = =
Thétis mounted her four 194 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) Modèle 1864 breech @-@ loading guns in the central battery on the battery deck . The other two 194 @-@ millimeter guns were mounted in barbettes on the upper deck , sponsoned out over the sides of the ship . The four 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns were also mounted on the upper deck . She may have exchanged her Mle 1864 guns for Mle 1870 guns . The armor @-@ piercing shell of the 20 @-@ caliber Mle 1870 gun weighed 165 @.@ 3 pounds ( 75 @.@ 0 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 7 @.@ 83 long tons ( 7 @.@ 96 t ) . The gun fired its shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 739 ft / s ( 530 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 12 @.@ 5 inches ( 320 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells .
= = = Armor = = =
Thétis had a complete 150 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) wrought iron waterline belt , approximately 2 @.@ 4 meters ( 7 @.@ 9 ft ) high . The sides of the battery itself were armored with 120 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) of wrought iron and the ends of the battery were closed by bulkheads of the same thickness . The barbette armor was 100 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick , backed by 240 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) of wood . The unarmored portions of her sides were protected by 15 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) iron plates .
= = Service = =
Thétis , named for the Greek sea @-@ goddess Thetis , was laid down at Toulon in 1865 and launched on 22 August 1867 . The ship began her sea trials on 1 May 1868 and was put into reserve at Brest the following year . She was commissioned on 20 July 1870 for the Franco @-@ Prussian War and assigned to the Northern Squadron . On 24 July 1870 she departed Cherbourg in company with the rest of the Northern Squadron and they cruised off the Danish port of Frederikshavn between 28 July and 2 August until they entered the Baltic Sea . The squadron , now renamed the Baltic Squadron , remained in the Baltic , attempting to blockade Prussian ports on the Baltic until ordered to return to Cherbourg on 16 September . The ship was assigned to the Evolutionary Squadron in 1871 and detached to the Levant Squadron the following year .
During the Cantonal Revolution Thétis and her sister Reine Blanche spent much of September – October 1873 in the port of Cartagena , Spain where they could protect French citizens . She became the temporary flagship of Vice Admiral Roze after 31 October 1875 when the armored frigate Magenta caught fire and exploded in Toulon . Thétis was paid off on 1 March 1876 , but was recommissioned on 18 April 1877 for service with the Evolutionary Squadron .
On 3 July 1877 she accidentally rammed Reine Blanche who had to be run ashore to prevent her from sinking . The ship was in reserve between 1878 and 1881 although she was intended to be used as the flagship of the Pacific Squadron . Her sister Montcalm was sent instead . On 8 October 1885 she was commissioned as the flagship of Rear Admiral Marcq de St. Hilaire and sailed for the Pacific . Thétis lost her propeller off Madeira and had to return to Cherbourg under sail where the admiral transferred his flag to the Champlain . She ended her days as a hulk in Nouméa , New Caledonia .
= Gwoyeu Romatzyh =
Gwoyeu Romatzyh ( pinyin : Guóyǔ luómǎzì , literally " National Language Romanization " ) , abbreviated GR , is a system for writing Mandarin Chinese in the Latin alphabet . The system was conceived by Y. R. Chao ( Zhao Yuanren ) and developed by a group of linguists including Chao and Lin Yutang from 1925 to 1926 . Chao himself later published influential works in linguistics using GR . In addition a small number of other textbooks and dictionaries in GR were published in Hong Kong and overseas from 1942 to 2000 .
GR is the better known of the two romanization systems which indicate the four tones of Mandarin by varying the spelling of syllables ( " tonal spelling " ) . These tones are as fundamental to the Chinese language as vowels are to English ; their presence lets speakers discriminate between otherwise identical syllables and words . Other systems indicate the tones with either diacritics ( for example Pinyin : āi , ái , ǎi and ài ) or numbers ( Wade – Giles : ai1 , ai2 , etc . ) . GR spells the same four tones ai , air , ae and ay . These spellings , which follow specific rules , indicate the tones while retaining the pronunciation of the syllable ai .
Chao claimed that , because GR embeds the tone of each syllable in its spelling , it may help students to master Chinese tones . One study however , found the opposite to be true in a study of GR . GR uses a complicated system of tonal spelling that obscures the basic relationship between spelling and tone ; for example , the difference between tones 1 and 2 is variously indicated as mha vs. ma , ching vs. chyng , chang vs. charng , etc . Although tonal spelling has been adopted as part of the normal romanization of a number of Asian languages ( e.g. Hmong ) , all such systems indicate different tones in a simple and consistent fashion by adding letters to the end of a syllable ( e.g. in Hmong , -b indicates high tone , -s indicates low tone , -j indicates high @-@ falling tone , etc . ) .
In 1928 China adopted GR as the nation 's official romanization system . GR was used to indicate pronunciations in dictionaries of the National ( Mandarin @-@ based ) Language . Its proponents hoped one day to establish it as a writing system for a reformed Chinese script . But despite support from a small number of trained linguists in China and overseas , GR met with public indifference and even hostility due to its complexity . Another obstacle preventing its widespread adoption was its narrow basis on the Beijing dialect , in a period lacking a strong centralized government to enforce its use . Eventually GR lost ground to Pinyin and other later romanization systems . However , its influence is still evident , as several of the principles introduced by its creators have been used in romanization systems that followed it . Its pattern of tone spelling was retained in the standard spelling of the Chinese province of Shaanxi ( shǎnxī ) , which cannot be distinguished from Shanxi ( shānxī ) when written in pinyin without diacritics .
= = History = =
Tonal spelling , Gwoyeu Romatzyh 's most distinctive feature , was first suggested to Y.R. Chao by Lin Yutang . By 1922 Chao had already established the main principles of GR . The details of the system were developed in 1925 – 1926 by a group of five linguists , led by Chao and including Lin , under the auspices of the Preparatory Commission for the Unification of the National Language . In 1928 GR was officially adopted by the government . GR was intended to be used alongside the existing Juhin ( Zhùyīn ) phonetic symbols : hence the alternative name for GR , " Second Pattern of the National Alphabet . " Both systems were used to indicate the revised standard of pronunciation in the new official Vocabulary of National Pronunciation for Everyday Use of 1932 . The designers of GR had greater ambitions : their aim was complete reform of the script , using GR as a practical system of writing .
In the 1930s two shortlived attempts were made to teach GR to railway workers and peasants in Hénán and Shāndōng provinces . Support for GR , being confined to a small number of trained linguists and Sinologists , " was distinguished more for its quality than its quantity . " During this period GR faced increasing hostility because of the complexity of its tonal spelling . Conversely , Sinologist Bernhard Karlgren criticised GR for its lack of phonetic rigour . Ultimately , like the rival ( toneless ) system Latinxua Sinwenz , GR failed to gain widespread support , principally because the " National " language was too narrowly based on Beijing speech : " a sufficiently precise and strong language norm had not yet become a reality in China " .
A vestigial use of GR can be seen in the official spelling of the first syllable of Shaanxi for Shǎnxī province , to distinguish it from Shānxī province , particularly in foreign @-@ language text where the tone marks are often omitted . Some prominent Chinese have used GR to transliterate their names : for example the mathematician Shiing @-@ Shen Chern . The romanization system was changed by the government of the People 's Republic of China in 1958 to the current system used now in the country , and other foreign and international institutions , like the United Nations , the Library of Congress , the International Organization for Standardization , and is widely used to teach Mandarin Chinese to foreign students : Hanyu Pinyin . Meanwhile , in the Republic of China ( Taiwan ) , GR survived until the 1970s as a pronunciation aid in monolingual dictionaries such as Gwoyeu Tsyrdean [ Guóyǔ Cídiǎn ] and Tsyrhuey [ Cíhuì ] , but was officially replaced in 1986 by a modified form known as Mandarin Phonetic Symbols II .
= = Description = =
Note : In this section the word " tone " is abbreviated as " T " : thus T1 stands for Tone 1 ( first tone ) , etc . To assist readers unfamiliar with GR , Pinyin equivalents have been added in brackets .
= = = Basic forms ( Tone 1 ) = = =
An important GR innovation , later adopted by Pinyin , was to use contrasting unvoiced / voiced pairs of consonants from Latin to represent aspirated and unaspirated sounds in Chinese . For example b and p represent / p / and / pʰ / ( p and p ‘ in Wade ) . Another distinctive feature of GR is the use of j , ch , and sh to represent two different series of sounds . When followed by i these letters correspond to the alveolo @-@ palatal sounds ( Pinyin j , q , and x ) ; otherwise they correspond to the retroflex sounds ( Pinyin zh , ch , and sh ) . Readers used to Pinyin need to pay particular attention to these spellings : for example , GR ju , jiu , and jiou correspond to Pinyin zhu , ju , and jiu respectively .
GR orthography has these additional notable features :
iu represents the close front rounded vowel / y / spelled ü or in many cases simply u in Pinyin .
Final -y represents the [ ɨ ] allophone of i : GR shy and sy correspond to Pinyin shi and si respectively .
el corresponds to Pinyin er ( -r being reserved to indicate Tone2 ) . The most important use of - ( e ) l is as a rhotacization suffix , as in ideal = i dean + - ( e ) l , " a little " ( yìdiǎnr ) .
A number of frequently occurring morphemes have abbreviated spellings in GR . The commonest of these are : -g ( -ge ) , -j ( -zhe ) , -m ( -me ) , sh ( shi ) and -tz ( -zi ) .
= = = Tonal modifications = = =
By default , the basic GR spelling described above is used for Tone1 syllables . The basic form is then modified to indicate tones 2 , 3 and 4 . This is accomplished in one of three ways :
either a vowel is changed to another vowel resembling it in sound ( i to y , for example , or u to w )
or a letter is doubled
or a silent letter ( r or h ) is added after the vowel .
Wherever possible the concise first method is used . The following rules of thumb cover most cases .
Tone 1 ( basic form )
shiue , chuan , chang , hai , bau ( xuē , chuān , chāng , hāi , bāo )
Tone 2 : i / u → y / w ; or add -r
shyue , chwan , charng , hair , baur ( xué , chuán , cháng , hái , báo )
Tone 3 : i / u → e / o ; or double vowel
sheue , choan , chaang , hae , bao ( xuě , chuǎn , chǎng , hǎi , bǎo )
Tone 4 : change / double final letter ; or add -h
shiueh , chuann , chanq , hay , baw ( xuè , chuàn , chàng , hài , bào )
Neutral tone : precede with a dot ( full stop )
perng.yeou , dih.fang ( péngyou , dìfang ) .
Exception Syllables with an initial sonorant ( l- / m- / n- / r- ) use the basic form for T2 rather than T1 . In these syllables the ( rarer ) T1 is marked with -h- as the second letter . For example mha is T1 ( mā ) , whereas ma is T2 ( má ) . T3 and T4 are regular : maa ( mǎ ) and mah ( mà ) .
= = Compounds as words = =
An important principle of GR is that syllables which form words should be written together . This strikes speakers of European languages as obvious ; but in Chinese the concept of " word " is not easy to pin down . The basic unit of speech is popularly thought to be the monosyllable represented by a character ( 字 tzyh , zì ) , which in most cases represents a meaningful syllable or morpheme , a smaller unit than the " linguistic word " . Characters are written and printed with no spaces between words ; yet in practice most Chinese words consist of two @-@ syllable compounds , and it was Chao 's bold innovation in 1922 to reflect this in GR orthography by grouping the appropriate syllables together into words . This represented a radical departure from hyphenated Wade – Giles forms such as Kuo2 @-@ yü3 Lo2 @-@ ma3 @-@ tzu4 ( the Wade spelling of GR ) .
= = Use in published texts = =
Chao used GR in four influential works :
A Concise Dictionary of Spoken Chinese ( in collaboration with Lien Sheng Yang ) ( 1947 )
Mandarin Primer ( 1948 )
This course was originally used in the Army Specialized Training Program at the Harvard School for Overseas Administration in 1943 – 1944 and subsequently in civilian courses .
A Grammar of Spoken Chinese ( 1968a )
" Sayable " in this context means colloquial , as opposed to the vernacular Chinese ( bairhuah , Pinyin báihuà ) style often read by students .
Readings in Sayable Chinese was written " to supply the advanced student of spoken Chinese with reading matter which he can actually use in his speech . " It consists of three volumes of Chinese text with facing GR romanization . They contain some lively recorded dialogues , " Fragments of an autobiography , " two plays and a translation of Lewis Carroll 's Through the Looking @-@ Glass ( Tzoou daw Jinqtz lii ) . Two extracts from Tzoou daw Jinqtz lii with facing translations can be read online .
In 1942 Walter Simon introduced GR to English @-@ speaking sinologists in a special pamphlet , The New Official Chinese Latin Script . Over the remainder of the 1940s he published a series of textbooks and readers , as well as a Chinese @-@ English Dictionary , all using GR . His son Harry Simon later went on to use GR in scholarly papers on Chinese linguistics .
In 1960 Y.C. Liu , a colleague of Walter Simon 's at SOAS , published Fifty Chinese Stories . These selections from classical texts were presented in both classical and modern Chinese , together with GR romanizations and romanized Japanese versions prepared by Simon ( by that time Professor Emeritus of Chinese in the University of London ) .
Lin Yutang 's Chinese @-@ English dictionary ( 1972 ) incorporated a number of innovative features , one of which was a simplified version of GR . Lin eliminated most of the spelling rules requiring substitution of vowels , as can be seen from his spelling Guoryuu Romatzyh , in which the regular -r is used for T2 and a doubled vowel for T3 .
The first 3 issues of the Shin Tarng magazine ( which would be Xin Tang in Pinyin ; published in 1982 @-@ 1989 ) used a Simplified Romanisation ( 簡化羅馬字 Jiannhuah Rormaatzyh ) based on Gwoyeu Romatzyh ; the fourth edition , entitled Xin Talng , used Pinyin with Gwoyeu Romatzyh @-@ like tone marking .
The simplified GR tone marking method is also used in Wikibooks ' Pinyin reading materials .
= = Language learning = =
Most learners of Chinese now start with Hanyu Pinyin , which Chao himself believed easier to learn than GR . Chao believed that the benefit of GR was to make tonal differences more salient to learners :
For example , it may be easier to memorize the difference between GR Beeijing ( the city ) and beyjiing ( " background " ) than the Pinyin versions Běijīng and bèijǐng , where the tones seem to be almost an afterthought . One study conducted at the University of Oregon in 1991 – 1993 , compared the results of using Pinyin and GR in teaching elementary level Chinese to two matched groups of students , and concluded that " GR did not lead to significantly greater accuracy in tonal production . "
GR continues to be used by some teachers of Chinese . In 2000 , the Princeton Chinese Primer series was published in both GR and Pinyin versions .
= = Example = =
Here is an extract from Y.R. Chao 's Sayable Chinese . The topic is scholarly ( " What is Sinology ? " ) , but the style colloquial . The tonal spelling markers or " clues " are again highlighted using the same colour @-@ coding scheme as above . Versions in Chinese characters , Pinyin and English are given below the GR text .
= Provenance ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Provenance " is the ninth episode of the ninth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on March 3 , 2002 . The episode was written by series creator Chris Carter and executive producer Frank Spotnitz , and directed by Kim Manners . " Provenance " helps to explore the series ' overarching mythology . The episode received a Nielsen household rating of 5 @.@ 5 and was watched by 5 @.@ 8 million households and 9 @.@ 7 million viewers . It received mixed to positive reviews from critics .
The show centers on special agents of the FBI who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files ; this season focuses on the investigations of John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) , and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . In this episode , when rubbings from the spaceship resurface the FBI hides its investigation from the X @-@ Files . Meanwhile , Scully is forced to take drastic measures when she discovers a threat to William .
" Provenance " introduced the character of the Toothpick Man , played by Alan Dale . This character became the leader of the New Syndicate and worked within the FBI during the show 's ninth season . The episode makes reference to rubbings from an alien wreck , a direct continuation from the plots of the sixth season finale " Biogenesis " and the seventh season opener " The Sixth Extinction " .
= = Plot = =
Navajo rubbings are found in the satchel of a motorcyclist who crashed while attempting to cross the Canada – United States border . Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) is called into a meeting with Alvin Kersh ( James Pickens , Jr . ) , Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) , Brad Follmer ( Cary Elwes ) and a few unknown men . She is shown a copy of the rubbings and is asked whether she can identify them . After the meeting , Scully explains to John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) and Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) that the rubbings are similar to ones she found on a wrecked spacecraft three years prior . Meanwhile , the motorcyclist uses an alien artifact which begins to heal the wounds from his crash .
Meanwhile , in Alberta , Canada , a downed spacecraft is being excavated under the direction of Josepho , the leader of a UFO religion . At the FBI , Doggett breaks into Skinner 's office and steals the rubbings , along with an FBI personnel file belonging to Agent Robert Comer , the motorcyclist . Reyes reveals that Comer 's rubbings do not match those from Africa , suggesting the existence of a second craft . Meanwhile , Comer goes to Scully 's apartment , overpowers Margaret Scully ( Sheila Larken ) and locks himself in William 's room . Scully arrives and , after a struggle , is forced to shoot Comer when he tries to smother the baby .
The mortally wounded Comer tells Scully that William " has to die " . Scully searches Comer 's jacket and discovers the artifact . Later , in Calgary , one of the cultists , the Overcoat Woman , sees a newspaper headline about Comer 's shooting ; she rushes to the dig site and informs Josepho . In Washington , Kersh admits to Scully and Doggett that Comer had gone undercover into Josepho 's cult , and reveals that Josepho is a former U.S. military officer . Kersh explains that Comer was given the assignment to investigate a series of death threats against Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) .
As Reyes brings William back to Scully 's apartment , Comer 's artifact flies over William and hovers above his head . Scully , realizing something is wrong , plans to drive William to somewhere safe . At the same time , Doggett notices the Overcoat Woman watching them nearby . As Scully and Reyes drive away , Doggett confronts the woman at gunpoint , but she runs him over . Scully places William under the care of The Lone Gunmen , but they are soon ambushed by the Overcoat Woman . With Melvin Frohike ( Tom Braidwood ) and Richard Langly ( Dean Haglund ) incapacitated , the woman opens the back door of the van to find John Fitzgerald Byers ( Bruce Harwood ) holding William . The woman puts a gun to Byers ' head .
= = Production = =
" Provenance " was written by series creator Chris Carter and executive producer Frank Spotnitz , and directed by Kim Manners . Manners was very pleased with Anderson 's performance in the episode . He later noted , " There was something about Gillian that was very sexual . " He further elaborated , " There 's some burning within her that really comes across on screen . She really is brilliant , and she brings so much ; the camera loves her . " A large portion of the episode was based on the ancient astronaut theory ; a theory that proposes intelligent extraterrestrial beings have visited Earth in antiquity or prehistory and made contact with humans . The themes had previously been visited in the " Biogenesis " / " The Sixth Extinction " / " Amor Fati " story arc .
The episode marked the first appearance of Alan Dale as the Toothpick Man , the leader of the New Syndicate who works within the FBI . An interview with Digital Spy described him as " effectively [ stepping ] into the nicotine @-@ stained chair of the departed Cigarette Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) as the head of a shady new syndicate , although he was later exposed as an alien . " Laura Leigh Hughes makes her third and final appearance as Kersh 's Assistant . She had previously appeared in the sixth season episodes " Triangle " and " Dreamland . "
The scenes in Calgary were actually shot in the back of the Universal Studios lot in Los Angeles . In order to convert the Los Angeles cityscape into Calgary 's , Mat Beck created a matte of the shot ; the background buildings were then edited out . A separate shot of Calgary was superimposed in the background and the scenes were mixed .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Provenance " first premiered on the Fox network in the United States on March 3 , 2002 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 5 @.@ 5 , meaning that it was seen by 5 @.@ 5 % of the nation 's estimated households and was viewed by 5 @.@ 8 million households . " Provenance " was viewed by 9 @.@ 7 million viewers and was the 61st most watched episode of television that aired during the week ending March 3 . The episode eventually aired on BBC Two on January 12 , 2003 . " Provenance " was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 4 – Super Soldiers , a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien super soldiers arc .
" Provenance " received mixed to positive reviews from television critics . Jessica Morgan from Television Without Pity awarded the episode an A – grade . John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a largely positive review and awarded it a 9 out of 10 . He wrote , " Overall , this was a powerfully intense episode with plenty of strong characterization and ties to former continuity . In short , this episode had something for everyone . I only hope that the next episode manages to live up to this beginning . " Jeffrey Robinson from DVD Talk concluded that " Provenance " , along with its follow @-@ up " Providence " , " does a fairly good job without including Duchovny " due to its adherence to " the series ' main storyline [ about ] the government conspiracies . "
Other reviews were more negative . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode one star out of five . The two noted that Anderson was constantly playing " a mother who 's always crying , shouting or looking miserable " in the episode . They wrote that the episode 's " characters no longer make sense " and that the plot has " been so required to dance through the little conspiracy hoops that there 's no consistency any more . " Furthermore , Shearman and Pearson criticized the idea to suggest that Mulder died in the episode , due to the fact that Carter announced Duchovny would return for the season finale . M.A. Crang , in his book Denying the Truth : Revisiting The X @-@ Files after 9 / 11 , criticised the plot of the episode , saying that it " throws up many elements that we 've seen the series do better elsewhere ... in the hope that something will stick " .
= Faryl Smith =
Faryl Smith ( born 23 July 1995 ) is a British mezzo @-@ soprano who rose to fame after appearing on the second series of the ITV television talent show Britain 's Got Talent in 2008 . She received praise throughout the competition , and although the favourite to win after the second round , she finished outside the top three in the live final on 31 May . During the competition , she was tutored by singing coach Yvie Burnett and received offers from various record labels . After the show , she , unlike other finalists , did not sign with Simon Cowell 's Syco , although she did appear on fellow finalist Andrew Johnston 's debut album , One Voice .
Smith signed a contract with Universal Classics and Jazz for a £ 2 @.@ 3 million advance in December 2008 , the largest ever granted to a schoolgirl . Her debut album , Faryl , was recorded from December 2008 to January 2009 and released in March 2009 . Faryl became the fastest @-@ selling solo classical album in British chart history , selling 29 @,@ 200 copies in the first week . It debuted at number six and rose to number four the following week , making Smith the third Britain 's Got Talent contestant to have a top ten album . In 2010 , on account of Faryl , Smith was nominated for two Classical BRIT Awards and became the youngest artist ever to receive a double nomination .
Smith 's second album , Wonderland , was released in November 2009 . A concept album based on Alice in Wonderland , the album was well received by critics , but was not successful in the charts . After the release of Wonderland , Smith 's contract with Universal ended . In addition to releasing her albums , she featured on a charity cover of " The Prayer " , released in March 2010 , provided vocals for the 2012 album The Magic of a Thousand Strings by the International Harp Ensemble , and has performed at numerous events , including the 2009 Royal Variety Performance . Smith currently attends the Guildhall School of Music and Drama in London , where she is studying music .
= = History = =
= = = Britain 's Got Talent = = =
Before her appearance on television , Smith had performed competitively in the Kettering , Northamptonshire Eisteddfod , the Llangollen International Musical Eisteddfod , the Pontins Junior Starquest competition and Festival 4 Stars . She auditioned for the second series of the ITV reality show Britain 's Got Talent , giving what Jon O 'Brien , of Allmusic , called a " mature " performance of " Ave Maria " , and was put through to the live shows . Simon Cowell described her audition as " the best audition I 've heard in years " . Before performing live , she and Andrew Johnston were favourites to win . She won her semi @-@ final by the public vote , performing a cover of Sarah McLachlan 's " Angel " . This placed her in the final , and left her as the favourite to win . During her first live show , Cowell described her as " literally one in a million " . She then performed in the live final , where she was described by Cowell as one of the five acts ( along with George Sampson , Johnston , Signature and Kate and Gin ) who had a chance of winning . She again performed " Ave Maria " , but finished outside the top three . Sampson eventually won the show as a result of the phone @-@ in , with Signature second , and Johnston third . As a result of her final performance of " Ave Maria " , Smith was invited to be a guest singer at a songwriting awards ceremony in London . She then went on to perform in the Britain 's Got Talent Live Tour with other contestants , where she first performed a duet of " Walking in the Air " with Johnston .
While Smith was competing in Britain 's Got Talent , Cowell arranged for her to receive free singing lessons from leading vocal coach Yvie Burnett , who had previously coached 2007 Britains Got Talent winner Paul Potts and 2006 The X Factor winner Leona Lewis . The story was broken by The Sunday Mirror ; writing for the paper , Lara Gould characterised the lessons as " secret " , while writers for The Daily Mail claimed that the lessons were " likely to upset fellow contestants " , and were evidence that Smith was " already being groomed for stardom " . During her participation in the competition , Smith was offered record deals , but she and her family turned them down . Her father , Tony Smith , said " We have had offers from people interested in Faryl . But when Simon Cowell , the big man , says your daughter is special , you listen . " Cowell described Smith 's potential career during the show , saying " I know she says Katherine [ Jenkins ] is her idol but she is far better than her . She is by far the most talented youngster I 've ever heard . When she opens her mouth her voice is just incredible . "
= = = Record deal = = =
The day after the Britain 's Got Talent finals , Max Clifford , speaking for Simon Cowell , said that it was " quite possible " that Cowell would be signing some of the finalists , including Smith . Though she did not sign with Syco , Cowell 's record label , she did record a duet of " Walking in the Air " with Johnston , which appeared on his debut album , One Voice , and was tipped as a potential Christmas number @-@ one . Before the release of One Voice , it was revealed that Smith and her father , Tony Smith , were finalising the details of her record deal . In November , it was announced that Smith would be performing on stage in Kettering with Sylvia Berryman , a vocal tutor who had worked with Smith prior to her appearance on Britain 's Got Talent . Smith said that she was " really looking forward to singing locally again " , and it was again reported that Smith hoped to soon sign her own record deal .
In December 2008 the Daily Mail reported that Smith had signed a £ 2 @.@ 3 million , multi @-@ album deal with Universal Music Group that was the " most lucrative recording contract ever handed to a schoolgirl " . Smith said " I 'm honoured to be joining such a fantastic record company , especially since it 's where [ Jenkins ] started . " Dickon Stainer , speaking on behalf of Universal , said " as soon as we saw Faryl , it became an ambition to sign her . " Universal claimed it intended to market Smith as a pop star . Smith signed the contract at the Royal Albert Hall , following which she performed with Katherine Jenkins . Neil Fisher , writing for The Times , described Smith as " heir apparent " to Jenkins ; the pair had first met when Smith won a competition at the Llangollen International Musical Eisteddfod . By 2009 , Jenkins was acting as a mentor to Smith .
In January 2009 plans were released for Smith to perform with Plácido Domingo , an idea originally suggested by him . In an interview with the Metro , Smith talked about her future plans , insisting that she did not wish to be dubbed as the next Charlotte Church . She later said that " In the papers , it sounded like I was snobby when I said ' I don 't want to be like Charlotte Church ' , but I didn 't mean it like that . " She has also spoken of her desire to appear in films on top of her musical career . She said " Films and movies are something I 'd really like to do . I 've always wanted to act so doing a film would be amazing . "
= = = Faryl = = =
Smith 's first album , Faryl , was recorded at Air Studios , London , in December 2008 , during Smith 's Christmas holiday ; it was completed on 3 January 2009 and features a 60 @-@ piece orchestra . Smith described the song " River of Light " by saying that The Blue Danube " music now has words put to it . I like it because it 's different . Everyone knows the tune and
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, and the Boots of Hermes ( God of War III ) . According to an early God of War script , the character is 6 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 98 m ) to 6 feet 7 inches ( 2 @.@ 01 m ) .
Kratos ' appearance can be altered in bonus play ; completing the game at certain levels of difficulty and in challenge modes will unlock bonus costumes . Several costumes were available exclusively via pre @-@ order and other promotions ( e.g. God of War III , which features three costumes based on early sketches of the character ) from the PlayStation Store . Although many bonus costumes are consistent with story themes , others are humorous or farcical — such as the female costume " Athena " and the " Spud of War " . 26 bonus costumes are available for use throughout the series and two are available in two games respectively ( " God of War Armor " in God of War II and Ghost of Sparta , and " Deimos " in Ghost of Sparta and God of War III ) .
= = Role in the God of War series = =
= = = Backstory and comics ( past ) = = =
Throughout the series , Kratos is portrayed as an antihero , often performing questionable actions . Although backstory is seen in the original God of War , Kratos ' childhood is revealed in Ghost of Sparta and the birth of his daughter is explored in the God of War comic series . In Ghost of Sparta , it is revealed that an oracle had foretold that the demise of Olympus would not happen by the hands of the Titans — imprisoned after the Great War — but rather by a mortal , a marked warrior . The Olympians Zeus and Ares believed this warrior to be Deimos , Kratos ' younger brother , who had strange birthmarks . Ares interrupted the childhood training of Kratos and Deimos in Sparta and kidnapped Deimos . Kratos attempted to stop Ares , but Ares swept him aside and scarred him across his right eye . Taken to Death 's Domain , Deimos was imprisoned and tortured for many years by the god of death , Thanatos . Believing Deimos to be dead , Kratos marked himself with a red tattoo , identical to his brother 's birthmark , to honor his sibling .
Through flashbacks in the comic series written by Marv Wolfman , Kratos meets his wife Lysandra and they have a daughter named Calliope . Upon birth , Calliope was stricken with the plague . In order to save his daughter , Kratos was granted a quest to find the Ambrosia of Asclepius , an elixir with magical healing properties . Five of the gods entered into a wager with Ares : each chose a champion to search for the Ambrosia with Ares ' champion being Kratos . Kratos overcame all obstacles , including , among others , Hades ' champion the Barbarian Prince Alrik , who eventually became the Barbarian King , and saved his daughter .
Via flashbacks in God of War , it is revealed that Kratos became the youngest captain of Sparta 's army ( also shown in the comics ) , but had a thirst for power . When Kratos was faced with total defeat at the hands of a barbarian horde led by the Barbarian King , the Spartan called to the Olympian god Ares for aid . Kratos was given the Blades of Chaos , destroyed his enemies , and blindly followed Ares , killing hundreds in his name . After Ares tricked Kratos into murdering his wife Lysandra and daughter Calliope in a temple dedicated to Athena , the Spartan was shocked out of his bloodlust and renounced service to Ares . As the temple burned , a village oracle cursed Kratos and condemned him to wear the " mark of his terrible deed " ; the ashes of his family , which turn his skin white , earning him the title " Ghost of Sparta " .
= = = Ascension , Chains of Olympus , and God of War = = =
In Ascension , it is revealed that because Kratos renounced Ares , it broke his blood oath to the god and as such , Kratos was imprisoned and tortured by the three Furies . He was helped by the oath keeper Orkos and eventually overcame and killed the Furies . In order to completely be free of Ares ' oath , Kratos was forced to kill Orkos , who begged Kratos to do so . Although free of his oath to the god , he was flooded with memories of killing his family . He then vowed to serve the other gods in order to receive forgiveness and relief from the nightmares of his past deeds , but he was openly defiant .
In Chains of Olympus , Kratos is reluctant to help the gods when Helios was kidnapped , and openly abandoned them when Persephone offered him a chance to be reunited with his daughter . Kratos , however , was forced to reverse his decision when Persephone used the Titan Atlas in a bid to destroy the world and in turn , the spirit of Calliope . Knowing that while intervention would save Calliope , it would separate him from his family forever , a bitter Kratos killed Persephone , imprisoned Atlas , and freed Helios .
By the time of God of War , Kratos had been serving the gods for ten years and had grown tired of his service and nightmares . When he confronted his patron Athena , she advised him that if he killed the rampaging Ares , the gods would forgive his sins . With this selfish motive , he again agreed , and after finding and using Pandora 's Box , he was successful . Despite being freed of Ares ' influence , including the Blades of Chaos , Kratos was forgiven , but was not relieved of his nightmares . A dissatisfied and despairing Kratos tried to commit suicide , but was saved by Athena , who guided him to Olympus . Awarded the Blades of Athena , Kratos became the new God of War .
= = = Comics ( present ) , Ghost of Sparta , and Betrayal = = =
The comic series also shows Kratos ' present search for the Ambrosia of Asclepius . This time , he plans to destroy the Ambrosia to prevent the worshipers of Ares from resurrecting their former master . In this quest , Kratos overcame several enemies , including the Chaos Giant Gyges , before destroying the Ambrosia . Still haunted by the visions of his mortal past in Ghost of Sparta , and against the advice of Athena , Kratos embarked on a quest to find his mother , Callisto , in the city of Atlantis . Callisto attempted to reveal the identity of Kratos ' father before being transformed against her will into a beast that Kratos was forced to kill . Before dying , Callisto advised Kratos to search for his brother Deimos in Sparta . Kratos first freed the Titan Thera from imprisonment , which caused the destruction of Atlantis . In Sparta , Kratos learned of Deimos ' location : the Domain of Death . He found and freed Deimos , who remained hostile toward his brother . After a skirmish between the siblings , Thanatos attacked Deimos , but after being rescued by Kratos , the pair joined forces to battle their foe . Although Thanatos killed Deimos , the god was in turn killed by Kratos . Kratos then returned to Olympus , enraged at the gods . In Betrayal , Kratos had been shunned by the other gods and decided to lead his Spartan army to overrun Greece . He was falsely accused of murdering Argos , and he killed Ceryx , the son of Hermes , for interfering in his search for the true assassin , who escaped .
= = = God of War II = = =
Kratos then joined the Spartan army in Rhodes , intent on destruction . Zeus , however , weakened Kratos and tricked him into abandoning his godly powers into the Blade of Olympus , which Zeus used to kill Kratos . Although he overcame all obstacles , Kratos was stunned at Zeus ' betrayal and swore revenge as he died . Kratos fell into the Underworld , but was rescued by the Titan Gaia . Banished to Tartarus with the other surviving Titans after the First Great War , Gaia and her brethren seek the death of Zeus . Kratos , fueled by anger at his betrayal , agreed to aid the Titans and was instructed to find the Sisters of Fate , who are capable of returning him to the moment of Zeus ' treachery . Kratos became determined and utterly ruthless — in the pursuit of his goal he wounded a Titan , killed several Greek heroes without hesitation , and deliberately sacrificed two scholars . All three of the Sisters of Fate were killed when they opposed Kratos , who was prepared to kill Zeus in a final confrontation . Zeus was only saved when Athena intervened and sacrificed herself for him ; only then does Kratos show remorse . He learned from a dying Athena that Zeus is in fact his father , a fact Zeus kept secret because he wished to avoid a repetition of what he did to his own father , Cronos . Kratos rejected any notion of a relationship and vowed to kill Zeus and destroy Olympus . Encouraged by Gaia , Kratos used the power of the Fates to retrieve the Titans before their defeat in the Great War , and with their assistance , stormed Mount Olympus .
= = = God of War III = = =
Although Kratos killed Poseidon , he was abandoned by Gaia when his first encounter with Zeus went poorly . Stranded in the Underworld and now betrayed by both the Olympians and Titans , Kratos learned from the spirit of Athena , who also provided the Blades of Exile , that he needed to find the Flame of Olympus , which is the key to defeating Zeus . Kratos murdered both Titans and gods , ignoring the warnings of his victims as he sought the Flame . Realizing the key to pacifying the Flame and reaching Pandora 's Box ( engulfed by the Flame ) is Pandora herself , Kratos came to care for Pandora , who reminded him of his lost daughter Calliope . Kratos showed humanity when he attempted to stop Pandora from sacrificing herself to quench the Flame , but reluctantly allowed the act when she said there was no other option . Finding the box empty , and driven berserk by Zeus ' mockery , Kratos attacked his father . Although Gaia interrupted and tried to kill Kratos and Zeus , she was destroyed by Kratos , who then apparently defeated Zeus . Zeus returned in spirit form and attacked Kratos , who retreated into his psyche . Kratos forgave himself for his past sins with the help of Lysandra . Pandora later appeared and told Kratos that hope would save him . Kratos was revived and easily destroyed Zeus . Athena confronted Kratos and demanded that he return the power of hope ; the contents of Pandora 's Box . In a selfless act , Kratos refused , stated his need for vengeance was gone , and impaled himself with the Blade of Olympus , which dispersed the power across the world for mankind 's use . Athena , disappointed with Kratos , removed the Blade and departed as Kratos collapsed next to the Blade of Olympus . The post @-@ credits scene showed a trail of blood leading away from the Blade with Kratos ' whereabouts unknown .
= = = Upcoming God of War = = =
Many years after the events of God of War III , Kratos has ended up in the world of Norse mythology . He now has a son and Kratos teaches the boy hunting and survival skills . A mentor and protector of his son , who seeks his father 's respect , Kratos must master the rage that has driven him for many years . He hopes to teach his son and make amends for his past . Since Kratos lost his infamous double @-@ chained blades in his climactic battle with Zeus , he now uses a magical battle axe . His attire and personality have also changed as he now sports a full beard and presents a calmer demeanor than the previous games .
= = Other appearances = =
= = = Guest appearances = = =
Kratos has been featured as a playable character in several PlayStation games outside of the God of War series . On August 21 , 2008 , Kratos was released as a downloadable character in Hot Shots Golf : Out of Bounds along with his Clubs of Chaos . As a pre @-@ order bonus for LittleBigPlanet from GameStop , customers received a Sackboy Kratos costume along with ones for Medusa and a Minotaur , as well as a God of War level sticker kit . These were later released for purchase on January 26 , 2009 . Kratos is a guest character in 2009 's Soulcalibur : Broken Destiny , which includes his own story mode . As a pre @-@ order bonus for ModNation Racers from GameStop , customers received a Kratos Mod along with his Kart of Chaos . These were later released for purchase on November 2 , 2010 . Kratos ' next guest appearance was in the PlayStation 3 version of 2011 's Mortal Kombat ( and the PlayStation Vita version released in 2012 ) , which features his own fighting stage and arcade ladder mode . The character then appeared in the 2012 crossover fighting game , PlayStation All @-@ Stars Battle Royale , which includes two God of War inspired stages , several God of War items , as well as series antagonist Zeus , who was released as a downloadable character on March 19 , 2013 .
As part of the God of War franchise 's tenth anniversary , Kratos appeared in the PlayStation 3 , PlayStation 4 , and PlayStation Vita versions of Shovel Knight ( released April 21 , 2015 ) , where he is a secret boss battle . His next guest appearance brought him back to the world of LittleBigPlanet in LittleBigPlanet 3 as a new Sackboy costume in his Fear Kratos form , along with Sackboy costumes of Zeus , Hercules , Poseidon , and Athena , and a costume of Hades for new character Toggle . The costumes ' release coincided with the release of God of War III Remastered on PlayStation 4 in July 2015 . A costume of Kratos as well as God of War custom decorations were included in the " Crafted Edition " of Tearaway Unfolded , which released on PlayStation 4 on September 8 , 2015 . TC Carson provided Kratos ' voice in all of his guest appearances , except for LittleBigPlanet , ModNation Racers , LittleBigPlanet 3 , and Tearaway Unfolded where the character is only a costume , and in Shovel Knight which only has text dialogue .
The character has been parodied twice in The Simpsons franchise . He appeared as the " God of Wharf " on a billboard advertising a chowder restaurant in The Simpsons Game . He later appeared on the Guts of War II : Entrails of Intestinox kiosk at " E4 " — a parody of the Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) — in The Simpsons television episode , " The Food Wife " . Kratos has also been parodied by Adult Swim 's clay @-@ mation television series , Robot Chicken . He was first parodied in season 5 , episode 15 , " The Core , The Thief , His Wife and Her Lover " , where it is shown how far Kratos ( voiced by Brian Austin Green ) will go to collect blood orbs . Sony later teamed up with Robot Chicken to produce a marketing campaign advertisement for PlayStation All @-@ Stars Battle Royale that parodied Kratos and other characters from the game .
= = = Novels and film = = =
Kratos is also the main character in novelizations of the game series by Matthew Stover and Robert E. Vardeman . The novels are a retelling of the games and offer deeper insights into their stories . The first novel , titled God of War , was published in May 2010 , and the second novel , titled God of War II , was published in February 2013 . A film adaptation of the original God of War was announced in 2005 , but has remained in development hell . In 2010 , Jaffe stated that the " script went out a year and a half ago to Daniel Craig who plays [ James ] Bond , but he turned it down . " He also said that another actor had since been signed to the role of Kratos , and that " this new person is pretty good , if that ends up true . " The film 's new writers , Patrick Melton and Marcus Dunstan , were announced in July 2012 , and in August 2012 , the writers stated that they plan to humanize Kratos and explore his past .
= = Cultural impact = =
= = = Merchandise and promotion = = =
Two series of action figures based on God of War II have been produced by the National Entertainment Collectibles Association ( NECA ) . The first set included two versions of Kratos ; one wielding the Blades of Athena , and the second wearing the Golden Fleece and holding a Gorgon 's head . The second set included a twelve @-@ inch figure that plays six game quotes . A second two @-@ figure set was also released , with Kratos wearing the God of War armor . In October 2009 , United Cutlery created a scaled replica of Kratos ' Blades of Chaos , which included a custom display stand with the God of War logo . Kratos was also featured in a line of action figures released by DC Unlimited and based on God of War III , which included the characters Zeus , Hades , and Hercules . Between February 1 , 2010 and March 31 , 2010 , 7 @-@ Eleven sold a limited @-@ edition Slurpee drink called " Kratos Fury " , in addition to four exclusive God of War III cups , which featured codes that could be used to access God of War III and Slurpee @-@ themed downloadable content on the Slurpee website .
Kratos ' visage has appeared on the PlayStation Portable Chains of Olympus exclusive bundle pack , and on the PlayStation 3 God of War III sweepstakes prize video game consoles . A limited @-@ edition 10 inches ( 250 mm ) figurine of Kratos was the grand prize of a sweepstakes in a promotion for God of War Collection in November 2009 . A 6 inches ( 150 mm ) figure of Kratos was included in the God of War : Ascension — Collector 's Edition . In June 2014 , a Kratos Pop ! Vinyl Figure was released . The same year , Sony partnered with Gaming Heads to produce a limited @-@ edition ( 500 units ) life @-@ size bust of Kratos . It is 28 inches ( 710 mm ) tall and sits upon a Greek @-@ inspired column . A " Fear Kratos " version of the bust was also produced ( 100 units ) that year , based on the Fear Kratos costume from God of War III . In 2015 , Sony again partnered with Gaming Heads to produce a limited @-@ edition ( 1 @,@ 250 units ) lunging Kratos statue . The statue is 19 inches ( 480 mm ) tall and features Kratos wielding the Blades of Exile . For the God of War franchise 's tenth anniversary ( March 2015 ) , Gaming Heads produced two limited @-@ edition " Kratos on the Throne " statues , depicting the final scene of the original God of War . Both statues are 29 inches ( 740 mm ) tall and the Regular Edition ( 1 @,@ 250 units ) features Kratos in his normal attire and the Exclusive Edition ( 500 units ) features Kratos in his God of War armor . In November 2015 , Sony announced a new Kratos statue to be released the following month , which is also in celebration of God of War 's ten @-@ year anniversary . The limited edition ( 500 units ) statue made of polystone was designed by Santa Monica and stands over 26 inches ( 660 mm ) tall with details such as leather , cloth , and metal pieces .
= = = Reception = = =
Kratos ' character received positive response by video game publications . GameSpot regarded Kratos as a " sympathetic antihero " and a " badass " , and described him as endearing due to his unforgiving demeanor , but added that the slowly @-@ developing story offered players " no understanding [ of him ] " in the game 's early stages . IGN said he was ruthless , merciless and savage , noting the character 's main motive is vengeance and " all he desires is murder . " IGN also stated that in time the player would begin to " love and loathe Kratos and hate Ares . " GamePro said it was " Kratos ' tragic fall and brutal ascension to the peaks of Mount Olympus that made the original God of War so memorable . " PlayStation Universe said he was " certainly a unique character and a warrior to be reckoned with , " and that " this iconic PlayStation anti @-@ hero will surely not be forgotten . "
At the 2010 Spike Video Game Awards , Kratos was nominated for " Character of the Year " and awarded the " Biggest Badass " award . He was included in GameSpot 's " All Time Greatest Video Game Hero " contest and reached the " Elite Eight " round before losing to Mario . The 2011 Guinness World Records Gamer 's Edition lists Kratos as the ninth most popular video game character . In 2011 , Empire ranked him as the 15th @-@ greatest video game character . In 2012 , GamesRadar ranked Kratos , " one of PlayStation ’ s most popular representatives , " as the eighteenth- " most memorable , influential , and badass " protagonist in games : " Being insanely violent isn ’ t exactly an uncommon trait amongst game characters , but driven by a rage wrought from his guilt ( slaughtered thousands , including — oops — his wife and daughter ) Kratos kills with such convincing visceral aggression it elevates him way beyond the status of brain @-@ dead murder @-@ bot . " In 2010 , Game Guru said that " practically anyone , even if they hadn 't played any of the God of War games , would know about Kratos . "
Kratos has been included on several top video game character lists : GamesRadar listed him as one of the 25 best new characters of the decade , stating that while he appears at first to be a generic character , players eventually learn that he is both an " unstoppable force of nature " and a " broken , tragic man " . Knowing of the talks regarding a God of War film , both IGN and UGO Networks listed Kratos as a character who deserved his own movie . In 2008 , IGN listed him as one of the characters wanted for an " ultimate fighting " game , featuring characters from all consoles and all eras of gaming . He was included on the list of the best anti @-@ heroes by IGN in 2012 . In 2011 , Complex listed several of his finishing moves in their fifty " craziest fatalities in video games " list at 30th , 28th , 24th , 14th , and number @-@ one spots for his finishing moves on Hades , Hercules , Helios , the Hydra , and Poseidon , respectively . The " Dairy Bastard " alternate costume from the original God of War was included in UGO 's list of the " most stylin ' alternate costumes " . GameFront listed Kratos in 2011 as one of the top five video game characters with the " biggest daddy issues " . Complex ranked him as having the best fighting game cameos for his guest appearances in Soulcalibur : Broken Destiny and Mortal Kombat in 2012 and as the sixth " most badass " video game character of all time in 2013 . Kratos ' Blades of Chaos were included on GameSpot 's " 15 Most Badass Swords in Video Game History " list .
On the other hand , Kratos ' character has also been given criticism . Prince of Persia producer Ben Mattes said in an interview that he considers Kratos " a supercool character , but it 's black and white ; his personality is pure rage , his dialogue is pure rage , his character design is pure rage — it 's kind of easy . " Jeremy " Norm " Scott , creator of the comic strip Hsu and Chan , stated in Electronic Gaming Monthly that Kratos was average and " did not exist , except as an avatar for the player . " In 2009 , IGN listed Kratos as the sixth @-@ most overrated video game character . Cheat Code Central also listed Kratos as the sixth @-@ most overrated video game character in a 2011 top @-@ ten list .
= Triangle Link =
The Triangle Link ( Norwegian : Trekantsambandet ) is a fixed link with three branches that connects the islands of Stord and Bømlo to each other and to the mainland at Sveio , Norway . It consists of the underwater Bømlafjord Tunnel from Sveio to the island of Føyno , the Stord Bridge from there to Stord , and a road including the Bømla Bridge and the Spissøy Bridge to Bømlo . The section from Sveio to Stord is part of European Route E39 , while the branch to Bømlo is part of County Road 542 .
The Bømlo Tunnel is 7 @,@ 860 meters ( 25 @,@ 790 ft ) long and reaches 260 meters ( 850 ft ) below mean sea level . It is the longest subsea tunnel in Norway and was the deepest in the world when it opened . The Stord Bridge and Bømla Bridge are both suspension bridges , with lengths of 1 @,@ 077 and 998 metres ( 3 @,@ 533 and 3 @,@ 274 ft ) and main spans of 677 and 577 meters ( 2 @,@ 221 and 1 @,@ 893 ft ) . The Spissøy Bridge is a 283 @-@ meter ( 928 ft ) beam bridge . The link is 21 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometer ( 13 @.@ 4 mi ) long toll road with a toll plaza on Føyno . The section from Stord to Bømlo has a pedestrian and bicycle path .
Plans for a link between Bømlo and Stord were first launched as a pontoon bridge in the 1960s . In the late 1980s , the plans evolved into a triangular project . There was controversy surrounding the project , in particular from environmentalists . The Parliament of Norway passed the plans in 1996 , and construction started the following year . The bridges and link between Stord and Bømlo opened on 28 December 2000 , while the tunnel opened on 30 April 2001 . The link cost 1 @.@ 8 billion Norwegian krone ( NOK ) after substantial cost overruns and will remain a toll road until 30 April 2013 .
= = Route description = =
The Triangle Link is part of two routes , European Route E39 and County Road 542 . The section from Stord to Sveio , including the Stord Bridge and the Bømlafjord Tunnel , is part of E39 — the Coastal Highway — which runs along the west coast of Norway . The section from the interchange on Føyno , including the Bøla Bridge and the Spissøy Bridge , is on County Road 542 . The link acts both as a mainland connection for Stord and Bømlo to the mainland at Sveio , as well as a link between the two island communities , which have a combined population of 30 @,@ 000 .
The Bømlafjord Tunnel is a 7 @,@ 860 @-@ meter ( 25 @,@ 790 ft ) long subsea tunnel which crosses Bømlafjorden . It is 11 meters ( 36 ft ) wide , 4 @.@ 7 meters ( 15 ft ) tall and reaches 260 @.@ 4 meters ( 854 ft ) below mean sea level . The tunnel has three lanes , one downhill and two uphill , with the direction of the extra lane switching at the bottom . When it opened , it was the longest and second @-@ deepest subsea tunnel in Europe . Stord Bridge is a suspension bridge which crosses Digernessundet , connecting Stord with Føyno . It is 1 @,@ 077 meters ( 3 @,@ 533 ft ) long and has a main span ( distance between the pylons , or towers ) of 677 meters ( 2 @,@ 221 ft ) . The bridge is 13 @.@ 5 meters ( 44 ft ) wide and has a clearance of 18 meters ( 59 ft ) . It has two 97 @-@ meter ( 318 ft ) tall pylons , one foundationed on Digernesklubben and one on Føyno . The pylons were built in concrete , while the deck is built as 19 in steel sections , each 36 meters ( 118 ft ) long and weighing 150 tonnes ( 150 long tons ; 170 short tons ) . Stord Bridge has the second @-@ longest span in Norway , after the Askøy Bridge .
Bømla Bridge is a suspension bridge which crosses Spissøysundet , connecting Spissøy and Nautøya . It is 998 meters ( 3 @,@ 274 ft ) long and has a main span of 577 meters ( 1 @,@ 893 ft ) . The bridge is 13 meters ( 43 ft ) wide and has a clearance of 36 meters ( 118 ft ) . The higher clearance was built to allow ship traffic which runs through Nyleia between Bømlo and Stord to continue to run . The bridge has two 105 @-@ meter ( 344 ft ) tall pylons , one foundationed on Brunsholmen and one on Spissøy . The bridge has a similar aesthetically design to the Stord Bridge , and also features a steel deck with concrete pylons . It has the fifth @-@ longest span in Norway . Spissøy Bridge is a beam bridge which crosses Gassasundet , connecting Bømlo with Spissøy . It is 283 meters ( 928 ft ) long , consists of five spans and has a clearance of 7 meters ( 23 ft ) .
The fixed link project also includes 12 kilometers ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) of highway . On Stord , E39 received a new two @-@ lane , limited @-@ access road from Meatjørn to the bridge . This included a new grade separated ( two @-@ level ) interchange in the southern part of Leirvik and a culvert — the Digernes Tunnel — immediately before the bridge . In Sveio , the link included 800 meters ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) of new limited @-@ access road from the tunnel to a grade @-@ separated interchange at Dalshovda . In Bømlo , there was a new road built across the islands of Spissøy and Nautøy — including an intersection on Spissøy . It further consisted of a new section of road from the Bømlo side of Spissøy Bridge at Gassasundet to Røyksund , and from Gassasundet to Grøvle , including a new tunnel through Stokkajuvet . A combined pedestrian and bicycle path runs along the whole section between Stord and Bømlo , with a grass division on the land parts between the road and the path . Underpasses and walls were built with natural stone .
The tolls are collected at a toll plaza located on Føyno . The plaza is constructed as a grade @-@ separated intersection , so that any car passes through the plaza once . However , traffic only traveling between Føyno to Bømlo does not have to pay . Cars driving along E39 drive straight ahead through the plaza , while cars to or from Bømlo need to use the interchange . There is also an intersection allowing access to the island . The plaza has six lanes , of which two in each direction have a toll booth and one in each direction has an automatic collection . The toll station uses the Autopass toll collection , which allows passage without stopping , in addition to manual collection . Passengers , pedestrians , bicycles , motorcyclists and mopeds are free . As of 2011 , the fees are NOK 85 for cars and NOK 270 for trucks . Frequent travelers can prepay for at least 40 passings to the toll company , and receive a 40 percent discount .
= = History = =
= = = Pontoon bridge proposals = = =
The first recorded proposal for a connection between Bømlo and Stord was made in the 1960s by sheriff , and later mayor of Fitjar , Finn Havnerås . Christened the Island Road , he proposed a series of eleven bridges and causeways which would run from Kalveid in Fitjar via Brandasund to Rolfsnes in Bømlo . While local politicians were not opposed to the plan , the recent municipal merger between Bømlo , Bremnes and Moster made them prioritize other sectors and the project was abandoned without any official investigations .
A new route was launched by Bømlo Mayor Malvin Meling , who proposed a pontoon bridge which would cross Stokksundet . He was inspired by the plans to build what would become the Nordhordland Bridge north of Bergen . In 1973 , the municipal councils of Bømlo , Stord and Fitjar decided to launch a planning process , which concluded that a pontoon bridge between Sørstokken and Foldrøyholmen would be optimal . The report also considered bridges across the Fitjar Archipelago and a crossing via Spissøy and Føyno . There were protests from Wichmann Motorfabrikk who were concerned about their operations if the sound was closed for shipping traffic . Similar protests also came from the shipping industry , who wished to continue using Stokksundet ; the protests were not remedied by the plans including a suspension bridge across Foldrøysundet . To illustrate their point , one shipowner let two of his ships cross in the middle of Foldrøysundet . The shipping industry received support from Norwegian Coastal Administration and the plans were abandoned in 1974 .
In the early 1980s , plans for Stord Airport , Sørstokken were launched . The bridge plans across Stokksundet were again brought up in 1982 as the industry on Bømlo wanted to not have use a ferry to reach the airport . A committee with representatives from all three municipalities was established in May 1983 to look into the possibilities for a bridge . Led by Bømlo Mayor Arne M. Haldorsen , it issued Engineer Harald Møyner the task to author a report and recommendation . He made three proposals : a pontoon or suspension bridge between Foldrøyhomen and Litlaneset ; a suspension bridge between Setraneset and Sokkbleikjo , which would terminate just south of the new airport ; and a combined fixed link between Spissøy and Digernes , without passing via the Fitjar Archipelago . The latter was the first time a fixed link to the mainland was proposed . The Norwegian Civil Aviation Administration protested against a possible suspension bridge near the airport , but stated that one closer further away would be fine .
Mapping of traffic patterns on Bømlo was undertaken by Hordaland Public Roads Administration in 1984 , and based on this and other feedback , a pontoon bridge between Foldrøyholmen and Sørstokken was recommended . It was estimated to cost NOK 190 million , in addition to auxiliary roads for NOK 40 million . Following the opening of the Vardø Tunnel in 1982 , the first subsea tunnel in Norway , Engineer Finn Nitter d.e. proposed a fixed link which involved a combined bridge , road and tunnels between the islands , including a suspension bridge over Digernessundet , a causeway and low bridge onwards to a 2 @.@ 2 @-@ kilometer ( 1 @.@ 4 mi ) subsea tunnel under Spissøysundet and a low bridge over Gassasundet . In addition , a 7 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometer ( 4 @.@ 7 mi ) long tunnel would have had to be constructed from Føyno to Ulveråker in Sveio .
The company Johannes Sørlie launched an all @-@ tunnel proposal in 1985 , which would cost NOK 700 million and give 18 kilometers ( 11 mi ) of subsea tunnel connecting Bømlo to Stord and the mainland . The committee was positive to the proposals , while Josef Martinsen , director of Hordaland Public Roads Administration , stated that the project was unrealistic . Sveio Municipality was subsequently invited as a member of the planning committee . On 14 May 1985 , the committee voted to encourage the municipal councils to pass planning which involved a bridge across Sørstokken , and aimed to get the plans into Norwegian Road Plan 1990 – 1993 . The committee continued its work until it dissolved itself in October 1986 and was replaced by the limited company Ytre Sunnhordland Bru- og Tunnelselskap AS ( SBT ) . The company was owned by the municipalities of Bømlo , Stord , Fitjar and Sveio , Hordaland County Municipality and the banks Bergen Bank , Sparebanken Vest , Vestlandsbanken , Haugesund Bank and Christiania Bank .
A new master plan for the project was completed by the Public Roads Administration in December 1986 . It proposed four main routes : via the Fitjar Archipelago ; via Foldrøyhamn with a pontoon bridge to Sørstokken ; a suspension bridge from Søtreneset to Stokkbleikjo ; or via Spissøy , Naustøy and Føyno to Digernes . They recommended choosing the pontoon bridge . SBT stated that this was only to be a first stage , and that a second stage should involve a tunnel to the mainland . In a meetingbetween SBT and representatives for the shipping industry at the end of 1986 , it was decided that SBT would start working for a mainland connection that would not hinder sailing .
A report published by SBT in 1987 looked at details for a subsea tunnel to the mainland . It was the first official document to use the " Triangle Link " term , although this had previously been used by the press . A delegation traveled to Washington State in the United States and British Columbia in Canada to look at their seven pontoon bridges , while seismic surveys were undertaken in Bømlafjorden . SBT changed its name to Sunnhordland Bru- og Tunnelselskap and a majority of the board shifted towards being in favor of a fixed link . The issue became the subject of major local debate and was supplemented by a demand from residents in southern Bømlo that they did not want to lose their ferry service , which would be faster than driving via the fixed link .
= = = Opposition = = =
The Coastal Administration stated that they would not allow a pontoon bridge . SBT decided on 26 June 1987 to work towards receiving permission to collect advanced tolls on the ferry services . On 16 September , they unanimously supported the triangular proposal , which was estimated to cost NOK 660 million . This was criticized by Hordaland Public Roads Administration , who stated that it would take longer time to plan — and thus complete — the Triangle Link . A poll from January 1988 showed that 78 @.@ 6 percent of the population of Bømlo wanted the Triangle Link , while 8 @.@ 6 percent wanted the pontoon bridge . On 6 January , SBT started negotiating loans with various banks to receive financial guarantees for the Triangle Link , and by February sufficient funding had been secured .
From 1988 , environmentalists started actively opposing the Triangle Link . The most active was the local chapter of the Norwegian Society for the Conservation of Nature , which stated that the road would have serious consequences for the local boat traffic to the recreational islands of Føyno and Nautøy . Instead , they recommended that the municipalities chose a pontoon bridge . An action group was established . Hallgeir Matre stated that Stord had a lack of beaches and that the two islands " were the last low , forested islands in the area after the paradise Eldøyane had been converted to an industrial area for Aker Stord during the 1970s " . He further stated that environmentalists were skeptical to floating bridges , but that in this case it would be the lesser of two evils . The Stord Society for the Conservation of Nature applied for municipal grants to make a critical report , but this was rejected by the majority of the municipal council . By June , a new chapter had been established on Bømlo , and the group stated that it was irresponsible to build a link which would result in a massive increase in car use . Future In Our Hands started a petition which collected 1 @,@ 600 signatures . A poll from 1990 showed that in Stord , 35 percent were in favor of the project , while 36 @.@ 7 percent were opposed , given that the ferry service was improved , among other things with night ferries and increased comfort .
Another opponent to the project was the Action Committee Against a Hasty Construction of the Triangle Link , who wanted to delay the decision until after the 1991 municipal elections to ensure that the municipal councils had backing in the public . Gisle Tjong was another opponent , who stated that the risk in the project was large and that it was uncertain how long the tolls would last : they could just as well last 60 as 15 years . Instead , he wanted to use advanced tolls and fuel fees , place the income in the bank and then pay the whole fixed link with the accumulated funds . Most of the opposition against the project was from Stord , while in Bømlo there was overwhelming support . However , in southern Bømlo there were concerns that they would lose their ferry , as they would have a much longer rout to Haugesund via the Triangle Link . Some also stated that it was necessary to keep a ferry for people with fear of tunnels .
= = = Political processes = = =
Bømlo Municipal Council voted unanimously in favor of the Triangle Link on 22 February 1988 . Two days later , the issue was discussed in Stord Municipal Council . Olav Akselsen at first proposed supporting the pontoon bridge , but after a trial vote he withdrew the proposal and also Stord supported the Triangle Link . The following week , Sveio Municipal Council voted in favor the Triangle Link , without either a debate or dissent in the council . Fitjar Municipal Council voted on 15 March to work with both proposals . Hordaland Public Roads Administration still supported a pontoon bridge , and stated that two and a half years of work on a master plan had been wasted . A new master plan for the Triangle Link was published in early 1989 , estimating the costs at NOK 890 million . It recommended that the Langevåg – Buavåg Ferry remain , but the other four ferry services be terminated . The report concluded that the maintenance costs of the fixed link would be lower than the subsidies of the ferry , that the project would be economical of society and would reduce emissions .
During late 1989 , advance tolls on the ferries were approved by the municipal councils and the county council , who recommended that collection start from 1 July 1990 , but this was not immediately supported by the government . On 18 and 19 September 1990 , the Standing Committee on Transport and Communications visited the region and looked at the proposed areas of the Triangle Link , the Hardanger Bridge and the Folgefonna Tunnel . By then it had been established that the Triangle Link would not need state grants , as it could be entirely financed with tolls . Tore Haugen , Conservative parliamentarian from Akershus , proposed that the project be considered independent of the regular national road plans . However , Lars Gunnar Lie , Minister of Transport and Communications from the Christian Democratic Party , stated that he planned a single report to Parliament for all three projects .
In 1991 , the master plan was appealed by the Norwegian Society for the Conservation of Nature to the Ministry of Transport and Communications . The appeal was seconded by the Norwegian Directorate for Nature Management . In the 1991 municipal election , the Socialist Left Party was the only party which was opposed to the fixed link , and they received a large increase in votes , increasing for 7 to 21 percent in Stord . The same year , Dag Hareide in the Norwegian Society for the Conservation of Nature started lobbying up towards national politicians in an attempt to stop the issue in Parliament . High @-@ profile people who were opposed to the project included Per Ståle Lønning , Herborg Kråkevik and Kenneth Sivertsen .
The issue of advanced tolls was reviewed by the county council on 23 October 1991 , where 64 voted in favor and 19 were opposed , the latter representing the Socialist Left Party , the Red Electoral Alliance and the Progress Party . In June 1992 , the county council was asked to prioritize between the Hardanger Bridge and the Triangle Link , as there would not be sufficient state grants to build both projects . Both would require between NOK 200 and 300 million , and it would not be possible to start both projects in the period from 1994 to 1997 . In the council meeting on 18 June 1992 , a proposal to waiver prioritization was rejected . The council then , with 44 against 30 votes , chose to prioritize the Hardanger Bridge , which received most votes from the Labour and Centre Party . The Conservative Party was the only party for which all the votes were cast in favor of the Triangle Link . The Socialist Left Party 's proposal to build neither received 11 votes .
In July , the master plan was passed by the Council of State . On 10 December 1992 , Parliament approved advanced payment of tolls on the ferry , which were made effective from 1 January 1993 . Ticket prices increased with between NOK 10 and 12 . This resulted in protests from the ferry employees who stated that they would have to collect the tolls which would remove their jobs ; Norwegian Seafarers ' Union representatives stated that they considered suing the state . Work on the development plan started in 1992 . It included safety and environmental improvements which increased the project 's cost by NOK 200 million . In May 1994 , it was made subject to consultative statements .
Norwegian Road Plan 1994 – 97 was considered by Parliament during 1993 . Minister of Transport and Communications , Kjell Opseth of the Labour Party , stated that he wanted to equally prioritize the Triangle Link and the Hardanger Bridge , but that it would be unrealistic to build both in the same period . At a county council meeting on 21 April 1993 , the council decided with 60 against 20 votes that the county would not prioritize between the two projects . Opseth subsequently stated that in his opinion , the Triangle Link should be prioritized . In 1995 , a report on the Coastal Highway ( E39 ) was presented , which recommended that the Skjersholmane – Valevåg Ferry be removed .
Particularly within the Labour Party there was disagreement about whether or not to build the Hardanger Bridge . In addition to crossing the Hardangerfjord , there were concerns that the bridge would increase the traffic through Hardangervidda National Park , and that it subsequently would result in an all @-@ year road being built with subsequent negative impact on nature and wildlife . Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland of the Labour Party stated on 10 October 1995 that the government was in favor of the Triangle Link and opposed to the Hardanger Bridge .
When the standing committee visited the two projects in 1996 , they were met by demonstrators in favor of the bridge in Hardanger , and demonstrators in opposition to the fixed link in Sunnhordland . In May , SBT proposed building a culvert on Digernes as a compromise for a proposal from the Labour Party and the Christian Democratic Party to consider other solution , which could have postponed the project several years . Parliament decided on 11 June 1996 , with 144 against 20 votes , to build the Triangle Link . The Folgefonna Tunnel was also passed , while the Hardanger Bridge was put aside .
= = = Construction = = =
Construction started on 15 February 1997 . Before the first blast could be taken by County Mayor Magnar Lussand , representatives for Vestlandet Natue and Youth , and The People 's Movement Against the Triangle Link had to be moved . The only police officer at the festivities was Sheriff Reidar Færestrand , who was not dressed in his police uniform and had not brought with him his badge . The demonstrators did not move until a police boat had been sent with the necessary documentation and Færestrand could prove his identity as a law enforcer . Elin Lerum Boasson of Nature and Youth stated that it was " a day of sorrow " .
Core samples showed that the tunnel would have to be built 30 meters ( 98 ft ) deeper than originally planned to avoid deposits . The tunneling was undertaken by NCC Eeg @-@ Henriksen from the Føyno side and by the Norwegian Public Roads Administration from the Sveio side . Construction from Sveio started on 16 September 1997 and from Føyno on 6 March 1998 . The tunnel was built at an average speed of 55 meters ( 180 ft ) per week , with the record being 96 @.@ 7 meters ( 317 ft ) . The lowest point was reached on 5 May 1999 and the breakthrough took place on 2 September , five months before schedule . Sixty people participated in a course to master fear of tunnels organized by the toll company . When it opened , the tunnel was the longest and second @-@ deepest subsea tunnel in Europe and Norway , after the Hitra Tunnel .
The Stord and Bømla Bridges were both constructed using the same method and by the same contractors , Arbeidsfellesskapet Triangle Contractor , a joint venture between NCC Eeg @-@ Henriksen and HBG Steel Structures . Construction started on the Stord Bridge on 20 February 1999 . After the pylons were completed , two catwalks were erected between them , with the constructors choosing a continual catwalk instead of three separate ones . The cables were spun on @-@ site using a reel ; this also allowed for cost savings , as the reels could be used two times . The cables were spun using the air spinning with controlled tension , which allowed spinning with little space use and with a crew with limited experience with spinning . The two bridges were the first time that on @-@ site spinning was used in Norway . The fastening poles were delivered five weeks after schedule ; a new mounting method was developed which allowed them to be installed in a quarter of the time , in part by using a helicopter , and the whole five @-@ week delay was eradicated . This allowed the deck sections to be installed as scheduled . The decks were produced in Schiedam , Netherlands , for the Stord Bridge and in Italy for the Bømlo Bridge . These were sent by barge to Sunnhordland . The section length was different between the two bridges , the Stord Bridge having them in lengths of 36 meters ( 118 ft ) and the Bømla Bridge in sections of 24 meters ( 79 ft ) . This was to accommodate the latter 's smaller vertical curvature .
The entire project cost NOK 1 @,@ 814 million . The costs were distributed to NOK 476 million for the Bømlafjord Tunnel , NOK 433 million for the Stord Bridge , NOK 336 million for the Bømla Bridge , NOK 46 million for the Spissøy Bridge , NOK 36 million for the Digernes Tunnel , NOK 325 million for roadways and NOK 172 for administration and common costs . The investment cost was split between state grants and NOK 1 @,@ 036 million in debt taken up by the toll company . When the project was passed by Parliament it had a budget of NOK 1 @,@ 260 million . The Office of the Auditor General of Norway criticized the Western Norway Public Roads Administration in 2001 for a total cost overrun of NOK 900 million in three projects , the Triangle Link , the Lærdal Tunnel and parts of National Road 555 . The majority of the cost overruns were tied to the Triangle Link . As a consequence , Minister of Transport Torild Skogsholm stated that future large road investments would have an external quality assurance before being presented to Parliament .
= = = Opening and operation = = =
The first part of the link , between Stord and Sveio , including the Stord Bridge and Bømlafjord Tunnel , was taken into use on 27 December 2000 . The official opening and the National Road 542 opening took place on 30 April 2001 . The opening of the first stage allowed two ferry services to be replaced , the Skjersholmane – Valevåg Ferry , which connected Stord to Sveio , and the Skjersholmane – Utbjoa Ferry , which connected Stord to Vindafjord . With the opening of the Bømlo connection , the two remaining ferries could be closed : the Sagvåg – Siggjarvåg Ferry , which connected Stord with Bømlo , and the Mosterhamn – Valevåg Ferry , which connected Bømlo to Sveio . The Langevåg – Buavåg Ferry , which connects the southern part of Bømlo to Sveio , was not closed . In 2000 , the four closed ferry services transported 884 @,@ 216 vehicles and 1 @,@ 935 @,@ 875 people .
From the start the toll plaza used Autopass , a standard which allows automatic passage through the toll plaza without stopping . The system was launched by the Norwegian Public Roads Administration in 2001 and the Triangle Link was the first to take the system into use . The tollway was also the first in the country to allow subscriptions to be made via the Internet . The initial charges were NOK 75 for cars up to 3 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 3 @.@ 4 long tons ; 3 @.@ 9 short tons ) or 6 @.@ 0 meters ( 19 @.@ 7 ft ) length , NOK 225 for small trucks , between 6 @.@ 0 and 12 @.@ 4 meters ( 19 @.@ 7 and 40 @.@ 7 ft ) , and NOK 450 for longer vehicles .
In 2004 the Public Roads Administration published a report documenting high administration costs in the 46 toll companies throughout the country . Along with the company for the Osterøy Bridge , SBT received the harshest criticism in the report . Especially a trip made by Chairman Harry Herstad and his wife to San Francisco to participate at a conference was criticized , as it cost the toll company NOK 118 @,@ 000 . Also annual board member fees of NOK 200 @,@ 000 and excessive trips for the board were commented as wasted money . The internal audit concluded with that there were costs of NOK 300 @,@ 000 in 2002 and 2003 which were not properly documented or were not used in line with regulations . The report was rejected by the board , who claimed that several of the issues were misunderstandings and that the Public Roads Administration was using the report in a campaign to establish a state @-@ run toll collection agency . Øyvind Halleraker withdrew as managing director of SBT and as chairman of the Norwegian Road Financing Companies Association in January 2005 . He was at the time also member of parliament for the Conservative Party .
As a consequence of the report , Hordaland County Municipality demanded an extraordinary annual meeting be held in February , in which chairman Harry Herstad was replaced . Pål Kårbø was elected new chairman . At the same time the annual meeting demanded that the company withdraw from its various tasks related to establishing toll projects on Bølmo and Halsnøy as well as administrative work of the Norwegian Road Financing Companies Association . In a 2007 report from the Public Roads Administration , SBT was one of seven toll companies which was criticized for too high administration costs . The toll changed the operator of the toll plaza from Bru- og Tunnelselskapet to Vegamot in 2010 . The same year the toll plaza had 1 @,@ 910 @,@ 280 passing vehicles and a revenue of NOK 142 million . This made it the ninth @-@ largest toll road in Norway by revenue . The toll collection is scheduled to be completed on 30 April 2013 .
= French ironclad Suffren =
Suffren was a wooden @-@ hulled , armored frigate of the Océan class , built for the French Navy in the mid to late 1860s as an improvement over the Provence @-@ class ironclad . Although she was laid down in 1866 , the ship was not launched until 1872 and commissioned in 1876 . Suffren was one of the French ships assigned to the international squadron gathered to force the Ottoman Empire to carry out its obligations under the Treaty of Berlin in 1880 . The ship was paid off in 1895 and discarded two years later .
= = Design and description = =
The Océan @-@ class ironclads were designed by Henri Dupuy de Lôme as an improved version of the Provence @-@ class ironclads . The ships were central battery ironclads , with the armament concentrated amidships . For the first time in a French ironclad three watertight iron bulkheads were fitted in the hull . Like most ironclads of their era , they were equipped with a metal @-@ reinforced ram .
The ship measured 87 @.@ 73 meters ( 287 ft 10 in ) overall , with a beam of 17 @.@ 52 meters ( 57 ft 6 in ) . Suffren had a maximum draft of 9 @.@ 09 meters ( 29 ft 10 in ) and displaced 7 @,@ 800 metric tons ( 7 @,@ 700 long tons ) . Her crew numbered between 750 and 778 officers and men . The metacentric height of the ship was very low , between 1 @.@ 7 – 2 @.@ 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 5 – 0 @.@ 7 m ) .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Océan @-@ class ships had one horizontal return connecting rod compound steam engine driving a single propeller . Their engines were powered by eight oval boilers . On sea trials the engine produced 4 @,@ 100 indicated horsepower ( 3 @,@ 100 kW ) and Suffren reached 14 @.@ 3 knots ( 26 @.@ 5 km / h ; 16 @.@ 5 mph ) . She carried 650 metric tons ( 640 long tons ) of coal which allowed her to steam for approximately 3 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 600 km ; 3 @,@ 500 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The Océan @-@ class ships were barque or barquentine @-@ rigged with three masts and had a sail area around 2 @,@ 000 square meters ( 22 @,@ 000 sq ft ) .
= = = Armament = = =
These ships had their main armament mounted in four barbettes on the upper deck , one gun at each corner of the battery , with the remaining guns on the battery deck below the barbettes . Suffren 's armament was upgraded , before she commissioned , to four 274 @-@ millimeter ( 10 @.@ 8 in ) guns in the barbettes , and on the battery deck , four 240 @-@ millimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) guns , six 138 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) guns and one 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) gun . By 1885 , all of the 138 @-@ millimeter guns were replaced by six 120 @-@ millimeter guns .
The 18 @-@ caliber 274 @-@ millimeter Modéle 1870 gun fired an armor @-@ piercing , 476 @.@ 2 @-@ pound ( 216 @.@ 0 kg ) shell while the gun itself weighed 22 @.@ 84 long tons ( 23 @.@ 21 t ) . The gun fired its shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 424 ft / s ( 434 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 14 @.@ 3 inches ( 360 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The armor @-@ piercing shell of the 19 @-@ caliber 240 @-@ millmeter Modele 1870 gun weighed 317 @.@ 5 pounds ( 144 @.@ 0 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 15 @.@ 41 long tons ( 15 @.@ 66 t ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 624 ft / s ( 495 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate a nominal 14 @.@ 4 inches ( 366 mm ) of wrought iron armour at the muzzle . The 138 @-@ millimeter gun was 21 calibers long and weighed 2 @.@ 63 long tons ( 2 @.@ 67 t ) . It fired a 61 @.@ 7 @-@ pound ( 28 @.@ 0 kg ) explosive shell that had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 529 ft / s ( 466 m / s ) . The guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells .
At some point the ship received a dozen 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss 5 @-@ barrel revolving guns . They fired a shell weighing about 500 g ( 1 @.@ 1 lb ) at a muzzle velocity of about 610 m / s ( 2 @,@ 000 ft / s ) to a range of about 3 @,@ 200 meters ( 3 @,@ 500 yd ) . They had a rate of fire of about 30 rounds per minute . The hull was not recessed to enable any of the guns on the battery deck to fire forward or aft . However , the guns mounted in the barbettes sponsoned out over the sides of the hull did have some ability to fire fore and aft .
Late in the ship 's career , four above @-@ water 356 @-@ millimeter ( 14 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes were added .
= = = Armor = = =
The Ocean @-@ class ships had a complete 178 – 203 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 0 – 8 @.@ 0 in ) wrought iron waterline belt . The sides of the battery itself were armored with 160 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) of wrought iron . The barbette armor was 150 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick . The unarmored portions of their sides were protected by 15 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) iron plates . Gardiner says that the barbette armor was later removed to improve their stability , but this is not confirmed by any other source .
= = Service = =
Suffren was laid down at Cherbourg in July 1866 , but was not launched until 26 December 1872 . The ship began her sea trials on 15 January 1873 and was completed on 5 August . She was placed into reserve after her completion and was not commissioned until 1 March 1876 when she became flagship of the Cherbourg Division . Throughout her career Suffren was often used as a flagship because of her spacious admiral 's quarters .
On 1 September 1880 the ship was assigned to the division that participated in the international naval demonstration at Ragusa later that month under the command of Vice Admiral Seymour of the Royal Navy in an attempt to force the Ottoman Empire to comply with the terms of the Treaty of Berlin and turn over the town of Ulcinj to Montenegro . Suffren was reduced to reserve in 1881 and not recommissioned until 23 August 1884 when she was assigned to the Northern Squadron . The ship was transferred to the Mediterranean Squadron about 1888 and remained there until paid off in 1895 and condemned in 1897 .
= Revolt of the Comuneros =
The Revolt of the Comuneros ( Spanish : Guerra de las Comunidades de Castilla , " War of the Communities of Castile " ) was an uprising by citizens of Castile against the rule of Charles V and his administration between 1520 and 1521 . At its height , the rebels controlled the heart of Castile , ruling the cities of Valladolid , Tordesillas , and Toledo .
The revolt occurred in the wake of political instability in the Crown of Castile after the death of Queen Isabella I in 1504 . Joanna the Mad , Isabella 's daughter , inherited the throne with her Burgundian husband King Philip I. However , Philip died two years into their reign , and their son Charles was only six years old . Due to his youth and Joanna 's mental instability , Castile was ruled by the nobles and her father , King Ferdinand II of Aragon , as a regency . After Ferdinand 's death in 1516 , the sixteen @-@ year @-@ old Charles was proclaimed king of both Castile and Aragon . Charles had been raised in the Netherlands with little knowledge of Castilian . He arrived in Spain in October 1517 accompanied by a large retinue of Flemish nobles and clerics . These factors resulted in mistrust between the new king and the Castilian social elites , who could see the threat to their power and status .
In 1519 , Charles was elected Holy Roman Emperor . He departed for Germany in 1520 , leaving the Dutch cardinal Adrian of Utrecht to rule Castile in his absence . Soon , a series of anti @-@ government riots broke out in the cities , and local city councils ( Comunidades ) took power . The rebels chose Charles ' own mother , Queen Joanna , as an alternative ruler , hoping they could control her madness . The rebel movement took on a radical anti @-@ feudal dimension , supporting peasant rebellions against the landed nobility . On April 23 , 1521 , after nearly a year of rebellion , the reorganized supporters of the emperor struck a crippling blow to the comuneros at the Battle of Villalar . The following day , rebel leaders Juan de Padilla , Juan Bravo , and Francisco Maldonado were beheaded . The army of the comuneros fell apart . Only the city of Toledo kept alive the rebellion , until its surrender in October 1521 .
The character of the revolution is a matter of historiographical debate . According to some scholars , the revolt was one of the first modern revolutions , notably because of the anti @-@ noble sentiment against social injustice and its basis on ideals of democracy and freedom . Others consider it a more typical rebellion against high taxes and perceived foreign control . From the 19th century onwards , the revolt has been mythologized by various Spaniards , generally liberals who drew political inspiration from it . Conservative intellectuals have traditionally adopted more pro @-@ Imperial stances toward the revolt , and have been critical of both the motives and the government of the comuneros . With the end of Franco 's dictatorship and the establishment of the autonomous community of Castile and León , positive commemoration of the Comunidades has grown . April 23 is now celebrated as Castile and León Day , and the incident is often referred to in Castilian nationalism .
= = Origins = =
Discontent had been brewing for years before the Revolt of the Comuneros . The second half of the 15th century saw profound political , economic , and social changes in Spain . Economic growth created new urban industries and offered a route to power and wealth not tied to the aristocracy . Support from these urban elites was critical to Ferdinand and Isabella 's centralization of power , and they acted as a counterweight to the landed aristocracy and the clergy .
However , with Queen Isabella I 's death in 1504 , this alliance between the national government and the budding middle class faltered . The Castilian government decayed with each successive administration , becoming rife with corruption . King Philip I ruled for a mere two years ; he was replaced by Archbishop Cisneros as regent for a short time , and then by Isabella 's widower Ferdinand who ruled from Aragon . Ferdinand 's claim to continue ruling Castile as regent was somewhat tenuous after Isabella 's death , but no plausible alternatives existed as the sovereign , their widowed daughter Joanna , was mentally unfit to reign on her own . The landed nobility of Castile took advantage of the weak and corrupt Royal Council to illegally expand their territory and domain with private armies while the government did nothing . In response , the towns signed mutual defense pacts , relying on each other rather than the national government .
The budgets of both Castile and Aragon had been in poor condition for some time . The government had expelled the Jews in 1492 and the Muslims of Granada in 1502 , moves that undercut lucrative trades and businesses . Ferdinand and Isabella had been forced to borrow money to pay troops during and after the Reconquista , and Spanish military obligations had only increased since then . A large number of troops were required to maintain stability in recently conquered Granada , threatened by revolt from the maltreated moriscos ( former Muslims who had converted to Christianity ) and frequent naval raids from Muslim nations along the Mediterranean . Additionally , Ferdinand had invaded and occupied the Iberian part of Navarre in 1512 , and forces were required to garrison it against Navarrese revolts and French armies . Very little money was left to pay for the royal army in Castile proper , let alone service foreign debts . The corruption in the government since Isabella 's death only made the budget shortfalls worse .
= = = Succession of Charles = = =
In 1516 , Ferdinand died . The remaining heir was Ferdinand and Isabella 's grandson Charles , who became King Charles I of both Castile and Aragon in co @-@ regency with his mother Joanna . Charles was brought up in Flanders , the homeland of his father Philip , and barely knew Castilian . The people greeted him with skepticism , but also hoped he would restore stability . With the arrival of the new king in late 1517 , his Flemish court took positions of power in Castile ; young Charles only trusted people he knew from the Netherlands . Among the most scandalous of these was the appointment of the twenty
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11 , and concluded on May 10 , 2012 , consisting of 24 episodes . The series is an American adaptation of the British comedy series of the same name , and is presented in a mockumentary format , portraying the daily lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictitious Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . The eighth season of The Office aired on Thursdays at 9 : 00 p.m. ( Eastern ) in the United States as part of the " Comedy Night Done Right " television block . This was the first season without Steve Carell as Michael Scott in the lead role and the only one to not feature the character in any capacity .
The eighth season largely centers on Andy Bernard 's ( Ed Helms ) ascension to regional manager , as well as the antics of Robert California ( James Spader ) , the new CEO of Sabre , a fictional printer company that owns Dunder Mifflin . Halfway through the season , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) — along with Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) , Stanley Hudson ( Leslie David Baker ) , Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) , Erin Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) , and Cathy Simms ( Lindsey Broad ) — travel to Florida to help set up a Sabre Store , where Nellie Bertram ( Catherine Tate ) is introduced . Eventually , former CFO of Dunder Mifflin David Wallace ( Andy Buckley ) buys back the company , firing California .
Despite debuting with moderate viewing figures , the departure of Carell affected the show 's ratings , which fell as the season progressed . The season ranked as the eighty @-@ seventh most watched television series during the 2011 – 12 television year and saw a dramatic decrease in ratings from the previous season . Critical reception was mixed ; many critics had previously said the series should have ended after the departure of Carell and thus criticized the recycled storylines . Other critics were more positive , commenting on various actors and their characters . It marked the first time since season one that the show did not receive any Emmy nominations .
= = Production = =
The eighth season of the show was produced by Reveille Productions and Deedle @-@ Dee Productions , both in association with NBC Universal Television Studios . The show is based on the British comedy series of the same name , which was created by Ricky Gervais and Stephen Merchant for the British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) . In addition , the two are executive producers on the show . This season of The Office was produced by Greg Daniels and Paul Lieberstein , the latter of whom serves as the showrunner . Returning writers from the previous season included Lieberstein , Charlie Grandy , Justin Spitzer , Carrie Kemper , Daniel Chun , Robert Padnick , Aaron Shure , Steve Hely , Amelie Gillette , Mindy Kaling , and B. J. Novak ; the latter two were both also credited as executive producers . It was previously unknown whether Kaling would write for the series any longer . Kaling herself confirmed via her Twitter page that she would write the Christmas @-@ themed episode , " Christmas Wishes " . Three new writers joined the staff beginning in season eight : Owen Ellickson , Allison Silverman and Dan Greaney . The season also saw the directorial debuts of cast members Ed Helms and Brian Baumgartner ; Helms directed the episode " Christmas Wishes " , and Baumgartner directed " After Hours " .
The series was renewed for an eighth season on March 17 , 2011 , began filming on July 25 , 2011 , and the season concluded filming on March 9 , 2012 . Jenna Fischer 's pregnancy was written into the show , and Pam was again pregnant at the start of the season with a boy as she was in real life . Unlike the sixth season , there was no episode focusing on the baby 's birth ; it was instead announced on a blog . In an interview , executive producer Lieberstein stated that , with the departure of Michael Scott , the writers would explore further into the other characters on the show , such as centering on a specific character for an episode . On January 25 , 2012 , news broke that NBC was planning a spin @-@ off series starring Rainn Wilson as Dwight Schrute , that would be set at Schrute Farms , Dwight 's bed @-@ and @-@ breakfast and beet farm . The spin @-@ off would be created by Wilson and executive producer Paul Lieberstein , but Office developer Greg Daniels would not be involved . Due to his initial involvement in the spin @-@ off , Lieberstein stepped down as showrunner of The Office . On October 29 , 2012 , it was revealed that NBC was not going forward with the proposed spin @-@ off , although the original backdoor pilot , " The Farm " aired later in the ninth season .
= = Cast = =
The Office employs an ensemble cast . Most of the main characters , and some minor ones , are based on characters from the British version of The Office . While these characters normally have the same attitudes and perceptions as their British counterparts , the roles have been redesigned to better fit the American show . The show is known for its large cast size , many of whom are known particularly for their improvisational work . Rainn Wilson portrays Dwight Schrute , who , based upon Gareth Keenan , is the Assistant to the Regional Manager , although the character frequently fails to include " to the " in his title . John Krasinski portrays Jim Halpert , a sales representative and prankster , who is based upon Tim Canterbury , and is married to Pam Halpert , the office administrator . Pam ( Fischer ) , who is based on Dawn Tinsley , is shy , but is often a cohort with Jim in his pranks on Dwight . B. J. Novak portrays Ryan Howard , who is a temporary worker . Helms plays Andy Bernard , the preppy manager — who was previously a salesman — and boastful Cornell alumnus whose love for a cappella music and awkward social skills generates mixed feelings from his employees . Andy is an original character , meaning he has no English equivalent from Gervais 's series . Reprising his guest @-@ starring role of Robert California , James Spader joined the regular cast to replace Kathy Bates 's character as the CEO of Sabre ; it was announced that Spader would appear in at least fifteen episodes . Cody Horn , who guest starred in the seventh season as Jordan Garfield , with a possibility of returning as a series regular , did not return .
The eighth season also featured new characters , originally expected to include Stanley Hudson 's other daughter and a new male addition to the accounting department , however , these characters never appeared . Stephen Collins , Dee Wallace and Josh Groban were cast as Andy 's father , mother and brother , respectively , and appeared in the episode " Garden Party " . From the episodes " Pam 's Replacement " to " Last Day in Florida " , Lindsey Broad had a recurring guest star spot as Cathy Simms , Pam 's temporary replacement while she was on maternity leave , and who remained employed at the company for a while after . Maura Tierney appeared in " Mrs. California " , playing California 's wife . Catherine Tate returned to reprise her role as Nellie Bertram , in a major arc starting in the episode " Tallahassee " . Despite reports that she would also get romantically involved with Robert , this never occurred . Two writers for the animated comedy series The Simpsons , Matt Selman and Matt Warburton , appeared in the Kaling @-@ scripted episode " Test the Store " , and Simpsons star Dan Castellaneta appeared in the episode " Turf War " .
At the time , this season marked the final year that some cast members — notably Helms , Fischer , Novak , and Krasinski — were signed on for the show , as their contracts expired at the end of the season ; this caused speculation that several members of the main cast would leave the series following this season . The eighth season was Novak 's last as a series regular , although he made a few recurring appearances in the ninth season . It was also Kaling 's final full season , due to her pilot , The Mindy Project , being picked up by Fox ; Kaling portrayed customer service representative Kelly Kapoor . On February 28 , 2012 , it was announced that Spader would not return for a ninth season of the show . There was initial speculation that following the eighth season , Daniels was considering rebooting the series due to the possible departures of main cast members . However , a new deal was negotiated with NBC , and all the main cast members , sans Spader , Novak , and Kaling , would return for the ninth season , although several new characters would be brought on board for a " mini reboot " . NBC also announced that Catherine Tate would become a series regular .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The series aired on Thursdays at 9 : 00 p.m. as part of " Comedy Night Done Right " television block . The season premiere , " The List " received a 3 @.@ 9 / 10 percent share in the Nielsen ratings among viewers aged 18 to 49 , meaning that 3 @.@ 9 percent of viewers aged 18 to 49 watched the episode , and 10 percent of viewers watching television at the time watched the episode . " The List " was the highest rated episode of the season . Despite this , it became the lowest season premiere of the series since the series premiere . The rest of the season was unable to receive more than seven million viewers . The twenty @-@ second episode , " Fundraiser " received only 4 @.@ 17 million viewers , making it , at the time , the lowest @-@ rated episode of The Office to ever air , although it was later beaten by several ninth season episodes the following year . The season finale , " Free Family Portrait Studio " , was viewed by 4 @.@ 49 million viewers , making it the lowest finale for The Office to air , beating the first season finale " Hot Girl " , which was viewed by 4 @.@ 8 million viewers . The drop in ratings led to a lower ad @-@ price for the series , with an average cost of $ 178 @,@ 840 per @-@ 30 second commercial . Despite this , the show was still one of NBC 's highest rated shows and ranked as the most expensive ad @-@ cost for any NBC scripted series during the year it aired . Despite the lower live ratings , Nielsen Soundscan announced that The Office added up to 44 percent to its next @-@ day " live plus same day " 18 – 49 rating when additional time @-@ shifted viewing was added , such as DVRing .
The season ranked as the eighty @-@ seventh most @-@ watched television series during the 2011 – 12 season , with an average of 6 @.@ 506 million viewers . The season also ranked as the thirty @-@ second most @-@ watched television series in the 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . In this category , the show was viewed by an estimated 4 @.@ 376 million viewers per episode and received a 3 @.@ 42 rating / 9 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that , on average , the season was viewed by 3 @.@ 42 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast .
= = = Critical response = = =
The eighth season of The Office received mixed reviews . While some critics felt that the show was still humorous in its eighth year , many others argued that the program should have ended after the departure of Steve Carell . The A.V. Club reviewer Myles McNutt criticized California 's role , noting that he was someone whom " the narrative reacts to as opposed to something actually involved in the narrative " . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix criticized Ed Helms ' comedic performance as manager calling him " a softer version of Michael Scott " . He has also criticized the toning down of Spader 's character , California , from his appearance in the show 's seventh season 's finale , " Search Committee " , as well as expressing disappointment over seeing many supporting characters transform into caricatures of their earlier season 's selves . He stopped reviewing a majority of the Season 8 episodes since " Pam 's Replacement " , due to his distaste for the series . Time writer James Poniewozik agreed with Sepinwall and said that Jim should have been named manager so the series could be more ensemble oriented . New York Magazine named Andy Bernard one of the most annoying TV characters of 2011 . Matt Zoller Seitz from New York wrote , " Fact is , the show 's first post – Steve Carell year has been a mess , at times bordering on a disaster " , although he did write , " Nevertheless , I still adore these characters , even when the writing doesn 't do them justice . " McNutt gave the season a C grade overall , writing that the season finale , " Free Family Portrait Studio " was " a disheartening conclusion to the show 's worst season , offering little optimism to sustain our already dwindling enthusiasm over the summer months . "
Bret Fetzer of Amazon.com wrote that " it 's best to approach this season as if it were a completely new series " . He felt that it is unfair to compare the quality of the season to past seasons because " the series ' previous heights were so very high " . Ultimately , he called the year " uneven " , because episodes would range from putting " Andy into Michael Scott @-@ ish situations " to " seek [ ing ] out new angles on the well @-@ established web of interpersonal conflicts " , with the result that the episodes " sometimes " work . Matt Zoller Seitz of Salon considered the post @-@ Michael Scott era of The Office " warmer and more reflective " . He also praised the decision of Andy as a manager , specifically Ed Helms and Craig Robinson 's performance in " Lotto " calling it the " subtlest , deepest acting to date [ for The Office ] " . He called " Lotto " the best episode of the season . Hank Stuever of The Washington Post named the series the tenth best series of 2011 specifically praising the actors ' performances in " Mrs. California " for their ability to deliver cringe humor without Carell . TV Guide named it an honorable mention on their list of the best TV shows of 2011 . Price Peterson from TV.com called the series " still one of the best shows on TV " and argued that , while " Season 8 definitely wasn 't the show 's best " , the season " sneaked in some genuinely great jokes , new characters , and affecting plotlines . " Despite the lackluster reviews many of the episodes received , many critics praised Ellie Kemper 's performance as Erin Hannon . McNutt noted that " regardless of how down I was on this or any other episode , Ellie Kemper really has been tremendous all season . " In addition , Kemper 's performance in the episodes " Spooked , " " Christmas Wishes , " " Pool Party , " and " Special Project , " in particular , were praised by critics .
Many members of the cast and crew felt that the season was not the show 's best . Rainn Wilson said that the season possessed some mistakes " creatively " , such as the chemistry between Spader and Helms , which he called " a bit dark " . He argued that the show should have gone for a " brighter and more energized " relationship . Brian Baumgartner felt that the show " stayed status quo [ with the previous year ] , but without a key piece " and " didn 't make a firm decision " on the direction the show was headed . Ben Silverman , one of the show 's producers , said that " it didn 't have the sense of purpose and focus " that the next season would have .
= = Episodes = =
In the following table , " U.S. viewers ( million ) " refers to the number of Americans who viewed the episode on the night of broadcast . Episodes are listed by the order in which they aired , and may not necessarily correspond to their production codes .
= = Home media release = =
= Bloodline ( Fringe ) =
" Bloodline " is the eighteenth episode of the third season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe , and the 61st episode overall . The storyline follows the pregnant Olivia Dunham of the parallel universe ( " Fauxlivia " ) as she experiences a kidnapping and acceleration of her pregnancy ; meanwhile , her fellow Fringe agents Lincoln Lee and Charlie Francis attempt to locate her .
The episode 's script was written by co @-@ executive producers Alison Schapker and Monica Owusu @-@ Breen , while Dennis Smith directed . " Bloodline " featured the return of guest actors Seth Gabel , Kirk Acevedo , Ryan McDonald , Andre Royo , and Amy Madigan . The Fox network released a " movie @-@ style trailer " in the days leading up to the episode 's broadcast as a special promotion .
It first aired in the United States on March 25 , 2011 to an estimated 3 @.@ 9 million viewers . Broadcasting in the wake of a fourth season renewal , the episode 's 1 @.@ 5 / 5 ratings share was a fifteen percent increase from the previous week . " Bloodline " received mixed to positive reviews from critics , with several commentators characterizing the kidnapping mystery as predictable while also praising the depth of the parallel universe and its characters . Lead actress Anna Torv submitted the episode for consideration at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards , but failed to receive a nomination .
= = Plot = =
In the parallel universe , Fauxlivia ( Anna Torv ) is returned home by her mother Marilyn ( Amy Madigan ) after undergoing a pre @-@ natal test to see if she has viral propagated eclampsia , a virus that killed her sister and sister 's baby during childbirth . She believes she is being followed , and contacts Lincoln Lee ( Seth Gabel ) at the Fringe division , who sends over a security detail . By the time they arrive , Fauxlivia has been kidnapped ; though they try to follow a secret tracker each agent carries , her abductors have extracted it to throw Fringe off their tracks . Walternate ( John Noble ) and Lincoln believe the abduction to be an inside job due to this . Astrid Farnsworth ( Jasika Nicole ) identifies a vehicle that has passed by Fauxlivia 's home at a high frequency , that being the taxi that belongs to Henry ( Andre Royo ) . Lincoln and Charlie ( Kirk Acevedo ) track down Henry , who explains he has been keeping an eye on Fauxlivia , surprised to have seen her return and seeming like a different person than his previous encounters with her ; Henry is unaware that he had actually helped the prime universe 's Olivia to escape ( " Olivia " and " The Abducted " ) . Lincoln , suspicious of these events , forces Walternate to admit that Fauxlivia was switched with Olivia , and that the child Fauxlivia carries is his grandchild . Meanwhile , Marilyn learns that Fauxlivia 's test for the virus is positive and warns Charlie that Fauxlivia will die if she has the child .
During the Fringe team 's search , Fauxlivia finds herself being put under a treatment to accelerate her pregnancy , bringing her child near term . She is able to escape from her captors and contact Fringe division to identify her location , but struggles from labor pains as the child is about to be born . Henry drives Lincoln to her location , and they are able to help Fauxlivia to deliver her child , a son , before medical help arrives . Fauxlivia and her child recover under tight security ordered by Walternate , fearing for their safety . The doctors determine the accelerated pregnancy outpaced the virus , thus allowing both Fauxlivia and her child to survive .
In the epilogue , as September ( Michael Cerveris ) the Observer , watches , a blood sample from the child is drawn discreetly by one of Fauxlivia 's captors posing as an orderly , who transfers it to Brandon ( Ryan McDonald ) , who is revealed to have developed the accelerated pregnancy procedure under Walternate 's orders . Meanwhile , Lincoln and Charlie become somewhat distrustful of Walternate after learning what he hid from them . They consider that Colonel Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) disappeared around the same time that Fauxlivia returned , and wonder what else Walternate is hiding from them .
= = Production = =
" Bloodline " was co @-@ written by co @-@ executive producers Monica Owusu @-@ Breen and Alison Schapker , while The Practice veteran , Dennis Smith , directed the installment . Editor Timothy A. Good has called " Bloodline " the second of two parts – the first half was the season 's third episode " The Plateau " , which Owusu @-@ Breen and Schapker also co @-@ wrote . Executive producers Jeff Pinkner and J.H. Wyman had planned Fauxlivia 's pregnancy since they conceived her character , but noted that " this isn ’ t going to be a normal pregnancy that you see , either . And the pregnancy is [ going to evolve ] in a Fringe way that you don ’ t comprehend yet . It 's not going to be your traditional love triangle , ' I 'm pregnant and having a baby ' story . It ’ s going to be Fringe @-@ ified . "
In late January 2011 , TVline 's Michael Ausiello reported actor Andre Royo was returning for one episode later in the third season . Royo made his third guest appearance of the season in " Bloodline " , as cab driver Henry Higgins from the parallel universe . It is his final credit on the series to date . Amy Madigan , who plays Olivia 's mother Marilyn , also returned in a guest appearance . Previous guest stars Seth Gabel , Kirk Acevedo , Ryan McDonald , and Michael Cerveris returned as Lincoln Lee , Charlie Francis , Brandon Fayette , and September the Observer , respectively . The episode also featured one @-@ time guest actors Kendall Cross as Nurse Joyce and Françoise Yip as Dr. Rosa Oporto .
Leading up to the episode 's broadcast , Fox released a " movie @-@ style trailer " as a promotion , something they had previously done with " Entrada " and " Marionette " , two episodes from earlier in the season . The video recapped the Peter / Olivia / Fauxlivia love triangle from Fauxlivia 's perspective and then previewed scenes in " Bloodline " . As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan in collaboration with Science Olympiad for grade school children , focusing on the science seen in " Bloodline " , with the intention of having " students learn about gestation and how it is different from species to species . "
= = Cultural references = =
Accelerated growth of yet @-@ unborn children was a major plot element of " The Same Old Story " , the second episode of the first season . While eclampsia is a real medical condition that can interfere with childbirth , the " viral @-@ propagated eclampsia " presented in this episode is fictional . When Henry is located by the Fringe division , he is seen reading an " Opus the Peahen " comic , the parallel universe 's counterpart to the " Opus " comic strip drawn by Berkeley Breathed . Also within the parallel universe , the movie Taxi Driver is shown to have been directed by Francis Ford Coppola rather than Martin Scorsese ( though Robert De Niro was still able to improvise the " You talkin ' to me ? " scene ) , while the television series , The West Wing , is shown to be entering its twelfth season .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Bloodline " aired the day after Fringe 's fourth season renewal was announced by Fox Entertainment , which came in the wake of various actors communicating directly with fans to watch the series . Actor Lance Reddick noted of the renewal , " I know so often fans think that they need us ... but I would be digging ditches or something else if it wasn 't for you . So — thank you . Really . " SFScope columnist Sarah Stegall was surprised but delighted by the network 's decision , stating " That any network , let alone Fox , had the patience and the faith to renew this show is , for me , little short of a miracle . It was a week , it seems , for wonders . "
" Bloodline " first aired in the United States on March 25 , 2011 . It was watched by an estimated 3 @.@ 9 million viewers , earning a 1 @.@ 5 / 5 ratings share among the 18 – 49 demographic , up from the previous episode 's 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 4 rating . This was a 15 percent increase . Fringe helped Fox place in second for the night among adult viewers behind NBC , but the network fell into third place among total viewers behind NBC and ABC .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Bloodline " has received generally mixed to positive reviews from television critics . Sarah Stegall enjoyed it , commenting that " This was one of the more quietly brilliant episodes of Fringe to date . Reaching all the way back to the first season for its genesis , it was still firmly rooted in the most up @-@ to @-@ date events , tied together several characters in a cabal of resistance , paved the way for major drama down the way , and gave us some emotional highlights we cannot expect to see from Our Side characters . " Entertainment Weekly staff writer Ken Tucker called the episode " a beautifully modulated hour , written by Alison Schapker and Monica Owusu @-@ Breen , that took care to establish the anxiety felt by Altivia and her mother , Marilyn ( Amy Madigan ) about the pregnancy . "
On a slightly less positive note , Noel Murray of The A.V. Club graded the episode with a B + . He remarked that it " starts out intense and crazy " but " becomes fairly predictable in its second half , " as he correctly predicted Walternate 's involvement in the abduction . Murray concluded , " Ultimately , ' Bloodline ' is more of a plot @-@ mover than most episodes of Fringe . There ’ s no additional case to solve , and no profound theme to explore . If anything , it ’ s like the writers decided to inject a serum into the belly of show and accelerate the story , to get Fauxlivia ’ s baby out and to get on to the next phase . " IGN 's Ramsey Isler also didn 't find the birth storyline all that shocking " since the number of people that had the power and knowledge to do this kind of thing was low . " Rating the episode 7 @.@ 5 / 10 , Isler added that " the story could have used a bit more misdirection and a red herring or two to really keep us guessing , but that 's a minor critique . Overall , Walternate 's Machiavellian role in this story works , and the most important takeaway from this story is that it moved the overarching plot forward in one huge leap . Instead of waiting nine ' story ' months for Fauxlivia 's baby to pop out , we 've already got the kid ready to fit into whatever plot twist the show runners have planned . "
Some television critics have praised the parallel universe 's characterization , with one noting that the " writers have made us care about the other side of this war , forced us to see the opposite numbers of our heroes as real and human and sympathetic ; it 's a brilliant move . " The alternate performances of the actors in particular have been highlighted , especially those of Torv and Noble , but also those of Gabel , Acevedo , and Nicole .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Anna Torv submitted " Bloodline " , along with the season three episodes " Olivia " , " Entrada " , Marionette " , and " The Day We Died " , for consideration in the Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series category at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards . She failed to receive a nomination .
= Gospić massacre =
The Gospić massacre was the killing of 100 – 120 civilians in Gospić , Croatia during the last two weeks of October 1991 , during the Croatian War of Independence . The majority of the victims were ethnic Serbs , arrested in Gospić and the nearby coastal town of Karlobag . Most of them were arrested on 16 – 17 October . Some of the detainees were taken to the Perušić barracks and executed in Lipova Glavica near the town , while others were shot in the Pazarište area of Gospić . The killings were ordered by the Secretary of Lika Crisis Headquarters , Tihomir Orešković , and the commander of the 118th Infantry Brigade of the Croatian National Guard , Lieutenant Colonel Mirko Norac .
The killings were publicised in 1997 , when a wartime member of Autumn Rains paramilitary spoke about the unit 's involvement in killings of civilians in Gospić in an interview to the Feral Tribune . No formal investigation was launched until 2000 , after three former Croatian intelligence and military police officers informed the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia about the killings . Five , including Orešković and Norac , were arrested in 2001 and tried . Orešković , Norac and Stjepan Grandić were found guilty of the crime and sentenced to 14 , 12 and 10 years in prison respectively in 2004 .
= = Background = =
In August 1990 , an insurrection took place in Croatia centred in predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas , including parts of Lika , near the city of Gospić , which also had a significant ethnic Serb population . The areas were subsequently named SAO Krajina and , after declaring its intention to integrate with Serbia , the Government of Croatia declared it to be a rebellion . By March 1991 , the conflict escalated into the Croatian War of Independence . In June 1991 , Croatia declared its independence as Yugoslavia disintegrated . A three @-@ month moratorium followed , after which the decision came into effect on 8 October .
As the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) increasingly supported SAO Krajina and the Croatian Police was unable to cope with the situation , the Croatian National Guard ( ZNG ) was formed in May 1991 . The development of the military of Croatia was hampered by a UN arms embargo introduced in September , while the military conflict in Croatia continued to escalate — the Battle of Vukovar started on 26 August . By the end of August the fighting intensified in Lika as well , including in Gospic where fighting to control the city continued through much of September . Although Gospić was controlled by Croat forces , it remained under Serbian artillery bombardment after the battle . The fighting resulted in heavy damage to the town and the flight of the bulk of its population after which only about 3 @,@ 000 residents remainined . Before the war , Gospić had a population of 8 @,@ 000 , including 3 @,@ 000 Serbs . Many Serbs previously living in the town fled but Croatian authorities urged them to return through television and radio broadcasts .
As the civilian population started to return in late September , Gospić chief of police Ivan Dasović proposed that a list of the returning Serbs should be drawn up , ostensibly for security purposes . According to Ante Karić , President of the Lika Crisis Headquarters ( krizni stožer ) , Dasović feared that the returning Serbs might harbour a fifth column , undermining defence of the town . Karić reportedly opposed the move , but the list was compiled on 10 October . A similar list of Serbs returning to nearby Karlobag was prepared on 16 October .
Gospić police were subordinated to control by the Lika Crisis Headquarters by dint of an order issued by the then Minister of the Interior Ivan Vekić as were the 118th Infantry Brigade of the ZNG and the military police based in Gospić . In addition , a paramilitary volunteer group , nicknamed " Autumn Rains " , controlled by Tomislav Merčep , was deployed to Gospić in September ; this unit was formally subordinate to the Ministry of the Interior .
= = Killings = =
The Secretary of the Lika Crisis Headquarters , Tihomir Orešković , and the commanding officer of the 118th Infantry Brigade Lieutenant Colonel Mirko Norac , called a meeting of their subordinates and ordered the arrest of Serb civilians , their subsequent detention in the Perušić barracks , and killings . Sources disagree on the exact date of the meeting . According to Dasović , the meeting took place on 15 October , at approximately 9 : 00 p.m. , which he attended along with several other officials . Other sources , including the subsequent criminal inquiry and trial witnesses , indicated the meeting was held on 16 or 17 October . The courts processing the case , including the Supreme Court of Croatia , determined that the meeting took place on 17 October and that Orešković and Norac ordered those in attendance to execute civilians that had been arrested based on the prepared lists . The killing of civilians in Široka Kula by Serbian paramilitaries , which took place on 13 October , was used as a pretext for the executions .
Most of the arrests occurred on 16 – 17 October , both in Gospić and Karlobag . The civilians , especially Serbs , were led away at gunpoint from bomb shelters starting on 16 October . Two days later , residents of Gospić witnessed civilians being loaded aboard eleven military lorries at the town 's cattle market , never to be seen again . At least ten civilians were killed at Žitnik in the Gospić area known as Pazarište on 17 October . The killings continued at Lipova Glavica near Perušić on 18 October , where 39 or 40 people were executed by firing squad after being held in the Perušić barracks , where a battalion of the 118th Infantry Brigade was based at the time . Three additional Serb civilians were arrested in Gospić and Karlobag on 25 October . They were also shot and their bodies retrieved in the Ravni Dabar area on 3 December .
= = Aftermath = =
The massacre in Gospić was the most significant such atrocity committed by Croats during the war . Sources disagree on the total number of fatalities in the Gospić massacre , with estimates ranging from nearly 100 to 120 killed . The official figures indicate that a total of 123 persons went missing in the area of Gospić between 1991 – 95 .
Ten victims were dumped in a septic tank and covered with layers of clay and stone rubble in Gospić , later discovered by International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) investigators in May 2000 , arousing complaints from the mayor of Gospić and street protests by Croatian veterans . Twenty @-@ four additional corpses had been burnt and disposed of near Duge Njive , a village east of Perušić , but retrieved by the 6th Brigade of the JNA on 25 December 1991 , examined and reburied in Debelo Brdo , 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 miles ) away from Udbina . Eighteen were buried in a mass grave while six others were buried individually , but these were disinterred and reburied elsewhere by relatives . The mass grave was excavated in December 2000 as a part of a criminal investigation . The victims ' homes were looted in the immediate aftermath by the Autumn Rains unit . In 1992 , several members of the unit were briefly imprisoned by Croatian authorities , but released without charge .
In September 1997 , the now defunct Croatian newspaper Feral Tribune published a detailed eyewitness account by Miroslav Bajramović , one of the Autumn Rains troops , who claimed to have been involved in carrying out the massacre . In his interview , Bajramović stated that the unit was ordered to ethnically cleanse Gospić . He also claimed they were occasionally ordered by Tomislav Merčep , who had been an ally of Croatian President Franjo Tuđman , to " terminate " prisoners , and that Vekić was fully aware of their task . Bajramović and three other members of the unit identified in the interview were arrested , while Vekić denied Bajramović 's claims and Croatian government officials denied any responsibility in the matter . In turn , the ICTY requested information on the four . By 1998 , two Croatian intelligence officers and a military police officer , Milan Levar , Zdenko Bando and Zdenko Ropac , approached the ICTY offering information concerning the events . Levar , who was later murdered , was particularly valuable as a witness as he claimed to have witnessed the deaths of about 50 people in the Gospić area .
Ranko Marijan , the Justice Minister in a new government , criticised his predecessors and the police for their failure to pursue the case , but the authorities failed to protect Levar , who was murdered by car bomb on 30 August 2000 . The investigation of the killings in Gospić was a contributing factor in the criticism of the government 's efforts by seven active duty and five retired Croatian generals who issued the Twelve Generals ' Letter making their grievance public . That led to sacking of the seven active duty officers , including by President Stjepan Mesić . The group included Norac , who had held the rank of major general since September 1995 .
= = = Trial of Orešković et al . = = =
A formal inquest of the killings in Gospić was launched in late 2000 and warrants for the arrest of Orešković , Norac , Stjepan Grandić , Ivica Rožić and Milan Čanić were issued in February 2001 . Norac evaded arrest for two weeks , convinced that the authorities intended to extradite him to the ICTY . Relatives of Grandić , Rožić and Čanić , aided by residents of Gospić , attempted to prevent the police from arresting the three by surrounding the police vans sent to transport the defendants to custody . The opposition to the prosecution culminated in a 150 @,@ 000 @-@ strong street protest in Split on 11 February . The protests were repeated in Zagreb , where 13 @,@ 000 protesters appeared . Norac surrendered on 21 February after he received assurances that he would be tried in Croatia rather than by the ICTY .
A formal indictment was brought forward on 5 March , charging the five with the killing of 50 civilians in Gospić and Karlobag . The case was tried in Rijeka County Court , and included the testimony of 120 witnesses in the Rijeka court , 18 survivors of the 1991 attacks in Gospić who testified in Belgrade , and two Croatian nationals who fled to Germany fearing for their own safety . One of these two , surnamed Ropac , refused to testify because he distrusted government assurances regarding his safety . In March 2003 , the Court found the defendants guilty ; Orešković was sentenced to 15 years in prison , while Norac received a sentence of 12 years in prison . Grandić was imprisoned for a term of 10 years . Rožić and Čanić were acquitted due to lack of evidence against them . The case was ultimately appealed all the way to the Supreme Court of Croatia in 2004 , which upheld the first @-@ instance convictions of Orešković , Norac and Grandić , as well as the acquittals of Rožić and Čanić . A BBC News analysis claimed the trials indicated a willingness on the part of the Croatian government to deal with war crimes committed by its nationals , following a long period of inactivity described by Rijeka County Court judge Ika Šarić as a " conspiracy of silence " .
Bajramović and four other members of his unit were convicted in an unrelated case of killing and abuse of Serb and Croat civilians committed in Poljana near Pakrac in 1991 . They received prison sentences ranging from three to twelve years . As of 2013 , Merčep is on trial charged with command responsibility in war crimes committed in Poljana .
= Some Thoughts Concerning Education =
Some Thoughts Concerning Education is a 1693 treatise on the education of gentlemen written by the English philosopher John Locke . For over a century , it was the most important philosophical work on education in England . It was translated into almost all of the major written European languages during the eighteenth century , and nearly every European writer on education after Locke , including Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau , acknowledged its influence .
In his Essay Concerning Human Understanding ( 1690 ) , Locke outlined a new theory of mind , contending that the gentleman 's mind was a tabula rasa or " blank slate " ; that is , it did not contain any innate ideas . Some Thoughts Concerning Education explains how to educate that mind using three distinct methods : the development of a healthy body ; the formation of a virtuous character ; and the choice of an appropriate academic curriculum .
Locke wrote the letters that would eventually become Some Thoughts for an aristocratic friend , but his advice had a broader appeal since his educational principles allowed commoners to think they could acquire the same kind of character as the aristocrats for whom Locke originally intended the work .
= = Historical context = =
Rather than writing a wholly original philosophy of education , Locke , it seems , deliberately attempted to popularise several strands of seventeenth @-@ century educational reform at the same time as introducing his own ideas . English writers such as John Evelyn , John Aubrey ,
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" the only fence against the world is a thorough knowledge of it , into which a young gentleman should be entered by degrees as he can bear it , and the earlier the better . " In the Second Treatise on Government ( 1689 ) , he contends that it is the parents ' duty to educate their children and to act for them because children , though they have the ability to reason when young , do not do so consistently and are therefore usually irrational ; it is the parents ' obligation to teach their children to become rational adults so that they will not always be fettered by parental ties .
= = = Academic curriculum = = =
Locke does not dedicate much space in Some Thoughts Concerning Education to outlining a specific curriculum ; he is more concerned with convincing his readers that education is about instilling virtue and what Western educators would now call critical @-@ thinking skills . Locke maintains that parents or teachers must first teach children how to learn and to enjoy learning . As he writes , the instructor " should remember that his business is not so much to teach [ the child ] all that is knowable , as to raise in him a love and esteem of knowledge ; and to put him in the right way of knowing and improving himself . " But Locke does offer a few hints as to what he thinks a valuable curriculum might be . He deplores the long hours wasted on learning Latin and argues that children should first be taught to speak and write well in their native language , particularly recommending Aesop 's Fables . Most of Locke 's recommendations are based on a similar principle of utility . So , for example , he claims that children should be taught to draw because it would be useful to them on their foreign travels ( for recording the sites they visit ) , but poetry and music , he says , are a waste of time . Locke was also at the forefront of the scientific revolution and advocated the teaching of geography , astronomy , and anatomy . Locke 's curricular recommendations reflect the break from scholastic humanism and the emergence of a new kind of education — one emphasising not only science but also practical professional training . Locke also recommended , for example , that every ( male ) child learn a trade . Locke 's pedagogical suggestions marked the beginning of a new bourgeois ethos that would come to define Britain in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries .
= = Class = =
When Locke began writing the letters that would eventually become Some Thoughts on Education , he was addressing an aristocrat , but the final text appeals to a much wider audience . For example , Locke writes : " I place Vertue [ sic ] as the first and most necessary of those Endowments , that belong to a Man or a Gentleman . " James Axtell , who edited the most comprehensive edition of Locke 's educational writings , has explained that although " he was writing for this small class , this does not preclude the possibility that many of the things he said about education , especially its main principles , were equally applicable to all children " ( Axtell 's emphasis ) . This was a contemporary view as well ; Pierre Coste , in his introduction in the first French edition in 1695 , wrote , " it is certain that this Work was particularly designed for the education of Gentlemen : but this does not prevent its serving also for the education of all sorts of Children , of whatever class they are . "
While it is possible to apply Locke 's general principles of education to all children , and contemporaries such as Coste certainly did so , Locke himself , despite statements that may imply the contrary , believed that Some Thoughts applied only to the wealthy and the middle @-@ class ( or as they would have been referred to at the time , the " middling sorts " ) . One of Locke 's conclusions in Some Thoughts Concerning Education is that he " think [ s ] a Prince , a Nobleman , and an ordinary Gentleman 's Son , should have different Ways of Breeding . " As Peter Gay writes , " [ i ] t never occurred to him that every child should be educated or that all those to be educated should be educated alike . Locke believed that until the school system was reformed , a gentleman ought to have his son trained at home by a tutor . As for the poor , they do not appear in Locke 's little book at all . "
In his " Essay on the Poor Law , " Locke turns to the education of the poor ; he laments that " the children of labouring people are an ordinary burden to the parish , and are usually maintained in idleness , so that their labour also is generally lost to the public till they are 12 or 14 years old . " He suggests , therefore , that " working schools " be set up in each parish in England for poor children so that they will be " from infancy [ three years old ] inured to work . " He goes on to outline the economics of these schools , arguing not only that they will be profitable for the parish , but also that they will instill a good work ethic in the children .
= = Gender = =
Locke wrote Some Thoughts Concerning Education in response to his friend Samuel Clarke 's query on how to educate his son , so the text 's " principal aim " , as Locke states at the beginning , " is how a young gentleman should be brought up from his infancy . " This education " will not so perfectly suit the education of daughters ; though where the difference of sex requires different treatment , it will be no hard matter to distinguish " ( Locke 's emphasis ) . This passage suggests that , for Locke , education was fundamentally the same for men and women — there were only small , obvious differences for women . This interpretation is supported by a letter he wrote to Mrs. Clarke in 1685 stating that " since therefore I acknowledge no difference of sex in your mind relating ... to truth , virtue and obedience , I think well to have no thing altered in it from what is [ writ for the son ] . " Martin Simons states that Locke " suggested , both by implication and explicitly , that a boy 's education should be along the lines already followed by some girls of the intelligent genteel classes . " Rather than sending boys to schools which would ignore their individual needs and teach them little of value , Locke argues that they should be taught at home as girls already were and " should learn useful and necessary crafts of the house and estate . " Like his contemporary Mary Astell , Locke believed that women could and should be taught to be rational and virtuous .
But Locke does recommend several minor " restrictions " relating to the treatment of the female body . The most significant is his reining in of female physical activity for the sake of physical appearance : " But since in your girls care is to be taken too of their beauty as much as health will permit , this in them must have some restriction ... ' tis fit their tender skins should be fenced against the busy sunbeams , especially when they are very hot and piercing . " Although Locke 's statement indicates that he places a greater value on female than male beauty , the fact that these opinions were never published allowed contemporary readers to draw their own conclusions regarding the " different treatments " required for girls and boys , if any . Moreover , compared to other pedagogical theories , such as those in the best @-@ selling conduct book The Whole Duty of a Woman ( 1696 ) , the female companion to The Whole Duty of Man ( 1657 ) , and Rousseau 's Emile ( 1762 ) , which both proposed entirely separate educational programs for women , Locke 's Some Thoughts appears far more egalitarian .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Along with Rousseau 's Emile ( 1762 ) , Locke 's Some Thoughts Concerning Education was one of the foundational eighteenth @-@ century texts on educational theory . In Britain , it was considered the standard treatment of the topic for over a century . For this reason , some critics have maintained that Some Thoughts Concerning Education vies with the Essay Concerning Human Understanding for the title of Locke 's most influential work . Some of Locke 's contemporaries , such as seventeenth @-@ century German philosopher and mathematician Gottfried Leibniz , believed this as well ; Leibniz argued that Some Thoughts superseded even the Essay in its impact on European society .
Locke 's Some Thoughts Concerning Education was a runaway best @-@ seller . During the eighteenth century alone , Some Thoughts was published in at least 53 editions : 25 English , 16 French , six Italian , three German , two Dutch , and one Swedish . It was also excerpted in novels such as Samuel Richardson 's Pamela ( 1740 – 1 ) , and it formed the theoretical basis of much children 's literature , particularly that of the first successful children 's publisher , John Newbery . According to James Secord , an eighteenth @-@ century scholar , Newbery included Locke 's educational advice to legitimise the new genre of children 's literature . Locke 's imprimatur would ensure the genre 's success .
By the end of the eighteenth century , Locke 's influence on educational thought was widely acknowledged . In 1772 James Whitchurch wrote in his Essay Upon Education that Locke was " an Author , to whom the Learned must ever acknowledge themselves highly indebted , and whose Name can never be mentioned without a secret Veneration , and Respect ; his Assertions being the result of intense Thought , strict Enquiry , a clear and penetrating Judgment . " Writers as politically dissimilar as Sarah Trimmer , in her periodical The Guardian of Education ( 1802 – 06 ) , and Maria Edgeworth , in the educational treatise she penned with her father , Practical Education ( 1798 ) , invoked Locke 's ideas . Even Rousseau , while disputing Locke 's central claim that parents should treat their children as rational beings , acknowledged his debt to Locke .
John Cleverley and D. C. Phillips place Locke 's Some Thoughts Concerning Education at the beginning of a tradition of educational theory which they label " environmentalism " . In the years following the publication of Locke 's work , Etienne Bonnot de Condillac and Claude Adrien Helvétius eagerly adopted the idea that people 's minds were shaped through their experiences and thus through their education . Systems of teaching children through their senses proliferated throughout Europe . In Switzerland , Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi , relying on Locke 's theories , developed the concept of the " object lesson . " These lessons focused pupils ' attention on a particular thing and encouraged them to use all of their senses to explore it and urged them to use precise words to describe it . Used throughout Europe and America during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries , these object lessons , according to one of their practitioners " if well @-@ managed , cultivate Sense @-@ Perception , or Observation , accustom children to express their thoughts in words , increase their available stock of words and of ideas , and by thus storing material for thinking , also prepare the way for more difficult and advanced study . "
Such techniques were also integral to Maria Montessori 's methods in the twentieth century . According to Cleverley and Phillips , the television show Sesame Street is also " based on Lockean assumptions — its aim has been to give underprivileged children , especially in the inner cities , the simple ideas and basic experiences that their environment normally does not provide . " In many ways , despite Locke 's continuing influence , as these authors point out , the twentieth century has been dominated by the " nature vs. nurture " debate in a way that Locke 's century was not . Locke 's optimistic " environmentalism , " though qualified in his text , is now no longer just a moral issue – it is also a scientific issue .
= The Boat Race 1885 =
The 42nd Boat Race took place on 28 March 1885 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . In a race umpired by former Cambridge rower Robert Lewis @-@ Lloyd , the lead changed hands several times . Oxford won by a margin of two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 21 minutes 36 seconds . The victory took the overall record to 23 – 18 in favour of Oxford .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 miles ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions having won the previous year 's race by two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , while Oxford held the overall lead , with 22 victories to Cambridge 's 18 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Oxford 's coach was G. C. Bourne who had rowed for the Dark Blues in the 1882 and 1883 races . There is no record of who coached Cambridge , who were seriously disrupted in the build @-@ up to the race , with Edric Wolseley Haig contracting mumps , J. C. Brown breaking a floating rib and William King Hardacre being introduced to the crew days prior to replace him . The umpire for the race was Robert Lewis @-@ Lloyd ( who had rowed for Cambridge four times between 1856 and 1859 ) .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 6 @.@ 75 lb ( 79 @.@ 1 kg ) , 7 @.@ 75 pounds ( 3 @.@ 5 kg ) more than their opponents . It was the heaviest crew to have ever featured in the Boat Race . Cambridge 's crew contained four rowers who had Boat Race experience , including Fraser Elmslie Churchill and Sidney Swann , both of whom were participating in their third race . Similarly , Oxford saw four former Blues return , with Douglas McLean making his third appearance and rowing with his brother Hector for the first time .
The race featured one registered non @-@ British participant in Oxford 's number two , J. S. Clemons , who originated from Tasmania .
= = Race = =
Cambridge were pre @-@ race favourites . Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . The race started at 12 : 26 p.m. in fine weather on a moderate tide . Although Oxford made the better start , Cambridge held a half @-@ of @-@ a @-@ length lead by the time the crews passed the Craven Steps . With the advantage of the bend in the river , the Oxford stroke H. Girdlestone , without increasing the stroke rate , took his crew level , and ahead at the Mile Post . Although the Cambridge stroke Frederick Pitman tried to restore parity by encouraging a spurt , Oxford held the Light Blues off and by Hammersmith Bridge held a length 's lead . Despite appearing " as if the crew going to pieces " after some difficult conditions , Oxford extended their lead to two lengths by The Doves pub . Approaching Barnes Bridge , the Dark Blues had to avoid a skiff , allowing Cambridge to come back at them , before pushing on once again on to win by two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in a time of 21 minutes 36 seconds .
After the race it was noted that the Oxford number three , P. W. Taylor , had dislocated his shoulder but had continued despite his injury .
= James Reimer ( ice hockey ) =
James Reimer / ˈraɪmər / ( born March 15 , 1988 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey goaltender for the Florida Panthers of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . Reimer has also played for the Toronto Maple Leafs and San Jose Sharks . He was selected by the Maple Leafs in the fourth round ( 99th overall ) of the 2006 NHL Entry Draft . He started playing minor hockey in his hometown when he was 12 . He played junior hockey with the Red Deer Rebels of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) , after being selected in the fifth round of the 2003 WHL Bantam Draft . After turning professional , Reimer played with the South Carolina Stingrays and Reading Royals of the ECHL , as well as the Toronto Marlies of the American Hockey League . Reimer was named the most valuable player of the ECHL playoffs , as the Stingrays won the Kelly Cup in 2009 . Reimer made his NHL debut with the Maple Leafs during the 2010 – 11 season and went on to replace Jean @-@ Sébastien Giguère as the Maple Leafs ' starting goaltender . He plays for Canada internationally , and first represented his country at the 2011 World Championship . As of 2013 , he had the best save percentage in Toronto Maple Leafs history with a then .918 .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Minor = = =
Reimer started playing goalie when his older brother , Mark , needed practice shooting but had no goalie . A local minor hockey manager heard about his prowess in goal , and recruited him . His parents were unsure if minor hockey was the right fit for their son , so he did not play organized hockey until he was 12 . He was first noticed by agent Ray Petkau when he was 13 , after playing with a church team at a tournament in Steinbach , Manitoba . As of November 2011 , Petkau was still his representative .
Reimer played his last seasons of minor hockey for the Interlake Lightning of the Manitoba " AAA " Midget league . He was the team 's rookie of the year and top scholastic player after the 2002 – 03 season , and the most valuable player after the 2004 – 05 season .
= = = Junior = = =
Reimer was selected by the Red Deer Rebels in the fifth round of the 2003 Western Hockey League ( WHL ) Bantam Draft , with a pick that originally belonged to the Spokane Chiefs . The team drafted Reimer largely on the word of a single scout , Carter Sears . After Reimer performed poorly during his first training camp with the club , Rebels head coach Brent Sutter wanted to release him , but Sears was persistent in his support for Reimer . Reimer made the club in his third attempt after having been cut the previous two seasons . His first season in the WHL was a poor one for the Rebels . Reimer played 34 games , recording only 7 wins . Reimer broke his hand late in the season , an injury which cost him a chance to play for Team Canada at the 2006 IIHF World U18 Championships . Reimer was selected by the Toronto Maple Leafs in the fourth round ( 99th overall ) of the 2006 National Hockey League ( NHL ) Entry Draft . John Ferguson , Jr . , the Maple Leafs general manager at the time , remembers Reimer as an unfinished product needing time to develop , being " somewhat raw " . At the time of the draft , Reimer was preparing for his high school graduation , and did not attend the event in Vancouver , British Columbia . He said , " I made a decision not to pay a lot of attention because I was reluctant to get my hopes too high . " His agent , Ray Petkau , called with the news about being drafted and later brought him his Maple Leafs jersey and hat that draftees receive . Prior to the draft , Reimer had mentioned that he would like to be drafted by the Los Angeles Kings , saying " I 'd love to play hockey in all that sunshine . "
Reimer attended training camp with the Maple Leafs in 2006 and 2007 , but was returned to the Rebels both times . During the 2006 – 07 WHL season , Reimer played in 60 games with the Rebels , and recording 26 wins , 23 losses and 7 ties . This was the only season in his WHL career that Reimer finished with a winning record . The 2007 – 08 WHL season was Reimer 's final season in the WHL . He suffered a torn ligament in his ankle , and only appeared in 30 games . In March 2008 , the Maple Leafs signed Reimer to a three @-@ year contract worth an annual base salary of $ 555 @,@ 000 . The deal included a $ 180 @,@ 000 signing bonus and playing incentives that could increase the total value of the contract to $ 1 @.@ 8 million . His base salary was $ 555 @,@ 000 — the minimum salary for an NHL player .
= = = Professional = = =
= = = = Toronto Maple Leafs = = = =
After attending the Maple Leafs training camp in September 2008 , he was assigned to the Toronto Marlies of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) . After starting the season with the Marlies , Reimer was assigned to the Reading Royals of the ECHL . He was recalled by the Marlies and recorded his first AHL win by a score of 3 – 2 in a shootout on December 27 , 2008 against the Manitoba Moose . In two stints with the Marlies , Reimer had a record of one win and two losses , with a goals against average ( GAA ) of 3 @.@ 28 and a .882 save percentage . With the Royals , Reimer had a record of ten wins , seven losses and three ties . At the ECHL trade deadline , Reimer was moved to the South Carolina Stingrays , a team that had gone through eight goaltenders during the season . The deal was facilitated to expose Reimer to post @-@ season experience , as the Royals were out of playoff contention . While with the Stingrays , Reimer helped them win the 2009 Kelly Cup championship . Recording four wins and one shutout over eight games in the post @-@ season , he was named the ECHL Playoffs Most Valuable Player .
After attending the Maple Leafs training camp ahead of the 2009 – 10 National Hockey League ( NHL ) season , Reimer was again sent down to the AHL . As part of the Marlies ' pre @-@ season , Reimer competed in the Gardiner Cup , held as part of Scotland 's 2009 Homecoming celebrations . He stopped 33 shots in the final as the Marlies lost 3 – 1 to the Hamilton Bulldogs . Back in the AHL , he spent the majority of the 2009 – 10 season with the Marlies , playing in 26 games and recording 14 wins . He had a GAA of 2 @.@ 25 and a save percentage of .925 . Reimer was called up by the Leafs on an emergency basis on October 13 , 2009 , when starting goaltender Vesa Toskala was injured . Serving as Joey MacDonald 's backup , he did not receive any playing time in his first NHL call @-@ up ; he was sent back down to the Marlies on October 25 , 2009 . Reimer missed significant time with an ankle injury during the 2009 – 10 season . It was not the same ankle he injured during his final season with the Red Deer Rebels .
At the outset of the 2010 – 11 NHL season , Reimer again was assigned to the AHL 's Marlies . Reimer was not expected to contribute to the Maple Leafs at the NHL level during the 2010 – 11 season . Expectations for the young netminder were low heading into the season , with head coach Ron Wilson saying " We wanted him to play in the minors and continue to get better , develop and try to stay healthy . " He was recalled by the Maple Leafs several months into the season , making his NHL debut on December 20 , 2010 in relief of Jonas Gustavsson against the Atlanta Thrashers . He played 14 minutes in the third period , stopping all four shots he faced . Reimer made his first NHL start against the Ottawa Senators on January 1 , 2011 . The Maple Leafs won the game 5 – 1 , with Reimer recording 32 saves while picking up his first career NHL win . On February 3 , 2011 , Reimer recorded 27 saves and picked up his first career NHL shutout against the Carolina Hurricanes . A combination of injuries and poor play by Gustavsson and Jean @-@ Sebastien Giguere provided an opportunity for Reimer at the NHL level . His strong play caused the Leafs to carry three goalies on their NHL roster , a fact which did not surprise Giguere , who said " The way he played the last time he was up , you knew he was going to get another chance . " Leafs head coach Ron Wilson acknowledged Reimer as the team 's starting goalie as they set out on a late @-@ season run for a playoff spot , saying " It ’ s going to be his ball the rest of the way . As long as we stay in the race . And I think he ’ s up to it . "
Reimer became a quick fan favourite during his rookie NHL season , earning the nicknames " Optimus Reim " and " The Statue " . The former is a reference to the Transformers protagonist Optimus Prime , while the latter resulted from head coach Wilson 's attempts to suppress the hype around the rookie goalie only a short time into his NHL career , saying " There 's all this [ attention ] around here , a guy wins a game and we 're ready to build a statue for him . " Reimer 's strong performance was recognized by the league when he was named the NHL 's Rookie of the Month for March 2011 . Reimer would have become a restricted free agent on July 1 , 2011 , but he signed a three @-@ year contract worth $ 5 @.@ 4 million ( $ 1 @.@ 8 million salary cap hit ) on June 9 , 2011 .
Reimer began the 2011 – 12 season as the starter going 4 – 0 – 1 . He suffered an injury on October 22 in a game against the Montreal Canadiens . During the game Reimer was run into by Brian Gionta , he finished the first period , but did not return after the intermission . The team called the injury whiplash despite rumors that he was suffering from a concussion . Reimer missed 19 games with the injury , and struggled upon his return , yielding some starts to Gustavsson . After recording two back @-@ to @-@ back shutouts on February 1 and February 4 , Reimer seemed to have solidified the starting position once again .
Near the end of March 2012 , Reimer was starting to play to an acceptable standard again , but an upper @-@ body injury ( later revealed to be a neck injury ) sidelined him for the remainder of the season from March 29 . On April 9 , he told the media that he would be available by training camp in September 2012 . Due to the NHL lockout , Reimer was afforded more time to heal and attended training camp in January 2013 . Reimer held off an early challenge from rookie backup Ben Scrivens to remain Toronto 's starting goaltender . On February 11 , Reimer suffered a MCL strain , which kept him out of action for a little over two weeks , he won all three of his next starts after returning . Upon returning Reimer backstopped the Maple Leafs to their first playoff berth since 2004 and finishing the regular season with a career best 2 @.@ 46 GAA and .924 SV % in 34 games .
Prior to the 2013 – 14 season , the club acquired Jonathan Bernier from the Los Angeles Kings . At the beginning of the season , Reimer and Bernier were splitting time in the Toronto goal , but as the season progressed , Bernier cemented his status as the Leafs ' starting goaltender .
Following the 2013 @-@ 2014 season , Reimer became a restricted free agent . Dissatisfied with his role as the Leafs ' backup , he requested a trade from the Leafs . On July 25 , 2014 , the Leafs and Reimer avoided a salary arbitration hearing scheduled for the next week by agreeing to terms on a two year contract with an average annual value of $ 2 @.@ 3 million .
Reimer began the 2015 @-@ 16 season as Bernier 's backup , a role he had held since the team acquired the latter . However , Bernier was injured early in the season , and Reimer was given starting duties . He took off with the job , going 3 @-@ 0 @-@ 0 with a 1 @.@ 62 goals @-@ against average and .952 save percentage to be named the 3rd star for the week of November 9 – 15 , 2015 . Reimer would hold the position as Maple Leafs ' starting goaltender for the rest of his tenure , earning praise for his play on a Toronto team that struggled throughout the year .
= = = = San Jose Sharks = = = =
As the February 29 trade deadline approached , Reimer 's future with the rebuilding Maple Leafs became uncertain . On February 27 , 2016 , two days before the deadline , Reimer was traded to the San Jose Sharks , alongside Jeremy Morin , in exchange for Alex Stalock , Ben Smith and a conditional fourth round pick in the 2018 draft .
Reimer had the best 5 on 5 save percentage and the best Fenwick save percentage in the NHL for the 2015 / 16 season ( 1200 minutes minimum TOI ) at .9404 and .9573 respectively .
= = = = Florida Panthers = = = =
On July 1 , 2016 , as a free agent for the first time in his career , Reimer was signed to a 5 @-@ year contract with the Florida Panthers .
= = International play = =
Reimer 's first brush with international hockey came near the end of the 2005 – 06 season . He was selected to play for Team Canada at the 2006 IIHF World U18 Championships , but was unable to compete due to a broken hand he suffered while playing for Red Deer . After his strong rookie season in the NHL , Reimer received another invitation from Hockey Canada , this time to compete at the 2011 IIHF World Championship . Reimer got his first win in the tournament beating Belarus 4 – 1 .
= = Playing style = =
Reimer plays in the butterfly style of goaltending . Observers have attributed Reimer 's success during the 2010 – 11 season to his ability to maintain his focus and confidence . Reimer tries to focus on the basics of playing goal , feeling that the fundamentals of goaltending are the key to success , saying " It ’ s not about making the great save , or making a diving save or playing outside yourself . It ’ s all about pushing , stopping , and being square and just relying on that . Most of the time if you let out a rebound the defenceman is there so it ’ s more about being solid fundamentally . "
= = Personal = =
Reimer was born in Arborg , Manitoba , to parents Harold and Marlene Reimer . His father owns a business moving homes . He graduated from Morweena Christian High School in his hometown . His favorite hockey team growing up was the Toronto Maple Leafs , and his favourite player was Ed Belfour . Reimer met his wife , April , at a junior hockey game in Moose Jaw , Saskatchewan .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= Barret Wallace =
Barret Wallace ( バレット ・ ウォーレス , Baretto Wōresu ) is a player character in Square Enix 's role @-@ playing video game Final Fantasy VII . Created by character designer Tetsuya Nomura , he has since appeared in the CGI film sequel , Final Fantasy VII : Advent Children as well as other games and media in the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII series . As of Advent Children , Barret is voiced by Masahiro Kobayashi in Japanese and Beau Billingslea in English localizations .
Barret is first introduced in Final Fantasy VII as an eco @-@ terrorist , leading the group AVALANCHE to bomb Mako reactors in the fictional city of Midgar , so as to avenge the losses dealt him by the megacorporation Shinra , the Planet 's de facto world government , who operate under the pretense of saving the Planet . As the story progresses , Barret re @-@ examines his efforts and focuses on pursuing the villain Sephiroth in an effort to protect the Planet and the future of his adopted daughter , Marlene . Elements of the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII would later expand upon his character , detailing the character 's history before and after the events of the original game .
The first dark @-@ skinned playable character in the Final Fantasy series , Barret 's appearance and sometimes profane speech has been heavily compared to that of actor Mr. T , earning much praise , but also criticism and accusations of racism by some .
= = Conception and design = =
Designed by Tetsuya Nomura , Barret was present in Final Fantasy VII from its early development . Initially , the game was to have only three playable characters , with Barret one of those three , along with the protagonist Cloud Strife and the heroine Aerith Gainsborough . During a phone call to project director Yoshinori Kitase , it was suggested that at some point in the game , one of the main characters should die , and after much discussion as to whether it should be Barret or Aerith , the producers chose Aerith , as they felt Barret 's death would be " too obvious . "
Barret 's name is based on the Japanese transliteration of the English word " bullet " , and he was developed with the " Gunner " character class in mind . Standing 6 feet 5 inches ( 197 cm ) tall , he is the first black playable character in the series , and has a high and tight haircut and full beard , and an earring in his left ear . His attire consists of a jacket with torn sleeves , dark green pants , boots , a fingerless glove on his left hand , and metal bands surrounding his abdomen and left wrist . His left upper arm is covered by a bowgun ; this was later changed by replacing his right hand with a prosthetic Gatling gun ( called a " Gimmick Arm " ) which he refers to as his " partner " in @-@ game . He was originally planned to have a medallion around his neck , described as a gift from his deceased wife , but this was later changed to a set of dog tags .
When developing Advent Children , Nomura stated that because of the comparisons between Barret 's original design and Mr. T , they decided to take it in a different direction for the film , implementing co @-@ director Takeshi Nozue 's suggestion to give him cornrows for his hair , while Nomura designed his face . Artist Yusuke Naora influenced the design as well , developing his attire , which originally consisted of white overalls , before instead having him wear him a down vest . Barret 's arm tattoo was changed as well , although it retained the " skull and fire " motif of the original . Other aspects of his design included the loss of the metal bands around his body , a white sleeve extending from the middle of his right forearm to his elbow fastened by straps , a black band on his left forearm surrounded by a pink string and bow , and a fishnet shirt that ends in torn fibers below his waist . The dog tags were altered to a bullet and medallion supported by a chain around his neck , and three rings covered his left hand . His Gimmick Arm was modified into a robotic prosthetic hand , developed by Nomura , with the only guideline being " a huge , over @-@ the @-@ top gun that transforms in a huge , over @-@ the @-@ top way . " Nozue stated that these specifics made it difficult to work with , and decided to conceal the hand 's transformation sequence into the gun as much as possible . His Advent Children design was also planned to be used for the Final Fantasy VII remake . However , the staff later decided to give every character in the party a new look .
When choosing a voice actor for the film , Nomura was initially unsure of whether to have Masahiro Kobayashi do the role of Barret or another character , Loz . Kobayashi described his performance as treating Barret as " unrefined [ ... ] but also dependable and unique , " trying to keep his " upbeat character and good outlook in mind . " He tried to give him a booming , confident sounding voice , though at times was instructed to " take it up a notch . "
= = Appearances = =
= = = Final Fantasy VII = = =
First seen in Final Fantasy VII in 1997 , Barret is introduced as the leader of the eco @-@ terrorist organization AVALANCHE . Situated in city of Midgar , his group opposes the ruling company , Shinra , and their use of " Mako " energy as a power source , believing it to be killing the Planet . To this end , AVALANCHE bombs their Mako reactors , with the specific goal of saving the Planet . When the game begins , they have just hired the mercenary Cloud Strife at the behest of his childhood friend and AVALANCHE member Tifa Lockhart , nicknaming him " Spiky " in reference to his hairstyle . After the deaths of several members of AVALANCHE , Barret follows Cloud out of Midgar in pursuit of the game 's villain , Sephiroth .
Along the way he encounters a former friend of his , Dyne , armed in a manner similar to him , who forces Barret to fight him . Upon Barret defeating Dyne , Dyne kills himself . Through flashbacks it is revealed that Shinra had wanted to build a Mako reactor in his home town of Corel , an idea Barret advocated . However , due to an accident at the plant , Shinra razed the town , killing Barret 's wife in the process , and causing Barret and Dyne to flee with Dyne 's daughter , Marlene . Cornered , Dyne slipped off a cliff and Barret grabbed his hand , but Shinra soldier 's opened fire , and destroyed Barret 's and Dyne 's right and left hands respectively , causing the latter to fall to his presumed death . Barret adopted Marlene as his own daughter , had an " adapter " graft to his arm to interface with prosthetic weapons to aid in his combat against Shinra , and founded AVALANCHE . Dyne 's death causes him to admit his grudge with Shinra is solely for revenge , with his earlier claims of " saving the world " meant only to convince himself he was fighting for the greater good . Barret eventually shifts his goal to actually wanting to save the Planet , doing so for Marlene 's sake , and he helps Cloud and his allies defeat Sephiroth to prevent the Planet 's destruction .
Early drafts of Barret 's background featured subtle differences , such as Marlene intended as Barret 's biological daughter , and his wife executed in front of him by a then @-@ undecided Shinra executive . The attack on Corel was initially written to be due to the discovery of Mako energy and Shinra 's desire to keep its existence a secret . His reunion with Dyne was also different , written to culminate in a duel between the two in Corel 's ruins , while Cloud and the others fought investigating Shinra soldiers .
= = = Compilation of Final Fantasy VII = = =
Barret appears in Before Crisis : Final Fantasy VII , a 2005 mobile phone @-@ based prequel to the events of Final Fantasy VII , which shows the events prior to Corel 's destruction . He helps the game 's protagonists , the Turks , defend the Mako reactor , believing it to be the town 's future . It is revealed that the reactor is under attack by the original AVALANCHE group , who are the cause of Shinra 's attack upon the town . Unaware of their involvement , Barret uses their ideals to form his own branch of the group .
In 2005 , Barret appeared in the CGI film Advent Children , which details the events two years after Sephiroth 's defeat . Barret places Marlene in Tifa 's care , travelling the world to rebuild the planet 's infrastructure and find alternate power sources to replace Mako . He returns later to assist in combating the film 's villains , the Remnants and fight the summon creature Bahamut SIN . He later appears in a small role in the 2006 video game Dirge of Cerberus : Final Fantasy VII , set one year after Advent Children , where he helps the protagonist Vincent Valentine prevent Omega WEAPON from destroying the planet .
A novella entitled " Case of Barret " was released in 2007 exclusively for the " Limited Edition Collector 's Set " DVD edition of Advent Children . Written by Kazushige Nojima as part of the On the Way to a Smile series , it details the events between Final Fantasy VII and Advent Children , examining Barret 's reaction to his weapon and his belief that it made him a monster . At the conclusion of the story , Barret visits the creator of the adapter on his wrist and receives the prosthetic hand / gun combination seen in the film , reasoning that although he needs a hand , he also still needs a weapon to prevent others from having to fight . He then decides to return to Marlene .
= = Critical reception = =
Barret 's comparisons to Mr. T in the media has resulted in both praise and criticism , with most of the criticism accusing the character of serving as a negative racial stereotype of African Americans . IGN argued in favor of this point , citing his use of " stilted slang , " and stating that the character stands out amongst the cast because " his dialog is written as if it was run through a broken ebonic translator , " further noting a trend in Japanese games to apply such dialogue to characters based on their skin color . Journalist Jeremy Parish agreed that the character was racist , although he argued that cultural gaps between Japan and the United States , plus the lack of American translators for Final Fantasy VII may have been contributing factors , arguing that the likeness between Barret and Mr. T was possibly an attempt to make a character that appealed to Americans , as the actor did .
In contrast , on 1UP.com , Parish argued in favor of Barret , noting that while on the surface he appeared to be the " worst kind of stereotype , " he was a great character with complexity , having made " difficult decisions in his life , and agonized over his losses . " Parish went further to describe Barret as the " first true father figure the [ Final Fantasy ] series had ever seen , " noting his relationship with his adopted daughter . RPGamer 's content manager Shawn Bruckner took the discussion further , arguing that claims of Barret 's presentation being racist was oversimplification of the character 's portrayal , and stated that while he was in some aspects a stereotype , in others , such as his compassion towards his daughter or guilt regarding his past actions , he was not . He added that Barret " shows us that a black man speaking in ' ebonics ' is not something to fear , " and that his portrayal was not racist , but instead the opposite .
Despite their criticism , IGN ranked Barret fourth on their 2006 list of best sidekick characters in video games , stating that he " took the videogame world by storm " when introduced and noting that his portrayal was also appealing , adding that his past made him a visibly loyal character . Joystiq named him one of twenty characters from the Final Fantasy franchise they wished to see in Square Enix ' crossover fighting game Dissidia Final Fantasy , noting a preference for his use of profanity and citing his combat abilities as easily suitable for the game . Edge praised Barret 's introduction as something " new " in the series , citing both his use of a gun and his " distinctively black " character , and further describing him as a " pseudo @-@ nod " to similarly armed characters , such as Mega Man or Samus Aran , who in contrast were either robots or encased in armor .
= Church of the SubGenius =
The Church of the SubGenius is a parody religion that satirizes better known belief systems . It teaches a complex philosophy that focuses on J. R. " Bob " Dobbs , purportedly a salesman from the 1950s , who is revered as a prophet by the Church . SubGenius leaders have developed detailed narratives about Dobbs and his relationship to various gods and conspiracies . Their central deity , Jehovah 1 , is accompanied by other gods drawn from ancient mythology and popular fiction . SubGenius literature describes a grand conspiracy that seeks to brainwash the world and oppress Dobbs ' followers . In its narratives , the Church presents a blend of cultural references in an elaborate remix of the sources .
Ivan Stang , who co @-@ founded the Church of the SubGenius in the 1970s , serves as its leader and publicist . He has imitated actions of other religious leaders , using the tactic of culture jamming in an attempt to undermine better @-@ known faiths . Church leaders instruct their followers to avoid mainstream commercialism and the belief in absolute truths . The group holds that the quality of " Slack " is of utmost importance — it is never clearly defined . The number of followers is unknown , although the Church 's message has been welcomed by college students and artists in the United States . The group is often compared to Discordianism . Journalists often consider the Church to be an elaborate joke , but a few academics have defended it as an honest system of deeply held beliefs .
= = Origins = =
The Church of the SubGenius was founded by Ivan Stang ( born Douglas St Clair Smith ) and Philo Drummond ( born Steve Wilcox ) as the SubGenius Foundation . Dr. X ( born Monte Dhooge ) was also present at the group 's inception . The organization 's first recorded activity was the publication of a photocopied document , known as the Sub Genius Pamphlet # 1 , disseminated in Dallas , Texas in 1979 . The document announced the impending end of the world and the possible deaths of its readers . It criticized Christian conceptions of God and New Age perceptions of spirituality .
Church leaders maintain that a man named J. R. " Bob " Dobbs founded the group in 1953 . SubGenius members constructed an elaborate account of the life of Dobbs , which is described by commentators as fictional . They assert that he telepathically contacted Drummond in 1972 , before meeting him in person the next year , and that Drummond persuaded Ivan Stang to join shortly afterwards . Stang describes himself as the " sacred scribe " of Dobbs and a " professional maven of weirdness " .
= = Beliefs = =
= = = Deities = = =
The Church of the SubGenius ' ostensible beliefs defy categorization or a simple narrative , often striking outside observers as bizarre and convoluted . The group has developed an intricate mythology involving gods , aliens , and mutants , which is usually considered by observers to satirize other religions . Their primary deity , generally known as Jehovah 1 , is cast as an extraterrestrial , who contacted Dobbs in the 1940s . Various accounts state that the encounter occurred while Dobbs was building a television or watching late @-@ night television . Jehovah 1 gave him supernatural knowledge of the past and future , in addition to incredible power . Dobbs then posed deep questions to the alien , receiving mysterious answers . Some of their discussion centered on a powerful conspiracy , to which the Church attributes command of the world .
Jehovah 1 and his spouse Eris , regarded by the Church as " relatively evil " , are classified as " rebel gods " . SubGenius leaders note that Jehovah 1 is wrathful , a quality expressed by his " stark fist of removal " . The Church teaches that they are part of the Elder Gods , who are committed to human pain , but that Jehovah 1 is " relatively good " in comparison . Yog @-@ Sothoth , a character from H. P. Lovecraft 's Cthulhu Mythos , is the leader of the Elder Gods . In her 2010 study of the Church of the SubGenius , religious scholar Carole Cusack of the University of Sydney states that Lovecraft 's work is a " model for the Church of the SubGenius ' approach to scripture " , in that aspects of his fiction were treated as real by some within paganism , just as the Church appropriates aspects of popular culture in its spirituality .
= = = J. R. " Bob " Dobbs = = =
SubGenius leaders teach that Dobbs ' nature is ineffable and consequently stylize his name with quotation marks . They cast him as a " World Avatar " and hold that he has died and been reborn many times . The Church 's primary symbol is an icon of his face in which he smokes a pipe . Stang states that the image was taken from Yellow Pages clip art , and it has been likened to Ward Cleaver , Mark Trail , or a 1950s @-@ era salesman . The Church 's canon contains references to aspects of the culture of the United States in that decade ; religious scholar Danielle Kirby of RMIT University argues that this type of reference " simultaneously critiques and subverts " the concept of the American dream .
In the Church 's mythology , Jehovah 1 had intended for Dobbs to lead a powerful conspiracy and brainwash individuals to make them work for a living . Dobbs refused to support the group ; instead , he infiltrated it and organized a counter @-@ movement . Church leaders teach that he was a very intelligent child and , as he grew older , studied several religious traditions , including Sufism , Rosicrucianism , and the Fourth Way . Another key event in his life occurred when he traveled to Tibet ; there he learned vital truths about topics including Yetis . The Church teaches that Yetis exist , and that SubGenius members have descended from them . The only relative of Dobbs that the Church identifies is his mother , Jane McBride Dobbs — Church leaders cite his lack of resemblance to his mother 's husband as the reason for not revealing his father . Dobbs is married to a woman named Connie ; SubGenius leaders identify the couple as archetypes of the genders in a belief that resembles Hindu doctrines about Shiva and Parvati . Church literature has variously described Dobbs ' occupation as " drilling equipment " or fluoride sales , and accounts of his life generally emphasize his good fortune rather than intelligence . SubGenius leaders believe that he is capable of time travel , and that this ability results in occasional changes to doctrine , deemed the " Sacred Doctrine of Erasability " by the Church . Consequently , members attempt to follow Dobbs by eschewing unchangeable plans .
= = = Conspiracy and " Slack " = = =
The Church of the SubGenius ' literature incorporates many aspects of conspiracy theories , teaching that there is a grand conspiracy at the root of all lesser ones . It records that there are many UFOs , most of which are used by the conspiracy leaders to monitor humans , although a few contain extraterrestrials . In the Church 's view , this conspiracy uses a facade of empowering messages but manipulates people so that they become indoctrinated into its service . The Church refers to these individuals as " pinks " and states that they are blissfully unaware of the organization 's power and control . SubGenius leaders teach that most cultural and religious mores are the conspiracy 's propaganda . They maintain that their followers , but not the pinks , are capable of developing an imagination ; the Church teaches that Dobbs has empowered its members to see through these illusions . Owing to their descent from Yetis , the Church 's followers have a capacity for deep understanding that the pinks lack . Cultural studies scholar Solomon Davidoff states that the Church develops a " satiric commentary " on religion , morality , and conspiracies .
SubGenius members believe that those in the service of the conspiracy seek to bar them from " Slack " , a quality promoted by the Church . Its teachings center on " Slack " ( always capitalized ) , which is never concisely defined , except in the claim that Dobbs embodies the quality . Church members seek to acquire " Slack " and believe that it will allow them the free , comfortable life ( without hard work or responsibility ) which they claim as an entitlement . Sex and the avoidance of work are taught as two key ways to gain " Slack " . Davidoff believes that " Slack " is " the ability to effortlessly achieve your goals " . Cusack states that the Church 's description of " Slack " as ineffable recalls the way that Tao is described , and Kirby casts " Slack " as a " unique magical system " . The Slackware Linux distribution is so named after the tenet of Slack .
= = Members = =
The Church of the SubGenius ' founders were based in Dallas when they distributed their first document . The SubGenius Foundation moved to Cleveland , Ohio , in 1999 . In 2009 , Stang claimed that the Church had 40 @,@ 000 members , but the actual number may have been much lower . As of 2012 , becoming a minister in the Church consists of paying a $ 35 fee ; Stang has estimated that there are 10 @,@ 000 ministers and that the Church 's annual income has reached $ 100 @,@ 000 .
Most SubGenius members are male , and , according to Stang , many of them are social outcasts . He maintains that those who do not fit into society will ultimately triumph over those who do . The Church has experienced success " converting " college students , particularly at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . It has also gained popularity in several American cities , including San Francisco , Little Rock , and Cleveland . A few Church members have voiced concerns and / or amusement about new members who took the Church too seriously , fearing that they acted like serious cult @-@ followers , the very concept that the SubGenius parodies . Stang has expressed concern that the Church 's doctrines could exacerbate pre @-@ existing psychoses of mentally ill devotees , although he believes that the Church genuinely helps many adherents .
Notable associates of the Church include Mark Mothersbaugh , Mojo Nixon , Paul Mavrides , Paul Reubens , members of Negativland , David Byrne , and R. Crumb . Crumb , a cartoonist , provided early publicity for the church by reprinting Sub Genius Pamphlet # 1 in his comics anthology Weirdo . References to the Church are present in several works of art , including the Internet @-@ based collaborative fiction Ong 's Hat , the comic book The Middleman , the band Sublime 's album 40oz. to Freedom , and the television program Pee @-@ wee 's Playhouse .
= = = Instructions = = =
Church leaders have issued specific instructions to their followers ; Robert Latham of the University of California , Riverside , casts their ideology as " anarcholibertarian " . Five specific commands particularly embody the group 's values .
The first command is to shun regular employment and stop working . This encapsulates the Church 's view that to repent is to " SLACK OFF " ( sic ) , in opposition to the idea of working for a living . SubGenius leaders state that it is permissible for members to collect public assistance in lieu of maintaining employment .
The second command is to purchase products that are sold by the Church , which its leaders teach was founded by Dobbs to gain wealth . Unlike most religious groups , the Church proudly admits it is for @-@ profit ( presumably mocking some religious groups that seem to have ulterior financial motives ) . Cusack sees the instruction to buy as an ironic parody of the " greed is good " mentality of the 1980s , and Kirby notes that although the group emphasizes " the consumption of popular cultural artefacts " , this consumption is " simultaneously de @-@ emphasized by the processes of remix " .
The third command is to rebel against " law and order " : specifically , the Church condemns security cameras and encourages computer hacking . Cusack notes that this instruction recalls Robert Anton Wilson 's critique of law and order .
The fourth command is to rid the world of everyone who did not descend from Yetis . SubGenius leaders teach that Dobbs hopes to rid the Earth of 90 percent of humanity , making the Earth " clear " . The group praises drug abuse and abortion as effective methods of culling unneeded individuals .
The fifth command is to exploit fear , specifically that of individuals who are part of the conspiracy . Church leaders teach that members of the conspiracy fear SubGenius devotees .
= = Events = =
= = = Devivals = = =
Local groups of members of the Church of the SubGenius are known as " clenches " . They host periodic events known as " devivals " , which include sermons , music , and other art forms . Their leaders take comical names and give angry rants , and many devivals occur in bars or similar venues . Cusack compares the style of the services to Pentecostal revivalism ; David Giffels of the Akron Beacon Journal casts them as " campy preaching sessions " . Cusack posits that these events are examples of Peter Lamborn Wilson 's concept of Temporary Autonomous Zones , spaces in which the ordinary constraints of social control are suspended . On one occasion , the presence of the wife of a Church leader at a SubGenius meeting that included public nudity and a goat costume contributed to her losing custody of her children in a court case . However , the publicity surrounding the event was ultimately a boon to the Church 's recruitment efforts .
The Church also celebrates several holidays in honor of characters drawn from fiction and popular culture , such as Monty Python , Dracula , and Klaatu . The Association for Consciousness Exploration and pagan groups have occasionally assisted the Church in its events . Some SubGenius members put little emphasis on meetings , citing the Church 's focus on individualism , although the Book of the SubGenius discusses
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Memoirs a " literary masterpiece . " Given over a century of favorable literary analysis , reviewer Mark Perry states that the Memoirs are " the most significant work " of American non @-@ fiction .
In the days preceding his death , Grant 's wife , Julia , all of his children , and three grandchildren were present . After a year @-@ long struggle with the cancer , Grant died at 8 o 'clock in the morning in the Mount McGregor cottage on July 23 , 1885 , at the age of 63 . Sheridan , then Commanding General of the Army , ordered a day @-@ long tribute to Grant on all military posts , and President Grover Cleveland ordered a thirty @-@ day nationwide period of mourning . After private services , the honor guard placed Grant 's body on a special funeral train , which traveled to West Point and New York City . A quarter of a million people viewed it in the two days before the funeral . Tens of thousands of men , many of them veterans from the Grand Army of the Republic ( GAR ) or other veterans ' organizations , marched with Grant 's casket drawn by two dozen horses to Riverside Park in the Morningside Heights neighborhood of Upper Manhattan , New York City . His pallbearers included Union generals Sherman and Sheridan , Confederate generals Simon Bolivar Buckner and Joseph E. Johnston , Admiral David Dixon Porter , and Senator John A. Logan , the head of the GAR .
Grant 's body was laid to rest in Riverside Park , first in a temporary tomb , and then — twelve years later , on April 17 , 1897 — in the General Grant National Memorial , also known as " Grant 's Tomb " . The tomb is the largest mausoleum in North America . Attendance at the New York funeral topped 1 @.@ 5 million . Ceremonies were held in other major cities around the country , and those who eulogized Grant in the press likened him to George Washington and Abraham Lincoln .
= = Historical reputation = =
No presidential reputations have changed as dramatically as Grant 's . Hailed across the North as the winning general in a great war , his nomination as president seemed inevitable . Grant 's popularity declined with congressional investigations into corruption in his administration and Custer 's defeat at the Battle of the Little Big Horn . In 1877 , there was bipartisan approval of Grant 's peaceful handling of the electoral crisis . Grant 's reputation soared during his well @-@ publicized world tour .
At his death , Grant was seen as " a symbol of the American national identity and memory " , when millions turned out for his funeral procession in 1885 and attended the 1897 dedication of his tomb . Grant 's popularity increased in the years immediately after his death . At the same time , commentators and scholars portrayed his administration as the most corrupt in American history . As the popularity of the pro @-@ Confederate Lost Cause movement increased early in the 20th century , a more negative view became increasingly common . As they had early in the Civil War , Grant 's new critics charged that he was a reckless drunk , and in light of his presidency , that he was also corrupt . In the 1930s , biographer William B. Hesseltine noted that Grant 's reputation deteriorated because his enemies were better writers than his friends . In 1931 , Frederic Paxson and Christian Bach in the Dictionary of American Biography praised Grant 's military vision and his execution of that vision in defeating the Confederacy , but of his political career , the authors were less complimentary . Speaking specifically of the scandals , they wrote that " personal scandal has not touched Grant in any plausible form , but it struck so close to him and so frequently as to necessitate the vindication of his honor by admitting his bad taste in the choice of associates . "
Views of Grant reached new lows as he was seen as an unsuccessful president and an unskilled , if lucky , general . Bruce Catton and T. Harry Williams began the reassessment of Grant 's military career in the 1960s , shifting the analysis of Grant as victor by brute force to that of successful and skillful strategist and commander . Even for scholars with a particular concern for the plight of former slaves and Indians , Grant left a problematic legacy and , with changing attitudes toward warfare after the end of the Vietnam War , Grant 's military reputation suffered again . William S. McFeely won the Pulitzer Prize for his critical 1981 biography that emphasized the failure of Grant 's presidency to carry out lasting progress and concluded that " he did not rise above limited talents or inspire others to do so in ways that make his administration a credit to American politics . " John Y. Simon in 1982 responded to McFeely : " Grant 's failure as President ... lies in the failure of the Indian peace policy and the collapse of Reconstruction ... But if Grant tried and failed , who could have succeeded ? " Simon praised Grant 's first term in office , arguing that it should be " remembered for his staunch enforcement of the rights of freedmen combined with conciliation of former Confederates , for reform in Indian policy and civil service , for successful negotiation of the Alabama Claims , and for delivery of peace and prosperity . " According to Simon , the Liberal Republican revolt , the Panic of 1873 , and the North 's conservative retreat from Reconstruction weakened Grant 's second term in office , although his foreign policy remained steady .
Historians ' views have grown more favorable since the 1990s , appreciating Grant 's protection of African Americans and his peace policy towards Indians , even where those policies failed . Grant 's reputation rose further with Jean Edward Smith 's 2001 biography . Smith argued that the same qualities that made Grant a success as a general carried over to his political life to make him , if not a successful president , then certainly an admirable one . Smith wrote that " the common thread is strength of character — an indomitable will that never flagged in the face of adversity ... Sometimes he blundered badly ; often he oversimplified ; yet he saw his goals clearly and moved toward them relentlessly . " Brooks Simpson continued the trend in the first of two volumes on Grant in 2000 , although the work was far from a hagiography . H. W. Brands , in his more uniformly positive 2012 book , wrote favorably of Grant 's military and political careers alike , saying :
As commanding general in the Civil War , he had defeated secession and destroyed slavery , secession 's cause . As President during Reconstruction he had guided the South back into the Union . By the end of his public life the Union was more secure than at any previous time in the history of the nation . And no one had done more to produce the result than he .
As Reconstruction scholar Eric Foner wrote , Brands gave " a sympathetic account of Grant 's forceful and temporarily successful effort as president to crush the Ku Klux Klan , which had inaugurated a reign of terror against the former slaves . " Foner criticized Grant for not sending military aid to Mississippi during the 1875 election to protect African Americans from threats of violence . According to Foner , " Grant 's unwillingness to act reflected the broader Northern retreat from Reconstruction and its ideal of racial equality . "
According to historian Brooks Simpson , Grant was on " the right side of history " . Simpson said , “ [ w ] e now view Reconstruction ... as something that should have succeeded in securing equality for African @-@ Americans , and we see Grant as supportive of that effort and doing as much as any person could do to try to secure that within realm of political reality . " John F. Marszalek said , " You have to go almost to Lyndon Johnson to find a president who tried to do as much to ensure black people found freedom . "
Besides civil rights , issues of environmental protection have also attracted historiographical attention . Historian Joan Waugh , in her generally favorable book , says Grant appreciated the beauty of the West , and in 1872 signed the law establishing the country 's first national park at Yellowstone . However , she argues :
... he approved of projects that took great swaths of land and opened them to timber , cattle , land speculators , and millions of settlers ... the idea of preserving the region 's environment and concerns about industrial pollution were of much less importance to Grant ...
Throughout the 20th century , historians ranked his presidency near the bottom . In the 21st century , his military reputation is strong , while most scholars rank his presidency well below average . His accomplishments as President have been overlooked due to corruption charges of his Cabinet members and appointees during his administration .
= = Memorials and presidential library = =
Several memorials honor Grant . In addition to his mausoleum , the General Grant National Memorial in New York , there is the Ulysses S. Grant Memorial at the foot of Capitol Hill in Washington , D.C. Dedicated in 1922 , it overlooks the Capitol Reflecting Pool and is made of bronze and marble created by sculptor Henry Merwin Shrady and architect Edward Pearce Casey . On April 23 , 2015 , the 193rd anniversary of Grant 's birth , restoration work began ; the restoration is expected to be completed before the bicentennial of Grant 's birth in 2022 .
The Ulysses S. Grant National Historic Site near St. Louis , and several other sites in Ohio and Illinois memorialize Grant 's life . There are smaller memorials in Chicago 's Lincoln Park and Philadelphia 's Fairmount Park . Named in his honor are Grant Park , as well as several counties in western and midwestern states . On June 3 , 1891 , a bronze statue of Grant , created by Danish sculptor Johannes Gelert and commissioned by publisher H. H. Kohlsaat , was dedicated at Grant Park in Galena , Illinois . From 1890 to 1940 , part of what is now Kings Canyon National Park was called General Grant National Park , named for the General Grant sequoia . Grant has appeared on the front of the United States fifty @-@ dollar bill since 1913 , and appears on several stamps .
In May 2012 , the Ulysses S. Grant Foundation , on the institute 's fiftieth anniversary , selected Mississippi State University as the permanent location for Ulysses S. Grant 's presidential library . Historian John Y. Simon edited Grant 's letters into a 32 @-@ volume scholarly edition published by Southern Illinois University Press .
= Joseph Staten =
Joseph Michael Staten is an American writer .
At Bungie , Staten served as director of cinematics for the studio 's games , including the Halo series ; he would write mission scripts and movie dialogue for the titles . He has also been involved in managing the expansion of the Halo franchise to other game studios and producers , including Peter Jackson 's Wingnut Interactive . Though not a published author previously , Tor Books approached Staten to write the fifth Halo novelization , Halo : Contact Harvest . Released in 2007 , the novel reached # 3 on The New York Times bestseller list in the first week of its release and received positive reviews . Staten 's latest project was a brand new game series entitled Destiny , a first @-@ person shooter . Staten rejoined Microsoft Studios as a senior creative director on January 9 , 2014 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and education = = =
Joseph Staten is the son of a minister who is a professor of theology and philosophy of religion . He was born in San Francisco , California . Staten entered Northwestern University in 1990 with the aspiration of becoming a professional actor . Realizing he was not material to be a leading man , he switched focus to other subjects and graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree in communication and international studies in 1994 . Staten also has studied at the University of Chicago where is he received a Master of Arts degree in international relations in 1997 . After being rejected for employment with the Central Intelligence Agency , Staten dropped the idea of entering the foreign service and helped his family at their winery in Sonoma Valley . He instead pursued a number of jobs before becoming a staff member at game developer Bungie in 1998 after meeting some of the developers in online Myth matches .
= = = Bungie = = =
Staten 's former role at Bungie was director of cinematics and was responsible for the in @-@ game movies for Bungie 's Halo : Combat Evolved , Halo 2 , and Halo 3 . Work on the games at " crunch time " involved 80 @-@ hour weeks and stretches without sleep maxing out at 72 hours . Staten worked alongside three other staff writers at Bungie , each with their own separate role : Frank O 'Connor developed Halo 3 's combat dialogue , Rob McLees focused on Halo canon and working with licensing partners , Luke Smith interacted with the fans online , and Staten developed the cinematics and missions scripts . Staten said in an interview that he considered it challenging to write for the games , as " first person shooters [ are ] all about writing ' between the bullets ' " — relating plot information to the players in between action sequences . " You need to be efficient and clever to give players the story — the context — they need . But you don 't want to push too hard or they 'll reject it . " During his work on the games he read science fiction works by Iain Banks , Robert A. Heinlein , and Vernor Vinge . In addition to his writing contributions , Staten lends his voice to small aliens known as Grunts in all three video games .
Though previous Halo novels had been written by professional writers like Eric Nylund and William C. Dietz , publisher Tor Books chose Staten to write the fifth Halo novelization , entitled Halo : Contact Harvest . Editor Eric Raab noted in the book 's press release that " who better to tell the tale " of humanity 's encounter with the antagonistic alien Covenant than Staten , who had " intimate knowledge " of the series ' story . The novel is an ensemble piece , with the action being narrated from both human and alien viewpoints ; the work of Staten 's favorite science @-@ fiction authors helped teach him the importance of honing a " strong , consistent voice " . Staten found that writing compelling action involved slowing things down , paradoxically the opposite of the fast @-@ paced gameplay of a Halo title . He considered the book the perfect way to elaborate on the Halo story without stripping it down for a video game , . and flesh out the character of Avery Johnson more than the games had allowed .
On release , Contact Harvest reached a top spot of # 3 on the New York Times bestseller list , where it remained for four weeks . The novel also appeared on the USA Today bestseller 's list at the same time . Reviewers noted that despite being an unproven writer , Staten had succeeded in crafting an excellent novel . The novel 's success was considered to be evidence that games were breaking into the mainstream , and that the genre was becoming increasingly about the story .
After Contact Harvest 's release Staten played an important role in the development of offshoots to the Halo franchise . He traveled to New Zealand several times to work with Peter Jackson and Weta Workshop . Staten assisted with the fiction of Ensemble Studios title Halo Wars , and the now @-@ postponed Halo film . In interviews , Staten has explained that the game 's protagonist , the Master Chief , would serve as a supporting character rather than who the film would focus on . He worked on story development for the Halo 3 expansion , Halo 3 : ODST ; Staten provided the voices for a number of characters as placeholder audio during the representational play testing of the game in December 2008 . Staten was last working for Bungie as the writer and design director for Destiny . On September 24 , 2013 , Bungie announced that Staten had left the company to pursue new creative challenges .
= = = Microsoft = = =
Staten rejoined Microsoft Studios as a senior creative director on January 9 , 2014 . On March 12 , 2015 , 343 Industries official website posted a blog post detailing a list of upcoming Halo novels . One of the novels listed is Halo : Shadow of Intent authored by Joseph Staten and was released on December 7 , 2015 . He is the lead writer for Microsoft 's ReCore , which is set to be released in 2016 .
= = = Personal life = = =
Staten is married and has two children . On June 18 , 2011 , Staten gave the convocation address to the class of 2011 of the Northwestern University School of Communication .
= Lionel Gilbert =
Lionel Arthur Gilbert OAM ( 8 December 1924 – 28 January 2015 ) was an Australian historian , author , curator , lecturer , and biographer , specializing in applied , natural , and local history . Born in Burwood , New South Wales , he studied at Sydney Teachers College and , beginning in 1946 , worked as a teacher and later a headmaster in state schools in various locations around New South Wales until 1961 . In 1963 Gilbert graduated from the University of New England with a Bachelor of Arts in History . That same year , he was appointed a lecturer and curator at the Armidale Teachers ' College Museum of Education , in which capacity he served until his retirement in 1984 , overseeing several expansions of the museum and establishment of a historical research centre .
During his time with the college , Gilbert published a number of articles , papers , and books , many of them focusing on local history of New South Wales , including the state 's New England area . He attained a Doctor of Philosophy ( Ph.D ) in Botanical History from the University of New England in 1972 . After retirement , Gilbert authored several books on Australian natural history , including biographies of three Australian botanists and a history of Sydney 's Royal Botanic Gardens . In recognition of his work in education and history , he was selected as a fellow by several historical organizations . In 1995 he was awarded the Medal of the Order of Australia , a Centenary Medal in 2001 , and in 2007 with an honorary Doctor of Letters by the University of New England .
= = Early life and career with state schools = =
Gilbert was born in Burwood , a suburb of Sydney , on 8 December 1924 . His primary and secondary education took place at Burwood Primary School , Homebush Boys High School , and Fort Street High School , receiving a leaving certificate from the latter . After graduation , Gilbert took temporary employment at Gowings Men 's Store in Sydney . In 1942 , he received a Teacher 's Scholarship to Sydney Teachers College , where he trained for one year to be a school teacher .
In 1943 , Gilbert enlisted in the Royal Australian Air Force , joining 570 other Teachers College students who served in the armed forces during World War II , 68 of whom were killed during the conflict . Assigned as a radar operator in Arnhem Land , Gilbert served until 1946 .
After his discharge from the military , Gilbert was employed as secondary school teacher at Nabiac Central School from 1946 until 1954 . In 1955 , he was appointed Deputy Headmaster of Wauchope Primary School , and served in that capacity until 1960 . That year , he accepted an appointment as headmaster of Rocky River Primary School near Uralla , New South Wales , a position he held until 1961 .
While at Nabiac , Gilbert met Margaret Roberts and the two married in 1949 . Their daughter Anne was born in 1960 .
= = Academia and curator career = =
In 1955 , Gilbert enrolled as an external student at the University of New England in the first class of the university 's external studies program . In 1961 , he was appointed by the university as a Research and Information Officer in the Department of External Studies . In this capacity , Gilbert taught weekend classes on the methodology of local history for the university 's adult education department throughout the northwest area of New South Wales . In 1963 , he graduated with a Bachelor of Arts in History with First Class Honors , submitting his thesis on the history of botanical knowledge of the eastern seaboard of Australia for the years 1788 @-@ 1815 .
In July 1963 , Gilbert accepted an appointment as lecturer in applied history and curator with the Armidale Teachers ' College ( later College of Advanced Education ) Museum of Education . Holding the position for 21 years , he guided expansion of the facility to better present the history of education in Australia . Between 1976 and 1980 he supervised the relocation to the museum of three historic school buildings from Armidale High School and Dumaresq Public School . In addition , Gilbert designed courses in applied and local history for internal and external students of the college , which became the Armidale College of Advanced Education in 1971 .
In 1974 , Gilbert successfully requested an Innovations Grant from the Schools Commission to establish a Historical Resources Centre at the college . Opened in 1976 with Gilbert as its first director , the centre 's goal was to provide education on the history of New England to primary , secondary , tertiary , and postgraduate students , and community groups .
Gilbert recalled in 2008 that between 1975 and 1978 , 5 @,@ 758 primary or secondary pupils toured the museum on field trips . A further 1 @,@ 653 adults visited during that time to conduct historical or genealogical research at the museum or the Historical Resources Centre . In 1981 the Museums Association of Australia recognised the museum with a certificate of merit for its , " authenticity and detail in building , display and education . "
In 1972 , Gilbert was named chair of the school 's newly formed Department of History . He attained the position of Acting Deputy Principal for the college before retiring in June 1984 .
In 1967 , Gilbert assisted the National Trust of Australia and the Australian National University 's Department of Adult Education with a series of lectures and exhibits on local history of the New England area . Held in Armidale , the series helped establish a local chapter of the National Trust and the subsequent preservation of several historical colonial buildings in the area .
While at the college , Gilbert pursued post @-@ graduate studies at New England and received a Doctor of Philosophy ( Ph.D ) in Botanical History in 1972 , with his thesis titled Botanical investigation of New South Wales , 1811 @-@ 1880 . Also in 1972 , he was awarded a Churchill Fellowship to the U.K. for four weeks to study how museums in the U.K. contributed to general education .
= = Other work = =
In 1962 , Gilbert succeeded Eric Dunlop as Honorary Curator of the Armidale City Council 's Folk Museum , serving in the position until 1982 . When the museum reached capacity in its original facility , he joined the Armidale town clerk in a successful petition to the Department of Education for New South Wales to relocate the museum into the nearby Hillgrove School . Opened in 1977 , the new facility is known as the Museum of Rural Life and Industry . Beginning in 1975 , he served on the New South Wales State Archives Authority .
During his career at the college , Gilbert authored or co @-@ authored a number of papers and books , particularly on Australian biographical , genealogical , and local history . In 1974 , Gilbert joined William Patrick Driscoll , Alan Sutherland , and David Rose in publishing History Around Us : An Enquiry Approach to Local History , a book on historical research targeted at younger readers . The book was re @-@ issued in 1984 . In 1978 , Gilbert and co @-@ author Elwyn Sydney Elphick wrote a book titled of Forty @-@ three and Seven : A Short Illustrated History of the First Fifty Years of Teacher Education in Armidale : Armidale Teachers ' College , 1928 @-@ 1971 and Armidale College of Advanced Education 1971 @-@ 1978 to commemorate the school 's 50 @-@ year jubilee celebration . In 1980 , two books by Gilbert were published : A Grave Look at History : Glimpses of a Vanishing Form of Folk Art and New England from Old Photographs . The former studied graveyard monuments and was representative of Gilbert 's lifelong interest in studying and documenting epitaphs . The latter book focused on local history of New South Wales . From 1966 , he contributed a series of articles to the Australian Dictionary of Biography .
= = Post retirement work , professional associations , and honors = =
Gilbert continued to write in retirement , often focusing on natural history . In 1985 , 1992 , and 2001 , he respectively authored books on botanists William Woolls , Herman Rupp , and Joseph Maiden . In 1986 , his book on the history of Sydney 's Royal Botanic Gardens was published . Two years after its publication , Gilbert was appointed an Honorary Research Associate of the gardens . He was also a patron of the Australian National Museum of Education and a member of Australia 's National Trust .
Gilbert was named a Fellow of the Society of Australian Genealogists in 1955 , an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Australian Historical Society in 1997 , and a Fellow of the Federation of Australian Historical Societies in 2007 . On 12 June 1995 he was recognised with the Medal of the Order of Australia ( OAM ) , " In recognition of service to the community as a researcher and curator of local history in the New England region . " On 1 January 2001 he was awarded the Centenary Medal , " For service to the community through education and local history . " The University of New England presented Gilbert with an honorary Doctor of Letters ( Hon. D. Litt . ) in 2008 . Also in 2008 , he contributed a historical essay on the Auchinleck @-@ Ross family of New England to the biographical compendium , New England Lives III . Gilbert served as president of the Armidale and District Historical Society and has been honored with Freedom of the City of Armidale .
= = Personal life and death = =
Gilbert and his wife , Margaret , resided in Armidale , New South Wales from 1961 . He died in Armidale on 28 January 2015 and was survived by his wife , daughter Anne , son @-@ in @-@ law Tony Bennett , and grandson Alexei .
= = Awards and professional elections = =
1955 Fellow , Society of Australian Genealogists
1972 Churchill Fellowship
1988 Honorary Research Associate , Royal Botanic Gardens , Sydney
1995 Medal of the Order of Australia
1997 Honorary Fellow , Royal Australian Historical Society
2001 Centenary Medal
2007 Fellow , Federation of Australian Historical Societies
2008 Doctor of Letters , University of New England
Freedom of the City of Armidale , New South Wales
President of the Armidale and District Historical Society
= = Selected publications = =
Elphick , Elwyn Sydney ; Lionel Arthur Gilbert ( 1978 ) . Forty @-@ three and Seven : A Short Illustrated History of the First Fifty Years of Teacher Education in Armidale : Armidale Teachers ' College , 1928 @-@ 1971 and Armidale College of Advanced Education 1971 @-@ 1978 . Armidale , New South Wales : Armidale College of Advanced Education. p . 85 . OCLC 220377802 . Retrieved 16 October 2012 .
Gilbert , Lionel Arthur ( 1980 ) . A Grave Look at History : Glimpses of a Vanishing Form of Folk Art . Sydney : John Ferguson. p . 143 . ISBN 9780909134297 . OCLC 456553652 . Retrieved 16 October 2012 .
Gilbert , Lionel Arthur ( 1980 ) . New England from Old Photographs . Sydney : John Ferguson. p . 144 . ISBN 9780909134297 . OCLC 8953985 . Retrieved 16 October 2012 .
Gilbert , Lionel Arthur ; William Patrick Driscoll ; Alan Sutherland ; David Rose ( 1984 ) . History Around Us : An Enquiry Approach to Local History ( 2nd ed . ) . North Ryde , New South Wales : Methuen Australia. p . 140 . ISBN 9780454006766 . OCLC 27489941 . Retrieved 16 October 2012 .
Gilbert , Lionel Arthur ( 1985 ) . William Woolls , 1814 @-@ 1893 : " A Most Useful Colonist " . Canberra : Mulini Press. p . 138 . ISBN 9780949910158 . OCLC 247984779 . Retrieved 16 October 2012 .
Gilbert , Lionel Arthur ( 23 June 1986 ) . The Royal Botanic Gardens , Sydney : A History , 1816 @-@ 1985 . Melbourne ; New York : Oxford University Press. p . 210 . ISBN 9780195547191 . OCLC 14694184 . Retrieved 16 October 2012 .
Gilbert , Lionel Arthur ( 1987 ) . Mr Smith , Mr Jones and a Time of Bliss . Armidale , New South Wales : Armidale College of Advanced Education . ISBN 9780959389357 . OCLC 27623153 . Retrieved 30 November 2012 .
Gilbert , Lionel Arthur ( 1992 ) . The Orchid Man : The Life , Work and Memoirs of the Rev. H.M.R. Rupp , 1872 @-@ 1956 . Kenthurst , New South Wales : Kangaroo Press. p . 248 . ISBN 9780864174154 . OCLC 27240057 . Retrieved 16 October 2012 .
Gilbert , Lionel Arthur ( 1 March 2001 ) . The Little Giant : The Life & Work of Joseph Henry Maiden , 1859 @-@ 1925 . Sydney : Kardoorair Press in association with Royal Botanic Gardens. p . 429 . ISBN 9780908244447 . OCLC 54078075 . Retrieved 16 October 2012 .
Gilbert , Lionel Arthur ( 2005 ) . The Last Word : Two Centuries of Australian Epitaphs . Armidale , New South Wales : Kardoorair Press. p . 451 . ISBN 9780908244645 . OCLC 65526598 . Retrieved 16 October 2012 .
= Grunge =
Grunge ( sometimes referred to as the Seattle sound ) is a subgenre of alternative rock that emerged during the mid @-@ 1980s in the American state of Washington , particularly in Seattle . The early grunge movement revolved around Seattle 's independent record label Sub Pop , but by the early 1990s its popularity had spread , with grunge acts in California and other parts of the U.S. building strong followings and signing major record deals .
Grunge became commercially successful in the first half of the 1990s , due mainly to the release of Nirvana 's Nevermind , Pearl Jam 's Ten , Soundgarden 's Badmotorfinger , Alice in Chains ' Facelift , and Stone Temple Pilots ' Core . The success of these bands boosted the popularity of alternative rock and made grunge the most popular form of rock music at the time . Although most grunge bands had disbanded or faded from view by the late 1990s , their influence continues to affect modern rock music . More recent bands have also embraced grunge sounds and themes , with bands such as Violent Soho described as " grunge revival " artists .
Grunge typically fuses elements of punk rock and heavy metal , such as the distorted electric guitar used in both genres , although some bands performed with more emphasis on one or the other . The music shares with punk a raw sound and similar lyrical concerns . However , it also involves much slower tempos , dissonant harmonies , and more complex instrumentation — which is reminiscent of heavy metal . Lyrics are typically angst @-@ filled , often addressing themes such as social alienation , apathy , confinement , and a desire for freedom .
A number of factors contributed to grunge 's decline in prominence . During the mid @-@ late 1990s , many grunge bands broke up or became less visible . Nirvana 's Kurt Cobain , labeled by Time as " the John Lennon of the swinging Northwest " , appeared unusually tortured by success and " struggled with an addiction to heroin before he committed suicide at the age of 27 in 1994 " .
= = Origin of the term = =
Although writer Paul Rambali used " grunge " in a 1978 NME article to describe mainstream guitar rock , Mark Arm , the vocalist for the Seattle band Green River — and later Mudhoney — is generally credited as being the first to use the term grunge to describe this genre of music . Arm first used the term in 1981 , when he wrote a letter under his given name Mark McLaughlin to the Seattle zine Desperate Times , criticizing his own band Mr. Epp and the Calculations as " Pure grunge ! Pure noise ! Pure shit ! " . Clark Humphrey , contributor to Desperate Times , cites this as the earliest use of the term to refer to a Seattle band , and mentions that Bruce Pavitt of Sub Pop popularized the term as a musical label in 1987 – 88 , using it on several occasions to describe Green River .
Arm said years later , " Obviously , I didn 't make grunge up . I got it from someone else . The term was already being thrown around in Australia in the mid- ' 80s to describe bands like King Snake Roost , The Scientists , Salamander Jim , and Beasts of Bourbon . " Arm used grunge as a descriptive term rather than a genre term , but it eventually came to describe the punk / metal hybrid sound of the Seattle music scene .
Some bands associated with the genre , such as Soundgarden , Pearl Jam and Alice in Chains , have not been receptive to the label , preferring instead to be referred to as " rock and roll " bands .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Musical style = = =
Grunge is generally characterized by a sludgy guitar sound with a " thick midrange " and rolled @-@ off treble tone and a high level of distortion and fuzz , typically created with small stompbox pedals , with some guitarists chaining several fuzz pedals together and plugging them into a tube amplifier . The use of pedals by grunge guitarists was a move away from the expensive , studio @-@ grade rackmount effects units used in other rock genres . Grunge guitarists played loud , with Kurt Cobain 's early guitar sound coming from an unusual set @-@ up of four 800 watt PA system power amplifiers . Guitar feedback effects were used . Grunge guitarists were influenced by the raw , primitive sound of punk , and they favored " ... energy and lack of finesse over technique and precision " ; key guitar influences included the Sex Pistols , The Dead Boys , Neil Young ( Rust Never Sleeps , side two ) , The Replacements , Husker Du , Black Flag and The Melvins . Grunge guitarists often downtuned their instruments for a lower , heavier sound . Grunge guitarists " flatly rejected " the virtuostic " shredding " guitar solos that had become the centerpiece of heavy metal songs , instead opting for melodic , blues @-@ inspired solos - focusing " ... on the song , not the guitar solo " - with Jerry Cantrell of Alice in Chains stating that solos should be to serve the song , rather than to show off a guitarist 's technical skill . In place of the strutting guitar heroes of metal , grunge had " guitar anti @-@ heroes " like Cobain , who showed little interest in mastering the instrument .
Grunge fuses elements of hardcore punk and heavy metal , although some bands performed with more emphasis on one or the other . The music shares with punk a raw sound and similar lyrical concerns . However , it also involves much slower tempos , dissonant harmonies , and more complex instrumentation — which is reminiscent of heavy metal . Some individuals associated with the development of grunge , including Sub Pop producer Jack Endino and the Melvins , explained grunge 's incorporation of heavy rock influences such as Kiss as " musical provocation " . Grunge artists considered these bands " cheesy " but nonetheless enjoyed them ; Buzz Osborne of the Melvins described it as an attempt to see what ridiculous things bands could do and get away with . In the early 1990s , Nirvana 's signature " stop @-@ start " song format became a genre convention . Allmusic calls grunge a " hybrid of heavy metal and punk " . Although keyboards are generally not used in grunge , Seattle band Gorilla created controversy by breaking the " guitars only " approach and using a 1960s @-@ style Vox organ in their group .
According to The Atlantic , the four most influential singing styles of grunge were exemplified by Alice in Chains ' Layne Staley , who was called the " most memorable voice " of the genre for his " ... ability to project power and vulnerability " ; Nirvana 's Kurt Cobain , who could both scream and sing melodically in the same song like John Lennon ; Soundgarden 's Chris Cornell , who " wailed and hit high notes " like Robert Plant ; and Pearl Jam 's Eddie Vedder , who " ... combined a Jim Morrison @-@ style natural baritone range with other punk and rock influences . "
= = = Lyrics = = =
Grunge lyrics are typically angst @-@ filled , and anguished , often addressing themes such as social alienation , apathy , confinement , and a desire for freedom . A number of factors influenced the focus on such subject matter . Many grunge musicians displayed a general disenchantment with the state of society , as well as a discomfort with social prejudices . Such themes bear similarities to those addressed by punk rock musicians . In 1992 , music critic Simon Reynolds said that " there 's a feeling of burnout in the culture at large . Kids are depressed about the future " . The topics of grunge lyrics – " broken homes , drug addiction and self @-@ loathing " contrasted sharply to the glam metal lyrics of Poison , which described " life in the fast lane " .
= = = Concerts = = =
Grunge concerts were known for being straightforward , high @-@ energy performances . Grunge bands rejected the complex and high budget presentations of many musical genres , including the use of complex light arrays , pyrotechnics , and other visual effects unrelated to playing the music . Stage acting and " onstage theatrics " were generally avoided . Instead the bands presented themselves as no different from minor local bands . Jack Endino said in the 1996 documentary Hype ! that Seattle bands were inconsistent live performers , since their primary objective was not to be entertainers , but simply to " rock out " . One of the philosophies of the grunge scene was authenticity . Dave Rimmer writes that with the revival of punk ideals of stripped @-@ down music in the early 1990s , " for Cobain , and lots of kids like him , rock & roll ... threw down a dare : Can you be pure enough , day after day , year after year , to prove your authenticity , to live up to the music ... And if you can 't , can you live with being a poseur , a phony , a sellout ? "
= = = Clothing = = =
Clothing commonly worn by grunge musicians in Washington consisted of thrift store items and the typical outdoor clothing ( most notably flannel shirts ) of the region , as well as a generally unkempt appearance and long hair . Seattle and Aberdeen , Washington were logging towns and hence , the lumberjack attire was a common sight in the thrift stores for the low prices that musicians could afford . Grunge fashion consisted of ripped jeans , mom jeans , Doc Martens , combat boots , band T @-@ shirts , oversized knit sweaters , long and droopy skirts , ripped tights , Birkenstocks , hiking boots , and eco @-@ friendly clothing made from recycled textiles or fair trade organic cotton .
“ Grunge also became an anti @-@ consumerist movement where the less you spent on clothes , the more ‘ coolness ’ you had . ” The style did not evolve out of a conscious attempt to create an appealing fashion ; music journalist Charles R. Cross said , " [ Nirvana frontman ] Kurt Cobain was just too lazy to shampoo " , and Sub Pop 's Jonathan Poneman said , " This [ clothing ] is cheap , it 's durable , and it 's kind of timeless . It also runs against the grain of the whole flashy aesthetic that existed in the 80s . " Grunge fashion was very much an anti @-@ fashion response and a non @-@ conformist move against the “ manufactured image ” , often pushing musicians to dress in authentic ways and not glamourising themselves .
At the same time , Sub @-@ Pop utilised the ‘ grunge look ’ in their marketing of their bands . In an interview with VH1 , photographer Charles Peterson commented that members from grunge band Tad “ were given blue collar identities that weren ’ t entirely earned . Bruce ( Pavitt ) really got him to dress up in flannel and a real chain saw and really play up this image of a mountain man and it worked . ”
Grunge music hit mainstream in early ‘ 90s with Soundgarden and Nirvana being signed to major record labels . Grunge fashion began to break into mainstream fashion and in mid @-@ 1992 for both sexes and peaked in late 1993 and early 1994 . As it picked up momentum , the grunge tag was being used by shops selling expensive flannelette shirts in an effort to cash in on the trend . Ironically , the non @-@ conformist look suddenly became a mainstream trend . In the fashion world , Marc Jacobs presented a show for Perry Ellis in 1992 , featuring grunge @-@ inspired clothing mixed up with high @-@ end fabrics . For Jacobs , he found inspiration in the ‘ realism ’ of streetwear and mixed it up with the luxury of fashion by sending models down in beanies , floral dresses and silk flannel shirts . Unfortunately , this did not sit well with the brand owners and Jacobs was dismissed . Other designers like Anna Sui , also drew inspiration from grunge during that Spring Summer 1993 season .
In the same year , Vogue did a spread called “ Grunge & Glory ” with fashion photographer Steven Miesel who shot supermodels Naomi Campbell and Kristen McMenamy in a savannah landscape wearing grunge @-@ styled clothing . This shoot made McMenamy the perfect face for grunge , having had her eyebrows shaved and her hair cropped short in the shoot . In later years , designers like Christian Lacroix , Donna Karen and Karl Lagerfeld interpreted the influence into their looks .
In 1993 , James Truman , editor of Details , said : “ to me the thing about grunge is it ’ s not anti @-@ fashion , it ’ s unfashion . Punk was anti @-@ fashion . It made a statement . Grunge is about not making a statement , which is why it ’ s crazy for it to become a fashion statement . ” It can be said that this generation X was reacting against the excessive glamour of the yuppies in the early ‘ 80s who were perhaps more driven , materialistic and successful in some way . The power suits of the eighties with the exaggerated silhouettes and well @-@ kept appearances of office workers contrasted with the slouchy casual silhouettes and unwashed long hair of the grunge bands . His unkempt fashion sense defined the look of the “ slacker generation ” , who “ skipped school , smoked pot , smoked cigarettes and listened to music ” hoping to be a rockstar one day .
Vogue stated in 2014 that " Cobain pulled liberally from both ends of a woman ’ s and a man ’ s wardrobe , and his Seattle thrift @-@ store look ran the gamut of masculine lumberjack workwear and 40s @-@ by @-@ way @-@ of @-@ 70s feminine dresses . It was completely counter to the shellacked , flashy aesthetic of the 1980s in every way . In disheveled jeans and floral frocks , he softened the tough exterior of the archetypal rebel from the inside out , and set the ball in motion for a radical , millennial idea of androgyny . " Cobain 's way of dressing " was the antithesis of the macho American man " , because he " ... made it cooler to look slouchy and loose , no matter if you were a boy or a girl . " Music and culture writer Julianne Escobedo Shepherd wrote that with Cobain 's style of dress “ [ n ] ot only did he make it okay to be a freak , he made it desirable . "
Even though the grunge movement died down in 1994 after the death of Kurt Cobain , designers have continued to draw inspiration from the movement from time to time . Grunge appeared as a trend again in 2008 and for Fall / Winter 2013 , Hedi Slimane at Saint Laurent brought back grunge to the runway . With Courtney Love as his muse for the collection , she reportedly loved the collection . " No offense to MJ [ Marc Jacobs ] but he never got it right , " Courtney said . " This is what it really was . Hedi knows his shit . He got it accurate , and MJ and Anna [ Sui ] did not . ” Both Cobain and Love apparently burnt the Perry Ellis collection they received from Marc Jacobs back in 1993 .
In 2016 , grunge makes an appearance with A $ AP Rocky , Rihanna and Kanye West reinventing grunge style by upscaling it . However , “ dressing grunge is no longer a badge of authenticity , though : the signifiers of rebellion ( Dr Martens boots , plaid shirts ) are omnipotent on the high street ” , says Lynette Nylander , deputy editor of i @-@ D magazine .
= = = Graphic design = = =
Regarding graphic design and image , a common feature of grunge bands was the use of lo @-@ fi and deliberately unconventional album covers , for example presenting intentionally murky or mis @-@ colored photography , collage or distressed lettering . This was already a common feature of punk rock design , but could be extended in the grunge period due to the increasing use of computers for desktop publishing and digital image processing . The style was sometimes called ' grunge typography ' when used outside music . A famous example of ' grunge ' -style experimental design was Ray Gun magazine , art directed by David Carson .
= = History = =
= = = Roots , predecessors and influences = = =
Grunge 's sound partly resulted from Seattle 's isolation from other music scenes . As Sub Pop 's Jonathan Poneman noted , " Seattle was a perfect example of a secondary city with an active music scene that was completely ignored by an American media fixated on Los Angeles and New York . " Mark Arm claimed that the isolation meant , " this one corner of the map was being really inbred and ripping off each other 's ideas " . Grunge evolved from the local punk rock scene , and was inspired by bands such as The Fartz , The U @-@ Men , 10 Minute Warning , The Accüsed , and the Fastbacks . Additionally , the slow , heavy , and sludgy style of the Melvins was a significant influence on the grunge sound .
Outside the Pacific Northwest , a number of artists and music scenes influenced grunge . Noise rock bands such as Scratch Acid and the Butthole Surfers influenced Nirvana . Alternative rock bands from the Northeastern United States , including Sonic Youth , Pixies , and Dinosaur Jr . , are important influences on the genre . Through their patronage of Seattle bands , Sonic Youth " inadvertently nurtured " the grunge scene , and reinforced the fiercely independent attitudes of its musicians . The influence of Pixies on Nirvana was noted by Kurt Cobain , who commented in a Rolling Stone interview , " I connected with that band so heavily that I should have been in that band — or at least a Pixies cover band . We used their sense of dynamics , being soft and quiet and then loud and hard . " In August 1997 , in an interview with Guitar World , Dave Grohl said : " From Kurt , Krist and I liking the Knack , Bay City Rollers , Beatles and Abba just as much as we liked Flipper and Black Flag ... You listen to any Pixies record and it 's all over there . Or even Black Sabbath 's " War Pigs " -it 's there : the power of the dynamic . We just sort of abused it with pop songs and got sick with it . "
Aside from the genre 's punk and alternative rock roots , many grunge bands were equally influenced by heavy metal of the early 1970s . Clinton Heylin , author of Babylon 's Burning : From Punk to Grunge , cited Black Sabbath as " perhaps the most ubiquitous pre @-@ punk influence on the northwest scene " . Black Sabbath played a role in shaping the grunge sound , through their own records and the records they inspired . Musicologist Bob Gulla asserted that Black Sabbath 's sound " shows up in virtually all of grunge 's most popular bands , including Nirvana , Soundgarden , and Alice in Chains " . The influence of Led Zeppelin is also evident , particularly in the work of Soundgarden , whom Q magazine noted were " in thrall to ' 70s rock , but contemptuous of the genre 's overt sexism and machismo " . Jon Wiederhorn of Guitar World wrote : " So what exactly is grunge ? ... Picture a supergroup made up of Creedence Clearwater Revival , Black Sabbath and the Stooges , and you 're pretty close . "
The Los Angeles hardcore punk band Black Flag 's 1984 record My War , on which the band combined heavy metal with their traditional sound , made a strong impact in Seattle . Mudhoney 's Steve Turner commented , " A lot of other people around the country hated the fact that Black Flag slowed down ... but up here it was really great ... we were like ' Yay ! ' They were weird and fucked @-@ up sounding . " Turner explained grunge 's integration of metal influences , noting , " Hard rock and metal was never that much of an enemy of punk like it was for other scenes . Here , it was like , ' There 's only twenty people here , you can 't really find a group to hate . ' " Bands began to mix metal and punk in the Seattle music scene around 1984 , with much of the credit for this fusion going to The U @-@ Men .
The raw , distorted and feedback @-@ intensive sound of some noise rock bands had an influence on grunge . Among them are Wisconsin 's Killdozer , and most notably San Francisco 's Flipper , a band known for its slowed @-@ down and murky " noise punk " . The Butthole Surfers ' mix of punk , heavy metal and noise rock was a major influence , particularly on the early work of Soundgarden . Several Australian bands , including The Scientists , Cosmic Psychos and feedtime , are cited as precursors to grunge , their music influencing the Seattle scene through the college radio broadcasts of Sub Pop founder Jonathan Poneman and members of Mudhoney .
After Neil Young played a few concerts with Pearl Jam and recorded the album Mirror Ball with them , some members of the media gave him the title " Godfather of Grunge " . This was grounded not only in his work with his band Crazy Horse and his regular use of distorted guitar — most notably on the album Rust Never Sleeps — but also his dress and persona . A similarly influential yet often overlooked album is Neurotica by Redd Kross , about which Jonathan Poneman said , " Neurotica was a life changer for me and for a lot of people in the Seattle music community . "
= = = Early development ( 1980s ) = = =
A seminal release in the development of grunge was the Deep Six compilation , released by C / Z Records in 1986 . The record featured multiple tracks by six bands : Green River , Soundgarden , Melvins , Malfunkshun , Skin Yard , and The U @-@ Men . For many of them it was their first appearance on record . The artists had " a mostly heavy , aggressive sound that melded the slower tempos of heavy metal with the intensity of hardcore " . As Jack Endino recalled , " People just said , ' Well , what kind of music is this ? This isn 't metal , it 's not punk , What is it ? ' [ ... ] People went ' Eureka ! These bands all have something in common . ' "
Later that year Bruce Pavitt released the Sub Pop 100 compilation and Green River 's Dry As a Bone EP as part of his new label , Sub Pop . An early Sub Pop catalog described the Green River EP as " ultra @-@ loose GRUNGE that destroyed the morals of a generation " . Sub Pop 's Bruce Pavitt and Jonathan Poneman , inspired by other regional music scenes in music history , worked to ensure that their label projected a " Seattle sound " , reinforced by a similar style of production and album packaging . While music writer Michael Azerrad acknowledged that early grunge bands like Mudhoney , Soundgarden , and Tad had disparate sounds , he noted " to the objective observer , there were some distinct similarities . "
Early grunge concerts were sparsely attended ( many by fewer than a dozen people ) but Sub Pop photographer Charles Peterson 's pictures helped create the impression that such concerts were major events . Mudhoney , which was formed by former members of Green River , served as the flagship band of Sub Pop during their entire time with the label and spearheaded the Seattle grunge movement . Other record labels in the Pacific Northwest that helped promote grunge included C / Z Records , Estrus Records , EMpTy Records and PopLlama Records .
Grunge attracted media attention in the United Kingdom after Pavitt and Poneman asked journalist Everett True from the British magazine Melody Maker to write an article on the local music scene . This exposure helped to make grunge known outside of the local area during the late 1980s and drew more people to local shows . The appeal of grunge to the music press was that it " promised the return to a notion of a regional , authorial vision for American rock " . Grunge 's popularity in the underground music scene was such that bands began to move to Seattle and approximate the look and sound of the original grunge bands . Mudhoney 's Steve Turner said , " It was really bad . Pretend bands were popping up here , things weren 't coming from where we were coming from . " As a reaction , many grunge bands diversified their sound , with Nirvana and Tad in particular creating more melodic songs . Dawn Anderson of the Seattle fanzine Backlash recalled that by 1990 many locals had tired of the hype surrounding the Seattle scene and hoped that media exposure had dissipated .
= = = Mainstream success ( early – mid 1990s ) = = =
Grunge bands had made inroads to the musical mainstream in the late 1980s . Soundgarden was the first grunge band to sign to a major label when they joined the roster of A & M Records in 1989 . Soundgarden , along with other major label signings Alice in Chains and Screaming Trees , performed " okay " with their initial major label releases , according to Jack Endino . Nirvana , originally from Aberdeen , Washington , was also courted by major labels , while releasing its first album Bleach in 1989 . Nirvana got signed by Geffen Records in 1990 . In September 1991 , Nirvana released its major label debut , Nevermind . The album was at best hoped to be a minor success on par with Sonic Youth 's Goo , which Geffen had released a year earlier . It was the release of the album 's first single " Smells Like Teen Spirit " that " marked the instigation of the grunge music phenomenon " . Due to constant airplay of the song 's music video on MTV , Nevermind was selling 400 @,@ 000 copies a week by Christmas 1991 . In January 1992 , Nevermind replaced pop superstar Michael Jackson 's Dangerous at number one on the Billboard 200 . Nevermind was certified diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in 1999 .
The success of Nevermind surprised the music industry . Nevermind not only popularized grunge , but also established " the cultural and commercial viability of alternative rock in general . " Michael Azerrad asserted that Nevermind symbolized " a sea @-@ change in rock music " in which the glam metal that had dominated rock music at that time fell out of favor in the face of music that was perceived as authentic and culturally relevant . Grunge made it possible for genres thought to be of a niche audience , no matter how radical , to prove their marketability and be co @-@ opted by the mainstream , cementing the formation of an individualist , fragmented culture . Other grunge bands subsequently replicated Nirvana 's success . Pearl Jam , which featured former Mother Love Bone members Jeff Ament and Stone Gossard , had released its debut album Ten in August 1991 , a month before Nevermind , but album sales only picked up a year later . By the second half of 1992 Ten had become a breakthrough success , being certified gold and reaching number two on the Billboard charts . Ten by Pearl Jam was certified 13x platinum by the RIAA .
Soundgarden 's album Badmotorfinger and Alice in Chains ' Dirt , along with the Temple of the Dog album collaboration featuring members of Pearl Jam and Soundgarden , were also among the 100 top selling albums of 1992 . The popular breakthrough of these grunge bands prompted Rolling Stone to nickname Seattle " the new Liverpool " . Major record labels signed most of the prominent grunge bands in Seattle , while a second influx of bands moved to the city in hopes of success . The grunge scene was the backdrop in the 1992 Cameron Crowe film Singles . There were several small roles , performances , and cameos in the film by popular Seattle grunge bands including Pearl Jam , Soundgarden , and Alice in Chains . Filmed in and around Seattle in 1991 , the film was not released until 1992 during the height of grunge popularity .
The popularity of grunge resulted in a large interest in the Seattle music scene 's perceived cultural traits . While the Seattle music scene in the late 1980s and early 1990s in actuality consisted of various styles and genres of music , its representation in the media " served to depict Seattle as a music ' community ' in which the focus was upon the ongoing exploration of one musical idiom , namely grunge " . The fashion industry marketed " grunge fashion " to consumers , charging premium prices for items such as knit ski hats and plaid shirts . Critics asserted that advertising was co @-@ opting elements of grunge and turning it into a fad . Entertainment Weekly commented in a 1993 article , " There hasn 't been this kind of exploitation of a subculture since the media discovered hippies in the ' 60s " . The New York Times compared the " grunging of America " to the mass @-@ marketing of punk rock , disco , and hip hop in previous years . Ironically the New York Times was tricked into printing a fake list of slang terms that were supposedly used in the grunge scene ; often referred to as the grunge speak hoax . This media hype surrounding grunge was documented in the 1996 documentary Hype ! .
A backlash against grunge began to develop in Seattle ; in late 1992 Jonathan Poneman said that in the city , " All things grunge are treated with the utmost cynicism and amusement [ . . . ] Because the whole thing is a fabricated movement and always has been . " Many grunge artists were uncomfortable with their success and the resulting attention it brought . Nirvana 's Kurt Cobain told Michael Azerrad , " Famous is the last thing I wanted to be . " Pearl Jam also felt the burden of success , with much of the attention falling on frontman Eddie Vedder .
Nirvana 's follow @-@ up album In Utero ( 1993 ) was an intentionally abrasive album that Nirvana bassist Krist Novoselic described as a " wild aggressive sound , a true alternative record " Nevertheless , upon its release in September 1993 In Utero topped the Billboard charts . In 1996 , In Utero was certified 5x platinum by the RIAA . Pearl Jam also continued to perform well commercially with its second album , Vs . ( 1993 ) . The album sold a record 950 @,@ 378 copies in its first week of release , topped the Billboard charts , and outperformed all other entries in the top ten that week combined . In 1993 , the grunge band Candlebox released their self @-@ titled album , which was certified 4x platinum by the RIAA . The album 's songs " You " and " Far Behind " reached the Billboard Hot 100 chart ; " You " peaked at number 78 on the chart and " Far Behind " peaked at number 18 on the chart . Soundgarden 's album Superunknown , which was released in 1994 , was certified 5x platinum by the RIAA . In 1995 , Alice in Chains ' self @-@ titled album peaked at number 1 on the Billboard 200 and was certified 2x platinum .
At the height of grunge 's commercial success in the early 1990s , the commercial success of grunge put record labels on a nationwide search for undiscovered talent to promote . This included San Diego , California @-@ based Stone Temple Pilots , Texas @-@ based Tripping Daisy and Toadies , Chicago @-@ based Veruca Salt , and Australian band Silverchair , bands whose early work continues to be identified broadly ( if not in Seattle itself ) as " grunge " . In 2014 , Paste Magazine ranked Veruca Salt 's " All Hail Me " # 39 and Silverchair 's " Tomorrow " # 45 on their list of the 50 best grunge songs of all time . Loudwire named Stone Temple Pilots one of the ten best grunge bands of all time .
During this period , acts promoted as " grunge " that were not from Seattle were often panned by critics , who accused them of being bandwagon @-@ jumpers . Stone Temple Pilots in particular fell victim to this . In a January 1994 Rolling Stone poll , Stone Temple Pilots was simultaneously voted " Best New Band " by Rolling Stone 's readers and " Worst New Band " by the magazine 's music critics , highlighting the disparity between critics and fans . Stone Temple Pilots became very popular ; their album Core was certified 8x platinum by RIAA and their album Purple was certified 6x platinum by the RIAA . The British band Bush released their debut album Sixteen Stone in 1994 . Described as grunge , the album was certified 6x platinum by the RIAA . The band 's second album Razorblade Suitcase , which was released in 1996 and peaked at number 1 on the Billboard 200 , was certified 3x platinum by the RIAA . In a review of Razorblade Suitcase , Rolling Stone criticized the album and called Bush " the most successful and shameless mimics of Nirvana 's music " . In the book Fargo Rock City : A Heavy Metal Odyssey in Rural North Dakota , Chuck Klosterman wrote , " Bush was a good band who just happened to signal the beginning of the end ; ultimately , they would became the grunge Warrant " . In the book Accidental Revolution : The Story of Grunge , Kyle Anderson wrote :
" The twelve songs on Sixteen Stone sound exactly like what grunge is supposed to sound like , while the whole point of grunge was that it didn 't really sound like anything , including itself . Just consider how many different bands and styles of music have been shoved under the " grunge " header in this discography alone , and you realize that grunge is probably the most ill @-@ defined genre of music in history . "
= = = Decline of mainstream popularity ( mid – late 1990s ) = = =
A number of factors contributed to grunge 's decline in prominence . During the latter half of the 1990s , grunge was supplanted by post @-@ grunge , which remained commercially viable into the start of the 21st century . These artists were seen as lacking the underground roots of grunge and were largely influenced by what grunge had become , namely " a wildly popular form of inward @-@ looking , serious @-@ minded hard rock " . Post @-@ grunge was a more commercially viable genre that tempered the distorted guitars of grunge with polished , radio @-@ ready production . Although the bands Bush and Candlebox have been categorized as grunge , both bands have been categorized as post @-@ grunge , too . Bush and Candlebox became popular after 1992 . Tim Grierson of About.com wrote about bands such as Bush and Candlebox , writing :
" Perhaps not surprisingly , because these bands seemed to be merely ripping off a trendy sound , critics dismissed them as bandwagon @-@ jumpers . Tellingly , these bands were labeled almost pejoratively as “ post @-@ grunge , ” suggesting that rather than being a musical movement in their own right , they were just a calculated , cynical response to a legitimate stylistic shift in rock music . "
Other bands categorized as post @-@ grunge that emerged when Bush and Candlebox emerged include Collective Soul and Live . Post @-@ grunge still was popular in the late 1990s and early 2000s with bands such as Creed , Nickelback , 3 Doors Down and Puddle of Mudd . These post @-@ grunge artists were criticized for their commercialized sound as well as their " worldview built around the comforts of community and romantic relationships " , as opposed to grunge 's lyrical exploration of " troubling issues such as suicide , societal hypocrisy and drug addiction . "
Conversely , another rock genre , Britpop , emerged in part as a reaction against the dominance of grunge in the United Kingdom . In contrast to the dourness of grunge , Britpop was defined by " youthful exuberance and desire for recognition " . Britpop artists were vocal about their disdain for grunge . In a 1993 NME interview , Damon Albarn of Britpop band Blur agreed with interviewer John Harris ' assertion that Blur was an " anti @-@ grunge band " , and said , " Well , that 's good . If punk was about getting rid of hippies , then I 'm getting rid of grunge " . Noel Gallagher of Oasis , while a fan of Nirvana , wrote music that refuted the pessimistic nature of grunge . Gallagher noted in 2006 that the 1994 Oasis single " Live Forever " " was written in the middle of grunge and all that , and I remember Nirvana had a tune called ' I Hate Myself and I Want to Die , ' and I was like ... ' Well , I 'm not fucking having that . ' As much as I fucking like him [ Cobain ] and all that shit , I 'm not having that . I can 't have people like that coming over here , on smack , fucking saying that they hate themselves and they wanna die . That 's fucking rubbish . "
During the mid @-@ 1990s many grunge bands broke up or became less visible . Kurt Cobain , labeled by Time as " the John Lennon of the swinging Northwest " , appeared " unusually tortured by success " and struggled with an addiction to heroin . Rumors surfaced in early 1994 that Cobain suffered a drug overdose and that Nirvana was breaking up . On April 8 , 1994 , Cobain was found dead in his Seattle home from an apparently self @-@ inflicted gunshot wound ; Nirvana summarily disbanded . That same year Pearl Jam canceled its summer tour in protest of what it regarded as ticket vendor Ticketmaster 's unfair business practices . Pearl Jam then began a boycott of the company ; however , Pearl Jam 's initiative to play only at non @-@ Ticketmaster venues effectively , with a few exceptions , prevented the band from playing shows in the United States for the next three years . In 1996 , Alice in Chains gave their final performances with their ailing and estranged lead singer , Layne Staley , who subsequently died from an overdose of cocaine and heroin in 2002 . In 1996 , Soundgarden and Screaming Trees released their final studio albums of the 1990s , Down on the Upside and Dust , respectively .
= = = Revival ( 21st century ) = = =
Many grunge bands have continued recording and touring with success . Perhaps the most notable grunge act of the 21st century has been Pearl Jam . In 2006 Rolling Stone writer Brian Hiatt described Pearl Jam as having " spent much of the past decade deliberately tearing apart their own fame " , he noted the band developed a loyal concert following akin to that of the Grateful Dead . They saw a return to wide commercial success with 2006 's Pearl Jam ( the band Pearl Jam 's self @-@ titled album ) , 2009 's Backspacer and 2013 's Lightning Bolt .
Despite Kurt Cobain 's demise , Nirvana has continued to be successful posthumously . Due to the high sales for Kurt Cobain 's Journals and the band 's best @-@ of compilation Nirvana upon their releases in 2002 , The New York Times argued Nirvana " are having more success now than at any point since Mr. Cobain 's suicide in 1994 . " This trend has continued through the century 's second decade , with the reissuing of the band 's discography and release of the authorized documentary " Kurt Cobain : Montage of Heck " .
Alice In Chains reformed for a handful of reunion dates in 2005 with several different vocalists replacing Layne Staley . Eventually settling on William Duvall as Staley 's replacement , in 2009 they released Black Gives Way to Blue , their first record in 15 years . The band 's 2013 release , The Devil Put Dinosaurs Here , reached number 2 on the Billboard 200 . Soundgarden reformed in 2010 and released their album King Animal two years later which reached the top five of the national albums charts in Denmark , New Zealand , and the United States . Matt Cameron and Ben Shepherd joined Alain Johannes ( Queens of the Stone Age , Eleven ) , Mark Lanegan ( Screaming Trees , Queens of the Stone Age ) and Dimitri Coats ( Off ! ) to form side project Ten Commandos in 2016 .
One of the most successful rock groups of the 21st Century , Queens of the Stone Age , has featured major contributions from various grunge musicians . Josh Homme had briefly played in Screaming Trees with off @-@ and @-@ on QOTSA member Mark Lanegan , before forming the group . Nirvana 's Dave Grohl and Eleven 's Alain Johannes have also provided notable contributions . Homme and Grohl joined with Led Zeppelin 's John Paul Jones to form the supergroup Them Crooked Vultures in 2009 . Johannes also performed with the group as a touring member .
In 2005 , The Seattle Times made note of grunge @-@ influenced groups returning in the Seattle scene . Similarly , The Guardian reported of grunge @-@ influenced groups from Yorkshire , including Dinosaur Pile @-@ Up , Pulled Apart by Horses , and Wonderswan . Also , in 2003 , the New York Times noted a resurgence in grunge fashion .
The 2010s have featured bands influenced by grunge . Unlike their forebears , some of these acts ascribe the label to themselves willingly . Many acts have been noted for affiliating and / or collaborating with prominent figures from the original alternative rock era . Steve Albini has produced for or worked with members of bands such as Bully , Vomitface , and Shannon Wright , while Emma
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the Edward Teller endowed professorship in his honor . In 1975 he retired from both the lab and Berkeley , and was named Director Emeritus of the Livermore Laboratory and appointed Senior Research Fellow at the Hoover Institution . After the fall of communism in Hungary in 1989 , he made several visits to his country of origin , and paid careful attention to the political changes there .
= = Global Climate Change = =
Teller was one of the first prominent people to raise the danger of climate change , driven by the burning of fossil fuels . At an address to the membership of the American Chemical Society in December 1957 , Teller warned that the large amount of carbon @-@ based fuel that had been burnt since the mid @-@ 19th century was increasing the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere , which would " act in the same way as a greenhouse and will raise the temperature at the surface " , and that he had calculated that if the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere increased by 10 % " an appreciable part of the polar ice might melt . "
Teller changed his mind , however , becoming the most prestigious signer of the Oregon Petition . The petition , drafted in 1998 , states , in part : “ There is no convincing scientific evidence that human release of carbon dioxide , methane , or other greenhouse gases is causing or will , in the foreseeable future , cause catastrophic heating of the Earth 's atmosphere and disruption of the Earth 's climate . ”
= = Operation Plowshare and Project Chariot = =
Teller was one of the strongest and best @-@ known advocates for investigating non @-@ military uses of nuclear explosives , which the United States explored under Operation Plowshare . One of the most controversial projects he proposed was a plan to use a multi @-@ megaton hydrogen bomb to dig a deep @-@ water harbor more than a mile long and half a mile wide to use for shipment of resources from coal and oil fields through Point Hope , Alaska . The Atomic Energy Commission accepted Teller 's proposal in 1958 and it was designated Project Chariot . While the AEC was scouting out the Alaskan site , and having withdrawn the land from the public domain , Teller publicly advocated the economic benefits of the plan , but was unable to convince local government leaders that the plan was financially viable .
Other scientists criticized the project as being potentially unsafe for the local wildlife and the Inupiat people living near the designated area , who were not officially told of the plan until March 1960 . Additionally , it turned out that the harbor would be ice @-@ bound for nine months out of the year . In the end , due to the financial infeasibility of the project and the concerns over radiation @-@ related health issues , the project was abandoned in 1962 .
A related experiment which also had Teller 's endorsement was a plan to extract oil from the tar sands in northern Alberta with nuclear explosions , titled Project Oilsands . The plan actually received the endorsement of the Alberta government , but was rejected by the Government of Canada under Prime Minister John Diefenbaker , who was opposed to having any nuclear weapons in Canada , although Canada had nuclear weapons , from a US nuclear sharing agreement , from 1963 to 1984 .
= = Nuclear technology and Israel = =
For some twenty years , Teller advised Israel on nuclear matters in general , and on the building of a hydrogen bomb in particular . In 1952 , Teller and Oppenheimer had a long meeting with David Ben @-@ Gurion in Tel Aviv , telling him that the best way to accumulate plutonium was to burn natural uranium in a nuclear reactor . Starting in 1964 , a connection between Teller and Israel was made by the physicist Yuval Ne 'eman , who had similar political views . Between 1964 and 1967 , Teller visited Israel six times , lecturing at Tel Aviv University , and advising the chiefs of Israel 's scientific @-@ security circle as well as prime ministers and cabinet members .
At each of his talks with members of the Israeli security establishment 's highest levels , he would make them swear that they would never be tempted into signing the Nuclear Non @-@ Proliferation Treaty . In 1967 when the Israeli nuclear program was nearing completion , Teller informed Neeman that he was going to tell the CIA that Israel had built nuclear weapons , and explain that it was justified by the background of the Six @-@ Day War . After Neeman cleared it with Prime Minister Levi Eshkol , Teller briefed the head of the CIA 's Office of Science and Technology , Carl Duckett . It took a year for Teller to convince the CIA that Israel had obtained nuclear capability ; the information then went through CIA Director Richard Helms to the president at that time , Lyndon B. Johnson . Teller also persuaded them to end the American attempts to inspect the Negev Nuclear Research Center in Dimona . In 1976 Duckett testified in Congress before the Nuclear Regulatory Commission , that after receiving information from " American scientist " , he drafted a National Intelligence Estimate ( NIE ) on Israel 's nuclear capability .
In the 1980s , Teller again visited Israel to advise the Israeli government on building a nuclear reactor . Three decades later , Teller confirmed that it was during his visits that he concluded that Israel was in possession of nuclear weapons . After conveying the matter to the U.S. government , Teller reportedly said : " They [ Israeli ] have it , and they were clever enough to trust their research and not to test , they know that to test would get them into trouble . "
= = Three Mile Island = =
Teller suffered a heart attack in 1979 , and blamed it on Jane Fonda , who had starred in The China Syndrome , which depicted a fictional reactor accident and was released less than two weeks before the Three Mile Island accident . She spoke out against nuclear power while promoting the film . After the accident , Teller acted quickly to lobby in favor of nuclear energy , testifying to its safety and reliability , and soon after one flurry of activity suffered the attack . He signed a two @-@ page @-@ spread ad in the July 31 , 1979 , Wall Street Journal with the headline " I was the only victim of Three @-@ Mile Island " . It opened with :
On May 7 , a few weeks after the accident at Three @-@ Mile Island , I was in Washington . I was there to refute some of that propaganda that Ralph Nader , Jane Fonda and their kind are spewing to the news media in their attempt to frighten people away from nuclear power . I am 71 years old , and I was working 20 hours a day . The strain was too much . The next day , I suffered a heart attack . You might say that I was the only one whose health was affected by that reactor near Harrisburg . No , that would be wrong . It was not the reactor . It was Jane Fonda . Reactors are not dangerous .
= = Strategic Defense Initiative = =
In the 1980s , Teller began a strong campaign for what was later called the Strategic Defense Initiative ( SDI ) , derided by critics as " Star Wars , " the concept of using ground and satellite @-@ based lasers , particle beams and missiles to destroy incoming Soviet ICBMs . Teller lobbied with government agencies — and got the approval of President Ronald Reagan — for a plan to develop a system using elaborate satellites which used atomic weapons to fire X @-@ ray lasers at incoming missiles — as part of a broader scientific research program into defenses against nuclear weapons .
Scandal erupted when Teller ( and his associate Lowell Wood ) were accused of deliberately overselling the program and perhaps had encouraged the dismissal of a laboratory director ( Roy Woodruff ) who had attempted to correct the error . His claims led to a joke which circulated in the scientific community , that a new unit of unfounded optimism was designated as the teller ; one teller was so large that most events had to be measured in nanotellers or picotellers .
Many prominent scientists argued that the system was futile . Hans Bethe , along with IBM physicist Richard Garwin and Cornell University colleague Kurt Gottfried , wrote an article in Scientific American which analyzed the system and concluded that any putative enemy could disable such a system by the use of suitable decoys that would cost a very small fraction of the SDI program .
In 1987 Teller published a book supporting civil defense and active protection systems such as SDI which was titled Better a Shield than a Sword and his views on the role of lasers in SDI were published , and are available , in two 1986 @-@ 7 laser conference proceedings .
= = Asteroid impact avoidance = =
At a 1995 meeting at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory ( LLNL ) in Calif . , Edward Teller proposed to a collective of U.S. and Russian ex @-@ Cold War weapons designers and space engineers the use of nuclear fusion warheads in diverting the paths of extinction event class asteroids . Edward Teller suggested the creation of an orbital platform for faster missile delivery . He further suggested the need for nuclear weapons more powerful than the Tsar Bomba for this purpose .
= = Death and legacy = =
Teller died in Stanford , California on September 9 , 2003 , at the age of 95 . He had suffered a stroke two days previous , and had long been suffering from a number of conditions related to his advanced age .
A wish for his 100th birthday , made around the time of his 90th , was for Lawrence Livermore 's scientists to give him " excellent predictions @-@ calculations and experiments @-@ about the interiors of the planets " .
In his early career , Teller made contributions to nuclear and molecular physics , spectroscopy ( the Jahn – Teller and Renner – Teller effects ) , and surface physics . His extension of Fermi 's theory of beta decay ( in the form of the so @-@ called Gamow – Teller transitions ) provided an important stepping stone in the applications of this theory . The Jahn – Teller effect and the BET theory have retained their original formulation and are still mainstays in physics and chemistry . Teller also made contributions to Thomas – Fermi theory , the precursor of density functional theory , a standard modern tool in the quantum mechanical treatment of complex molecules . In 1953 , along with Nicholas Metropolis and Marshall Rosenbluth , Teller co @-@ authored a paper which is a standard starting point for the applications of the Monte Carlo method to statistical mechanics .
Teller 's vigorous advocacy for strength through nuclear weapons , especially when so many of his wartime colleagues later expressed regret about the arms race , made him an easy target for the " mad scientist " stereotype . In 1991 he was awarded one of the first Ig Nobel Prizes for Peace in recognition of his " lifelong efforts to change the meaning of peace as we know it " . He was also rumored to be one of the inspirations for the character of Dr. Strangelove in Stanley Kubrick 's 1964 satirical film of the same name ( others speculated to be RAND theorist Herman Kahn , mathematician John von Neumann , rocket scientist Wernher von Braun , and Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara ) . In the aforementioned Scientific American interview from 1999 , he was reported as having bristled at the question : " My name is not Strangelove . I don 't know about Strangelove . I 'm not interested in Strangelove . What else can I say ? ... Look . Say it three times more , and I throw you out of this office . "
Nobel Prize winning physicist Isidor I. Rabi once suggested that " It would have been a better world without Teller . " In addition , Teller 's false claims that Stanislaw Ulam made no significant contribution to the development of the hydrogen bomb ( despite Ulam 's key insights of using compression and staging elements to generate the thermonuclear reaction ) and his personal attacks on Oppenheimer caused great animosity towards Teller within the general physics community .
In 1986 , he was awarded the United States Military Academy 's Sylvanus Thayer Award . He was elected a member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences in 1948 . He was a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , the American Association for the Advancement of Science , and the American Nuclear Society . Among the honors he received were the Albert Einstein Award in 1958 , the Enrico Fermi Award in 1962 , the Eringen Medal in 1980 , the Harvey Prize in 1975 , the National Medal of Science in 1983 , the Presidential Citizens Medal in 1989 , and the Corvin Chain in 2001 . He was also named as part of the group of " U.S. Scientists " who were Time magazine 's People of the Year in 1960 , and an asteroid , 5006 Teller , is named after him . He was awarded with the Presidential Medal of Freedom by President George W. Bush in 2003 , less than two months before his death . His final paper , published posthumously , advocated the construction of a prototype liquid fluoride thorium reactor .
= Halo 2 Original Soundtrack =
The Halo 2 Original Soundtrack is the soundtrack for Bungie 's 2004 video game Halo 2 . The soundtrack was released as two separate volumes , released almost two years apart . Volume 1 , released at the same time as Halo 2 on November 9 , 2004 , contains arranged instrumental pieces written by Martin O 'Donnell and his partner Michael Salvatori , as well as " inspired by " tracks from bands Incubus , Hoobastank and Breaking Benjamin . Volume 2 was released on April 25 , 2006 and contains all the game music arranged in a suite form .
O 'Donnell , who had previously composed the music for Bungie games such as Myth and Halo : Combat Evolved , sought to develop the " Halo sound " of the previous game as well as introduce new sounds and influences to the music . The music was based on what was happening in the game , rather than using leitmotifs or theme repetitively . The music was recorded in pieces with a fifty @-@ piece orchestra at Studio X in Seattle , Washington . To mark its release both Microsoft and Sumthing Else Music Works planned an aggressive marketing campaign .
Upon release , the music of Halo 2 was well received . Critics were split on the merits of Volume 1 , with some publications enjoying the bonus offerings while others felt the first volume lacked cohesion . Volume 2 was declared the " real " soundtrack to Halo 2 . Upon release both soundtracks became commercial successes , with more than 100 @,@ 000 copies sold . The soundtracks ' success was pointed to as a sign of increasing legitimacy of video game music in the entertainment industry . Halo 's music has since been played in concert settings , including Play ! A Video Game Symphony and Video Games Live .
= = Background = =
In the summer of 2004 , Halo 2 composer Martin O 'Donnell and album producer Nile Rodgers decided it would be a good idea to present Halo 2 's music in two distinct volumes . The first volume would contain the game 's themes that were finished and mixed as well as " inspired @-@ by " offerings from other artists . The first volume was released alongside the video game as Volume 1 on November 9 of the same year . As the soundtrack was finished before all the in @-@ game music was completed , none of the tracks written by O 'Donnell appear in Halo 2 in the same arrangement . The bands featured in Volume 1 , including Breaking Benjamin and Incubus , were enthusiastic about adding music to the soundtrack . Incubus was tapped to produce a suite of music which appears scattered throughout the soundtrack as four movements . Incubus guitarist Mike Einziger said that " Halo is the only video game that ever inspired us to write a whole suite [ of music ] . "
The first pieces of music O 'Donnell wrote for Halo 2 were promotional in nature ; O 'Donnell scored the cinematic announcement trailer for Halo 2 on August 2 , 2002 , and followed up with interactive music for the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2003 Halo 2 demo . O 'Donnell confirmed that the chanting monks of Halo : Combat Evolved 's choral theme , along with additional guitars by Steve Vai , would return in Halo 2 . O 'Donnell noted that the new setting of Africa prompted him to look at " Afro @-@ Cuban " influences , but most of this type of music did not make it to the final product . Rather than write for locations or use leitmotifs for all the different characters in what O 'Donnell called a " Peter and the Wolf approach to music " , O 'Donnell wrote " sad music for sad moments , scary music to score the scary bits and so forth . " Recurring themes developed more by accident than planning . Recording of orchestrated music was completed over several sessions with the Northwest Sifonia orchestra at Studio X in Seattle , Washington .
Nile Rodgers produced both volumes of the soundtrack , in addition to writing and performing the track " Never Surrender " in collaboration with songwriter / remixer Nataraj . Rodgers himself is a video game player , noting in an interview that " 30 % to 40 % of the [ recording ] budget was spent in downtime playing video games . Since all that money was going to that part of the recording session , I decided to figure out what was so compelling about it , and I got hooked [ by the game ] . "
Due to legal issues , the second Halo 2 soundtrack containing the entire finished score , Volume 2 , was not released until more than a year after the soundtrack had been mixed and mastered . The volume 's music is formatted in a ' suite ' structure that corresponds with the chapters within the game , or order to create a " music representation " of the video game . O 'Donnell stated that this presentation of the music as a concept album was natural because the overall story and atmosphere of Halo 2 directly influenced the sound to begin with .
= = Promotion = =
The first volume of the Halo 2 Original Soundtrack was specifically timed to coincide with the launch of the video game , to cash in on the " Halo effect " ; players would go to buy the game and get the soundtrack and other merchandise by association . The first several million copies of the game sold all contained promotional inserts for the soundtrack . The soundtrack was seen as an integral part of the marketing and merchandise push Microsoft planned for Halo 2 . The soundtrack 's publisher , Sumthing Distribution , also planned and executed an aggressive marketing campaign , including special music listening stations and side @-@ by @-@ side soundtrack and game placement at participating retailers . The " Halo Theme MJOLNIR Mix " , the first track on Volume 1 , was released on November 22 , 2007 as a free track for Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock on the Xbox 360 .
= = Reception = =
Upon release , the reaction to Halo 2 's score was generally positive . Reception for the two soundtrack releases , however , varied . Volume 1 's inclusion of other artists in addition to original music received both praise and criticism . Mike Brennan Soundtrack.net 's review claimed that the inclusion of Hoobastank and Breaking Benjamin as well as Incubus made the soundtrack " more harsh " sounding but overall lacked cohesion . On the other hand , G4 TV found the four @-@ part Odyssey by Incubus comprised " a progressive rock / fusion jam the likes of which haven 't been recorded since the 1970s . "
Nuketown.com declared that Volume 2 was the soundtrack that fans had been waiting for ; other publications agreed , saying that it " feels like the real soundtrack to Halo 2 " . IGN found the soundtrack ultimately enjoyable , but felt that the more traditional orchestration that appeared in Halo 2 clashed with the ambient and electronic sounds that had appeared before , making the album " divided " .
Overall , the Halo 2 soundtracks sold well . Volume 1 sold more than 100 @,@ 000 copies , and peaked at the number 162 position of the Billboard 200 , the first video game soundtrack to ever enter the chart . This compares favorably to typical movie soundtracks , which generally sell no more than 10 @,@ 000 copies . The Halo 2 Original Soundtrack 's success was pointed to as a sign of increasing legitimacy of video game music in the entertainment industry , which had graduated from " simple beeps " to complex melodies with big budgets .
= = Track listings = =
= = = Volume 1 = = =
= = = Volume 2 = = =
All music composed by Martin O 'Donnell , Michael Salvatori .
= = Personnel = =
All information is taken from the CD credits .
Martin O 'Donnell ( ASCAP ) – composer
Michael Salvatori ( ASCAP ) – composer
Simon James – concert master / contractor
Christian Knapp – Northwest Sinfonia conductor
Marcie O 'Donnell – choir conductor
Nile Rodgers – producer
Nile Rodgers , Michael Ostin - music co @-@ supervisors
Lorraine McLees - album art director
= Wicked Priest =
Wicked Priest ( Hebrew : הכהן הרשע ; Romanized Hebrew : ha @-@ kōhēn hā @-@ rāš 'ā ) is a sobriquet used in the Dead Sea scrolls pesharim , four [ 1 ] times in the Habakkuk Commentary ( 1QpHab ) and once in the Commentary on Psalm 37 ( 4QpPsa ) , to refer to an opponent of the " Teacher of Righteousness . " It has been suggested [ 2 ] that the phrase is a pun on " ha @-@ kōhēn hā @-@ rōš " , as meaning " the High Priest " , but this is not the proper term for the High Priest . He is generally identified with a Hasmonean ( Maccabean ) High Priest or Priests . However , his exact identification remains controversial , and has been called " one of the knottiest problems connected with the Dead Sea Scrolls . "
The most commonly argued @-@ for single candidate is Jonathan Maccabaeus , followed by Simon Maccabaeus ; the widespread acceptance of this view , despite its acknowledged weaknesses , has been dubbed the " Jonathan consensus . " More recently , some scholars have argued that the sobriquet does not refer to only one individual . Most notably the " Groningen Hypothesis " advanced by García Martinez and van der Woude , argues for a series of six Wicked Priests .
= = Background = =
The Habakkuk Commentary ( 1QpHab ) was one of the original seven Dead Sea Scrolls discovered in 1947 and published in 1951 . The thirteen @-@ column scroll is a pesher , or " interpretation " , of the Book of Habakkuk . The Commentary on Psalm 37 is one of the three pesharim on the Book of Psalms and the only other Dead Sea scroll to use the sobriquet . Psalm 37 has been said to have " the strongest literary and thematic links " with the Book of Habakkuk , compared to the other Psalms , and the language of Psalm 37 is borrowed by the Habakkuk pesherist in the commentary on Hab . 2 : 17 . The similar language and themes of the Commentaries on Habakkuk and Psalm 37 have been suggested as evidence of common authorship , or at least similar interpretive methods .
Radiocarbon dating tests conducted on 1QpHab and 4QpPsa at the Arizona Accelerator Mass Spectrometry Facility gave a one standard deviation confidence interval of 104 @-@ 43 BCE and a two sigma confidence interval of 120 @-@ 5 BCE ( 97 % ) ; for 4QpPsa ( 4Q171 ) the one standard deviation confidence interval was 22 @-@ 78 CE and the two sigma confidence interval was 5 @-@ 111 CE . Earlier paleographic dating of 1QpHab indicated a date range of 30 @-@ 1 BCE .
The prediction of column 7 of 1QpHab that " the final age shall be prolonged " is sometimes interpreted to mean that the Habakkuk Commentary was written approximately 40 years after the death of the Teacher of Righteousness — the time when the final age should have ended , according to the Damascus Document .
= = Text = =
= = Description = =
The references to the Wicked Priest have been divided into three overlapping themes : violence against the Teacher of Righteousness and his followers , cultic transgressions and non @-@ observance , and divine punishment against the Wicked Priest for these acts .
= = = Role in the history of the Qumran community = = =
Many scholars have gleaned from this passage that the Wicked Priest and the Teacher of Righteousness followed different liturgical calendars , thus enabling the Wicked Priest to travel on Yom Kippur ; some have even suggested that the Teacher of Righteousness was a schismatic High Priest during the pre @-@ Jonathan intersacerdotium .
= = = " Illegitimate Priest " = = =
Several scholars have interpreted the sobriquest of " Wicked Priest " as meaning " Illegitimate Priest , " i.e. not of Zadokite lineage . Some interpret 1QpHab 8 @.@ 9 @-@ 10 — that the Wicked Priest was " called by the name of truth when he first arose " — as the initial acceptance of the Wicked Priest by the Qumran community , before Jonathan combined the diarchy of the Kingship and the Priesthood . The " Groningen Hypothesis " also follows this interpretation , based not on evidence from the pesharim but rather from external sources , namely 1 and 2 Maccabees and Josephus
Other scholars , however , argue that hereditary illegitimacy is not listed among the indiscretions of the Wicked Priest , and that this interpretation has been foisted upon the text by decades of questionable interpretation . Collins argues further that there is no evidence in the Community Rule or the Damascus Document to support the view that the Qumran community was concerned with the legitimacy of a non @-@ Zadokite High Priest .
= = Other possible references = =
Suggested equivalents of the Wicked Priest are scattered throughout the pesharim . 4QTestimonia ( 4Q175 ) mentions " an accursed man , one of Belial " who — with his sons as accomplices — spilt blood " on the breastwork of Lady Zion . " Some scholars consider 4QTestimonia a reference to the Wicked Priest , arguing that it fits Simon , who was murdered with his two sons : Judas and Mattathias .
The Nahum Commentary ( 4Q169 ) contains numerous explicit references to historical figures , including Alexander Jannaeus , the " furious young lion " who takes revenge on the " seekers of smooth things " for inviting " Demetrius " to conquer Jerusalem . Vermes regards the Nahum Commentary as describing " an age following that of the Teacher of Righteousness and the Wicked Priest , " but interprets the " furious young lion " of 4QpHos 2 : 2 @-@ 3 as " the last Priest . " The liturgical calendar of 4Q322 , 324a @-@ b also drops some names associated with various proposed Wicked Priests . The " scoffers " in Jerusalem from 4QpIsab have also been suggested as followers of the Wicked Priest .
= = = The Liar = = =
Some scholars do not differentiate between the Wicked Priest and the Liar ( " Man of the Lie " , Iysh Hakkazav ) , another sobriquet used in 1QpHab . For example , the description of the liar building " his city of vanity with blood " ( 1QpHab 10 @.@ 10 ) has been marshaled another clue to the identity of the Wicked Priest .
The best evidence for distinguishing between the two figures is that the Liar is always associated with " false doctrine and the act of misleading " whereas the Wicked Priest is associated with " cultic transgressions and non @-@ observance . " Indeed , such a separation has been suggested even without recourse to sources outside the Commentary on Habakkuk .
= = Proposed identifications = =
Since the time of de Vaux , the default assumption has been that the Wicked Priest is a single individual , if only because of the appealing parallelism to the Teacher of Righteousness . The consensus time period for the founding of Qumran ( 150 @-@ 140 BCE ) includes five High Priests : three Hellenized and two Maccabean : Jason , Menelaus , Alcimus , Jonathan , and Simon , and also the various figures potentially associated with the intersacerdotium .
Various early theories situated the Wicked Priest within time periods running the full gamut from the pre @-@ Hasmonaean period , to that of early Christianity , to that of the Crusades . However , that the Wicked Priest " ruled over Israel " ( 1QpHab 8 @.@ 10 ) and was able to partake in " plundering " ( 9 @.@ 7 ) has persuaded most scholars to exclude from consideration the predecessors of the Hasmonean High Priests , who did not share their ability to attack other nations militarily , having been militarily subjugated to Egypt or Syria , and their successors , who were dominated by the Romans . To a lesser extent , that the Wicked Priest was once called " by the name of the truth " ( 8 @.@ 8 @-@ 9 ) is used to disqualify the pre @-@ Maccabean , Hellenized High Priests , who were not held in high regard by their coreligionists .
Similarly , post @-@ Hasmonean High Priests have not received much serious attention because the " Kittim " ( identifiable as the Romans due to the distinct practice of " sacrifice to their standards " attested to in 1QpHab 6 @.@ 6 ) are referred to in the imperfect and none of the characters associated with the beginning of the Qumran community would have come into contact with the Romans
The " Maccabean theory " — as advanced by Cross , Milik , and Vermes — traditionally identifies the Wicked Priest as either Jonathan or Simon .
= = = Jonathan = = =
Jonathan is the most commonly identified single candidate for the identity of the Wicked Priest . The most popularly accepted piece of evidence for the identification of Jonathan is his " death at the hands of the Gentiles , " a characteristic shared only by Menelaus ( 172 @-@ 162 BCE ) , who is generally chronologically excluded . 1 Maccabees 13 recounts the capture and execution of Jonathan at Bascama ( in modern Jordan ) by Diodotus Tryphon , the general of Seleucid King Alexander Balas , which some have attempted to fit with this incident . However , there is no compelling textual basis that the " enemies " who " took vengeance on this body of flesh " ( 1QpHab 9 @.@ 2 ) need be Gentiles . Nor can Jonathan be accurately said to have died of " disease . "
The so @-@ called " King Jonathan Fragment " ( 4Q448 ) has been used both to argue against his identification or for it by connecting it to the Wicked Priest to having been originally " called by the name of truth . "
= = = Alexander Jannaeus = = =
Alexander Jannaeus died , according to Josephus , of quartan fever and alcoholism , which has been compared to the references to " disease " and " drunkenness " of the Wicked Priest . Jannaeus also may lay claim to the " delivered into the hands of his enemies " passage because , according to Jewish Antiquities ( 13 : 13 @.@ 5 ) , he succumbed to an ambush by " Obedas , the King of the Arabs " before escaping to Jerusalem . The same passage has also been suggested as a pun on Jannaeus ’ s verbose moniker ( as attested to by contemporary coins , pictured ) — Yehonathan ( " Yahweh gave " ) , often shorted as Yannai — a pun which allegedly also occurs in 1QpHab 10 @.@ 3 @-@ 5 .
Jannaeus ’ s " fortification , or beautification " of Jerusalem has been compared to the Wicked Priest 's illicit building activities . The Wicked Priests pursuit of the Teacher of Righteousness to the " house of his exile " ( 1QpHab 11 @.@ 6 ) on the " Day of Atonement " ( 11 @.@ 7 @-@ 8 ) has also been compared to Jannaeus ’ s known attack on the Pharisees on the Feast of Tabernacles .
= = = Antigonus Mattathias = = =
Antigonus Mattathias was proposed as the figure of the Wicked Priest in 2013 by Gregory Doudna . Antigonus was the last Hasmonean king of Israel , executed by the Romans in 37 BCE .
Doudna also proposes that Hyrcanus II was seen as the Teacher of Righteousness . According to Doudna , Hyrcanus II ’ s sectarian orientation is now generally understood to have been Sadducee ; whereas Antigonus was more sympathetic towards the Pharisees .
= = = Multiple Wicked Priests = = =
Several scholars argue that there is no one High Priest who is the strongest candidate for identification with each of the Wicked Priest passages . The different demises of the Wicked Priest and the tenses associated with them are often cited as evidence of the impossibility of a single Wicked Priest .
Biblical examples of a title applied to a series of successors include Daniel 11 , [ 3 ] where " King of the North " and " King of the South " can apply to multiple Seleucid and Ptolemaic kings , respectively ; other potential sobriquets and titles in the pesharim that can refer to a multiplicity of people include : the " Teacher of Righteousness " ( both the founder and future eschatological teacher of the Qumran community ) , the " Searcher of the Law " ( both the Teacher of Righteousness and another eschatological figure ) , and " Anointed " ( both past prophets and future priests or kings ) .
= = = = Groningen hypothesis = = = =
The " Groningen hypothesis " advanced by Florentino García Martinez , later together with A.S. van der Woude , interprets columns 8 to 12 of 1QpHab as describing six Wicked Priests in chronological ( but not absolute , sequential order as Aristobulus I is excluded ) . The six " Groningen " High Priests are : Judas Maccabeus ( 8 @.@ 8 @-@ 13 ) , Alcimus ( 8 @.@ 16 @-@ 9 @.@ 2 ) , Jonathan ( 9 @.@ 9 @-@ 12 ) , Simon ( 9 @.@ 16 @-@ 10 @.@ 5 ) , John Hyrcanus I ( 11 @.@ 4 @-@ 8 ) , and Alexander Jannaeus ( 11 @.@ 12 @-@ 12 @.@ 10 ) . The pontificate of Alexander Jannaeus was to overlap with the writing of the Habakkuk Commentary but not the life of the Teacher of Righteousness .
The " Groningen hypothesis " argues that relative clauses and the perfect are used to describe ( and disambiguate ) the first five Wicked Priests , while an absolute clause and the imperfect are used to describe the sixth Wicked Priest . However , Lim contends that this requires the granting of " a number of debatable changes to the text , " and argues that the relative pronoun is used in the final columns in relation to the " sixth " Wicked Priest . Furthermore , the " second " and " fourth " Wicked Priests are not explicitly referred to as such in the Habakkuk Commentary but rather " the priest who rebelled " ( 8 @.@ 16 ) and " the [ Priest ] who … " ( 9 @.@ 16 ) , respectively .
The positing of Judas as the " first " Wicked Priest is attested to in Josephus ( JA 12 : 4 @.@ 14 , 19 , 34 ) , but later contradicted ( 20 : 10 @.@ 3 ) , and precluded by 1 Maccabees 9 , which states that Judas died before Alcimus . Van der Woude reverts to 1 Maccabees 9 for the order of the High Priests . John Hyrcanus I is assigned the role of the " fifth " Wicked Priest — the one who pursues the Teacher of Righteousness to his house of exile — merely because it fits the preconceived sequence and in the absence of any documentary evidence . John Hyrcanus I is chosen over Aristobulus I only because of the shortness of the latter ’ s reign .
= = = Other = = =
Alternative identifications of the Wicked Priest include Ananus ben Ananus ( cf . Robert Eisenman ) . and Jesus ( cf . Barbara Thiering )
= Saitō Hajime ( Rurouni Kenshin ) =
Saitō Hajime ( 斎藤 一 ) , known as Hajime Saito in the English @-@ language anime dubs , is a fictional character from the Rurouni Kenshin manga and anime series created by Nobuhiro Watsuki . Being a fan of the Shinsengumi , Watsuki created Saitō as an anti @-@ heroic foil to Himura Kenshin , the main character of the story , while basing him on the real life Shinsengumi member of the same name .
Set during a fictional version of Japan in the Meiji period , Saitō , known as the " Mibu no Okami " ( 壬生の狼 ? , lit . " Wolf of Mibu " ) , is the former third squad captain of the Shinsengumi , a pro @-@ shogunate force . During the Bakumatsu , he had a long time rivalry with Himura Kenshin , an assassin of the Imperialist cause . In the series , he is initially introduced as an antagonist who encounters and once again duels with Kenshin . It is later revealed that Saitō , who had only been testing Kenshin 's strength , is now a spy agent working for the Meiji Government . After the reveal , Saitō becomes one of the main protagonists of the series , forming an uneasy alliance with Kenshin .
Saitō appears in the featured movies of the series , as well as the original video animation ( OVA ) series and other media relating to the franchise , including a wide range of electronic games . He has also been one of the most popular characters of the Rurouni Kenshin series , ranking near the top of the series ' popularity polls . His character is featured in various types of merchandising developed for the series , such as figurines and key @-@ chains . Several anime and manga publications have commented on Saitō 's character .
= = Creation and conception = =
Nobuhiro Watsuki based Saitō Hajime on the actual historic figure of the same name who was the captain of the third squad of the Shinsengumi in the Meiji era . Watsuki altered the character to a higher degree than the other historic figures who appear in Rurouni Kenshin since the character Saitō has a greater role in the story than the other characters . In the development of Rurouni Kenshin Watsuki planned for Saitō to be a " dirty " hero who maintains his " Swift Death to Evil " policy and does not become friendly with Kenshin 's group , being rather aloof to them . Hajime has no specific model for his design . Since Watsuki intended for the character Saitō to be a villain , he made the character 's face " villain @-@ ish . "
Watsuki considers Saitō as the " curse " of the villains in the series since he defeats the enemies who consider themselves the strongest . Watsuki came up with the idea of the Gatotsu sword technique that Saitō uses in the series from the fact that the historical figure 's favorite move was the " left single @-@ handed thrust , " or hirazuki , a technique mainly for slashing downward , stabbing , and thrusts . Watsuki gave Saitō 's left @-@ handed technique the name " Gatotsu " to fit with the action comic theme .
In July 2006 , the Japanese publishers of Rurouni Kenshin released the kanzenban edition . In the sixth kanzenban volume , Watsuki included a draft page featuring a redesigned appearance of Saitō 's character .
In the anime adaptation of Rurouni Kenshin , Watsuki 's designs of Saitō were combined with the talents of voice actor Hirotaka Suzuoki , who also voiced Saitō in the original video animations and Rurouni Kenshin : The Motion Picture . However , due to Suzuoki 's death in 2006 , he was replaced by Ken Narita as the new voice actor for Saitō in the two @-@ part Rurouni Kenshin : New Kyoto Arc movies .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In Rurouni Kenshin = = =
Saitō Hajime , known as the " Mibu no Okami " ( 壬生の狼 ? , lit . " Wolf of Mibu " ) , is the former captain of the third squad of the Shinsengumi , a loyalist force of the Tokugawa shogunate . A powerful and ruthless swordsman , Saitō lives by the code " Aku Soku Zan " ( 悪即斬 ? , Swift Death to Evil ) , and frequently fights using the Gatotsu , a special left @-@ handed stab variant of the Hirazuki technique of the Shinsengumi , and its different stances . During his time in the Shinsengumi , he was a close associate of fellow Shinsengumi member and first squad captain Okita Sōji , and also developed a rivalry with the pro @-@ Imperialist Himura Kenshin . At the end of the Bakumatsu , the pro @-@ shogunate forces were ultimately defeated and Saitō was forced to go into hiding . He later changed his name to Fujita Gorō ( 藤田 五郎 ) and started working for the Meiji Government as a spy agent . Saitō is also married to a woman named Tokio ( 時尾 ) , who does not appear in the story .
In his introduction in the series , Saitō attacks and seriously injures Sagara Sanosuke . Saitō has been hired by Shibumi , a corrupt politician , to kill Kenshin ; thus , his attack on Sanosuke serving as a warning to Kenshin . While Kenshin is dueling Shibumi 's assassin Akamatsu Arundo , Saitō appears at the Kamiya dojo , using his alias " Fujita Gorō " , and poses as a police officer who urgently needs to speak with Kenshin . When Kenshin returns , upon recognizing Saitō , he reveals Saitō 's true identity as the former Shinsengumi third squad captain . They fight , and just as they are about to kill each other , Ōkubo Toshimichi appears and stops the duel , revealing that Saitō was only testing Kenshin 's abilities to see if he was skilled enough to face Shishio Makoto . Having revealed his true allegiance with Ōkubo , Saitō postpones the duel , and leaves to kill Shibumi and Arundo .
Saitō then travels to Kyoto to fight Shishio under government orders . Along with Kenshin and Sanosuke , he assaults Shishio 's battleship , the Purgatory . Accepting Shishio 's challenge to fight on Mount Hiei , Saitō kills Uonuma Usui , one of the Ten Swords , and later ambushes Shishio , almost , but failing to kill him as Shishio had been wearing a hachigane ( iron headband ) . Months later , Saitō is sent to arrest Yukishiro Enishi and he helps Kenshin fight against The Six Comrades , defeating Yatsume Mumyōi . He also fights against the first of the four Sū @-@ shin guards of Woo Heishin , Enishi 's second @-@ in @-@ command , and defeats him . Afterwards , Saitō is transferred to work in another location after rejecting the continuation of his duel with Kenshin . Five years after the end of series , it is revealed that Saitō continues to work for the government .
= = = In other media = = =
In the movie Rurouni Kenshin : The Motion Picture , Saitō is assigned by the government to stop the samurai Takimi Shigure from overthrowing the Meiji Government as an act of revenge . He also receives assistance from Himura Kenshin to protect a foreign minister from the rebels . Saitō makes an appearance in the two @-@ part New Kyoto Arc movies , where some of his scenes and fights from the manga series are altered and removed .
Saitō also appears in both of the original video animation ( OVA ) series . In Rurouni Kenshin : Trust & Betrayal , his role and activities as a Shinsengumi captain during the Bakumatsu are depicted . As a result of his involvement in the Ikedaya Affair , he and his Shinsengumi comrades successfully prevent the burning of Kyoto by an extremist faction of the Ishin Shishi . His interactions with Okita Sōji as well as his first encounter with Himura Kenshin are also shown . Saitō has very brief cameo appearance in a flashback scene of Rurouni Kenshin : Reflection .
Saitō is also a playable character in the Rurouni Kenshin video games . He also appears in Jump Super Stars and Jump Ultimate Stars , but not as a playable character .
= = Reception = =
The character of Saitō has been well received by manga readers and as the series continued he went on to become one of the most popular characters among the Rurouni Kenshin reader base , having consistently placed near the top of the Weekly Shōnen Jump character popularity polls of the series , ranking third in the last two . He has also ranked second in the " Who is the best enemy of Kenshin ? " poll featuring all Kenshin 's opponents . Two polls by the official Rurouni Kenshin anime featured Saitō as one of the series ' most popular characters . In the " Favorite Character Then " poll , Saitō was ranked third , while in the " Favorite Character Now " he was also placed third . Saitō 's design initially received negative feedback from Shinsengumi fans who believed that Saitō had a more handsome face than the face Watsuki used . Watsuki also recalled that one of the complaints criticized Saitō 's selling of " Ishida powdered medicine " from the Hijikata family . Later , Watsuki was pleased with the fact that Saitō 's popularity with fans increased as the story progressed . A plethora of merchandise have been released in Saitō 's likeness including figurines , keychains and wall scroll posters .
Several anime and manga publications have provided praise for Saitō . His fight scenes in the series , in particular , have also been acclaimed . While reviewing the volume 7 from the manga , Mania Entertainment writer Megan Lavey applauded the fight between Himura Kenshin and Saito Hajime at the Kamiya Dojo as the " high spot of the [ Kyoto Arc ] high spot " . In the volume 14 review for the manga , Lavey described the end of the fight between Saitō and Usui as " very gruesome and not for the faint of heart " . In the DVD volume 7 review for the anime , Mania Entertainment 's Chris Beveridge described the fight scene between Saitō and Kenshin as " definitely choreographed well " . He praised " the viciousness in the attacks , masked under their cold calculating facade " as being " wonderfully done , providing a real feel for these ultimate killers " . His appearance in the OVAs has also received praise . Mike Crandol of Anime News Network states that during the character 's brief appearances in the Rurouni Kenshin : Reflection OVA series , he appears to be " truly menacing . " Mark A. Grey of Anime News Network said that the song " Hoeru Miburo ( Howling Wolf of Mibu ) " in the anime series " perfectly " represents the character .
= Boricua Popular Army =
The Boricua Popular / People 's Army - or Ejército Popular Boricua in Spanish - is a clandestine organization based in Puerto Rico , with cells in the U.S. mainland . It campaigns for , and supports , the independence of Puerto Rico from the United States . In 2001 , FBI Director Louis J. Freeh linked the group to acts of terrorism , but some authors , including Ronald Fernandez , view such labeling as political convenience by the United States Government , intended to " shift the blame for any attacks on U.S. policy or personnel from us to them " .
Also known as Los Macheteros ( " The Machete Wielders " ) and the Puerto Rican Popular Army , their active membership was calculated in 2006 by professor Michael González Cruz , in his book Nacionalismo Revolucionario Puertorriqueño , to consist of approximately 5 @,@ 700 members with an additional unknown number of supporters , sympathizers , collaborators and informants throughout the U.S. and other countries . A report by The Economist placed the number of active members at 1 @,@ 100 , excluding supporters . The group claimed responsibility for the 1978 bombing of a small power station in the San Juan area , the 1979 retaliation attacks against the United States armed forces personnel , the 1981 attacks on Puerto Rico Air National Guard aircraft , and a 1983 Wells Fargo bank robbery .
Boricua Popular Army was led primarily by former FBI fugitive Filiberto Ojeda Ríos until his killing by the FBI in 2005 . Ojeda Rios 's killing was termed " an illegal killing " by the Government of Puerto Rico 's Comision de Derechos Civiles ( Civil Rights Commission ) after a 7 @-@ year investigation and a 227 @-@ page report issued on 22 September 2011 .
= = History = =
The name Machetero evokes images of an impromptu band of Puerto Ricans who assembled to defend the island of Puerto Rico from the invading forces of the United States Army during the Spanish – American War , between July 26 and August 12 , 1898 . Macheteros de Puerto Rico were dispatched throughout the island , working in cooperation with other voluntary groups including the Guardias de la Paz in Yauco and Tiradores de Altura in San Juan . These voluntary units were involved in most of the battles in the Puerto Rican Campaign . Their last involvement was in the Battle of Asomante , where along units led by Captain Hernaíz , defended Aibonito Pass from invading units . The allied offensive was effective , prompting a retreat order from the American side . However , the following morning the signing of the Treaty of Paris was made public . Subsequently , both Spanish and Puerto Rican soldiers and volunteers disengaged and Puerto Rico was annexed by the United States .
The Boricua Popular Army was organized in the 1970s by Filiberto Ojeda Ríos , Juan Enrique Segarra @-@ Palmer and Orlando González Claudio . The group began its operations in 1976 , however it can trace its origins back to the Armed Forces of National Liberation ( FALN ) .
Upon its beginnings , the group attracted a wide variety of Puerto Rican independence supporters , including some of the members of the University Pro @-@ Independence Federation of Puerto Rico ( FUPI ) and the Pro @-@ Independence Movement .
= = = Under Ojeda Ríos ' command = = =
In August 1978 , the group accepted responsibility for the murder of San Juan police officer Julio Rodríguez Rivera while attempting to steal his police car .
In 1979 , two attacks were made on unarmed US Navy technicians . In the first , on December 3 , Macheteros opened fire on a bus carrying sailors to Naval Security Group Activity Sabana Seca , killing CTO1 John R. Ball and RM3 Emil E. White , as well as wounding nine others . A second attack , on off @-@ duty sailors returning from liberty , killed one and wounded three . The attack was in retaliation for the murder in a prison of a member of the Macheteros by the prison guards who were retired Marines .
On January 12 , 1981 , in the 1981 Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport attack , Machetero commandos infiltrated the Puerto Rico Air National Guard 's Muñiz Air National Guard Base , located on the northeastern corner of the Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport in San Juan . The infiltrators destroyed or damaged ten A @-@ 7 Corsair II light attack aircraft and a single F @-@ 104 Starfighter supersonic fighter @-@ interceptor aircraft . Total damages were estimated to be in excess of $ 45 million in 1981 US dollars . The subsequent investigation concluded security at the base was so lax that the attackers managed to enter and depart the base without ever being detected . The attack later served as the basis for upgrading base security , especially flight line security , at all Air National Guard installations on civilian airports in the United States to the same level as active duty U.S. Air Force installations .
On September 12 , 1983 , in an operation entitled Águila Blanca ( White Eagle ) the group assaulted the Wells Fargo depot located in West Hartford , Connecticut stealing a total of seven million dollars . After the robbery , the Macheteros threw some of the stolen money into the air from high floor buildings and used most of the remaining sum to fund their continued operations . According to a written statement from the Macheteros , the action was a symbolic protest against the " greed @-@ infested men and mechanisms which strain our elected officials , government agencies , and social aspirations in this country , as well as in Puerto Rico . "
In 1998 , Los Macheteros claimed responsibility for an explosion at a small power station in the San Juan metropolitan area . The explosion caused limited power outages .
On September 23 , 2005 , the anniversary of " el Grito de Lares " ( " The Cry of Lares " ) members of the FBI San Juan field office surrounded a modest home in the outskirts of the town of Hormigueros , Puerto Rico , where Ojeda Ríos was believed to be living in . The FBI claims that it was performing surveillance of the area because of reports that Ojeda Ríos had been seen in the home . In their press release , the FBI stated their surveillance team was detected , and proceeded to serving an arrest warrant against Ojeda Ríos . The FBI claims that as the agents approached the home , shots were fired from inside and outside the house wounding an FBI agent . The FBI alleges it then returned fire fatally wounding Ojeda Ríos . A subsequent autopsy of Ojeda 's body determined that he bled to death over the course of 15 to 30 minutes . The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico Civil Rights Commission started an investigation of the incident shortly after Ojeda Rios ' death that lasted 7 years . The 227 @-@ page report issued on 22 September 2011 stated that Ojeda Rios 's killing was " an illegal killing " by the FBI .
= = = Change in guard , Comandante Guasábara = = =
Following the incident that concluded in the death of its former leader , the command of the Boricua Popular Army was inherited by an anonymous figure known as " Comandante Guasábara " , named after the Taíno word for " war " . Under his leadership , the group appears to have shifted its focus towards intelligence . For example , the group has not recorded a single military action . Instead , Guasábara has generally used the media to publish classified information . The Boricua Popular Army took credit for denouncing what was called " paramilitary training " that private corporation Triangle Experience Group was carrying on in the mountains of the municipality of Utuado . The media later revealed that these exercises were being done illegally , in covert fashion and lacking the required permits .
= = Terrorism vs. national liberation = =
Supporters of independence for Puerto Rico argue that the U.S. favored the establishment of the present Commonwealth status to create a perpetual consumer base for U.S. and foreign products and services . Foreign products and services are redirected to Puerto Rico and other " unincorporated " lands of the United States to satisfy a portion of foreign trade agreements , while allowing domestic products and services a greater " home " market share . Another argument by the independence movement is that the Macheteros are continuing the historical rebellion that Puerto Ricans such as Pedro Albizu Campos and the Nationalist Party have waged , against U.S. domination of the island . It is known , for example , that Los Macheteros deliberately chose September 12 for their White Eagle assault on the Wells Fargo depot , because September 12 was the birthday of Puerto Rican Nationalist leader Pedro Albizu Campos . Beginning in the 1960s , the FBI infiltrated Puerto Rico 's free press and political circles in order to monitor and disrupt efforts related to independence movements like Los Macheteros . This operation was part of COINTELPRO . In 2001 , FBI Director Louis J. Freeh claimed the group committed acts of terrorism , but some authors , including Ronald Fernandez , view such labeling as political convenience by the United States Government , intended to " shift the blame for any attacks on U.S. policy or personnel from us to them " .
= = Focus on public education = =
Recently , the Macheteros have focused on public education regarding the use of Culebra and Vieques as bombing targets for the U.S. Navy ; the disproportionate number of military bases on the island ( compared to states in the Union ) ; the proportion of deaths within the ranks of the Independence and Nationalist leadership , including the alleged experimentation with radiation on Nationalist leader Pedro Albizu Campos while he was incarcerated ; the secret testing of Agent Orange on Puerto Rican soil ; and cancer " experiments " administered by Cornelius P. Rhoads , in which he claimed to have killed Puerto Rican patients and injected cancer cells to others , while working as part of a medical investigation conducted in San Juan 's Presbyterian Hospital for the Rockefeller Institute .
= = Documentary = =
An 80 @-@ minute documentary film about the Macheteros , titled MACHETERO , was released in 2008 . Starring Not4Prophet ( Ricanstruction ) , as Pedro Taíno , and Isaach De Bankolé ( Casino Royale ) , as French journalist Jean Dumont , the film takes place in both New York City and Puerto Rico . Other actors Kelvin Fernández ( first starring role ) and Dylcia Pagán . The film was the winner of the 2008 South Africa International Film Festival , 2009 Swansea Film Festival , 2009 Heart of England Film Festival , 2009 International Film Festival Thailand , and the 2009 International Film Festival Ireland .
= = Notable group members = =
= French ironclad Friedland =
The French ironclad Friedland was originally intended to be an iron @-@ hulled version of Océan class armoured frigate built for the French Navy during the 1870s , but she was much altered during her prolonged construction . Named after the French victory at the Battle of Friedland in 1807 , the ship spent the bulk of her career assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron and supported the French occupation of Tunisia in 1881 . She was condemned in 1902 .
= = Design and description = =
Friedland was a central battery ironclad with the armament concentrated amidships . Like most ironclads of her era she was fitted with a plough @-@ shaped ram .
The ship measured 101 @.@ 1 meters ( 331 ft 8 in ) overall , with a beam of 17 @.@ 7 meters ( 58 ft 1 in ) . Friedland had a maximum draft of 8 @.@ 6 meters ( 28 ft 3 in ) and displaced 8 @,@ 540 metric tons ( 8 @,@ 410 long tons ) , some 750 metric tons ( 740 long tons ) larger than the Ocean @-@ class ironclads . Her crew numbered around 750 officers and men .
Five 100 @-@ millim
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lane " , the album 's third single , was more upbeat than many of the album 's songs ; but it still contained various references to Kiedis 's personal issues : " Looking into my own eyes / I can 't find the love I want / Someone better slap me before I start to rust / before I start to decompose . " The song also featured Flea 's daughter Clara and her kindergarten class singing backing vocals on the last verse .
" Tearjerker " was a tribute to Nirvana lead singer Kurt Cobain . Kiedis felt Cobain 's death " was an emotional blow , and we all felt it . I don 't know why everyone on earth felt so close to that guy ; he was beloved and endearing and inoffensive in some weird way . For all of his screaming and all of his darkness , he was just lovable . "
" My Friends " addressed more of Kiedis ' own somber thoughts rather than those of " his friends " : " My friends are so distressed / And standing on the brink of emptiness / No words I know of to express / This emptiness . "
= = Promotion and release = =
While piecing together the final components of the album , the band recorded a video for " Warped " . They asked Flea 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Gavin Bowden , to direct it . The video involved Kiedis and Navarro kissing towards the end as a way of breaking the monotony of cumbersome video recording . Thinking nothing of it , they continued to shoot and finished several days later . Warner Bros. , however , saw the video and instantly wanted it thrown away , considering it to be unmarketable and that the kiss would alienate a large portion of the band 's fan base . The band came to a consensus to let the kiss remain on the final cut , prompting a backlash from the college segment of their audience , who took offense at the action . Kiedis said of the situation : " If they couldn 't accept what we were doing , we didn 't need them anymore . "
One Hot Minute was released September 12 , 1995 . It was certified Gold just more than two months later on November 11 ; since then it has gone Double Platinum in the United States . The album peaked at number four on the Billboard Top 200 . " My Friends " peaked at number one on the Modern Rock and Mainstream Rock charts . The song also peaked at number 29 on the UK Singles Chart , and " Aeroplane " at number 11 . Several days following the album 's release , Kiedis continued to use drugs despite the numerous interviews he was scheduled to attend .
= = Critical reception = =
One Hot Minute was not as universally well received as Blood Sugar Sex Magik , and was ultimately considered to be a poor follow @-@ up . It did however receive mixed to positive reviews from critics . Daina Darzin of Rolling Stone said " One Hot Minute dives into the emotionally deep end of drug addiction and loss " , and that the album " is a ferociously eclectic and imaginative disc that also presents the band members as more thoughtful , spiritual — even grown @-@ up . After a 10 plus @-@ year career , they 're realizing their potential at last . " David Browne of Entertainment Weekly said that " One Hot Minute wails and flails like a mosh @-@ pit workout tape , but it also has moments of outright subtlety and maturity . " He goes on to praise Kiedis for " keeping his boorish tendencies under control . " Browne , however , criticizes the band for " attempts at cosmic philosophy which often trip up on hippie @-@ dippie sentiments " , and some songs " fall back on tired frat @-@ funk flop sweat . " " The Peppers work their own little patch with considerable expertise , " wrote Peter Kane in Q. " The incoming Navarro rarely fails to deliver the goods and upfront the taut ball of energy going by the name of Anthony Keidis still makes for a suitably rubbery @-@ lipped frontman , if not exactly a lovable one . " Q also included One Hot Minute in its ' best of the year ' roundup : " A bulging , blistering blend of a skewed ballads and physically intimidating workouts that charge around like a bull on a promise . "
Allmusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine said that " following up Blood Sugar Sex Magik proved to be a difficult task for the Red Hot Chili Peppers " , and " Navarro 's metallic guitar shredding should have added some weight to the Chili Peppers ' punk @-@ inflected heavy @-@ guitar funk , but tends to make it plodding . " Erlewine went on to add that " by emphasizing the metal , the funk is gradually phased out of the blend , as is melody . " Robert Christgau gave the album a rating of " dud " .
" My Friends " was considered by Erlewine to be a blatant attempt to hold on to the mainstream audience gained by " Under the Bridge " , and that in contrast , " the melodies are weak and the lyrics are even more feeble . " The song also " tries to be a collective hug for all [ of Kiedis 's ] troubled pals . " Rolling Stone , on the other hand , said the song was " lovely " , and incorporated a " vaguely folky chorus , and sports the same sad wishfulness of ' Under the Bridge ' and ' Breaking the Girl ' . " The article went on to praise " Warped " claiming it " mixes harrowing lyrics with a multi @-@ toned , layered intro and a whirling dervish of noises and big @-@ rock rhythms surfing through and over big , funky hooks . It 's like , well , a drug rush . " Rolling Stone went on to say that the title track was " funky and fun . It 's about love and sex . What the hell . Some things don 't have to change . " Entertainment Weekly said " some of these songs last a little too long and could have benefited from a trimming " , though they credited Kiedis for sounding " nearly spiritual " on " Falling into Grace " .
= = Unreleased Deep Kick documentary = =
In 1994 and 1995 the band , along with director Gavin Bowden , began work on a documentary titled " Deep Kick " , named after the third track on the album . The documentary was expected to be similar to Funky Monks , which documented the making of band 's 1991 album , Blood Sugar Sex Magik although it would also feature mini @-@ films intercut featuring each member of the band . Some footage from the documentary has been released on the internet including Anthony 's segment along with a segment of the band with The Velvet Underground 's " I 'm Waiting for the Man " playing over the footage . Footage from the in @-@ studio version of the " My Friends " music video also came from this shoot . It is unknown if the project was ever completed and if it was , why Warner never released it .
= = One Hot Minute tour = =
The One Hot Minute tour began several days after the release of the album . The band opened the tour with a European leg . Kiedis felt that as a musician , he was becoming somewhat lackluster . The short European leg ended in early November , and the U.S. portion was scheduled to begin 10 days later ; however , it was postponed until early February . A few shows into the commencement of the U.S. leg , Kiedis badly injured his leg while engaging in what he calls " eyes @-@ closed robotic dancing " . He tripped over a monitor and fell off the stage , ending up hanging by his calf from his microphone cable , resulting in a cast which he wore for the next two months . Kiedis reflected that it " was nice to see that people were still interested in coming out to see what we do " , as there had been a four @-@ year gap since the release of Blood Sugar Sex Magik . Following the conclusion of the U.S. tour , the Chili Peppers took two weeks off before several Australia and New Zealand performances . The band then played at the Tibetan Freedom Concert in San Francisco , before finishing the tour in Europe .
Kiedis had remained sober the entire tour and maintained positive disposition during shows . Navarro , however , was growing tired of touring , and that was beginning to grate on his fellow band @-@ mates . Kiedis suffered an additional injury in Prague after falling off the stage while attempting to execute a back flip . He was forced to wear a back brace for the next few shows , which restricted his actions to the area around his microphone . After shows in Paris and London , the band returned home to Los Angeles . Kiedis began taking drugs once again , though he forced himself to discontinue after several weeks . The band was then asked to play in the North Pole for roughly 100 contest winners of a concert set up by Molson , a Canadian beer company . While the show was mildly motivating to the band , they returned home after two days .
Months went by without any scheduled concerts due to the album 's poor sales . Following another relapse and a stint in rehab , Kiedis and the rest of the band prepared for a summer tour , their first in almost seven months . Before the tour could begin , Kiedis had an accident on his motorcycle and was rushed to the hospital after severely injuring his hand . Due to his drug addiction , it took seven doses of morphine before the pain was assuaged . Following discharge from the hospital , he was forced to wear a full @-@ arm cast for several months , resulting in the cancellation of all remaining scheduled concerts . Halfway through Kiedis 's recovery , the band was asked to play the Fuji Rock Festival in July 1997 . By that time , Kiedis 's cast had receded down to the elbow and he felt well enough to play . A large typhoon had been forecast to hit the festival several hours before the show . The concert took place anyway , and when the Chili Peppers got on stage to play , the audience was being soaked in torrential rains , and the band found it virtually impossible to play their instruments . After eight songs , the lighting and sound equipment was torn from the stage and the band was obliged to an impromptu finish .
= = Follow @-@ up album and Navarro 's departure = =
Returning home , the Chili Peppers parted ways and , for the most part , remained secluded from each other through the rest of 1997 . No new material was written during that time , and it was not until the beginning of 1998 that the band began rehearsal . At that point , Navarro had become dependent on drugs , with Kiedis also struggling to remain clean . The band decided they would have a talk with Navarro and attempt to convince him to enter rehab . The discussion escalated into a heated dispute , and Navarro fell over an amplifier in a drug @-@ induced daze . In April 2010 , Navarro discussed this incident , stating that : " One [ of the reasons I was fired ] was [ because of ] my drug use at the time . The other was musical differences . Anthony says it was because I tripped and fell over an amp while on drugs . I say that he was on more drugs than me at that point . We both had a loose relationship with reality . Who do you want to believe ? "
The band made an attempt to begin writing for a follow @-@ up and had written and began recording one song titled " Circle of the Noose " , but it was never completed or officially released . The song , which is the last to feature guitar work from Navarro prior to his departure , was a tribute to the late qawwali @-@ devotional singer Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan . Navarro described the song as totally pop , dirge @-@ like and said the song was one of the favorite songs he had done with the band . He said " The best way I can describe it is it 's like pepped- up ' 60s folk with ' 90s ideals , but I would hate to label it as folk because it 's not , it moves . " On June 7 , 2011 , Navarro was asked by a Chili Peppers fan on his blog about " Circle of the Noose " and said he didn 't have the recordings but would love to hear them . Flea was also asked in 2011 through his Twitter page about the song and was shocked that anyone knew about it . He responded by saying " Holy cow ! how in the hell do you know about that ? It had a sample of nusrat fateh Ali khan in it ... never was finished " . On February 3 , 2016 , a rough mix of " Circle of the Noose " , which had been recorded on March 16 , 1998 , was leaked to the internet . Dave Navarro tweeted " WOW what a trip down memory lane " in response to the leak .
At this point in 1998 , Kiedis and Flea decided it was time to fire their guitarist . Navarro was furious when confronted by Kiedis and Flea , but eventually accepted his termination . The Chili Peppers were fighting , and on the verge of breaking up . Flea was beginning to question the band 's future and thought it may be necessary to break the band up . He made one last attempt to keep the band together , asking Frusciante to rejoin . Frusciante had recently completed a drug rehabilitation program after more than five years of heroin addiction , and gladly accepted the invitation .
As of 2016 , " Pea " and " Aeroplane " are the only songs from One Hot Minute that the Red Hot Chili Peppers have played in full since Dave Navarro left the band . The band however did tease " My Friends " , " Let 's Make Evil " and " Walkabout " during the I 'm With You World Tour . Chad Smith was asked by fans during a February 2014 online interview about the band 's reasons behind not performing the songs and he responded by saying " We don 't really feel that connected to that record anymore . No special reason , not to say we would never play those songs but we don 't feel that emotionally connected to that music right now . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Red Hot Chili Peppers ( Flea , Kiedis , Navarro , Smith ) .
= = Album outtakes = =
Twenty @-@ one songs from the One Hot Minute sessions are known to exist . Thirteen made it to the final cut of the album . " Melancholy Mechanics " was released as a b @-@ side to the " Warped " single and " Let 's Make Evil " and " Stretch " ( originally a song that was connected onto the end of " One Big Mob " ) were released on the " My Friends " single . " Bob " ( a song about close friend Bob Forrest ) would finally surface eleven years later as a iTunes bonus track in 2006 . The song features percussion by Stephen Perkins . " Blender " was one of two songs ( " Stretch " being the other ) that was dropped from the album 's final cut at the last minute . The song has never been released . " I Found Out " , a cover song originally recorded by John Lennon was released on the 1995 album Working Class Hero : A Tribute to John Lennon . It is unconfirmed if the song was recorded during the album sessions although many speculate it was because Rick Rubin produced the song . " The Intimidator " and " Slow Funk " , two songs mentioned in interviews by Chad Smith have never been released . It is unknown if either song was a working title for another released song . An unsequenced / unmastered version of the album exists which features extended jams , more lyrics , longer intros / outros and some studio chatter .
= = Personnel = =
Red Hot Chili Peppers
Flea – bass guitar , backing vocals , lead vocals on " Pea " and co @-@ lead vocals on " Deep Kick "
Anthony Kiedis – lead vocals
Dave Navarro – guitars , backing vocals
Chad Smith – drums
Additional musicians
Keith " Tree " Barry – violin on " Tearjerker "
Jimmy Boyle – backing vocals
Lenny Castro – percussion on " Walkabout " , " My Friends " , " One Hot Minute " , " Deep Kick " , and " Tearjerker "
Aimee Echo – backing vocals on " One Hot Minute " , " One Big Mob "
Gurmukh Kaur Khalsa – chants on " Falling into Grace "
John Lurie – harmonica on " One Hot Minute "
Stephen Perkins – percussion on " One Big Mob " and " Bob " ( iTunes bonus track )
Kristen Vigard – backing vocals on " Falling into Grace "
Recording personnel
Stephen Marcussen – mastering engineer
Rick Rubin – producer
Dave Sardy – mixing engineer , recording engineer
Dave Schiffman – engineer
Don C. Tyler – digital editor
Additional personnel
Mark Ryden – album artwork
= = Chart positions = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= Kronshtadt @-@ class battlecruiser =
The Kronshtadt @-@ class battlecruisers , with the Soviet designation as Project 69 heavy cruisers , ( Russian : Тяжёлые крейсера проекта 69 ) , were ordered for the Soviet Navy in the late 1930s . Two ships were started but none were completed due to World War II . These ships had a complex and prolonged design process which was hampered by constantly changing requirements and the Great Purge in 1937 . They were laid down in 1939 , with an estimated completion date in 1944 , but Stalin 's naval construction program proved to be more than the shipbuilding and armaments industries could handle . Prototypes of the armament and machinery had not even been completed by 22 June 1941 , almost two years after the start of construction . This is why the Soviets bought twelve surplus 38 @-@ centimeter ( 15 @.@ 0 in ) SK C / 34 guns , and their twin turrets , similar to those used in the Bismarck @-@ class battleships , from Germany in 1940 . The ships were partially redesigned to accommodate them , after construction had already begun , but no turrets were actually delivered before Operation Barbarossa .
Only Kronshtadt 's hull survived the war reasonably intact and was about 10 % complete in 1945 . She was judged obsolete and the Soviets considered converting her into an aircraft carrier , but the idea was rejected and both hulls were scrapped in 1947 .
= = Design = =
The Kronshtadt @-@ class battlecruisers had their origin in a mid @-@ 1930s requirement for a large cruiser ( Russian : bol 'shoi kreiser ) capable of destroying 10 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 10 @,@ 160 t ) cruisers built to the limits imposed by the Washington Naval Treaty , to which the Soviets were not a signatory . Several designs were submitted by the end of 1935 , but the Navy was not satisfied and rejected all of them . It asked for another design , displacing 23 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 22 @,@ 637 long tons ) and armed with 254 @-@ millimeter ( 10 @.@ 0 in ) guns , in early 1936 , eventually designated Project 22 , but this design was cancelled after the Soviets began negotiations in mid @-@ 1936 with the British that ultimately resulted in the Anglo @-@ Soviet Quantitative Naval Agreement of 1937 and agreed to follow the terms of the Second London Naval Treaty which limited battleships to a displacement of 35 @,@ 000 long tons ( 35 @,@ 562 t ) . The Soviets had been working on a small battleship design ( Battleship ' B ' ) for service in the Baltic and Black Seas and had to shrink it as a result of these discussions to a size close to that of the Project 22 large cruiser so that the latter was cancelled . Battleship ' B ' was redesignated as Project 25 and given the task of destroying Treaty cruisers and German pocket battleships . The Project 25 design was accepted in mid @-@ 1937 after major revisions in the armor scheme and the machinery layout and four were ordered with construction to begin in late 1937 and early 1938 . However , this decision occurred right before the Great Purge began to hit the Navy in August 1937 and two of the ship 's designers were arrested and executed within a year . The Project 25 design was then rejected on the grounds that it was too weak compared to foreign ships and the whole program was cancelled in early 1938 after an attempt to modify the design with larger guns had been made .
However the Soviet Navy still felt a need for a fast ship that could deal with enemy cruisers and the original concept was revived as Project 69 . They wanted a ship not to exceed 23 @,@ 000 metric tons with a speed of 34 knots ( 63 km / h ; 39 mph ) and an armament of nine 254 mm guns , but the requirement proved to be too ambitious for the specified size and it increased to 26 @,@ 200 metric tons ( 25 @,@ 786 long tons ) in the design submitted in June 1938 . By this time , however , details were becoming available for the Scharnhorst @-@ class battleships and the ship was deemed inferior to the German ships . The State Defense Committee revised the requirements and specified a size about 31 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 30 @,@ 510 long tons ) , an armament of nine 305 @-@ millimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns , an armor belt 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) thick and a speed about 31 – 32 knots ( 57 – 59 km / h ; 36 – 37 mph ) . A revised design was finished by October which was wargamed against the Japanese Kongō @-@ class battlecruisers , the French Dunkerque @-@ class battleships as well as the Scharnhorst class . It was deemed superior to the Kongos at medium range and inferior to the Dunkerques at the same range , but generally superior to the Scharnhorsts , although it is doubtful that the Soviets were fully aware of the true specifications of the Kongōs as rebuilt or of the Scharnhorsts as the displacement of the latter had been given as 26 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 25 @,@ 589 long tons ) , more than 5 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 921 long tons ) short of their true displacement . The Navy 's Shipbuilding Administration thought that the original secondary armament of 130 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) guns was too small and that the armor on the turrets , conning tower and the forward transverse bulkhead was too thin . A revised , 35 @,@ 000 @-@ ton design with 152 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) guns and extra armor was submitted to the State Defense Council in January 1939 .
This was approved and the detailed design work began with the basic concept that the ship should be superior to the Scharnhorst @-@ class ships and able to outrun the Bismarck @-@ class battleships . At this time the horizontal protection was revised after full @-@ scale trials revealed that a 500 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) bomb would penetrate both a 40 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) upper deck and a 50 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) middle deck to burst on the main armor deck . So the middle deck was thickened to 90 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) with the lower deck intended to catch any splinters penetrating the armor deck . This mean that the main belt had to be extended upwards to meet the main armor deck at a significant penalty in weight . The Defense Committee approved the sketch design on 13 July 1939 , but the detailed design was not approved until 12 April 1940 , after construction had already begun on the first two ships .
It was already apparent that the 305 mm guns and turrets were well behind schedule when Joseph Stalin asked the German representatives in Moscow on 8 February 1940 to negotiate a trade agreement if it would be possible to use the triple 283 @-@ millimeter ( 11 @.@ 1 in ) turrets in lieu of the triple 305 mm turrets of the Project 69 ships . They replied that the turrets were out of production , but new ones could be built . He then asked if twin 380 @-@ millimeter ( 15 @.@ 0 in ) turrets could be used instead . The Germans said that they would have to check back for the technical details . Krupp had six incomplete turrets on hand that had originally been ordered before the war to rearm the Scharnhorst @-@ class battleships , but they were cancelled after the start of World War II when the Germans decided that they could not afford to have the ships out of service during the war . A preliminary purchase agreement was made to buy twelve guns and six turrets later that month , well before any studies were even made to see if the substitution was even possible . The Shipbuilding Commissariat reported on 17 April that it was possible so the agreement was finalized in November 1940 with the deliveries scheduled from October 1941 to 28 March 1943 . The order also included 10 @-@ meter ( 33 ft ) rangefinders and 150 @-@ centimeter ( 59 in ) searchlights .
The Soviets never did get the detailed data required to redesign the ship 's barbettes and magazines , but they did know that the 380 @-@ mm barbettes was bigger in diameter than that of the 305 mm turret as well as taller than the Russian turrets . So the barbette of turret number two had to be raised to clear turret number one and the height of the conning tower had to be raised to clear turret number two . Similarly the 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns behind turret number three had to be raised as well . The new turrets required more electrical power which meant that the output of the turbo generators had to be increased to 1 @,@ 300 kilowatts . All of these changes added over 1 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 984 long tons ) to the ships ' displacement and the sketch design was completed by 16 October 1940 , as Project 69 @-@ I ( Importnyi — Imported ) , even though they still lacked data for the turrets and their barbettes . This was presented to the State Defense Committee on 11 February 1941 , but the design was not approved until 10 April when it ordered that the first two ships be completed with German guns while the others would continue to use the 305 mm guns . The detailed design was supposed to be completed by 15 October 1941 , but it was rendered pointless when the Germans invaded the Soviet Union in June .
= = = General characteristics = = =
The Project 69 @-@ class ships were 250 @.@ 5 meters ( 821 ft 10 in ) long overall and had a waterline length of 240 meters ( 787 ft 5 in ) . They had a beam of 31 @.@ 6 meters ( 103 ft 8 in ) and at full load a draft of 9 @.@ 45 meters ( 31 ft 0 in ) . As designed they displaced 35 @,@ 240 metric tons ( 34 @,@ 683 long tons ) at standard load and 41 @,@ 539 metric tons ( 40 @,@ 883 long tons ) at full load . The displacement of the two Project 69 @-@ I @-@ class ships increased to 36 @,@ 250 metric tons ( 35 @,@ 677 long tons ) at standard load and 42 @,@ 831 metric tons ( 42 @,@ 155 long tons ) at full load which increased the draft to 9 @.@ 7 meters ( 31 ft 10 in ) at full load while the waterline length grew to 242 @.@ 1 meters ( 794 ft 3 in ) simply because the extra draft submerged more of the sharply raked stem and spoon @-@ shaped stern . The speed remained the same as the deeper draft was offset by a more efficient propeller form .
The hull form was very full with a block coefficient of 0 @.@ 61 which compared badly to the 0 @.@ 54 of the Dunkerque , the 0 @.@ 52 of the German O @-@ class battlecruiser or the 0 @.@ 5266 of the American Alaska @-@ class cruiser . This meant that a lot of horsepower was necessary to achieve even modest speeds . Stalin 's decision that the Project 69 ships would use three shafts increased the shaft loading and reduced propulsive efficiency , although it did shorten the length of the armored citadel and thus overall displacement . The riveted hull was subdivided by 24 transverse bulkheads and used longitudinal framing in the citadel , but transverse framing for the structure fore and aft of the citadel . The metacentric height was 2 @.@ 8 meters ( 9 ft 2 in ) for the 305 mm gunned ships , but dropped to 2 @.@ 58 meters ( 8 ft 6 in ) in the 380 mm gunned ships . The tactical diameter was estimated at about 1 @,@ 200 meters ( 1 @,@ 312 yd ) .
The Kronshtadt @-@ class ships were provided with two KOR @-@ 2 flying boats which would be launched by the catapult mounted between the funnels .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The power plant was laid out on a unit system . The forward boiler room contained eight boilers and was followed by an engine room for the two wing propeller shafts . The second boiler room contained four boilers and was followed by a turbine room for the central shaft . The single @-@ reduction , impulse @-@ reduction geared steam turbines were an imported Brown Boveri design shared with the Sovetsky Soyuz @-@ class battleship , but the factory in Kharkiv that was to build them never finished a single turbine before the Germans invaded . They produced a total of 210 @,@ 000 shp ( 156 @,@ 597 kW ) . Twelve 7u @-@ bis water @-@ tube boilers worked at a pressure of 37 kg / cm2 ( 3 @,@ 628 kPa ; 526 psi ) and temperature of 380 ° C ( 716 ° F ) . There were two other small boilers for harbor service and to power the auxiliary machinery . The electrical plant originally consisted of four 1200 kW turbo generators and four 650 kW diesel generators , but these were upgraded for the Project 69 @-@ I ships .
Maximum speed was estimated at 31 knots ( 57 km / h ; 36 mph ) , using the revised propeller design , although forcing the machinery would yield an extra knot . The normal fuel oil capacity was 2 @,@ 920 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 874 long tons ) , which provided an estimated endurance of 1 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 040 km ; 1 @,@ 270 mi ) at full speed . Maximum fuel capacity was 5 @,@ 570 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 482 long tons ) which gave a range of 8 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 370 km ; 9 @,@ 550 mi ) at 14 @.@ 5 knots ( 26 @.@ 9 km / h ; 16 @.@ 7 mph ) and 6 @,@ 900 nmi ( 12 @,@ 780 km ; 7 @,@ 940 mi ) at 16 @.@ 5 knots ( 30 @.@ 6 km / h ; 19 @.@ 0 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The main armament consisted of three electrically powered MK @-@ 15 triple turrets , each with three 54 @-@ caliber 305 mm B @-@ 50 guns . The turrets were based on the MK @-@ 2 turrets planned for the Project 25 large cruiser . The guns could be depressed to − 3 ° and elevated to 45 ° . They had a fixed loading angle of 6 ° and their rate of fire varied with the time required to relay the gun . It ranged from 2 @.@ 36 to 3 @.@ 24 rounds per minute depending on the elevation . The turrets could elevate at a rate of 10 degrees per second and traverse at 5 @.@ 1 degrees per second . 100 rounds per gun were carried . The gun fired 470 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 040 lb ) armor @-@ piercing projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 900 m / s ( 3 @,@ 000 ft / s ) ; this provided a maximum range of 47 @,@ 580 meters ( 52 @,@ 030 yd ) .
The secondary armament consisted of eight 57 @-@ caliber B @-@ 38 152 mm guns mounted in four dual MK @-@ 4 turrets concentrated at the forward end of the superstructure . The forward turrets were inboard and above the outer turrets which provided both turrets with good arcs of fire . Their elevation limits were -5 ° to + 45 ° with a fixed loading angle of 8 ° . Their rate of fire also varied with the elevation from 7 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 8 rounds per minute . The turrets could elevate at a rate of 13 degrees per second and traverse at 6 degrees per second . They had a maximum range of about 30 @,@ 000 meters ( 33 @,@ 000 yd ) with a 55 @-@ kilogram ( 121 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 950 m / s ( 3 @,@ 100 ft / s ) .
Heavy anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) fire was provided by eight 56 @-@ caliber 100 mm B @-@ 34 dual @-@ purpose guns in four twin MZ @-@ 16 turrets mounted at the aft end of the superstructure with the aft turrets mounted inboard of the forward turrets . They could elevate to a maximum of 85 ° and depress to -8 ° . They could traverse at a rate of 12 ° per second and elevate at 10 ° per second . They fired 15 @.@ 6 @-@ kilogram ( 34 lb ) high explosive shells at a muzzle velocity of 895 m / s ( 2 @,@ 940 ft / s ) ; this provided a maximum range of 22 @,@ 241 meters ( 24 @,@ 323 yd ) against surface targets , but their maximum range against aerial targets was 9 @,@ 895 meters ( 32 @,@ 464 ft ) , the limit of their time fuse .
Light AA defense was handled by six quadruple , water @-@ cooled , 46 @-@ K mounts fitted with 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 70 @-@ K guns . Two mounts were abreast the forward funnel , two just abaft the rear funnel and the last two on the centerline of the aft superstructure superfiring over the rear main gun turret . Initially seven mounts were planned , but the one above the conning tower was exchanged for a director for the 100 mm guns in early 1940 when the Navy realized that the other directors were blocked by the superstructure . The guns fired .732 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @.@ 61 lb ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 880 m / s ( 2 @,@ 887 ft / s ) . Their effective anti @-@ aircraft range was 4 @,@ 000 meters ( 13 @,@ 123 ft ) .
The Germans sold the Soviets twelve 52 @-@ caliber 38 @-@ centimeter ( 15 @.@ 0 in ) SKC / 34 guns and their associated Drh LC / 34 turrets as part of the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact . Their elevation limits were -5.5 ° to + 30 ° with a fixed loading angle of 2 @.@ 5 ° . Their rate of fire was 2 @.@ 3 rounds per minute . The turrets could elevate at a rate of 6 ° per second and traverse at 5 ° per second . They had a maximum range of 36 @,@ 520 meters ( 39 @,@ 940 yd ) with a 800 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 800 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 820 m / s ( 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ) .
= = = Fire control = = =
Two KDP @-@ 8 @-@ III fire @-@ control directors were used to control the main armament . These had two 8 @-@ meter ( 26 ft 3 in ) stereoscopic rangefinders , one to track the target and the other to measure the range to the ship 's own shell splashes . Two of these were protected by 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) of armor and were mounted atop the rear superstructure and the tower @-@ mast . Two KDP @-@ 4t @-@ II directors , with two 4 @-@ meter ( 13 ft 1 in ) rangefinders each , controlled the secondary armament . The dual @-@ purpose guns were controlled by two , later three , stabilized directors , each with a 3 @-@ meter ( 9 ft 10 in ) rangefinder .
= = = Protection = = =
The ships had relatively light armor . The main belt was 230 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) thick , with a taper to the lower edge , and inclined outwards six degrees . It was 5 meters ( 16 ft 5 in ) high of which 1 @.@ 6 meters ( 5 ft 3 in ) was intended to be submerged as originally designed . The belt was 185 meters ( 606 ft 11 in ) long and covered 76 @.@ 8 percent of the waterline ; forward of this was a 20 mm belt that extended all the way to the bow . The forward transverse 330 @-@ millimeter ( 13 @.@ 0 in ) bulkhead was 330 mm thick while the rear bulkhead was 275 millimeters ( 10 @.@ 8 in ) thick . The upper deck was only 14 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 55 in ) thick and was intended to initiate shell and bomb fuzes . The main armor deck , which was even with the top of the waterline belt , was 90 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) thick and a 30 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) splinter deck was underneath it , although it tapered to 15 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) in thickness over the torpedo protection system . The underwater protection was an American @-@ style design with a bulge and four longitudinal bulkheads intended to withstand a 500 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 102 lb ) warhead of TNT . It covered 61 @.@ 5 % of the ship 's length and had a total depth of 6 meters ( 19 ft 8 in ) , that reduced to 4 meters ( 13 ft 1 in ) forward and aft where the hull lines became finer .
The main turrets had 305 mm faces and backs and 125 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) sides and roofs . Their barbettes were protected with 330 mm of armor . The secondary turrets had 100 mm faces with 50 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) sides and roofs and 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) barbettes . The dual @-@ purpose mountings had 50 mm armor with 40 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) barbettes . The conning tower had 330 mm sides and a 125 mm roof with a 230 mm communications tube running down to the armor deck . The admiral 's bridge was protected with 50 mm armor . Each of the directors had 14 mm of armor as did the 37 mm gun mounts . The funnels had 20 mm armor for their entire height above the deck and a 50 mm box protected the smoke generators .
= = Construction = =
The Soviet shipbuilding and related industries proved to be incapable of supporting the construction of the four Sovetsky Soyuz @-@ class battleships as well as the two Kronshtadt @-@ class battlecruisers at the same time . The largest warships built in the Soviet Union prior to 1938 were the 8 @,@ 000 @-@ metric @-@ ton ( 7 @,@ 874 @-@ long @-@ ton ) Kirov @-@ class cruisers and even they had suffered from a number of production problems , but the Soviet leadership preferred to ignore the industrial difficulties when making their plans . The shipyards in Leningrad and Nikolayev had less than half the workers intended . Shipbuilding steel proved to be in short supply in 1939 – 1940 and a number of batches were rejected because they did not meet specifications . An attempt to import 14 @,@ 000 long tons ( 14 @,@ 225 t ) of steel and armor plate from the United States in 1939 failed , probably as a result of the Soviet invasion of Poland on 17 September 1939 . Armor plate production was even more problematic as only 27 @,@ 438 metric tons ( 27 @,@ 005 long tons ) were delivered in 1940 of the anticipated 30 @,@ 000 – 32 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 29 @,@ 526 – 31 @,@ 495 long tons ) and 30 – 40 % of that was rejected . Furthermore , the armor plants proved to be incapable of making cemented plates over 230 mm and inferior face @-@ hardened plates had to be substituted for all thicknesses over 200 millimeters ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) .
Machinery problems were likely to delay the ships well past their intended delivery dates of 1943 – 44 . The Kharkhovskii Turbogenerator Works never completed a single turbine before the German invasion in June 1941 . Another problem were the 305 mm guns and turrets as the armament factories were focused on the higher @-@ priority guns for the Sovetsky Soyuz @-@ class battleships . Prototypes of neither had been completed by the time the Germans invaded . The situation was not much better for the smaller guns as mountings for both the 152 mm and 100 mm guns were still incomplete on 22 June 1941 and all of these programs were terminated quickly afterwards .
= = = Ships = = =
The ships were originally intended to be laid down 1 September 1939 , but they were delayed until November to allow improvements to the shipyards to be completed . A total of sixteen ships were planned in the August 1939 building program , but this was scaled back to four in July 1940 and two in October 1940 when it became clear just how unprepared the Soviets were for any large @-@ scale naval construction program . Work on these ships ceased shortly after the German invasion .
Kronshtadt ( Russian : Кронштадт ) was built by the Shipyard No. 194 , Marti in Leningrad . She was laid down 30 November 1939 and judged 10 @.@ 6 % complete when the Germans invaded . Her building slip was too short for her entire length so her stern was built separately . Some of her material was used during the Siege of Leningrad to repair other ships and in defensive works , but she could have been finished after the end of the war . Proposals were made to complete her as an aircraft carrier and as a base ship for a whaling flotilla , but both ideas were rejected and she was ordered scrapped on 24 March 1947 . Her dismantling began shortly afterwards and was completed the following year .
Sevastopol ( Russian : Севастополь ) was built by Shipyard No. 200 , 61 Communards in Nikolayev . She was laid down on 5 November 1939 and estimated as 11 @.@ 6 % complete on 22 June 1941 . She was captured by the Germans when they occupied Nikolayev in late 1941 , but the Germans did little with her other than to use some of her material for defensive positions and some was apparently shipped to Germany . Before the Germans evacuated the city they damaged her building slip and hull with explosives and made her a constructive total loss . She was ordered scrapped on 24 March 1947 and her dismantling began shortly afterwards . It was completed in 1948 .
= Tom Kahn =
Tom David Kahn ( September 15 , 1938 – March 27 , 1992 ) was an American social democrat known for his leadership in several organizations . He was an activist and influential strategist in the Civil Rights Movement . He was a senior adviser and leader in the U.S. labor movement .
Kahn was raised in New York City . At Brooklyn College , he joined the U.S. socialist movement , where he was influenced by Max Shachtman and Michael Harrington . As an assistant to civil rights leader Bayard Rustin , Kahn helped to organize the 1963 March on Washington , during which Martin Luther King delivered his " I Have a Dream " speech . Kahn 's analysis of the civil rights movement influenced Bayard Rustin ( who was the nominal author of Kahn 's " From Protest to Politics " ) .
A leader in the Socialist Party of America , Kahn supported its 1972 name change to Social Democrats , USA ( SDUSA ) . Like other leaders of SDUSA , Kahn worked to support free labor @-@ unions and democracy and to oppose Soviet communism ; he also worked to strengthen U.S. labor unions . Kahn worked as a senior assistant to and speechwriter for Democratic Senator Henry " Scoop " Jackson , AFL – CIO Presidents George Meany and Lane Kirkland , and other leaders of the Democratic Party , labor unions , and civil @-@ rights organizations .
In 1980 Lane Kirkland appointed Kahn to organize the AFL – CIO 's support for the Polish labor @-@ union Solidarity ; this support was made despite protests by the USSR and the Carter administration . He acted as the Director of the AFL – CIO 's Department of International Affairs in 1986 and was officially named Director in 1989 . Kahn died in 1992 , at the age of 53 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Kahn was born Thomas John Marcel on September 15 , 1938 , and was immediately placed for adoption at the New York Foundling Hospital . He was adopted by Adele and David Kahn , and renamed Thomas David Kahn . His father , a member of the Communist Party USA , became President of the Transport Workers Local 101 of the Brooklyn Union Gas Company .
Tom Kahn was a civil libertarian who " ran for president of the Student Organization of Erasmus Hall High School in 1955 on a platform calling for the destruction of the student assembly , because it had no power " , an election he lost . In high school , he met Rachelle Horowitz , who would become his lifelong friend and political ally .
= = = Democratic socialism = = =
At Brooklyn College ( CUNY ) , the undergraduate students Kahn and Horowitz joined the U.S. movement for democratic socialism after hearing Max Shachtman denounce the 1956 Soviet invasion of Hungary : Shachtman described
rolling Russian tanks ... defenceless Hungarian workers and students fighting back with stones ... a heroic people ’ s crushed hopes , and ... our democratic socialist links to those hopes . Freedom , democracy — they were not abstractions ; they were real and could therefore be destroyed . Communist totalitarianism was not merely a political force , an ideological aberration that could be smashed in debate ; it was a monstrous physical force . Democracy was not merely the icing on the socialist cake . It was the cake — or there was no socialism worth fighting for .
As young socialists , Kahn 's and Horowitz 's talents were recognized by Michael Harrington . Harrington had joined Shachtman after working with Dorothy Day 's Catholic Worker 's house of hospitality in the Bowery of Lower Manhattan . Harrington was about to become famous in the United States for his book on poverty in the United States , The Other America . Kahn idolized Harrington , particularly for his erudition and rhetoric , both in writing and in debate .
= = = Civil rights = = =
As a leader of the American socialist movement , Michael Harrington sent Tom Kahn and Rachelle Horowitz to help Bayard Rustin , one of the leaders of the Civil Rights Movement , who became a mentor to Kahn . Kahn and Horowitz were affectionately called the " Bayard Rustin Marching and Chowder Society " by Harrington . Kahn helped Rustin organize the 1957 Prayer Pilgrimage to Washington and the 1958 and 1959 Youth March for Integrated Schools .
= = = = Homosexuality and Bayard Rustin = = = =
As a young man , Tom Kahn " was gay but wanted to be straight ... It was a different world then " , according to Rachelle Horowitz . He had a short relationship with a member of the Young People 's Socialist League ( YPSL ) :
Although everyone active in the movement was aware of it , [ before 1956 ] he was never explicitly out of the closet . He took his sexual orientation as an affliction , a source of pain and embarrassment . In part , perhaps , because he was so unreconciled to his longings , he limited himself for a long time to brief encounters . But then he became involved with one of the YPSL ’ s and was compelled to seek the counsel of a psychiatrist to explain his unfamiliar feelings . The diagnosis , he told me , was “ you ’ re in love . ”
Tom Kahn was " very good looking , a very attractive guy " according to longtime socialist David McReynolds , who is also an openly gay New Yorker . Kahn accepted his homosexuality in 1956 , the year that Kahn and Horowitz volunteered to help Bayard Rustin with his work in the civil @-@ rights movement . " Once he met Bayard [ Rustin ] , then Kahn knew that he was gay and had this long @-@ term relationship with Bayard , which went through many stages " , according to Horowitz , who quoted Kahn 's remembrance of Rustin :
When I met him for the first time he was a few years younger than I am now , and I was barely on the edge of manhood . He drew me into a vortex of his endless campaigns and projects ... He introduced me to Bach and Brahms , and to the importance of maintaining a balance in life between the pursuit of our individual pleasures and engagements in , and responsibility for , the social condition . He believed that no class , caste or genre of people were exempt from this obligation .
However , cohabiting in Rustin 's apartment proved unsuccessful , and their romantic relationship ended when Kahn enrolled in the historically black Howard University . Kahn and Rustin remained lifelong friends and political comrades .
= = = = Howard University = = = =
Kahn , a white student , enrolled for his junior and senior years at Howard University , where he became a leader in student politics . Kahn worked closely with Stokely Carmichael , who later became a national leader of young civil @-@ rights activists and then one of the leaders of the Black Power movement . Kahn and Carmichael helped to fund a five @-@ day run of Three Penny Opera , by the Marxist playwright Berthold Brecht and the socialist composer Kurt Weill : " Tom Kahn — very shrewdly — had captured the position of Treasurer of the Liberal Arts Student Council and the infinitely charismatic and popular Carmichael as floor whip was good at lining up the votes . Before they knew what hit them the Student Council had become a patron of the arts , having voted to buy out the remaining performances . " Kahn and Carmichael worked with Howard University 's chapter of Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee ( SNCC ) . Kahn introduced Carmichael and his fellow SNCC activists to Bayard Rustin , who became an influential adviser to SNCC . Kahn and Rustin 's emphasis on economic inequality influenced Carmichael . Kahn graduated from Howard in 1961 .
= = = = Leadership = = = =
Kahn ( along with Horowitz and Norman Hill ) helped Rustin and A. Philip Randolph to plan the 1963 March on Washington , at which Martin Luther King , Jr. delivered his " I have a dream " speech . For this march , Kahn also ghost wrote the speech of A. Philip Randolph , the senior leader of the civil @-@ rights movement and the African @-@ American labor movement . Kahn 's analysis of the civil @-@ rights movement influenced Bayard Rustin ( who was the nominal author of Kahn 's 1964 – 1965 essay " From protest to politics " ) , Stokely Carmichael , and William Julius Wilson .
= = = League for Industrial Democracy = = =
Kahn was Director of the League for Industrial Democracy after 1964 . Beginning in 1960 , he wrote several LID pamphlets , many of which were published in political journals like Dissent and Commentary , and some of which appeared in anthologies . Kahn 's The Economics of Equality LID pamphlet gave an " incisive radical analysis of what it would take to end racial oppression " .
= = = = Student League for Industrial Democracy : Students for a Democratic Society ( SDS ) = = = =
Before Kahn became LID director in 1964 , he was involved with the Student League for Industrial Democracy , which became Students for a Democratic Society ( SDS ) . Along with other LID members Rachelle Horowitz , Michael Harrington , and Don Slaiman , Kahn attended the LID @-@ sponsored meeting that discussed the Port Huron Statement . Kahn was listed as a student representative from Howard University and was elected to the National Executive Committee . The LID representatives criticized the Port Huron Statement for promoting students as leaders of social change , for criticizing the U.S. labor movement and its unions , and for its criticisms of liberal and socialist opposition to Soviet communism ( " anti @-@ communism " ) . Kahn believed that the SDS students were " elitist " , being overly critical of labor unions and liberals , and attributed upper @-@ class origins and Ivy @-@ league schooling to them , according to Port @-@ Huron activist Todd Gitlin , who observes that Kahn was the son of a " manual laborer " .
LID and SDS split in 1965 , when SDS voted to remove from its constitution the " exclusion clause " that prohibited membership by communists , against Kahn 's arguments . The SDS exclusion clause had barred " advocates of or apologists for " " totalitarianism " . The clause 's removal effectively invited " disciplined cadre " to attempt to " take over or paralyze " SDS , as had occurred to mass organizations in the thirties . Afterward , Marxism Leninism , particularly the Progressive Labor Party , helped to write " the death sentence " for SDS . Nonetheless Kahn continued to argue with SDS leaders about the need for accountable leadership , about tactics , and about strategy . In 1966 , Kahn attended the Illinois Convention of SDS , where his forceful arguments and delivery overwhelmed and were resented by the other activists ; Kahn was then 28 years old .
Kahn 's determined style of debate emerged from the socialist movement led by Max Shachtman . Kahn expressed his admiration for Shachtman 's intellectual toughness in his 1973 memorial : " His answers , of course , could not always be correct . But they were on target and always fundamental . "
= = = Social Democrats , USA = = =
Kahn and Horowitz were leaders in the Socialist Party USA , and supported its change of name to Social Democrats , USA ( SDUSA ) , despite Harrington 's opposition . Ben Wattenberg commented that SDUSA members seemed to be
... ingeniously trying to bury the Soviet Union in a blizzard of letterheads . It seemed that each of Tom 's colleagues — Penn Kemble , Carl Gershman , Josh Muravchik and many more — ran a little organization , each with the same interlocking directorate listed on the stationery . Funny thing : The Letterhead Lieutenants did indeed churn up a blizzard , and the Soviet Union is no more .
I never did quite get all the organizational acronyms straight — YPSL , LID , SP , SDA , ISL — but the key words were " democratic " , " labor " , " young " and , until events redefined it away from their understanding , " socialist " . Ultimately , the umbrella group became " Social Democrats , U.S.A " , and Tom Kahn was a principal " theoretician .
They talked and wrote endlessly , mostly about communism and democracy , despising the former , adoring the latter . It is easy today to say " anti @-@ communist " and " pro @-@ democracy " in the same breath . But that is because American foreign policy eventually became just such a mixture , thanks in part to those " Yipsels
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" How to Support Solidarnosc : A Debate . " With Norman Podhoretz ; introduction by Midge Decter ; moderated by Carl Gershman . Democratiya , vol . 13 ( Summer 2008 ) , pp. 230 – 261 .
" Moral Duty , " Transaction , vol . 19 , no . 3 ( March 1982 ) , pg . 51 .
" Beyond the Double Standard : A Social Democratic View of the Authoritarianism versus Totalitarianism Debate , " New America , July 1985 . — Speech of January 1985 .
= = = Photographs = = =
Picture of Tom Kahn — with Rachelle Horowitz , James Farmer ( CORE leader ) , and Ernest Green — at 1964 World 's Fair , protesting poverty , before their arrest. in Levine , Daniel ( 2000 ) . Bayard Rustin and the civil rights movement . New Jersey : Rutgers University Press. p . 352 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8135 @-@ 2718 @-@ X.
Tom Kahn with Donald Slaiman of Social Democrats , USA .
= White stork =
The white stork ( Ciconia ciconia ) is a large bird in the stork family Ciconiidae . Its plumage is mainly white , with black on its wings . Adults have long red legs and long pointed red beaks , and measure on average 100 – 115 cm ( 39 – 45 in ) from beak tip to end of tail , with a 155 – 215 cm ( 61 – 85 in ) wingspan . The two subspecies , which differ slightly in size , breed in Europe ( north to Finland ) , northwestern Africa , southwestern Asia ( east to southern Kazakhstan ) and southern Africa . The white stork is a long @-@ distance migrant , wintering in Africa from tropical Sub @-@ Saharan Africa to as far south as South Africa , or on the Indian subcontinent . When migrating between Europe and Africa , it avoids crossing the Mediterranean Sea and detours via the Levant in the east or the Strait of Gibraltar in the west , because the air thermals on which it depends do not form over water .
A carnivore , the white stork eats a wide range of animal prey , including insects , fish , amphibians , reptiles , small mammals and small birds . It takes most of its food from the ground , among low vegetation , and from shallow water . It is a monogamous breeder , but does not pair for life . Both members of the pair build a large stick nest , which may be used for several years . Each year the female can lay one clutch of usually four eggs , which hatch asynchronously 33 – 34 days after being laid . Both parents take turns incubating the eggs and both feed the young . The young leave the nest 58 – 64 days after hatching , and continue to be fed by the parents for a further 7 – 20 days .
The white stork has been rated as least concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) . It benefited from human activities during the Middle Ages as woodland was cleared , but changes in farming methods and industrialisation saw it decline and disappear from parts of Europe in the 19th and early 20th centuries . Conservation and reintroduction programs across Europe have resulted in the white stork resuming breeding in the Netherlands , Belgium , Switzerland and Sweden . It has few natural predators , but may harbour several types of parasite ; the plumage is home to chewing lice and feather mites , while the large nests maintain a diverse range of mesostigmatic mites . This conspicuous species has given rise to many legends across its range , of which the best @-@ known is the story of babies being brought by storks .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
The white stork was one of the many bird species originally described by Linnaeus in the landmark 1758 10th edition of his Systema Naturae , where it was given the binomial name of Ardea ciconia . It was reclassified to ( and was designated the type species of ) the new genus Ciconia by French zoologist Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760 . Both the genus and specific epithet , cǐcōnia , are the Latin word for " stork " , originally recorded in the works of Horace and Ovid . The Latin word survives in most Romance languages ( cicogna , cigüeña , cegonha and the like ) . The word stork is derived from the Old English word storc , and appeared in the 10th @-@ century works the Erfurt Glossary , where the word is equated with Ciconia , and Aelfric 's Homilies . The word is related to the Old High German storah , " stork " , and similar words in many other European languages , all of which are descended from the Germanic sturko @-@ z .
There are two subspecies :
C. c. ciconia , the nominate subspecies described by Linnaeus in 1758 , breeds from Europe to northwest Africa and westernmost Asia , and in southern Africa , and winters mainly in Africa south of the Sahara Desert , though some birds winter in India .
C. c. asiatica , described by Russian naturalist Nikolai Severtzov in 1873 , breeds in Turkestan and winters from Iran to India . It is slightly larger than the nominate subspecies .
The stork family contains six genera in three broad groups : the open @-@ billed and wood storks ( Mycteria and Anastomus ) , the giant storks ( Ephippiorhynchus , Jabiru and Leptoptilos ) , and the " typical " storks , Ciconia . The typical storks include the white stork and six other extant species , which are characterised by straight pointed beaks and mainly black and white plumage . Its closest relatives are the larger , black @-@ billed Oriental white stork ( Ciconia boyciana ) of East Asia , which was formerly classified as a subspecies of the white stork , and the maguari stork ( C. maguari ) of South America . Close evolutionary relationships within Ciconia are suggested by behavioural similarities and , biochemically , through analysis of both mitochondrial cytochrome b gene sequences and DNA @-@ DNA hybridization .
A Ciconia fossil representing the distal end of a right humerus has been recovered from Miocene beds of Rusinga Island , Lake Victoria , Kenya . The 24 – 6 million year old fossil could have originated from either a white stork or a black stork ( C. nigra ) , which are species of about the same size with very similar bone structures . The Middle Miocene beds of Maboko Island have yielded further remains .
= = Description = =
The white stork is a large bird . It has a length of 100 – 115 cm ( 39 – 45 in ) , and a standing height of 100 – 125 cm ( 39 – 49 in ) . The wingspan is 155 – 215 cm ( 61 – 85 in ) and its weight is 2 @.@ 3 – 4 @.@ 5 kg ( 5 @.@ 1 – 9 @.@ 9 lb ) . Like all storks , it has long legs , a long neck and a long straight pointed beak . The sexes are identical in appearance , except that males are larger than females on average . The plumage is mainly white with black flight feathers and wing coverts ; the black is caused by the pigment melanin . The breast feathers are long and shaggy forming a ruff which is used in some courtship displays . The irises are dull brown or grey , and the peri @-@ orbital skin is black . The adult has a bright red beak and red legs , the colouration of which is derived from carotenoids in the diet . In parts of Spain , studies have shown that the pigment is based on astaxanthin obtained from an introduced species of crayfish ( Procambarus clarkii ) and the bright red beak colours show up even in nestlings , in contrast to the duller beaks of young white storks elsewhere .
As with other storks , the wings are long and broad enabling the bird to soar . In flapping flight its wingbeats are slow and regular . It flies with its neck stretched forward and with its long legs extended well beyond the end of its short tail . It walks at a slow and steady pace with its neck upstretched . In contrast , it often hunches its head between its shoulders when resting . Moulting has not been extensively studied , but appears to take place throughout the year , with the primary flight feathers replaced over the breeding season .
Upon hatching , the young white stork is partly covered with short , sparse , whitish down feathers . This early down is replaced about a week later with a denser coat of woolly white down . By three weeks , the young bird acquires black scapulars and flight feathers . On hatching the chick has pinkish legs , which turn to greyish @-@ black as it ages . Its beak is black with a brownish tip . By the time it fledges , the juvenile bird 's plumage is similar to that of the adult , though its black feathers are often tinged with brown , and its beak and legs are a duller brownish @-@ red or orange . The beak is typically orange or red with a darker tip . The bills gain the adults ' red colour the following summer , although the black tips persist in some individuals . Young storks adopt adult plumage by their second summer .
= = = Similar species = = =
Within its range the white stork is distinctive when seen on the ground but , when seen at a distance in flight , it can be confused with several other species with similar underwing patterns , such as the yellow @-@ billed stork , great white pelican and Egyptian vulture . The yellow @-@ billed stork is identified by its black tail and a longer , slightly curved , yellow beak . The white stork also tends to be larger than the yellow @-@ billed stork . The great white pelican has short legs which do not extend beyond its tail , and it flies with its neck retracted , keeping its head near to its stocky body , giving it a different flight profile . Pelicans also behave differently , soaring in orderly , synchronised flocks rather than in disorganised groups of individuals as the white stork does . The Egyptian vulture is much smaller , with a long wedge @-@ shaped tail , shorter legs and a small yellow @-@ tinged head on a short neck . The common crane , which can also look black and white in strong light , shows longer legs and a longer neck in flight .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The nominate race of the white stork has a wide although disjunct summer range across Europe , clustered in the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa in the west , and much of eastern and central Europe , with 25 % of the world 's population concentrated in Poland , as well as parts of western Asia . The asiatica population of about 1450 birds is restricted to a region in central Asia between the Aral Sea and Xinjiang in western China . The Xinjiang population is believed to have become extinct around 1980 . Migration routes extend the range of this species into many parts of Africa and India . Some populations adhere to the eastern migration route , which passes across Israel into eastern and central Africa .
A few records of breeding from South Africa have been known since 1933 at Calitzdorp , and about 10 birds have been known to breed since the 1990s around Bredasdorp . A small population of white storks winters in India and is thought to derive principally from the C. c. asiatica population as flocks of up to 200 birds have been observed on spring migration in the early 1900s through the Kurram Valley . However , birds ringed in Germany have been recovered in western ( Bikaner ) and southern ( Tirunelveli ) India . An atypical specimen with red orbital skin , a feature of the Oriental white stork , has been recorded and further study of the Indian population is required . North of the breeding range , it is a passage migrant or vagrant in Finland , Great Britain , Iceland , Ireland , Norway and Sweden , and west to the Azores and Madeira . In recent years , the range has expanded into western Russia .
The white stork 's preferred feeding grounds are grassy meadows , farmland and shallow wetlands . It avoids areas overgrown with tall grass and shrubs . In the Chernobyl area of northern Ukraine , white stork populations declined after the 1986 nuclear accident there as farmland was succeeded by tall grass shrubs . In parts of Poland , poor natural foraging grounds have forced birds to seek food at rubbish dumps since 1999 . White storks have also been reported foraging in rubbish dumps in the Middle East , North Africa and South Africa .
The white stork breeds in greater numbers in areas with open grasslands , particularly grassy areas which are wet or periodically flooded , and less in areas with taller vegetation cover such as forest and shrubland . They make use of grasslands , wetlands , and farmland on the wintering grounds in Africa . White storks were probably aided by human activities during the Middle Ages as woodland was cleared and new pastures and farmland were created , and they were found across much of Europe , breeding as far north as Sweden . The population in Sweden is thought to have established in the 16th century after forests were cut down for agriculture . About 5000 pairs were estimated to breed in the 18th century which declined subsequently . The first accurate census in 1917 found 25 pairs and the last pair failed to breed around 1955 . The white stork is a rare visitor to the British Isles , as about 20 birds are seen in Britain every year , but there are no records of nesting . A pair nested atop St Giles High Kirk in Edinburgh , Scotland in 1416 .
A decline in population began in the 19th century due to industrialisation and changes in agricultural methods . White storks no longer nest in many countries , and the current strongholds of the western population are in Portugal , Spain , Ukraine and Poland . In the Iberian Peninsula , populations are concentrated in the southwest , and have also declined due to agricultural practices . A study published in 2005 found that the Podhale region in the uplands of southern Poland had seen an influx of white storks , which first bred there in 1931 and have nested at progressively higher altitudes since , reaching 890 m ( 3000 ft ) in 1999 . The authors proposed that this was related to climate warming , and the influx of other animals and plants to higher altitudes . White storks arriving in Poznań province ( Greater Poland Voivodeship ) in western Poland in spring to breed did so some 10 days earlier in the last twenty years of the 20th century than at the end of the 19th century .
= = = Migration = = =
Systematic research into migration of white stork began with German ornithologist Johannes Thienemann who commenced ringing studies in 1906 at the Rossitten Bird Observatory , on the Curonian Spit in what was then East Prussia . Although not many storks passed through Rossitten itself , the observatory coordinated the large @-@ scale ringing of the species throughout Germany and elsewhere in Europe . Between 1906 and the Second World War about 100 @,@ 000 , mainly juvenile , white storks were ringed , with over 2 @,@ 000 long @-@ distance recoveries of birds wearing Rossitten rings reported between 1908 and 1954 .
= = = = Routes = = = =
White storks fly south from their summer breeding grounds in Europe in August and September , heading for Africa . There , they spend the winter in savannah from Kenya and Uganda south to the Cape Province of South Africa . In these areas they congregate in large flocks which may exceed a thousand individuals . Some diverge westwards into western Sudan and Chad , and may reach Nigeria . In spring , the birds return north ; they are recorded from Sudan and Egypt from February to April . They arrive back in Europe around late March and April , after an average journey of 49 days . By comparison , the autumn journey is completed in about 26 days . Tailwinds and scarcity of food and water en route ( birds fly faster over regions lacking resources ) increase average speed .
To avoid a long sea crossing over the Mediterranean , birds from central Europe either follow an eastern migration route by crossing the Bosphorus to Turkey , traversing the Levant , then bypassing the Sahara Desert by following the Nile valley southwards , or follow a western route over the Strait of Gibraltar . These migration corridors maximise help from the thermals and thus save energy . The eastern route is by far the more important with 530 @,@ 000 white storks using it annually , making the species the second commonest migrant there ( after the European honey buzzard ) . The flocks of migrating raptors , white storks and great white pelicans can stretch for 200 km ( 125 mi ) . The eastern route is twice as long as the western , but storks take the same time to reach the wintering grounds by either .
Juvenile white storks set off on their first southward migration in an inherited direction but , if displaced from that bearing by weather conditions , they are unable to compensate , and may end up in a new wintering location . Adults can compensate for strong winds and adjust their direction to finish at their normal winter sites , because they are familiar with the location . For the same reason , all spring migrants , even those from displaced wintering locations , can find their way back to the traditional breeding sites . An experiment with young birds raised in captivity in Kaliningrad and released in the absence of wild storks to show them the way revealed that they appeared to have an instinct to fly south , although the scatter in direction was large .
= = = = Energetics = = = =
White storks rely on the uplift of air thermals to soar and glide the long distances of their annual migrations between Europe and Sub @-@ Saharan Africa . For many , the shortest route would take them over the Mediterranean Sea ; however , since air thermals do not form over water , they generally detour over land to avoid the trans @-@ Mediterranean flights that would require prolonged energetic wing flapping . It has been estimated that flapping flight metabolises 23 times more body fat than soaring flight per distance travelled . Thus , flocks spiral upwards on rising warm air until they emerge at the top , up to 1 @,@ 200 – 1 @,@ 500 m ( 3 @,@ 900 – 4 @,@ 900 ft ) above the ground ( though one record from Western Sudan observed an altitude of 3 @,@ 300 m ( 10 @,@ 800 ft ) ) .
Long flights over water may occasionally be undertaken . A young white stork ringed at the nest in Denmark subsequently appeared in England , where it spent some days before moving on . It was later seen flying over St Mary 's , Isles of Scilly , and arrived in a poor condition in Madeira three days later . That island is 500 km ( 320 mi ) from Africa , and twice as far from the European mainland . Migration through the Middle East may be hampered by the khamsin , winds bringing gusty overcast days unsuitable for flying . In these situations , flocks of white storks sit out the adverse weather on the ground , standing and facing into the wind .
= = Behaviour = =
The white stork is a gregarious bird ; flocks of thousands of individuals have been recorded on migration routes and at wintering areas in Africa . Non @-@ breeding birds gather in groups of 40 or 50 during the breeding season . The smaller dark @-@ plumaged Abdim 's stork is often encountered with white stork flocks in southern Africa . Breeding pairs of white stork may gather in small groups to hunt , and colony nesting has been recorded in some areas . However , groups among white stork colonies vary widely in size and the social structure is loosely defined ; young breeding storks are often restricted to peripheral nests , while older storks attain higher breeding success while occupying the better quality nests toward the centres of breeding colonies . Social structure and group cohesion is maintained by altruistic behaviours such as allopreening . White storks exhibit this behaviour exclusively at the nest site . Standing birds preen the heads of sitting birds , sometimes these are parents grooming juveniles , and sometimes juveniles preen each other . Unlike most storks , it never adopts a spread @-@ winged posture , though it is known to droop its wings ( holding them away from its body with the primary feathers pointing downwards ) when its plumage is wet .
A white stork 's droppings , containing faeces and urine , are sometimes directed onto its own legs , making them appear white . The resulting evaporation provides cooling and is termed urohidrosis . Birds that have been ringed can sometimes be affected by the accumulation of droppings around the ring leading to constriction and leg trauma . The white stork has also been noted for tool use by squeezing moss in the beak to drip water into the mouths of its chicks .
= = = Communication = = =
The adult white stork 's main sound is noisy bill @-@ clattering , which has been likened to distant machine gun fire . The bird makes these sounds by rapidly opening and closing its beak so that a knocking sound is made each time its beak closes . The clattering is amplified by its throat pouch , which acts as a resonator . Used in a variety of social interactions , bill @-@ clattering generally grows louder the longer it lasts , and takes on distinctive rhythms depending on the situation — for example , slower during copulation and briefer when given as an alarm call . The only vocal sound adult birds generate is a weak barely audible hiss ; however , young birds can generate a harsh hiss , various cheeping sounds , and a cat @-@ like mew they use to beg for food . Like the adults , young also clatter their beaks . The up @-@ down display is used for a number of interactions with other members of the species . Here a stork quickly throws its head backwards so that its crown rests on its back before slowly bringing its head and neck forwards again , and this is repeated several times . The display is used as a greeting between birds , post coitus , and also as a threat display . Breeding pairs are territorial over the summer , and use this display , as well as crouching forward with the tails cocked and wings extended .
= = = Feeding = = =
White storks consume a wide variety of animal prey . They prefer to forage in meadows that are within roughly 5 km ( 3 mi ) of their nest and sites where the vegetation is shorter so that their prey is more accessible . Their diet varies according to season , locality and prey availability . Common food items include insects ( primarily beetles , grasshoppers , locusts and crickets ) , earthworms , reptiles , amphibians , particularly frog species such as the edible frog ( Pelophylax kl. esculentus ) and common frog ( Rana temporaria ) and small mammals such as voles , moles and shrews . Less commonly , they also eat bird eggs and young birds , fish , molluscs , crustaceans and scorpions . They hunt mainly during the day , swallowing small prey whole , but killing and breaking apart larger prey before swallowing . Rubber bands are mistaken for earthworms and consumed , occasionally resulting in fatal blockage of the digestive tract .
Birds returning to Latvia during spring have been shown to locate their prey , moor frogs ( Rana arvalis ) , by homing in on the mating calls produced by aggregations of male frogs .
The diet of non @-@ breeding birds is similar to that of breeding birds , but food items are more often taken from dry areas . White storks wintering in western India have been observed to follow blackbuck to capture insects disturbed by them . Wintering white storks in India sometimes forage along with the woolly @-@ necked stork ( Ciconia episcopus ) . Food piracy has been recorded in India with a rodent captured by a western marsh harrier appropriated by a white stork , while Montagu 's harrier is known to harass white storks foraging for voles in some parts of Poland .
= = = Breeding and lifespan = = =
The white stork breeds in open farmland areas with access to marshy wetlands , building a large stick nest in trees , on buildings , or on purpose @-@ built man @-@ made platforms . Each nest is 1 – 2 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) in depth , 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 5 m ( 2 @.@ 6 – 4 @.@ 9 ft ) in diameter , and 60 – 250 kg ( 130 – 550 lb ) in weight . Nests are built in loose colonies . Not persecuted as it is viewed as a good omen , it often nests close to human habitation ; in southern Europe , nests can be seen on churches and other buildings . The nest is typically used year after year especially by older males . The males arrive earlier in the season and choose the nests . Larger nests are associated with greater numbers of young successfully fledged , and appear to be sought after . Nest change is often related to a change in the pairing and failure to raise young the previous year , and younger birds are more likely to change nesting sites . Although a pair may be found to occupy a nest , partners may change several times during the early stages and breeding activities begin only after a stable pairing is achieved .
Several bird species often nest within the large nests of the white stork . Regular occupants are house sparrows , tree sparrows , and common starlings ; less common residents include Eurasian kestrels , little owls , European rollers , white wagtails , black redstarts , Eurasian jackdaws , and Spanish sparrows . Paired birds greet by engaging in up @-@ down and head @-@ shaking crouch displays , and clattering the beak while throwing back the head . Pairs copulate frequently throughout the month before eggs are laid . High @-@ frequency pair copulation is usually associated with sperm competition and high frequency of extra @-@ pair copulation ; however , extra @-@ pair copulation is infrequent in white storks .
A white stork pair raises a single brood a year . The female typically lays four eggs , though clutches of one to seven have been recorded . The eggs are white , but often look dirty or yellowish due to a glutinous covering . They measure 72 @.@ 58 mm × 51 @.@ 86 mm ( 2 @.@ 857 in × 2 @.@ 042 in ) , and weigh 96 – 129 g ( 3 @.@ 4 – 4 @.@ 6 oz ) , of which 10 @.@ 76 g ( 0 @.@ 380 oz ) is shell . Incubation begins as soon as the first egg is laid , so the brood hatches asynchronously , beginning 33 to 34 days later . The first hatchling typically has a competitive edge over the others . While stronger chicks are not aggressive towards weaker siblings , as is the case in some species , weak or small chicks are sometimes killed by their parents . This behaviour occurs in times of food shortage to reduce brood size and hence increase the chance of survival of the remaining nestlings . White stork nestlings do not attack each other , and their parents ' method of feeding them ( disgorging large amounts of food at once ) means that stronger siblings cannot outcompete weaker ones for food directly , hence parental infanticide is an efficient way of reducing brood size . Despite this , this behaviour has not commonly been observed .
The temperature and weather around the time of hatching in spring is important ; cool temperatures and wet weather increase chick mortality and reduce breeding success rates . Somewhat unexpectedly , studies have found that later @-@ hatching chicks which successfully reach adulthood produce more chicks than do their earlier @-@ hatching nestmates . The body weight of the chicks increases rapidly in the first few weeks and reaches a plateau of about 3 @.@ 4 kg ( 7 @.@ 5 lb ) in 45 days . The length of the beak increases linearly for about 50 days . Young birds are fed with earthworms and insects , which are regurgitated by the parents onto the floor of the nest . Older chicks reach into the mouths of parents to obtain food . Chicks fledge 58 to 64 days after hatching .
White storks generally begin breeding when about four years old , although the age of first breeding has been recorded as early as two years and as late as seven years . The oldest known wild white stork lived for 39 years after being ringed in Switzerland , while captive birds have lived for more than 35 years .
= = Parasites and diseases = =
White stork nests are habitats for an array of small arthropods , particularly over the warmer months after the birds arrive to breed . Nesting over successive years , the storks bring more material to line their nests and layers of organic material accumulate within them . Not only do their bodies tend to regulate temperatures within the nest , but excrement , food remains and feather and skin fragments provide nourishment for a large and diverse population of free @-@ living mesostigmatic mites . A survey of twelve nests found 13 @,@ 352 individuals of 34 species , the most common being Macrocheles merdarius , M. robustulus , Uroobovella pyriformis and Trichouropoda orbicularis , which together represented almost 85 % of all the specimens collected . These feed on the eggs and larvae of insects and on nematodes , which are abundant in the nest litter . These mites are dispersed by coprophilous beetles , often of the family Scarabaeidae , or on dung brought by the storks during nest construction . Parasitic mites do not occur , perhaps being controlled by the predatory species . The overall impact of the mite population is unclear , the mites may have a role in suppressing harmful organisms ( and hence be beneficial ) , or they may themselves have an adverse effect on nestlings .
The birds themselves host species belonging to more than four genera of feather mites . These mites , including Freyanopterolichus pelargicus and Pelargolichus didactylus live on fungi growing on the feathers . The fungi found on the plumage may feed on the keratin of the outer feathers or on feather oil . Chewing lice such as Colpocephalum zebra tend to be found on the wings , and Neophilopterus incompletus elsewhere on the body .
The white stork also carries several types of internal parasites , including Toxoplasma gondii and intestinal parasites of the genus Giardia . A study of 120 white stork carcasses from Saxony @-@ Anhalt and Brandenburg in Germany yielded eight species of trematode ( fluke ) , four cestode ( tapeworm ) species , and at least three species of nematode . One species of fluke , Chaunocephalus ferox , caused lesions in the wall of the small intestine in a number of birds admitted to two rehabilitation centres in central Spain , and was associated with reduced weight . It is a recognised pathogen and cause of morbidity in the Asian openbill ( Anastomus oscitans ) . More recently , the thorough study performed by J. Sitko and P. Heneberg in the Czech Republic in 1962 – 2013 suggested that the central European white storks host 11 helminth species . Chaunocephalus ferox , Tylodelphys excavata and Dictymetra discoidea were reported to be the dominant ones . The other species found included Cathaemasia hians , Echinochasmus spinulosus , Echinostoma revolutum , Echinostoma sudanense , Duboisia syriaca , Apharyngostrigea cornu , Capillaria sp. and Dictymetra discoidea . Juvenile white storks were shown to host less species , but the intensity of infection was higher in the juveniles than in the adult storks .
West Nile virus ( WNV ) is mainly a bird infection that is transmitted between birds by mosquitos . Migrating birds appear to be important in spread of the virus , the ecology of which remains poorly known . On 26 August 1998 , a flock of about 1 @,@ 200 migrating white storks that had been blown off course on their southward journey landed in Eilat , in southern Israel . The flock was stressed as it had resorted to flapping flight to return to its migratory route , and a number of birds died . A virulent strain of West Nile virus was isolated from the brains of eleven dead juveniles . Other white storks subsequently tested in Israel have shown anti @-@ WNV antibodies . In 2008 three juvenile white storks from a Polish wildlife refuge yielded seropositive results indicating exposure to the virus , but the context or existence of the virus in Poland is unclear .
= = Conservation = =
The white stork 's decline due to industrialisation and agricultural changes ( principally the draining of wetlands and conversion of meadows to crops such as maize ) began in the 19th century : the last wild individual in Belgium was seen in 1895 , in Sweden in 1955 , in Switzerland in 1950 and in the Netherlands in 1991 . However , the species has since been reintroduced to many regions . It has been rated as least concern by the IUCN since 1994 , after being evaluated as near threatened in 1988 . The white stork is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African @-@ Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds ( AEWA ) applies . Parties to the agreement are required to engage in a wide range of conservation strategies described in a detailed action plan . The plan is intended to address key issues such as species and habitat conservation , management of human activities , research , education , and implementation . Threats include the continued loss of wetlands , collisions with overhead power lines , use of persistent pesticides ( such as DDT ) to combat locusts in Africa , and largely illegal hunting on migration routes and wintering grounds .
A large population of white storks breeds in central ( Poland , Ukraine and Germany ) and southern Europe ( Spain and Turkey ) . In a 2004 / 05 census , there were 52 @,@ 500 pairs in Poland , 30 @,@ 000 pairs in Ukraine , 20 @,@ 000 pairs in Belarus , 13 @,@ 000 pairs in Lithuania ( the highest known density of this species in the world ) , 10 @,@ 700 pairs in Latvia , and 10 @,@ 200 in Russia . There were around 5 @,@ 500 pairs in Romania , 5 @,@ 300 in Hungary and an estimated 4 @,@ 956 breeding pairs in Bulgaria . In Germany , the majority of the total 4 @,@ 482 pairs were in the eastern region , especially in the states of Brandenburg and Mecklenburg @-@ Vorpommern ( 1296 and 863 pairs in 2008 respectively ) . Apart from Spain and Portugal ( 33 @,@ 217 and 7 @,@ 684 pairs in 2004 / 05 respectively ) , populations are generally much less stable . The Danish population declined to just three pairs in 2005 . In the eastern Mediterranean region Turkey has a sizeable population of 6195 pairs , and Greece 2139 pairs . In Western Europe the white stork remains a rare bird despite conservation efforts . In 2004 France had only 973 pairs , and the Netherlands 528 pairs .
In the early 1980s , the population had fallen to fewer than nine pairs in the entire upper Rhine River valley , an area closely identified with the white stork for centuries . Conservation efforts successfully increased the population of birds there to 270 pairs ( in 2008 ) , largely due to the actions of the Association for the Protection and Reintroduction of Storks in Alsace and Lorraine . The reintroduction of zoo @-@ reared birds has halted further declines in Italy , the Netherlands , and Switzerland . There were 601 pairs breeding in Armenia and around 700 pairs in the Netherlands in 2008 , and few pairs also breed in South Africa , typically recent colonists from within the normal wintering population . In Poland , electric poles have been modified with a platform at the top to prevent the white stork 's large nest from disrupting the electricity supply , and sometimes nests are moved from an electric pole to a man @-@ made platform . Introductions of zoo @-@ reared birds in the Netherlands has been followed up by feeding and nest @-@ building programs by volunteers . Similar reintroduction programs are taking place in Sweden , and Switzerland , where 175 pairs were recorded breeding in 2000 . Long term viability of the population in Switzerland is unclear as breeding success rates are low , and supplementary feeding does not appear to be of benefit .
= = Cultural associations = =
Due to its large size , predation on vermin , and nesting behaviour close to human settlements and on rooftops , the white stork has an imposing presence that has had an impact on human culture and folklore . In Ancient Egypt , it was associated with , and was the hieroglyph for , the Ba , or " soul " . The Hebrew word for the white stork is chasidah ( חסידה ) , meaning " merciful " or " kind " . Greek and Roman mythology portray storks as models of parental devotion , and it was believed that they did not die of old age , but flew to islands and took the appearance of humans . The bird is featured in at least three of Aesop 's Fables : The Fox and the Stork , The Farmer and the Stork , and The Frogs Who Desired a King . Storks were also thought to care for their aged parents , feeding them and even transporting them , and children 's books depicted them as a model of filial values . A Greek law called Pelargonia , from the Ancient Greek word pelargos for stork , required citizens to take care of their aged parents . The Greeks also held that killing a stork could be punished with death . It was allegedly protected in Ancient Thessaly as it hunted snakes , and widely held to be Virgil 's " white bird " . Roman writers noted the white stork 's arrival in spring , which alerted farmers to plant their vines .
Followers of Islam revered storks because they made an annual pilgrimage to Mecca on their migration . Some of the earliest understanding on bird migration were initiated by an interest in white storks ; Pfeilstörche ( " arrow storks " ) were found in Europe with African arrows embedded in their bodies . A well @-@ known example of such a stork found in the summer of 1822 in the German town of Klütz in Mecklenburg was made into a mounted taxidermy specimen , complete with the ornate African arrow , that is now in the University of Rostock .
Storks have little fear of humans if not disturbed , and often nest on buildings in Europe . In Germany , the presence of a nest on a house was believed to protect against fires . They were also protected because of the belief that their souls were human . German and Dutch households would encourage storks to nest on houses , sometimes by constructing purpose @-@ built high platforms , to bring good luck . Poles , Lithuanians and Ukrainians believe that storks bring harmony to a family on whose property they nest .
The white stork is a popular motif on postage stamps , and it is featured on more than 120 stamps issued by more than 60 stamp @-@ issuing entities . It is the national bird of Lithuania and Belarus , and it was a Polish mascot at the Expo 2000 Fair in Hanover . In the 19th century , storks were also thought to only live in countries having a republican form of government . Polish poet Cyprian Kamil Norwid mentioned storks in his poem Moja piosnka ( II ) ( " My Song ( II ) " ) :
For the land where it 's a great travesty
To harm a stork 's nest in a pear tree ,
For storks serve us all ...
I am homesick , Lord ! ...
= = = Storks and childbirth = = =
According to European folklore , the stork is responsible for bringing babies to new parents . The legend is very ancient , but was popularised by a 19th @-@ century Hans Christian Andersen story called The Storks . German folklore held that storks found babies in caves or marshes and brought them to households in a basket on their backs or held in their beaks . These caves contained adebarsteine or " stork stones " . The babies would then be given to the mother or dropped down the chimney . Households would notify when they wanted children by placing sweets for the stork on the window sill . From there the folklore has spread around the world to countries such as the Philippines and South America . Birthmarks on the back of the head of newborn baby , nevus flammeus nuchae , are sometimes referred to as stork @-@ bite .
In Slavic mythology and religion , storks were thought to carry unborn souls from Iriy to Earth in spring and summer . This belief still persists in the modern folk culture of many Slavic countries , in the simplified child story that " storks bring children into the world " . Storks were seen by the Slavs as bringing luck , and killing one would bring misfortune . A long @-@ term study that showed a spurious correlation between the numbers of stork nests and human births is widely used in the teaching of basic statistics as an example to highlight that correlation does not necessarily indicate causation . The child @-@ bringing myth has appeared in different forms in history . Children of African American slaves were sometimes told that white babies were brought by storks , while black babies were born from buzzard eggs .
Psychoanalyst Marvin Margolis suggests the enduring nature of the stork fable of the newborn is linked to its addressing a psychological need , in that it allays the discomfort of discussing sex and procreation with children . Birds have long been associated with the maternal symbols from pagan goddesses such as Juno to the Holy Ghost , and the stork may have been chosen for its white plumage ( depicting purity ) , size ( in that it is big enough to carry an infant ) , and flight at high altitude ( likened to flying between Earth and Heaven ) . The fable and its relation to the internal world of the child have been discussed by Sigmund Freud , and Carl Jung . In fact , Jung recalled being told the story himself upon the birth of his own sister . The traditional link with the newborn continues with their use in advertising for such products as nappies and birth announcements .
There were negative aspects to stork folklore as well ; a Polish folk tale relates how God made the stork 's plumage white , while the Devil gave it black wings , imbuing it with both good and evil impulses . They were also associated with handicapped or stillborn babies in Germany , explained as the stork having dropped the baby en route to the household , or as revenge or punishment for past wrongdoing . A mother who was confined to bed around the time of childbirth was said to have been " bitten " by the stork . In Denmark , storks were said to toss a nestling off the nest and then an egg in successive years . In medieval England , storks were also associated with adultery , possibly inspired by their courtship rituals . Their preening and posture saw them linked with the attribute of self @-@ conceit .
= = = In literature = = =
Patrick Leigh Fermor describes a flock of storks migrating south across the Balkans in 1934 in his memoir published as The Broken Road .
= The Beatles in Hamburg =
The Beatles members John Lennon , Paul McCartney , George Harrison , Stuart Sutcliffe and Pete Best regularly performed at different clubs in Hamburg , Northern Germany , during the period from August 1960 to December 1962 ; a chapter in the group 's history which honed their performance skills , widened their reputation , and led to their first recording , which brought them to the attention of Brian Epstein .
The Beatles ' booking agent , Allan Williams , decided to send the group to Hamburg when another group he managed , Derry and the Seniors , proved successful there . Having no permanent drummer at the time , they recruited Best a few days before their departure . After breaking their contract by playing at another club , Harrison was deported for being under @-@ age , and McCartney and Best were arrested and deported for attempted arson ( after McCartney and Best had set fire to a condom in their living quarters ) .
The Beatles first met Astrid Kirchherr in Hamburg , who was instrumental in their adoption of the famous Beatle haircut . During their time in Hamburg , Sutcliffe decided to leave the group to continue his studies . In April 1962 , less than a year after leaving the group , he died of a brain hemorrhage .
= = Hamburg in the 1960s = =
Hamburg had once been Germany 's main seaport , the fourth largest in the world , but in 1943 virtually the entire city had been reduced to rubble by World War II bombing raids . By 1960 , when they arrived , the Hamburg that had grown up from the ruins of WWII had established its reputation throughout Europe as a city of vice and criminal activity . In contrast to an economically depressed post @-@ war Liverpool , Hamburg was a wealthy city .
= = = Leaving Liverpool = = =
Williams , a 29 @-@ year @-@ old Liverpool businessman and promoter , had sent his leading group , Derry and the Seniors ( later known as Howie Casey and the Seniors ) to Hamburg , where they were enjoying success , and wanted to send an additional group . He initially tried to send Rory Storm and the Hurricanes , but Storm and his group were committed to a Butlins holiday camp and turned Williams ' offer down , as did Gerry and the Pacemakers . Williams started promoting concerts for The Beatles in May 1960 , after they had played at his Jacaranda club in Liverpool , and offered The Beatles the Hamburg bookings . He booked them into Bruno Koschmider 's Indra club in Hamburg for a season of bookings starting on 12 August 1960 , but said that he was not impressed with them as a musical group , and hoped to find a better act to follow them .
As they had no permanent drummer , McCartney looked for someone to fill the Hamburg position , which was difficult , as Lennon later said that drummers were " few and far between " , because a set of drums was an expensive item . Harrison had seen Best playing with the Black Jacks in The Casbah Coffee Club ( which was run by his mother , Mona Best ) . He was regarded as a steady drummer , playing the bass drum on all four beats in the bar , which pushed the rhythm , and was known in Liverpool at the time as being " mean , moody , and magnificent " by female fans , which convinced McCartney he would be good for the group . After the Black Jacks broke up , McCartney asked Best to go to Hamburg , telling him they would earn £ 15 per week each . Best had the chance to go to a teacher @-@ training college , as he had passed his school exams — unlike Lennon , McCartney and Harrison , who had failed most of theirs — but decided that playing in Hamburg would be a better career move .
The St. Pauli quarter of Hamburg , where the Indra club was located , was well known as an area where prostitutes were to be found , and was a dangerous place for anyone that looked different from the usual clientele . McCartney 's father , Jim McCartney , was reluctant to let his teenage son go to Hamburg , but relented after a visit from Williams , who told him that he " shouldn 't worry " . Lennon 's aunt , Mimi Smith , was also reluctant to allow Lennon to go to Hamburg , wanting Lennon to continue his studies , but Lennon placated her by exaggerating the amount he would earn . Best had an audition in Williams ' Jacaranda club on 15 August 1960 , and travelled to Hamburg the next day as a member of the group . Williams later admitted that the audition with Best was not needed , as they had not found any other drummer willing to travel to Hamburg , but did not tell Best in case he asked for more money . The group were to be paid about £ 100 per week , which was much more than promoters in Liverpool paid . Williams drove the group and their equipment in his Austin J4 minibus which was loaded by crane onto a ferry at Harwich
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on 16 August 1960 , and landed at the Hook of Holland .
All five Beatles , Williams and his wife Beryl , her brother Barry Chang , and " Lord Woodbine " were in the minivan , along with Georg Sterner ( Koschmider 's translator and future waiter ) , making a total of ten people , which resulted in a journey that was both uncomfortable and dangerous . As Williams had not obtained work permits for West Germany , they were detained at Harwich for five hours . Williams finally convinced the authorities that they were students on holiday , although work permits were later obtained after their arrival in Hamburg . Note : ' Lord Woodbine ' and Williams ran a Strip Club called New Cabaret Artistes club at 174a Upper Parliament Street , Liverpool . Lennon , McCartney , Harrison and Sutcliffe once played backing music for " Janice the Stripper " there , in July 1960 .
= = Hamburg clubs = =
In the early 1960s , the Hamburg scene revolved around the Kaiserkeller , Top Ten , Star @-@ Club , Beer @-@ Shop , Mambo , Holle , Wagabond ( pronounced vagabond in German ) and the Pacific Hotel , as well as the less popular clubs like Grannies , the Ice Cream Shop , Chugs , and Sacha 's . The Reeperbahn and the Grosse Freiheit were decorated with neon lights , with posters advertising the performers in the clubs . Each club had a doorman whose job was to entice customers inside , as the drinks were expensive ( for Babycham and watered @-@ down beer ) . Customers who would not , or could not afford to pay were dealt with severely by being beaten and then thrown out .
= = = The Indra and Kaiserkeller = = =
The Beatles arrived very early in the morning of 17 August 1960 , but had no trouble finding the St. Pauli area of Hamburg , as it was so infamous . Unfortunately the Indra Club ( 64 Grosse Freiheit ) was closed , so a manager from a neighbouring club found someone to open it up , and the group slept on the red leather seats in the alcoves . The group played at the club on the same night , but were told they could sleep in a small cinema 's storeroom , which was cold and in very poor condition , the Bambi Kino ( 33 Paul @-@ Roosen Strasse ) .
McCartney later said , " We lived backstage in the Bambi Kino , next to the toilets , and you could always smell them . The room had been an old storeroom , and there were just concrete walls and nothing else . No heat , no wallpaper , not a lick of paint ; and two sets of bunk beds , with not very much covers — Union Jack flags — we were frozen . " Lennon remembered : " We were put in this pigsty . We were living in a toilet , like right next to the ladies ' toilet . We 'd go to bed late and be woken up next day by the sound of the cinema show and old German fraus [ women ] pissing next door . " After having been awoken in this fashion , the group were then obliged to use cold water from the urinals for washing and shaving . They were paid £ 2 @.@ 50 each a day , seven days a week , playing from 8 : 30 @-@ 9 : 30 , 10 until 11 , 11 : 30 @-@ 12 : 30 , and finishing the evening playing from one until two o 'clock in the morning . German customers found the group 's name comical , as " Beatles " sounded like " Peedles " , which meant a small boy 's penis .
Harrison remembered the Reeperbahn and Grosse Freiheit as the best thing the group had ever seen , as it had so many neon lights , clubs and restaurants , although also saying , " The whole area was full of transvestites and prostitutes and gangsters , but I couldn 't say that they were the audience ... Hamburg was really like our apprenticeship , learning how to play in front of people . " Best remembered the Indra as being a depressing place that was filled with a few tourists , and having heavy , old , red curtains that made it seem shabby compared to the larger Kaiserkeller , a club also owned by Koschmider and located nearby at 36 Grosse Freiheit . After the closure of the Indra because of complaints about the noise , the Beatles played in the Kaiserkeller , starting on 4 October 1960 .
= = = = Performances = = = =
Their playing schedule at the Kaiserkeller remained the same as it had been in the Indra . Lennon said : " We had to play for hours and hours on end . Every song lasted twenty minutes and had twenty solos in it . That 's what improved the playing . There was nobody to copy from . We played what we liked best and the Germans liked it as long as it was loud . " The Beatles had been used to simply standing still when they had performed in Liverpool , but Koschmider would come to the front of the stage and loudly shout “ Mach schau , mach schau ! ” ( " make [ a ] show " or , more idiomatically , " put on a show " for the customers ) . Harrison explained that this prompted Lennon to “ dance around like a gorilla , and we ’ d all knock our heads together . ” As Best had been the only one to take O @-@ Level German at school , he could communicate with Koschmider and the clientele better than the rest of the group , and was invited to sing a speciality number called " Peppermint Twist " ( while McCartney played the drums ) but Best complained that he always felt uncomfortable being at the front of the stage . Willie Limpinski , Koschmider 's business manager , decided that the club would attract more customers if it presented continuous live music .
Williams warned the Beatles about the competition they would face by playing in the same club as the Hurricanes by saying , " You 'd better pull your socks up because Rory Storm and the Hurricanes are coming in , and you know how good they are . They 're going to knock you for six . " In early October 1960 , Storm and the Hurricanes were free to travel to Hamburg , replacing Derry and the Seniors at the Kaiserkeller . They arrived in Hamburg on 1 October 1960 , having negotiated to be paid more than the Seniors or the Beatles . They played five or six 90 @-@ minute sets every day , alternating with the Beatles . They were appalled at the living conditions the Beatles and other groups like Howie Casey and the Seniors ( who were sleeping in one room at the back of the Kaiserkeller ) had to put up with , so they booked into Hamburg 's Seamens ' Mission .
= = = = Violence and conflict = = = =
The stage of the Kaiserkeller was made of planks of wood balanced on the top of beer crates , so the two groups made a bet to see to who would be the first to break it . After punishing the stage for days , a slight crack appeared , and when Storm jumped off the top of the upright piano it finally broke . Johnny ' Guitar ' Byrne remembered that as Storm hit the stage , it cracked loudly and formed a V @-@ shape around him . He disappeared into it , and all the amplifiers and drummer Ringo Starr 's cymbals slid into the hole . Koschmider was furious , and had to replace the live music with a juke box . Both groups went across the road to Harold 's cafe for breakfast on the Grosse Freiheit , but were followed by Koschmider 's doormen , armed with coshes , who beat them all as punishment .
Horst Fascher ( born 1936 , Hamburg ) was Koschmider 's nightclub bouncer , who had been the 1959 West German featherweight boxing champion , but his career was cut short after he unintentionally killed a sailor in a street fight . He later became a friend of the Beatles , and protected them from drunken customers . Lennon occasionally urinated out of his apartment ’ s window onto the street below , and often started arguments with the audience , so that eventually one member of the audience would jump on stage to hit him , but it was Fascher ’ s job to protect Lennon and the group . In some occasions beer bottles were thrown at them . Fascher remembered Lennon often greeting the audience with a " Heil Hitler " , and a Nazi salute : " He 'd pull out a black comb and pretend it was a moustache ... people laughed . "
Lennon was missing for a performance one evening , and Fascher found him in the toilet with a woman . He broke up the tête @-@ à @-@ tête with a bucket of cold water which he threw over them both , and ordered Lennon onto the stage . Lennon was furious , and complained that he could not go on stage dripping wet . Fascher snapped back : " I don 't give a shit , you 're going onstage and I don 't care if you do it naked . " A short time later the audience was roaring with laughter . Fascher ran to see what the commotion was , and saw Lennon playing guitar , but only wearing underpants with a toilet seat around his neck . ( Epstein later asked Liverpool journalist Bill Harry not to publish photos showing Lennon walking along the Reeperbahn in his underpants ) . Fascher 's brother , Fred sang lead vocals with the group on " Be Bop A Lula " , while he sang with them on " Hallelujah I Love Her So " , and his alliance with the Beatles continued , as he later went to work at the Star @-@ Club .
= = = = Performance skills = = = =
According to McCartney , Sutcliffe was a " typical art student " , with bad skin and pimples , but his reputation grew after he began wearing tight trousers and dark Ray @-@ Ban sunglasses . Sutcliffe 's high spot was singing " Love Me Tender " , which drew more applause than when the other Beatles sang , increasing the friction between himself and McCartney . Lennon also started to criticise Sutcliffe ; making jokes about Sutcliffe 's size and playing . While Sutcliffe is often described in Beatles ' biographies as appearing very uncomfortable onstage , and often playing with his back to the audience , Best denies this , recalling Sutcliffe as usually good @-@ natured and " animated " before an audience .
The Beatles steadily improved during their time in Hamburg , and this was noticed by other musicians who were there at the time . McCartney recalled , " We got better and better and other groups started coming to watch us . The accolade of accolades was when Sheridan would come in from the Top Ten ( the big club where we aspired to go ) or when Rory Storm or Ringo [ Starr ] would hang around to watch us . ‘ What 'd I Say ’ was always the one that really got them . " The song was often played by the group , once being played for 90 minutes non @-@ stop , with group members walking off stage to wash and drink before returning . Sutcliffe wrote a letter to his mother saying , " We have improved a thousand @-@ fold since our arrival and Allan Williams , who is here at the moment , tells us that there is no group in Liverpool to touch us . "
On Saturday 18 October 1960 , Williams arranged a recording session for Lou Walters ( of the Hurricanes ) at the Akustik Studio , a small booth on the fifth floor of 57 Kirchenallee ( The Klockmann @-@ House ) . Williams asked Lennon , McCartney , and Harrison to play and sing harmonies on the recording . Best was in town buying drumsticks , so Starr , the Hurricanes ' drummer , played drums . This was the first time Lennon , McCartney , Harrison and Starr recorded together . They recorded three songs : " Fever " , " September Song " and " Summertime " .
= = = The Top Ten = = =
Formerly the Hippodrome ( Reeperbahn 136 ) , the Top Ten club was opened in 1960 by Peter Eckhorn , and was operated by Iain Hines , who was an organist . In late October 1960 , The Beatles left Koschmider 's club to work at the Top Ten Club , as Eckhorn offered the group more money , a better PA ( with reverb and echo ) and a slightly better place to sleep ( above the club itself ) although by doing so the group broke their contract with Koschmider . Koschmider then reported Harrison for working under the legal age limit ( even though he had been working at Koschmider 's club ) and Harrison was deported on 21 November 1960 . When Best and McCartney went back to the Bambi Kino to get their belongings they found it in almost total darkness . As a snub to Koschmider , McCartney and Best found a condom in their luggage , attached it to a nail on the concrete wall of the room , and set fire to it . There was no real damage done , but Koschmider reported them both for attempted arson . McCartney : " One evening we were just walking down the Reeperbahn , when we heard this ' ta @-@ ti @-@ ti @-@ ta ' , and then ' Komm mit mir ! ' ( ' Come with me ! ' ) " . Best and McCartney spent three hours in the Davidwache Police Station , and were deported on 1 December 1960 . Lennon 's work permit was revoked a few days later and he went home by train , but as Sutcliffe had a cold , he stayed in Hamburg . Sutcliffe later borrowed money from Kirchherr ( his German girlfriend ) for the airfare back to Liverpool in early January 1961 . Back in Liverpool , no one contacted each other for two weeks , but Best and his mother made numerous phone calls to Hamburg to recover the group 's equipment .
Back in Liverpool , the group played an engagement on 17 December 1960 , at the Casbah Coffee Club , with Chas Newby substituting for Sutcliffe , playing bass with them for four shows . Newby was shocked at the vast improvement of their playing and singing after the residency in Hamburg , and was struck by how powerful Best 's drumming now was , pushing the group to play harder and louder . ( It was probably due to McCartney that Best developed a loud drumming style , as he would often tell Best in Hamburg to " Crank it up " = play as loud as possible ) .
After Harrison turned 18 and the immigration problems had been solved , the Beatles went back to Hamburg for another residency at the Top Ten Club , playing from 27 March to 2 July 1961 . To secure their return , Eckhorn paid DM 158 to the German authorities , which was the cost of deporting McCartney and Best back to Liverpool the previous winter . Fellow musician , Tony Sheridan , later remembered the living conditions at the club : “ John , George , Paul , Stuart and Pete and I were booked to open the smart Top Ten in the Reeperbahn . We moved into a dormitory over the club and slept in bunks . It was terrible really , now I look back . We all washed our own shirts and socks so the place smelt like a Chinese laundry . But we had great times and I ’ m afraid we used to tease the life out of the old lady who [ took care of ] us . ”
Sutcliffe decided to leave the Beatles to concentrate on his art studies and to be with Kirchherr , so McCartney ( unwillingly ) took over as bass player for the group . Sutcliffe later enrolled at the Hamburg College of Art under the tutelage of the pop artist Eduardo Paolozzi . Sutcliffe lent McCartney his Höfner President 500 / 5 model bass guitar but asked McCartney not to change the strings around , so McCartney had to play it with the strings arranged backwards , until he could buy a specially made left @-@ handed Höfner bass of his own . McCartney bought his first Höfner Violin bass guitar ( model 500 / 1 ) from the Steinway @-@ Haus Music Store ( Colonnaden 29 ) Lennon bought a Rickenbacker guitar ( 1958 Model 325 ) and Harrison bought a Gibson amplifier .
The matching lilac jackets , made by McCartney 's next @-@ door neighbour in Liverpool to be worn as stage clothes , were soon threadbare , as were any other items of clothing , so the group bought cowboy boots , jeans and black leather jackets and trousers , from Paul Hundertmark 's ( Spielbudenplatz 9 ) and a tailor 's shop at Thadenstrasse 6 . Lennon said : " We had a bit more money the second time so we bought leather pants ... we looked like four Gene Vincents .
= = = The Star @-@ Club = = =
On 13 April 1962 , the Beatles were booked as the opening act for the launch of a new club . The Star @-@ Club , opened by Manfred Weissleder , had a capacity for two thousand people , as well as cinema @-@ style seating . When the Beatles were booked to play there , Neil Aspinall left his job to become the Beatles ' permanent road manager , as he was earning more money driving them around than he was earning by being an accountant , and had his van ferried to Hamburg . The Beatles returned to Hamburg by plane to play from 13 April to 31 May 1962 . Upon their arrival , they were informed of Sutcliffe 's death .
By the time of their second Star @-@ Club visit from 1 – 14 November 1962 , Starr had become the group 's drummer . The Beatles stayed at the Hotel Germania ( Detlev @-@ Bremer @-@ Strasse 8 ) , having the luxury of single rooms for the first time , and then stayed at the Hotel Pacific ( Neuer Pferdemarkt 30 ) for another booking from 18 – 31 December 1962 . Harrison said : " We came back to play the Star @-@ Club , a big place and fantastic because it had a great sound system . This time we had a hotel . I remember it was quite a long walk from the club , at the top of the Reeperbahn going back towards the city . " Portions of their final performances were taped with a portable recorder by an associate of Ted " King Size " Taylor of the Dominoes , another group playing at the club . The tapes were released on West Germany 's Bellaphon label in 1977 as The Beatles : Live ! at the Star @-@ Club in Hamburg , Germany ; 1962 , and subsequently re @-@ released in various formats and titles .
The set list at the Star @-@ Club ( with the lead singer in parentheses ) :
" I Saw Her Standing There " ( McCartney ) " Roll Over Beethoven " ( Harrison ) " Hippy Hippy Shake " ( McCartney ) " Sweet Little Sixteen " ( Lennon ) " Lend Me Your Comb " ( Lennon ) " Your Feet 's Too Big " ( McCartney ) " Red Sails in the Sunset " ( McCartney ) " Everybody 's Trying to Be My Baby " ( Harrison ) " Matchbox " ( Lennon ) " Talkin ' ' Bout You " ( Lennon ) " Shimmy Shimmy " ( McCartney ) " Long Tall Sally " ( McCartney ) " I Remember You " ( McCartney ) " I 'm Gonna Sit Right Down and Cry ( Over You ) " ( Lennon ) " Where Have You Been All My Life " ( Lennon )
" Twist and Shout " ( Lennon ) " Mr. Moonlight " ( Lennon ) " A Taste of Honey " ( McCartney ) " Besame Mucho " ( McCartney ) " Reminiscing " ( Harrison ) " Kansas City " ( McCartney ) " Nothin ' Shakin ' But the Leaves On a Tree " ( Harrison ) " To Know Her is to Love Her " ( Harrison or Lennon ) " Little Queenie " ( McCartney ) " Falling in Love Again " ( McCartney ) " Ask Me Why " ( Lennon ) " Hallelujah I Love Her So " ( club manager Horst Fascher ) " Be @-@ Bop @-@ A @-@ Lula " ( Fred Fascher , Horst 's brother ) " Till There Was You " ( McCartney ) " Sheila " ( Harrison )
= = = Sex , drugs and rock and roll = = =
McCartney explained that the Beatles had only experienced sex with girls from Liverpool , but when they got to Hamburg the only women who hung around the clubs late at night were strippers , dancers , or prostitutes . Harrison ( who was then only 17 ) called Hamburg , “ The naughtiest city in the world ” . McCartney said : “ By the time you got to Hamburg , a girlfriend there was likely to be a stripper , so to be suddenly involved with a hard @-@ core striptease artist , who obviously knew a thing or two about sex ... it was quite an eye @-@ opener . ” Gerry Marsden — frontman for Gerry & the Pacemakers — remembered visiting a Hamburg brothel in Herbertstrasse with Lennon : " We paid our money , went in and sat down . This guy came out with the biggest lady we had ever seen in our lives . She looked like a bus with a bra on . We ran out that door so quick we didn 't hear it shut . I wanted to go back to get my money back but John said : ' No , we 'd better not . Might cause trouble . ' "
The Beatles 's introduction to " Prellies " ( Preludin ) was in Hamburg . As the group had to play for hours , Sheridan offered them Preludin , saying : " Here 's something to keep you awake . " Astrid Kirchherr also supplied Sutcliffe and the other Beatles with Preludin , which when taken with beer , made them feel euphoric and helped to keep them awake until the early hours of the morning . Looking back , Harrison said that the whole group would be “ frothing at the mouth , ” and would sometimes stay awake for days . Lennon recalled , “ The waiters always had these pills [ Preludin ] , so when they saw the musicians falling over with tiredness or drink , they ’ d give you the pill . You could work almost endlessly until the pill wore off , and then you ’ d have another . ” McCartney said that he would usually take one , but Lennon would often take four or five .
Legitimate use of Preludin required a doctor 's prescription note , but Kirchherr 's mother was able to obtain it from a local chemist which supplied the drug without asking questions . Epstein later asked the Star @-@ Club owner , Weissleder , not to publish photographs showing the group playing with tubes of Preludin . Starr explained that Dexedrine too was in plentiful supply in Hamburg , as it was known to produce increased wakefulness and focus , in association with decreased fatigue , and decreased appetite .
= = Record release = =
The first recording ever released was the single " My Bonnie " , which was recorded in Hamburg during the group 's time at the Top Ten club . The recording came about when the Beatles were recruited by singer Sheridan , who also had a residency at the Top Ten club , to act as his backing group on a series of recordings . The recordings were made for the German Polydor Records label , and were produced by the famed bandleader Bert Kaempfert , who had an instrumental hit called " Wonderland by Night " ( " Wunderland bei Nacht " ) which reached number one in the U.S. in 1961 , the same year he produced " My Bonnie " . On 22 June 1961 , Sheridan and the Beatles drove to Hamburg @-@ Harburg ( about 30 minutes from Hamburg ) to record in the Friedrich @-@ Ebert @-@ Halle ( auditorium / hall ) and were paid 330 Deutschmarks ( about $ 75 ) for the recording , although there was a second recording session on 23 June and a third session in May 1962 . Kaempfert signed the group to a one @-@ year Polydor contract at the first session on 22 June 1961 .
On 31 October 1961 , Polydor released " My Bonnie " ( Mein Herz ist bei dir nur ) which appeared on the West German charts under the name " Tony Sheridan and the Beat Brothers " — a generic name used for whoever happened to be in Sheridan 's backup group , although McCartney explained : " They didn 't like our name and said , ' Change to the Beat Brothers , this is more understandable for the German audience . ' We went along with it ... it was a record . " The song was later released in the UK , on 5 January 1962 . A few copies were also pressed under the American Decca Records label .
= = = Brian Epstein = = =
" My Bonnie " was to bring the Beatles to the attention of a key figure in their subsequent development and commercial success , Brian Epstein . In September 1961 , Harrison had a German copy of the record , which Sutcliffe had sent to him , as he was still in Hamburg . Harrison loaned it to Bob Wooler ( The Cavern Club DJ ) who played it at various venues , when the members of the group lent it to him . On 28 October 1961 , the 27 @-@ year @-@ old Epstein , manager of the record department in his father 's NEMS music store in Whitechapel Street , Liverpool , was asked for the record by an 18 @-@ year @-@ old boy , Raymond Jones . Epstein could find nothing on his files about the Beatles or the record , but the following day it was requested again by two girls , this time mentioning that the Beatles had been seen playing at the Cavern , a club in nearby Mathew Street . Alistair Taylor ( Epstein 's assistant ) later said that the story had been invented and that he had used the name Jones to order copies of the record himself .
Mersey Beat founder Bill Harry later repudiated the story about Epstein not knowing who the Beatles were , as Harry had been talking to Epstein about the band for a long time ( being the group he promoted the most in Mersey Beat ) and by McCartney saying , “ Brian [ Epstein ] knew perfectly well who the Beatles were , they were on the front page of the second issue of Mersey Beat . ” Regardless , the interest in the record eventually led Epstein to make his way to the Cavern with Taylor , during lunch hour on 9 November 1961 . He was initially repelled by the dark , damp club , but he congratulated them on their performance .
= = Astrid Kirchherr , Voormann , and Vollmer = =
Kirchherr , Klaus Voormann , and Jürgen Vollmer were early fans of the Beatles after they heard the group play in the Kaiserkeller . Kirchherr , Voormann 's girlfriend , was initially horrified at the idea of spending any time in such a sordid district , but Voormann , after watching the Beatles several times without her , eventually persuaded her to come too . After having previously only listened to Trad jazz , the Platters , and Nat King Cole , the Rock n ' Roll that the Beatles played was totally new to them . The three friends visited the Kaiserkeller almost every night , arriving at 9 o 'clock and sitting by the front of the stage . Kirchherr , then 22 years old , later said : " It was like a merry @-@ go @-@ round in my head , they looked absolutely astonishing ... My whole life changed in a couple of minutes . All I wanted was to be with them and to know them . " Sutcliffe was fascinated by Kirchherr , and Harry later wrote that when Kirchherr walked in , every head would immediately turn her way . Sutcliffe wrote to a friend that he could hardly take his eyes off her when she had first walked into the club , and tried to talk to her during the next break , but she had already left .
Kirchherr asked the Beatles if they would mind letting her take photographs of them in a photo session , which impressed them , as other groups only had snapshots that were taken by friends . The next morning Kirchherr took photographs in a fairground park called " Der Dom " which was close to the Reeperbahn . Kirchherr started dating Sutcliffe , and they were engaged in November 1960 .
Kirchherr is credited with inventing the Beatles ' moptop haircut , although she personally disagrees . In 1995 , she told BBC Radio Merseyside : " All my friends in art school used to run around with this sort of what you call Beatles ' haircut , and my boyfriend then , Klaus Voormann , had this hairstyle , and Stuart [ Sutcliffe ] liked it very very much . He was the first one who really got the nerve to get the Brylcreem out of his hair and asking me to cut his hair for him . Pete [ Best ] has really curly hair and it wouldn 't work . " After suffering blackouts and intense headaches , Sutcliffe was taken to a hospital on 10 April 1962 — Kirchherr rode with him in the ambulance — but died before the ambulance reached the hospital . Three days later Kirchherr met the Beatles at the Hamburg airport and told them Sutcliffe had died of a brain haemorrhage .
In 1966 , Voormann was asked by Lennon to design the sleeve for the Beatles ' album Revolver , and also played bass on solo recordings by Lennon , McCartney , Harrison , and Starr . In 1995 , Voormann designed the artwork for the three @-@ volume CD sets in The Beatles Anthology series . In 1999 , Kirchherr published a book called Hamburg Days ( a two @-@ volume limited edition ) containing a set of photographs by Kirchherr and " memory drawings " by Voormann of the Beatles time in Hamburg .
= = Later years = =
The Beatles returned to Hamburg in June 1966 , staying at the Tremsbüttel castle ( Schlosstrasse 10 ) , and played two concerts in the Ernst @-@ Merck @-@ Halle on 26 and 27 June . Lennon later said , " I might have been born in Liverpool - but I grew up in Hamburg " . Lennon made the door of Jäger @-@ Passage at Wohlwillstrasse 22 famous when he posed in front of it for a photo which was later used on the covers of the Rock ' n ' Roll and Rock ' n ' Roll Sessions albums . The photo was taken by Jürgen Vollmer , during the time The Beatles were playing at the Top Ten club .
Individual Beatles later commented about their memories of Hamburg , with Lennon reflecting , " We 'd outlived the Hamburg stage and wanted to pack that up . We hated going back to Hamburg those last two times . We 'd had that scene . Brian [ Epstein ] made us go back to fulfill the contract ... " . Harrison had positive memories of the period : " I 'd have to say with hindsight that Hamburg bordered on the best of Beatles times . We didn 't have any luxury , we didn 't have any bathrooms or any clothes , we were pretty grubby , we couldn 't afford anything , but on the other hand we weren 't yet famous , so we didn 't have to contend with the bullshit that comes with fame . " McCartney was philosophical : " Hamburg was certainly a great childhood memory . But I think all things are enhanced by time . It was very exciting , though I think it felt better to me a little later in our career , once we 'd started to get a bit of success with the records . "
A memorial square , Beatles @-@ Platz , was constructed in Hamburg in 2008 at the meeting of Reeperbahn and Große Freiheit streets , containing five stainless steel sculptures of the Beatles . Construction costs amounted to € 550 @,@ 000 ( $ 776 @,@ 000 ) , of which € 200 @,@ 000 was provided by sponsors and donors . The idea of creating a memorial to the Beatles had been initiated in 2001 by Hamburg radio station Oldie 95 . Hamburg 's Mayor , Ole von Beust , said at the opening , " It is about time that Hamburg commemorated this great group . " The square when illuminated resembles a spinning turntable . Because the band members are shown only in outline form , the figure of the drummer can be either Best or Starr .
= The Boys ( Girls ' Generation song ) =
" The Boys " is a song recorded by South Korean girl group Girls ' Generation for their third Korean language studio album with the same name . It was produced by Teddy Riley , Teasung Kim , DOM , and Richard Garcia . The Korean version was released on October 18 , 2011 by S.M. Entertainment as the lead single from the album . An English version was subsequently released in the United States on December 20 , 2011 by Interscope Records and Universal Music Group in order to expand the group 's popularity outside their native country . " The Boys " is a dance @-@ pop , electropop and R & B song with elements of hip hop that lyrically discusses female attractiveness .
Following the release of " The Boys " , Girls ' Generation appeared on several South Korean music programs including Music Bank , Show ! Music Core , Inkigayo , and M Countdown . To further promote the song to American audiences , the group performed at Madison Square Garden in New York City on December 19 , 2011 and made their debut on US television with appearances on Late Show with David Letterman and Live ! with Kelly and Michael in February 2012 . A music video for the song was directed by Hong Won @-@ ki and choreographed by Rino Nakasone and was released on October 19 , 2011 .
" The Boys " was a success domestically . It peaked atop the South Korean Gaon Digital Chart and sold over three million digital copies in 2011 , becoming the 43th best @-@ performing single on the chart of the year . Internationally , the single received generally positive reviews from music critics , who complimented the song as one of the highlights of the Korean Wave . In the United States , it managed to sell over 21 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release and peaked at number 5 on the Billboard Hot Dance Singles Sales , while in Japan , the single peaked at number 12 on the Billboard Japan Hot 100 .
= = Background and composition = =
" The Boys " was produced by Teddy Riley . The original Korean version of the song was written by Riley , Yoo Young @-@ jin , Teasung Kim , DOM , and Richard Garcia . The English version was also written by the same songwriters ; it was released on October 18 , 2011 as a digital single worldwide by S.M. Entertainment . A digital extended play which consists of the English version and remixes of " The Boys " was released on December 20 , 2011 by S.M. Entertainment under exclusive license to Universal Music Group . A maxi single of the song released on December 21 , 2011 . A remix version of the song produced by electronica musicians Clinton Sparks and The Disco Fries featuring Snoop Dogg was included on the US edition . A Japanese version was written by Hidenori Tanaka and Nozomi Maezawa and was included on the group 's reissue of their debut Japanese album , Girls ' Generation , which was entitled The Boys and released on December 28 , 2011 .
To further promote their popularity to Western countries , S.M. Entertainment had the group signed with Interscope Records , which is affiliated with Universal Music Group , to debut in the United States . In an interview with MTV K , member Tiffany shared that the recording session of the song , both the English and Korean version , took one week to finish . She also expressed her excitement of the song 's release in the United States , " We haven ’ t started on a full @-@ length album , but we ’ re kicking off with this maxi single and hopefully it will lead to a full @-@ length album . "
Musically , " The Boys " is a dance @-@ pop , electropop and R & B song , with elements of hip hop , a genre that Girls ' Generation had never ventured into . It features " military style drum breakdowns and killer vocal harmonies " in its composition , according to Angelica Wallingford from the San Diego City Times . The song 's lyrics as explained by Eun @-@ Young Jung on the book The Korean Wave : Korean Media Go Global ( 2013 ) as portraying " sexually daring girls " who are confident in their attractiveness and enjoy attention from men :
I can tell you 're looking at me , I know what you see
Any closer and you 'll feel the heat
You don 't have to pretend that you didn 't notice me
Every look will make it hard to breathe
B @-@ Bring the boys out
= = Promotion = =
In November and December 2011 , Girls ' Generation appeared on several South Korean music programs including Music Bank , Show ! Music Core , Inkigayo , and M Countdown to promote " The Boys " and the album . To further promote the song to American audiences , the group appeared at Madison Square Garden in New York on October 23 , 2011 and performed the song , as part of an SM Town concert , which also featured other S.M. Entertainment 's singers and performers including Shinee and f ( x ) .
Girls ' Generation promoted " The Boys " upon making their debut on American television in February 2011 . The group performed the English version of the song on two television shows : Late Show with David Letterman and Live ! with Kelly and Michael on February 1 . Their performances received generally positive reviews from US media outlets . Bradley Stern from MuuMuse labelled the group 's appearances on US television a " stunning win " for supporters of Korean music , while David Bevan from Spin wrote " It 's like a dream . " Nevertheless , viewers ' response were divided – some accused the members of lip syncing and expressed their disdain for their performance , while others were impressed by the group 's dancing skills and musical style .
A music video for " The Boys " was directed by Hong Won @-@ ki and choreographed by Rino Nakasone . It was released on October 19 , 2011 , on YouTube and several South Korean music websites . The video starts with a close up @-@ of each members before switching to the dancing scenes . It was an instant success on YouTube , achieving 13 million views in one week . It has since attracted over 100 million views on YouTube , becoming the group 's third music video to do so following " Gee " and " I Got a Boy " . With this achievement , Girls ' Generation became the first music girl group to have three music videos with over 100 million views as of September 2014 , surpassing the Pussycat Dolls , who had two videos with over 100 million views .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial = = =
" The Boys " was a success in South Korea . Following its release , the song immediately achieved number one spots on music programs Music Bank , Inkigayo , and M Countdown . On Music Bank , the single occupied the number one position for six weeks . It peaked at number one on the Gaon Digital Chart and sold over 3 @.@ 032 million digital downloads in 2011 , becoming the 10th best @-@ selling single and the 43th best @-@ performing single ( including streaming and instrumental track downloads ) on the Gaon Chart . The single also peaked atop the Billboard Korea K @-@ Pop Hot 100 instead . In the United States , the track peaked at numbers 5 and 15 the Hot Dance Singles Sales and Hot Singles Sales , respectively , and managed to sell 21 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release , according to Nielsen SoundScan . In Japan , " The Boys " charted at number 12 on the Billboard Japan Hot 100 chart .
= = = Critical = = =
" The Boys " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Katherine St Asaph from Popdust gave the song three and a half out of five stars , complimenting the song 's production but criticizing its lack of a " memorable " chorus . Jen Erenza from Ryan Seacrest 's official blog praised it as a " foot @-@ stomping , head @-@ crackin ' , and girl @-@ powered track sung by nine girls that everyone needs to hear " . AllMusic 's Tim Sendra named it the best song on The Boys and wrote that " Girls ' Generation have what it takes to conquer the world of pop " . Chris True from the same website picked " The Boys " as well as its English version and remix featuring Snoop Dogg as three outstanding songs throughout the group 's career .
Jaeki Cho from Vibe described the group 's music as " Spice Girls meet Pussycat Dolls " and recommended " The Boys " to download . Smith Sonian noted " The Boys " as one of the highlights of Korean music ( K @-@ pop ) in the Korean Wave along with " Only One " by BoA , " Sorry , Sorry " by Super Junior , " Gangnam Style " by Psy , " Fantastic Baby " by Big Bang " , and " I Am the Best " by 2NE1 .
Several reviewers expected that Girls ' Generation would achieve success with their electropop music styles following their appearance on US television . Mio Scobie , editor of Us Weekly wrote that " They produce feelgood beats , instantly memorable choruses and , as I 'm sure people have already noticed , they 're stunning . " McClure 's Asia Music News writer Steve McClure also anticipated that the group would succeed on the Western music scene , saying that " I have a feeling that Girls ' Generation will stick round for a while . "
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" The Boys " – 3 : 46
" The Boys " ( Instrumental ) – 3 : 46
Maxi single and EP
" The Boys " – 3 : 48
" The Boys " ( Clinton Sparks & Disco Fries Remix ) ( featuring Snoop Dogg ) – 4 : 17
" The Boys " ( Clinton Sparks & Disco Fries Remix ) ( featuring Lil Playy ) – 4 : 17
" The Boys " * Bring Dem Boys * ( Teddy Riley Remix ) ( featuring Suzi ) – 3 : 39
" The Boys " * Bring the Boys Out * ( David Anthony Remix ) – 4 : 27
" The Boys " * Bring the Boys * ( Teddy Riley Remix ) – 3 : 48
" The Boys " ( Instrumental ) – 3 : 48
" The Boys " ( A Capella ) – 3 : 46
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Boron =
Boron is a metalloid chemical element with symbol B and atomic number 5 . Produced entirely by cosmic ray spallation and supernovae and not by stellar nucleosynthesis , it is a low @-@ abundance element in the Solar system and in the Earth 's crust . Boron is concentrated on Earth by the water @-@ solubility of its more common naturally occurring compounds , the borate minerals . These are mined industrially as evaporites , such as borax and kernite . The largest known boron deposits are in Turkey , the largest producer of boron minerals .
Chemically uncombined boron is found in small amounts in meteoroids but is not found naturally on Earth . Industrially , very pure boron is produced with difficulty because of refractory contamination by carbon or other elements . Several allotropes of boron exist : amorphous boron is a brown powder ; crystalline boron is silvery to black , extremely hard ( about 9 @.@ 5 on the Mohs scale ) , and a poor electrical conductor at room temperature . The primary use of elemental boron is as boron filaments with applications similar to carbon fibers in some high @-@ strength materials .
Boron is primarily used in chemical compounds . About half of all consumption globally , boron is used as an additive in glass fibers of boron @-@ containing fiberglass for insulation and structural materials . The next leading use is in polymers and ceramics in high @-@ strength , lightweight structural and refractory materials . Borosilicate glass glassware is desired for its greater strength and thermal shock resistance than ordinary soda lime glass . Boron compounds are used as fertilizers in agriculture and in sodium perborate bleaches . A small amount of boron is used as a dopant in semiconductors , and reagent intermediates in the synthesis of organic fine chemicals . A few boron @-@ containing organic pharmaceuticals are used or are in study . Natural boron is composed of two stable isotopes , one of which ( boron @-@ 10 ) has a number of uses as a neutron @-@ capturing agent .
In biology , borates have low toxicity in mammals ( similar to table salt ) , but are more toxic to arthropods and are used as insecticides . Boric acid is mildly antimicrobial , and a natural boron @-@ containing organic antibiotic is known . Boron is essential to life . Small amounts of boron compounds play a strengthening role in the cell walls of all plants , making boron a necessary plant nutrient . Boron is involved in the metabolism of calcium in both plants and animals . It is considered an essential nutrient for humans , and boron deficiency is implicated in osteoporosis .
= = History = =
The word boron was coined from borax , the mineral from which it was isolated , by analogy with carbon , which boron resembles chemically .
Borax , its mineral form then known as tincal , glazes were used in China from AD 300 , and some crude borax reached the West , where the Persian alchemist Jābir ibn Hayyān apparently mentioned it in AD 700 . Marco Polo brought some glazes back to Italy in the 13th century . Agricola , around 1600 , reports the use of borax as a flux in metallurgy . In 1777 , boric acid was recognized in the hot springs ( soffioni ) near Florence , Italy , and became known as sal sedativum , with primarily medical uses . The rare mineral is called sassolite , which is found at Sasso , Italy . Sasso was the main source of European borax from 1827 to 1872 , when American sources replaced it . Boron compounds were relatively rarely used until the late 1800s when Francis Marion Smith 's Pacific Coast Borax Company first popularized and produced them in volume at low cost .
Boron was not recognized as an element until it was isolated by Sir Humphry Davy and by Joseph Louis Gay @-@ Lussac and Louis Jacques Thénard . In 1808 Davy observed that electric current sent through a solution of borates produced a brown precipitate on one of the electrodes . In his subsequent experiments , he used potassium to reduce boric acid instead of electrolysis . He produced enough boron to confirm a new element and named the element boracium . Gay @-@ Lussac and Thénard used iron to reduce boric acid at high temperatures . By oxidizing boron with air , they showed that boric acid is an oxidation product of boron . Jöns Jakob Berzelius identified boron as an element in 1824 . Pure boron was arguably first produced by the American chemist Ezekiel Weintraub in 1909 .
= = Preparation of elemental boron in the laboratory = =
The earliest routes to elemental boron involved the reduction of boric oxide with metals such as magnesium or aluminium . However , the product is almost always contaminated with borides of those metals . Pure boron can be prepared by reducing volatile boron halides with hydrogen at high temperatures . Ultrapure boron for use in the semiconductor industry is produced by the decomposition of diborane at high temperatures and then further purified with the zone melting or Czochralski processes .
The production of boron compounds does not involve the formation of elemental boron , but exploits the convenient availability of borates .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Allotropes = = =
Boron is similar to carbon in its capability to form stable covalently bonded molecular networks . Even nominally disordered ( amorphous ) boron contains regular boron icosahedra which are , however , bonded randomly to each other without long @-@ range order . Crystalline boron is a very hard , black material with a melting point of above 2000 ° C. It forms four major polymorphs : α @-@ rhombohedral and β @-@ rhombohedral ( α @-@ R and β @-@ R ) , γ and β @-@ tetragonal ( β @-@ T ) ; α @-@ tetragonal phase also exists ( α @-@ T ) , but is very difficult to produce without significant contamination . Whereas α , β and T phases are based on B12 icosahedra , the γ @-@ phase can be described as a rocksalt @-@ type arrangement of the icosahedra and B2 atomic pairs . It can be produced by compressing other boron phases to 12 – 20 GPa and heating to 1500 – 1800 ° C ; it remains stable after releasing the temperature and pressure . The T phase is produced at similar pressures , but higher temperatures of 1800 – 2200 ° C. As to the α and β phases , they might both coexist at ambient conditions with the β phase being more stable . Compressing boron above 160 GPa produces a boron phase with an as yet unknown structure , and this phase is a superconductor at temperatures 6 – 12 K. Borospherene ( fullerene @-@ like B40 ) molecules ) and borophene ( proposed graphene @-@ like structure ) have been described in 2014 .
= = = Chemistry of the element = = =
Elemental boron is rare and poorly studied because the pure material is extremely difficult to prepare . Most studies of " boron " involve samples that contain small amounts of carbon . The chemical behavior of boron resembles that of silicon more than aluminium . Crystalline boron is chemically inert and resistant to attack by boiling hydrofluoric or hydrochloric acid . When finely divided , it is attacked slowly by hot concentrated hydrogen peroxide , hot concentrated nitric acid , hot sulfuric acid or hot mixture of sulfuric and chromic acids .
The rate of oxidation of boron depends on the crystallinity , particle size , purity and temperature . Boron does not react with air at room temperature , but at higher temperatures it burns to form boron trioxide :
4 B + 3 O2 → 2 B2O3
Boron undergoes halogenation to give trihalides ; for example ,
2 B + 3 Br2 → 2 BBr3
The trichloride in practice is usually made from the oxide .
= = = = Chemical compounds = = = =
In the most familiar compounds , boron has the formal oxidation state III . These include oxides , sulfides , nitrides , and halides .
The trihalides adopt a planar trigonal structure . These compounds are Lewis acids in that they readily form adducts with electron @-@ pair donors , which are called Lewis bases . For example , fluoride ( F − ) and boron trifluoride ( BF3 ) combined to give the tetrafluoroborate anion , BF4 − . Boron trifluoride is used in the petrochemical industry as a catalyst . The halides react with water to form boric acid .
Boron is found in nature on Earth entirely as various oxides of B ( III ) , often associated with other elements . More than one hundred borate minerals contain boron in oxidation state + 3 . These minerals resemble silicates in some respect , although boron is often found not only in a tetrahedral coordination with oxygen , but also in a trigonal planar configuration . Unlike silicates , the boron minerals never contain boron with coordination number greater than four . A typical motif is exemplified by the tetraborate anions of the common mineral borax , shown at left . The formal negative charge of the tetrahedral borate center is balanced by metal cations in the minerals , such as the sodium ( Na + ) in borax .
Boranes are chemical compounds of boron and hydrogen , with the generic formula of BxHy . These compounds do not occur in nature . Many of the boranes readily oxidise on contact with air , some violently . The parent member BH3 is called borane , but it is known only in the gaseous state , and dimerises to form diborane , B2H6 . The larger boranes all consist of boron clusters that are polyhedral , some of which exist as isomers . For example , isomers of B20H26 are based on the fusion of two 10 @-@ atom clusters .
The most important boranes are diborane B2H6 and two of its pyrolysis products , pentaborane B5H9 and decaborane B10H14 . A large number of anionic boron hydrides are known , e.g. [ B12H12 ] 2 − .
The formal oxidation number in boranes is positive , and is based on the assumption that hydrogen is counted as − 1 as in active metal hydrides . The mean oxidation number for the borons is then simply the ratio of hydrogen to boron in the molecule . For example , in diborane B2H6 , the boron oxidation state is + 3 , but in decaborane B10H14 , it is 7 / 5 or + 1 @.@ 4 . In these compounds the oxidation state of boron is often not a whole number .
The boron nitrides are notable for the variety of structures that they adopt . They exhibit structures analogous to various allotropes of carbon , including graphite , diamond , and nanotubes . In the diamond @-@ like structure , called cubic boron nitride ( tradename Borazon ) , boron atoms exist in the tetrahedral structure of carbons atoms in diamond , but one in every four B @-@ N bonds can be viewed as a coordinate covalent bond , wherein two electrons are donated by the nitrogen atom which acts as the Lewis base to a bond to the Lewis acidic boron ( III ) centre . Cubic boron nitride , among other applications , is used as an abrasive , as it has a hardness comparable with diamond ( the two substances are able to produce scratches on each other ) . In the BN compound analogue of graphite , hexagonal boron nitride ( h @-@ BN ) , the positively charged boron and negatively charged nitrogen atoms in each plane lie adjacent to the oppositely charged atom in the next plane . Consequently , graphite and h @-@ BN have very different properties , although both are lubricants , as these planes slip past each other easily . However , h @-@ BN is a relatively poor electrical and thermal conductor in the planar directions .
= = = = = Organoboron chemistry = = = = =
A large number of organoboron compounds are known and many are useful in organic synthesis . Many are produced from hydroboration , which employs diborane , B2H6 , a simple borane chemical . Organoboron ( III ) compounds are usually tetrahedral or trigonal planar , for example , tetraphenylborate , [ B ( C6H5 ) 4 ] − vs. triphenylborane , B ( C6H5 ) 3 . However , multiple boron atoms reacting with each other have a tendency to form novel dodecahedral ( 12 @-@ sided ) and icosahedral ( 20 @-@ sided ) structures composed completely of boron atoms , or with varying numbers of carbon heteroatoms .
Organoboron chemicals have been employed in uses as diverse as boron carbide ( see below ) , a complex very hard ceramic composed of boron @-@ carbon cluster anions and cations , to carboranes , carbon @-@ boron cluster chemistry compounds that can be halogenated to form reactive structures including carborane acid , a superacid . As one example , carboranes form useful molecular moieties that add considerable amounts of boron to other biochemicals in order to synthesize boron @-@ containing compounds for boron neutron capture therapy for cancer .
= = = = = Compounds of B ( I ) and B ( II ) = = = = =
Although these are not found on Earth naturally , boron forms a variety of stable compounds with formal oxidation state less than three . As for many covalent compounds , formal oxidation states are often of little meaning in boron hydrides and metal borides . The halides also form derivatives of B ( I ) and B ( II ) . BF , isoelectronic with N2 , cannot be isolated in condensed form , but B2F4 and B4Cl4 are well characterized .
Binary metal @-@ boron compounds , the metal borides , contain boron in negative oxidation states . Illustrative is magnesium diboride ( MgB2 ) . Each boron atom has a formal − 1 charge and magnesium is assigned a formal charge of + 2 . In this material , the boron centers are trigonal planar with an extra double bond for each boron , forming sheets akin to the carbon in graphite . However , unlike hexagonal boron nitride , which lacks electrons in the plane of the covalent atoms , the delocalized electrons in magnesium diboride allow it to conduct electricity similar to isoelectronic graphite . In 2001 , this material was found to be a high @-@ temperature superconductor .
Certain other metal borides find specialized applications as hard materials for cutting tools . Often the boron in borides has fractional oxidation states , such as − 1 / 3 in calcium hexaboride ( CaB6 ) .
From the structural perspective , the most distinctive chemical compounds of boron are the hydrides . Included in this series are the cluster compounds dodecaborate ( B12H122 − ) , decaborane ( B10H14 ) , and the carboranes such as C2B10H12 . Characteristically such compounds contain boron with coordination numbers greater than four .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Boron has two naturally occurring and stable isotopes , 11B ( 80 @.@ 1 % ) and 10B ( 19 @.@ 9 % ) . The mass difference results in a wide range of δ11B values , which are defined as a fractional difference between the 11B and 10B and traditionally expressed in parts per thousand , in natural waters ranging from − 16 to + 59 . There are 13 known isotopes of boron , the shortest @-@ lived isotope is 7B which decays through proton emission and alpha decay . It has a half @-@ life of 3 @.@ 5 × 10 − 22 s . Isotopic fractionation of boron is controlled by the exchange reactions of the boron species B ( OH ) 3 and [ B ( OH ) 4 ] − . Boron isotopes are also fractionated during mineral crystallization , during H2O phase changes in hydrothermal systems , and during hydrothermal alteration of rock . The latter effect results in preferential removal of the [ 10B ( OH ) 4 ] − ion onto clays . It results in solutions enriched in 11B ( OH ) 3 and therefore may be responsible for the large 11B enrichment in seawater relative to both oceanic crust and continental crust ; this difference may act as an isotopic signature .
The exotic 17B exhibits a nuclear halo , i.e. its radius is appreciably larger than that predicted by the liquid drop model .
The 10B isotope is useful for capturing thermal neutrons ( see neutron cross section # Typical cross sections ) . The nuclear industry enriches natural boron to nearly pure 10B . The less @-@ valuable by @-@ product , depleted boron , is nearly pure 11B .
= = = = Commercial isotope enrichment = = = =
Because of its high neutron cross @-@ section , boron @-@ 10 is often used to control fission in nuclear reactors as a neutron @-@ capturing substance . Several industrial @-@ scale enrichment processes have been developed ; however , only the fractionated vacuum distillation of the dimethyl ether adduct of boron trifluoride ( DME @-@ BF3 ) and column chromatography of borates are being used .
= = = = Enriched boron ( boron @-@ 10 ) = = = =
Enriched boron or 10B is used in both radiation shielding and is the primary nuclide used in neutron capture therapy of cancer . In the latter ( " boron neutron capture therapy " or BNCT ) , a compound containing 10B is incorporated into a pharmaceutical which is selectively taken up by a malignant tumor and tissues near it . The patient is then treated with a beam of low energy neutrons at a relatively low neutron radiation dose . The neutrons , however , trigger energetic and short @-@ range secondary alpha particle and lithium @-@ 7 heavy ion radiation that are products of the boron + neutron nuclear reaction , and this ion radiation additionally bombards the tumor , especially from inside the tumor cells .
In nuclear reactors , 10B is used for reactivity control and in emergency shutdown systems . It can serve either function in the form of borosilicate control rods or as boric acid . In pressurized water reactors , boric acid is added to the reactor coolant when the plant is shut down for refueling . It is then slowly filtered out over many months as fissile material is used up and the fuel becomes less reactive .
In future manned interplanetary spacecraft , 10B has a theoretical role as structural material ( as boron fibers or BN nanotube material ) which would also serve a special role in the radiation shield . One of the difficulties in dealing with cosmic rays , which are mostly high energy protons , is that some secondary radiation from interaction of cosmic rays and spacecraft materials is high energy spallation neutrons . Such neutrons can be moderated by materials high in light elements such as polyethylene , but the moderated neutrons continue to be a radiation hazard unless actively absorbed in the shielding . Among light elements that absorb thermal neutrons , 6Li and 10B appear as potential spacecraft structural materials which serve both for mechanical reinforcement and radiation protection .
= = = = Depleted boron ( boron @-@ 11 ) = = = =
= = = = = Radiation @-@ hardened semiconductors = = = = =
Cosmic radiation will produce secondary neutrons if it hits spacecraft structures . Those neutrons will be captured in 10B , if it is present in the spacecraft 's semiconductors , producing a gamma ray , an alpha particle , and a lithium ion . Those resultant decay products may then irradiate nearby semiconductor " chip " structures , causing data loss ( bit flipping , or single event upset ) . In radiation @-@ hardened semiconductor designs , one countermeasure is to use depleted boron , which is greatly enriched in 11B and contains almost no 10B . This is useful because 11B is largely immune to radiation damage . Depleted boron is a byproduct of the nuclear industry .
= = = = = Proton @-@ boron fusion = = = = =
11B is also a candidate as a fuel for aneutronic fusion . When struck by a proton with energy of about 500 keV , it produces three alpha particles and 8 @.@ 7 MeV of energy . Most other fusion reactions involving hydrogen and helium produce penetrating neutron radiation , which weakens reactor structures and induces long @-@ term radioactivity , thereby endangering operating personnel . However , the alpha particles from 11B fusion can be turned directly into electric power , and all radiation stops as soon as the reactor is turned off .
= = = = NMR spectroscopy = = = =
Both 10B and 11B possess nuclear spin . The nuclear spin of 10B is 3 and that of 11B is 3 / 2 . These isotopes are , therefore , of use in nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy ; and spectrometers specially adapted to detecting the boron @-@ 11 nuclei are available commercially . The 10B and 11B nuclei also cause splitting in the resonances of attached nuclei .
= = = Occurrence = = =
Boron is rare in the Universe and solar system due to trace formation in the Big Bang and in stars . It is formed in minor amounts in cosmic ray spallation nucleosynthesis and may be found uncombined in cosmic dust and meteoroid materials . In the high oxygen environment of Earth , boron is always found fully oxidized to borate . Boron does not appear on Earth in elemental form . Extremely tiny elemental boron was detected in Lunar regolith
Although boron is a relatively rare element in the Earth 's crust , representing only 0 @.@ 001 % of the crust mass , it can be highly concentrated by the action of water , in which many borates are soluble . It is found naturally combined in compounds such as borax and boric acid ( sometimes found in volcanic spring waters ) . About a hundred borate minerals are known .
= = Production = =
Economically important sources of boron are the minerals colemanite , rasorite ( kernite ) , ulexite and tincal . Together these constitute 90 % of mined boron @-@ containing ore . The largest global borax deposits known , many still untapped , are in Central and Western Turkey , including the provinces of Eskişehir , Kütahya and Balıkesir . Global proven boron mineral mining reserves exceed one billion metric tonnes , against a yearly production of about four million tonnes .
Turkey and the United States are the largest producers of boron products . Turkey produces about half of the global yearly demand , though Eti Mine Works ( Turkish : Eti Maden İşletmeleri ) a Turkish state @-@ owned mining and chemicals company focusing on boron products . It holds a government monopoly on the mining of borate minerals in Turkey , which possesses 72 % of the world 's known deposits . In 2012 , it held a 47 % share of production of global borate minerals , ahead of its main competitor , Rio Tinto Group .
Almost a quarter ( 23 % ) of global boron production comes from the single Rio Tinto Borax Mine ( also known as the U.S. Borax Boron Mine ) 35 ° 2 ′ 34 @.@ 447 ″ N 117 ° 40 ′ 45 @.@ 412 ″ W near Boron , California .
= = = Market trend = = =
The average cost of crystalline boron is $ 5 / g . Free boron is chiefly used in making boron fibers , where it is deposited by chemical vapor deposition on a tungsten core ( see below ) . Boron fibers are used in lightweight composite applications , such as high strength tapes . This use is a very small fraction of total boron use . Boron is introduced into semiconductors as boron compounds , by ion implantation .
Estimated global consumption of boron ( almost entirely as boron compounds ) was about 4 million tonnes of B2O3 in 2012 . Boron mining and refining capacities are considered to be adequate to meet expected levels of growth through the next decade .
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member of the Alternative Learning Program . While in high school , she often babysat actor Topher Grace and his younger sister . As a teenager , she worked sweeping the tennis courts of a country club her family could not afford to join .
During her teenage years , Sevigny became rebellious : " I was very well @-@ mannered , and my mother was very strict . But I did hang out at the Mobil station and smoke cigarettes . " Between her junior and senior year of high school , she shaved her head and sold her hair to a Broadway wigmaker . She openly admitted to using drugs as a teenager , especially hallucinogens . She has commented that her father was aware of her experimentation with hallucinogens and marijuana , and even told her that it was okay , but that she had " to stop if she had bad trips " . Despite her father 's leniency , her mother later chose to send her to Alcoholics Anonymous meetings . In 2007 , she told The Times that " I had a great family life – I would never want it to look as if it reflected on them . I think I was very bored , and I did just love taking hallucinogens ... but I often feel it 's because I experimented when I was younger that I have no interest as an adult . I know a lot of adults who didn 't , and it 's much more dangerous when you start experimenting with drugs as an adult . " She often described herself as a " loner " and a " depressed teenager " . Her only extracurricular activity was occasionally skateboarding with her older brother , and she spent most of her free time in her bedroom : " Mostly I sewed . I had nothing better to do , so I made my own clothes . "
= = Career = =
= = = 1992 – 94 : Beginnings = = =
As a teenager , Sevigny would occasionally ditch school in Darien and catch the train into Manhattan . In 1992 , at age 17 , she was spotted on an East Village street by Andrea Linett , a fashion editor of Sassy magazine , who was so impressed by her style that she asked her to model for the magazine ; she was later made an intern . When recounting the event , Sevigny was ambivalent about it , stating that " the woman at Sassy just liked the hat I was wearing " . She later modeled in the magazine as well as for X @-@ girl , the subsidiary fashion label of the Beastie Boys ' " X @-@ Large " , designed by Kim Gordon of Sonic Youth , which then led to an appearance in the music video for Sonic Youth 's " Sugar Kane " .
In 1993 , at age 19 , Sevigny relocated from her Connecticut hometown to an apartment in Brooklyn , and worked as a seamstress . During that time , author Jay McInerney spotted her around New York City and wrote a seven @-@ page article about her for The New Yorker in which he dubbed her the new " it girl " and referred to her as one of the " coolest girls in the world " . She subsequently appeared on the album cover of Gigolo Aunts ' 1994 recording Flippin ' Out and the EP Full @-@ On Bloom , as well as a Lemonheads music video which further increased her reputation in New York 's early 1990s underground scene .
= = = 1995 – 98 : Early work = = =
Sevigny encountered young screenwriter and aspiring director Harmony Korine in Washington Square Park in New York City during her senior year of high school in 1993 . The two became close friends , which resulted in her being cast in the low @-@ budget independent film Kids ( 1995 ) . Directed by Larry Clark and written by Korine , Sevigny plays a New York teenager who discovers she is HIV positive . According to Sevigny , she was originally cast in a much smaller role in the film , but ended up replacing Canadian actress Mia Kirshner . Just two days before production began , the leading role went to the then @-@ 19 @-@ year @-@ old Sevigny , who had no professional acting experience ; she said of her casting in the role , " Harmony [ Korine ] just thought I was this sweet , cute girl and he liked my blonde hair . " Nonetheless , Kids was highly controversial ; the film was given an NC @-@ 17 rating by the Motion Picture Association of America for its graphic depiction of sexuality and recreational substance and drug use involving teenagers . Despite its controversy , Kids was taken note of critically and commercially : respected film critic Janet Maslin considered the film a " wake @-@ up call to the modern world " about the nature of the American youth in contemporary urban settings . Sevigny 's performance was praised , with critics noting that she brought a tenderness to the chaotic , immoral nature of the film : " Sevigny provided the warm , reflective center in this feral film " . She ended up receiving an Independent Spirit Award nomination for Best Supporting Female .
Sevigny followed Kids with actor / director Steve Buscemi 's independent film Trees Lounge ( 1996 ) , starring in a relatively small role as Buscemi 's object of affection . During this time , director Mary Harron ( after having seen Kids ) offered Sevigny a minor part in her film , I Shot Andy Warhol ( 1996 ) . Harron tracked Sevigny down to the SoHo clothing store Liquid Sky , where she was working at the time . Sevigny then gave her first audition ever , but ultimately decided to turn down the part ; she would later work with Harron on American Psycho ( 2000 ) . Instead of taking the part in I Shot Andy Warhol , Sevigny starred in and worked as a fashion designer on Gummo ( 1997 ) , directed and written by Harmony Korine , who was romantically involved with Sevigny during filming . Gummo was as controversial as Sevigny 's debut ; set in Xenia , Ohio , the film depicts an array of nihilistic characters in a poverty @-@ stricken small @-@ town America , and presents issues such as drug and sexual abuse as well as anti @-@ social alienated youth in Midwestern America . In retrospection to the confronting nature of the film , Sevigny cited it as one of her favorite projects : " Young people love that movie . It 's been stolen from every Blockbuster in America . It 's become a cult film " . The film was dedicated to Sevigny 's father , who died prior to the film 's release .
After Gummo , Sevigny starred in the neo @-@ noir thriller Palmetto ( 1998 ) , playing a young Florida kidnapee alongside Woody Harrelson . She then had a leading role as a Hampshire College graduate in the sardonic period piece The Last Days of Disco ( 1998 ) , alongside Kate Beckinsale . The film was written and directed by cult director Whit Stillman and details the rise and fall of the Manhattan club scene in the " very early 1980s " . Stillman said of Sevigny : " Chloë is a natural phenomenon . You 're not directing , she 's not performing — it 's just real . " Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote that Sevigny " is seductively demure " in her performance as Alice . The film was generally well received , but was not a box @-@ office success in the United States , only grossing $ 3 million — it has since become somewhat of a success as a cult film .
Aside from film work , Sevigny starred in a 1998 Off @-@ Broadway production of Hazelwood Jr . High , which tells the true story of the 1992 murder of Shanda Sharer ; Sevigny played 17 @-@ year @-@ old Laurie Tackett , one of four girls responsible for torturing and murdering 12 @-@ year @-@ old Sharer . Sevigny was reportedly so emotionally disturbed after playing the role that she began attending Catholic Mass again .
= = = 1999 – 2003 : Boys Don 't Cry , breakthrough = = =
Sevigny was cast in the independent drama Boys Don 't Cry ( 1999 ) after director Kimberly Peirce saw her performance in The Last Days of Disco . Sevigny 's role in Boys Don 't Cry — a biographical film of trans man Brandon Teena , who was raped and murdered in Humboldt , Nebraska in 1993 — was responsible for her rise to prominence and her mainstream success . Sevigny played Lana Tisdel , a young woman who fell in love with Teena , initially unaware of the fact that he was designated female at birth and continued the relationship despite learning about his birth gender . Boys Don 't Cry received high praise from critics , and was a moderate box @-@ office success . Sevigny 's performance was singled out as one of the film 's strong points and was widely embraced as one of the best acted films of that year : The Los Angeles Times noted that Sevigny " plays the role with haunting immediacy , " Roger Ebert of The Chicago Sun Times stated that " it is Sevigny who provides our entrance into the story " and Rolling Stone wrote that Sevigny gives a " performance that burns into the memory " . Director Kimberly Peirce echoed the same feelings of the critics : " Chloë just surrendered to the part . She watched videos of Lana . She just became her very naturally . She 's not one of those Hollywood actresses who diets and gets plastic surgery . You never catch her acting . " The role earned Sevigny Best Supporting Actress nominations for both an Academy Award and a Golden Globe Award . Sevigny won an Independent Spirit Award , a Satellite Award , and a Sierra Award for her performance .
Following Boys Don 't Cry , Sevigny had a supporting role in American Psycho , based on the controversial 1991 novel by Bret Easton Ellis . Sevigny plays the office assistant of Patrick Bateman , played by Christian Bale , a 1980s Manhattan yuppie @-@ turned @-@ serial killer . The film , as was its source novel , was controversial because of its depiction of graphic violence and sexuality in an upper @-@ class Manhattan society . In addition , she reunited with Kids writer and Gummo director Harmony Korine for the experimental Julien Donkey @-@ Boy ( 1999 ) , playing the pregnant sister of a schizophrenic man . Though it never saw a major theatrical release , it garnered some critical praise ; Roger Ebert gave the film his signature thumbs up , referring to it as " Freaks shot by the Blair Witch crew " , and continuing to say , " The odds are good that most people will dislike this film and be offended by it . For others , it will provoke sympathy rather than scorn " . Sevigny followed Julien with a small part in the drama film A Map of the World ( 1999 ) , opposite Sigourney Weaver .
Between 1998 and 2000 , Sevigny moved back to Connecticut to live with her mother , and appeared as a lesbian in the Emmy Award @-@ winning television movie If These Walls Could Talk 2 ( 2000 ) , the sequel to the HBO television drama @-@ film If These Walls Could Talk ( 1996 ) . Sevigny reportedly took the role in the film in order to help pay her mother 's mortgage payment , and has credited it as the only film she ever made for financial benefit . Following this appearance , Sevigny was approached for a supporting role in the 2001 comedy Legally Blonde alongside Reese Witherspoon and offered $ 500 @,@ 000 ; she declined and the role was given to Selma Blair . Instead , she starred in Olivier Assayas ' French techno thriller Demonlover ( 2002 ) alongside Connie Nielsen , for which she was required to learn her lines in French . Sevigny described shooting the film as " strange " , in the sense that director Assayas hardly spoke to her during the filming , which she said was difficult because of the lack of " input " . After spending nearly three months in France to complete Demonlover , Sevigny returned to New York to film the club kid biopic , Party Monster ( 2003 ) ; coincidentally , Sevigny in fact knew several of the people depicted in the film ( Michael Alig and James St. James included ) , whom she met during her frequent trips to New York City 's club scene as a teenager .
Sevigny then obtained a role in Lars von Trier 's parable film Dogville ( 2003 ) , playing one of the various residents of a small mountain town , alongside Nicole Kidman , Lauren Bacall , and Paul Bettany ; the film received mixed reactions , and was criticized by critics Roger Ebert and Richard Roeper as being " anti @-@ American " . Sevigny re @-@ united with former Boys Don 't Cry star Peter Sarsgaard for the biographical film Shattered Glass ( 2003 ) , also alongside Hayden Christensen , about the career of Stephen Glass , a journalist whose reputation is destroyed when his widespread journalistic fraud was exposed . Sevigny played a co @-@ editor of Glass 's .
= = = 2004 – 06 : The Brown Bunny controversy = = =
In 2003 , Sevigny took on the lead female role in the art house film The Brown Bunny ( 2003 ) , which details a lonely traveling motorcycle racer reminiscing about his former lover . The film achieved notoriety for its final scene , which involves Sevigny performing unsimulated fellatio on star and director Vincent Gallo . The film premiered at the Cannes Film Festival , and opened to significant controversy and criticism from audiences and critics . She went on to defend the movie , " It 's a shame people write so many things when they haven 't seen it . When you see the film , it makes more sense . It 's an art film . It should be playing in museums . It 's like an Andy Warhol movie . " After the film 's release at the 2003 Cannes Film Festival , the William Morris Agency terminated Sevigny as a client . The agency believed the scene was " one step above pornography " , and claimed that Sevigny 's career " may never recover " . In an interview with The Telegraph in 2003 , when asked if she regretted the film , she responded : " No , I was always committed to the project on the strength of Vincent alone . I have faith in his aesthetic [ ... ] I try to forgive and forget , otherwise I 'd just become a bitter old lady . "
Despite the backlash toward the film , some critics praised Sevigny 's performance ; Manohla Dargis of The New York Times said , " Actresses have been asked and even bullied into performing similar acts for filmmakers since the movies began , usually behind closed doors . Ms. Sevigny isn 't hiding behind anyone 's desk . She says her lines with feeling and puts her iconoclasm right out there where everyone can see it ; she may be nuts , but she 's also unforgettable . " Roger Ebert , although critical of The Brown Bunny , nevertheless noted that Sevigny brought " a truth and vulnerability " to the film .
Despite her agency 's disapproval of the film ( and fear that the actress might have forever tarnished her career ) , she continued on with various projects . Sevigny had a major supporting role as a Manhattanite in Woody Allen 's two @-@ sided tragicomedy , Melinda and Melinda ( 2004 ) , which Sevigny referred to as being a " pleasing " experience . She subsequently guest @-@ starred on the popular television show Will & Grace , and a string of film roles followed , including a small role in Lars von Trier 's sequel to Dogville , titled Manderlay ( 2005 ) , as well as a bit part alongside Bill Murray in Broken Flowers ( 2005 ) . Sevigny also played one of several lovers of New York doctor Herman Tarnower in the HBO television film Mrs. Harris ( 2005 ) alongside Annette Bening and Ben Kingsley . Sevigny then had a major role as a Catholic nun visiting Africa in one of three stories in 3 Needles ( 2005 ) , an anthology dealing with the prevalence of AIDS in various parts of the world . Sevigny 's performance in the film was praised ; Dennis Harvey of Variety called her performance in the film " convincing " , while Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times also referred to Sevigny as " ever @-@ daring and shrewd " . Shortly after 3 Needles , Sevigny played the lead character in the experimental indie @-@ film Lying ( 2006 ) with Jena Malone and Leelee Sobieski , playing a pathological liar who gathers three female acquaintances for a weekend at her upstate New York country house ; the film premiered at the Cannes Film Festival in 2006 . She also had a leading part in Douglas Buck 's 2006 remake of the Brian De Palma horror film Sisters ( 1973 ) .
= = = 2007 – 11 : Big Love = = =
In 2006 , Sevigny began her five @-@ season run in the HBO television series Big Love , about a family of fundamentalist Mormon polygamists . She played Nicolette Grant , the conniving , shopaholic daughter of a cult leader and second wife to a polygamist husband , played by Bill Paxton . Sevigny found even more mainstream success with a role in her first big @-@ budget production as Robert Graysmith 's wife Melanie in David Fincher 's Zodiac ( 2007 ) , telling the true story of San Francisco 's infamous Zodiac killer . In 2009 , Sevigny starred in the independent psychological thriller film The Killing Room , and Werner Herzog 's My Son , My Son , What Have Ye Done , a crime horror film based on murderer Mark Yavorsky , produced by David Lynch . Sevigny also had a voice part in the independent documentary film , Beautiful Darling ( 2010 ) , narrating the life of trans woman Warhol superstar Candy Darling through Darling 's diaries and personal letters . Throughout 2009 , Sevigny continued working on Big Love 's fourth season ; when filming the series , she spent six months of the year living outside of Los Angeles near Santa Clarita , away from her home in New York City .
In January 2010 , Sevigny won a Golden Globe award for Best Supporting Actress – Series , Miniseries or Television Film for her performance in the third season of Big Love . The series itself also received nominations in two other categories . During a press conference following the award win , Sevigny addressed the repressed women living in the fundamentalist Mormon compounds : " These women are kept extremely repressed . They should be helped . They don 't even know who the president of the United States is . " In addition , she had various screening credits that year : Sevigny landed major roles in two independent comedy films : Barry Munday and Mr. Nice in Munday , Sevigny plays the sister of a homely woman who is expecting a child by a recently castrated womanizer ( opposite Patrick Wilson and Judy Greer ) ; in Mr. Nice , she had a leading role as British marijuana @-@ trafficker Howard Marks ' wife , alongside Rhys Ifans ; the film was based on Marks ' autobiography of the same name . In a later interview with The A.V. Club , Sevigny was asked if she felt that the show 's message was that polygamy was " wrong " . In response , Sevigny stated : " No , absolutely not . I think there are more parallels to gay rights and alternative lifestyles within Big Love — more so than " Polygamy is wrong . " I think they actually condone people who decide to live this lifestyle outside of fundamentalist sects . " During the same interview , Sevigny stated her disappointment with the series ' fourth season , calling it " awful " and " very telenovela " — though she stated that she loves her character and the writing , she felt the show " got away from itself . " Sevigny later regretted making the statements , saying she was very " exhausted " and " wasn 't thinking about what [ she ] was saying " ; she also apologized to the show 's producers . " [ I didn 't want them to think ] that I was biting the hand that feeds me , because I obviously love the show and have always been nothing but positive about it . And I didn 't want anybody to misunderstand me or think that I wasn 't , you know , appreciative . "
In March 2010 , Sevigny attended the South by Southwest Film Festival in Austin for the premiere of both Barry Munday and Mr. Nice ; Barry Munday was picked up for distribution by Magnolia Pictures several months later . In June 2010 , it was announced that Sevigny would be starring in a leading role in M. Blash 's second film The Wait , alongside Jena Malone and Luke Grimes ; it is a psychological thriller about two sisters who decide to keep their recently deceased mother in their house after receiving a phone call that she will be resurrected . The film marks Sevigny 's second time working with both Blash and Malone , following 2006 's Lying . Filming began on June 20 , 2010 , in Sisters , Oregon .
= = = 2012 – present : Television roles , directing = = =
In 2011 , Sevigny traveled to Manchester , England to film the British six @-@ part drama Hit & Miss where she starred as Mia , a pre @-@ op transsexual contract killer . Upon returning to the United States , she guest @-@ starred on Law & Order : SVU on April 18 , 2012 , and also landed a guest starring role in the second season of American Horror Story , which premiered in October 2012 .
Sevigny also starred as a journalist in Lovelace , a biopic about pornographic film actress Linda Lovelace . In 2011 , it was reported that Sevigny expressed interest in developing and starring in a mini @-@ series about the infamous accused axe @-@ murderer Lizzie Borden . With Tom Hanks reportedly backing the production of the series , it was reportedly due to begin filming in late 2012 . In 2013 , Chloe Sevigny was featured as a satellite character , Alexandra , in the TV show Portlandia during its third season on IFC . Also in 2013 , Sevigny had a 5 @-@ episode guest role on The Mindy Project . In 2014 , She starred as Catherine Jensen in the crime drama Those Who Kill , which aired on the A & E Network . It was then re @-@ launched on A & E 's sister network , Lifetime Movie Network , on March 30 , 2014 , after being pulled from A & E after two episodes due to low ratings . The series was subsequently cancelled by the network after its 10 episode first season run .
In March 2015 , it was announced Sevigny would be returning to American Horror Story , for its fifth season Hotel , as a main cast member . Sevigny portrayed the role of Alex Lowe , a doctor . That same year , she also starred in the Netflix original series Bloodline . Sevigny also appeared in Tara Subkoff 's directorial debut # Horror .
In 2016 , Sevigny appeared in the Canadian horror film Antibirth opposite Natasha Lyonne . Sevigny will reunite with The Last Days of Disco director Whit Stillman on Love and Friendship , an adaptation of the Jane Austen novel Lady Susan . Both films premiered at the Sundance Film Festival In January 2016 . She also has a supporting role in The Snowman ( 2017 ) , a crime thriller starring Michael Fassbender , which she filmed in Norway in the winter 2016 . Sevigny will also make her directorial debut on the short film Kitty which she adapted from Paul Bowle 's 1980 short story .
On July 19 , 2016 , it was announced that Sevigny had joined the cast of Lean on Pete , based on the novel by Willy Vlautin . The film is set to shoot in Portland , Oregon , and the eastern Oregon region .
= = Fashion career = =
Sevigny has long been considered a fashion icon and regularly appears on best dressed lists . Throughout her career , she has modelled for several high profile designers , including Miu Miu , H & M , Louis Vuitton and Chloé . Prior to her career as an actress , she had achieved fame for her unique style . While her sense of style in the early 1990s only reflected small downtown scenes and trends , it still made a significant impression on high class fashion chains which began to emulate Sevigny 's look . Her interest in fashion and clothing , as well as her career as a fashion model in her late teenage years and early twenties , have led to a career as a prominent and well @-@ respected fashion designer . She has expressed interest in fashion design throughout the entirety of her career , even dating back to her childhood : " Little House on the Prairie was my favorite show . I would only wear calico print dresses , and I actually slept in one of those little nightcaps ! " , she told People in 2007 . Her unorthodox style ( which garnered her initial notoriety in the early ' 90s ) has often been referred to as very eclectic . Sevigny has since released several clothing lines designed by herself , both solo and in collaboration , and has earned a title as a modern fashion icon .
In 2002 , she collaborated with Tara Subkoff for the 2003 Imitation of Christ collection in New York City , serving as creative director for the series , which was referred to as being " more about performance art and cultural theory than clothes " . Actress Scarlett Johansson also collaborated for the collection . In November 2003 , during the time of the event 's release , Sevigny lost four of her teeth after tripping and falling in a pair of high @-@ heeled boots ; she was said to have been " play wrestling " with co @-@ collaborator Matt Damhave . Sevigny has also done various modeling jobs and magazine spreads ; in October 2007 , the French fashion house Chloé announced that she would be one of the spokesmodels for their new fragrance . In addition , she appeared in the January 2007 issue of House and Garden titled " Subversive Spirit " , which featured a spread on Sevigny 's Manhattan apartment . Sevigny 's most recent collection was released in fall 2009 for the Manhattan boutique , Opening Ceremony ; the collection included both men 's , women 's , and unisex pieces . The pieces were sold exclusively at Opening Ceremony boutiques ( Manhattan and Los Angeles ) , Barneys ( United States ) , Colette ( Paris ) , and London 's Dover Street Market . The series received decidedly mixed reactions . Sevigny 's designs for the collection have been seen on Rihanna and Victoria Beckham .
Critical reception of her fashion and style has been extensively written about by both designers and fashion stylists and has generally proved favorable . American designer Marc Jacobs wrote of Sevigny in 2001 : " The fashion world is fascinated by her . Because not only is she talented , young and attractive , she stands out in a sea of often clichéd looking actresses . " In terms of her own personal style , Sevigny cited the Australian film Picnic at Hanging Rock ( 1975 ) , which features schoolgirls dressed in elaborate Victorian clothing , as a major inspiration ; she has also cited it as one of her favorite films . She has also been outspoken in her favoritism of vintage clothing over designer pieces : " I still prefer to buy vintage over spending it all on one designer " , she told The Times . " I 'll go to Resurrection or Decades and be like , ' Oh , I 'm going to buy everything , ' but a lot of it is extremely expensive , so I 'll go to Wasteland and satisfy that urge and it 's not too hard on the pocketbook . Then there 's this place called Studio Wardrobe Department where everything is like three dollars " .
During the 29th International Festival of Fashion and Photography , which runs from April 25 to 28 , 2014 , Sevigny is a judge of the fashion jury , along with Humberto Leon and Carol Lim . In April 2015 , Rizzoli released a picture book celebrating the actress 's style legacy , featuring photos of Sevigny through the years , with shots of her as a high school student , on @-@ set photos , scripts and other personal ephemera .
Sevigny 's distinct fashion is also part of the inspiration for a fictionalized version of herself satirically impersonated by Drew Droege on his YouTube channel .
= = Personal life = =
Sevigny owned an apartment in Manhattan 's East Village , which she purchased for $ 1 @.@ 2 million in 2006 and sold in March 2013 for $ 1 @.@ 85 million . In October 2013 , after selling her East Village apartment , she purchased a " classic six " apartment residence , overlooking Prospect Park in Park Slope , Brooklyn for $ 2 million .
Sevigny 's father died when she was in her early 20s , and she stated in a 2006 interview that she came from a " close @-@ knit " family , that she speaks to her mother every day , and that her brother lives three blocks away from her apartment . She suffers from scoliosis , diagnosed when she was a child , though she never received any surgical treatment . She has stated that she practices yoga for relief from the pain caused by the spinal deformity . She is a practicing Roman Catholic , although she admits that she rebelled against religion as a teenager . She said she began attending church services again after playing a Satan @-@ worshipping teenage murderer in a 1998 Off @-@ Broadway production of Hazelwood Junior High , claiming that she became " really disturbed " and " started having nightmares and thinking horrible things " .
Sevigny has had various relationships with men , though in 2006 she stated to the New York Post Gossip column : " I 've questioned issues of gender and sexuality since I was a teenager , and I did some experimenting . " In a later interview , she stated that she " wouldn 't call herself bisexual " , and that she could never see herself in a relationship with a woman . Nonetheless , she has been popular with the gay community throughout her career . Following her relationship with Harmony Korine , which ended in the late 1990s , Sevigny dated British musician Jarvis Cocker , and later Matt McAuley , a member of the noise @-@ rock band A.R.E. Weapons . Sevigny and McAuley ended their relationship in early 2008 , after being together for nearly eight years .
In a 2009 interview , Sevigny reflected on her career , and said she was content with the level of stardom she had maintained : " When I was in my early 20s , I went out with a British pop star , Jarvis Cocker ; of course , pop stars have much more celebrity , I think , than actors even . They 're really hunted by their fans much more . I remember driving around these remote towns in Wales and kids running after us in the street . I was like , ' This is horrible ! ' And I saw the effect it had on him , and that 's when I decided I never wanted to be a celebrity at that level , and I think that 's why I 've chosen to do the work that I do and just kind of work with directors that I love and try and do work that means something to me . "
= = In popular culture = =
Actor Drew Droege has a web series titled Chloë , which features him in drag , doing impersonations of Sevigny .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Music videos = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= Breakdown ( Mariah Carey song ) =
" Breakdown " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Mariah Carey from her sixth studio album , Butterfly ( 1997 ) . It was released as the fourth single from the album on March 22 , 1998 by Columbia Records . Similar to the treatments of " Butterfly and The Roof ( Back in Time ) " , " Breakdown " received a limited worldwide release due to Carey 's conflict at the time with Sony . The song was written and produced by Carey , Stevie J and Puff Daddy , and features rap verses by Bone Thugs @-@ n @-@ Harmony . The song 's lyrics describe the emotions someone feels when their lover suddenly stops loving and leaves them , and the pain , or breakdown , it causes the person . The song was well received by contemporary music critics .
In the music video , Carey goes through a variety of different colorful outfits , with matching make @-@ up . Of the many changes , two scenes predominantly occupy the video . The first in Carey dressed in flamenco style clothing , while dancing on a chair with two other female dancers . The other features Carey and Bone Thugs @-@ N @-@ Harmony gambling in a casino . Carey performed the song live during select dates of her Butterfly World Tour in 1998 and Adventures of Mimi Tour in 2006 . Due to the song 's limited release , " Breakdown " did not chart in most major music markets , with the exception of Australia and New Zealand , where it peaked at numbers 38 and four , respectively . In the US , due to Billboard rules at the time , the song was unable to chart on the Hot 100 , but charted at number 53 on the Hot 100 Airplay Chart .
= = Background = =
Carey recorded the song at the Hit Factory in New York City , throughout 1997 . " Breakdown " was one of the first of Carey 's album tracks to veer in a hip hop direction , and many were surprised when she contacted Bone Thugs @-@ n @-@ Harmony to record the song because she was considered more of a R & B / adult contemporary artist . According to author Chris Nickson , " Breakdown " was an important component of Butterfly : " ' Breakdown ' showed Mariah treading forcefully into territory that was new for her and making it her own ; it had a melody that simmered under her vocal , and a groove that was irresistible . " When Carey began recording the album , she had slow and sultry ballads such as " Whenever You Call " and " Butterfly , " but also had big R & B and hip @-@ hop like " Honey " . For this reason , Carey recorded " Breakdown " in order to fill in the midsection of the album , and serve as the album 's " backbone . "
= = Controversy = =
" Breakdown " was the source of controversy when it came to its release . Carey was having a conflict with Columbia over the singles choices , as they were already not happy with the album 's hip @-@ hop transition . Later , in 1998 when Carey was composing the songs for her first compilation album , # 1 's , the song was again one of the reasons for continued conflict within the label . They disagreed on what content should compose the album . Sony wanted to release an album that featured her US number one singles , void of any new material . Carey on the other hand , felt that a greatest hits album should reflect on her most personal and favorite songs , not her most commercial . To accompany her thirteen number ones , Carey recorded four new songs . She felt that not including any new material would result in cheating her fans , therefore including some new material as well . While compromised , Carey often expressed distaste towards the album 's song selection , expressing her disappointment in the omission of her " favorite songs . "
For this reason , Sony titled the album # 1 's , as Carey felt the need to express the album 's true content , a collection of her number one hits . Carey has frequently cited " Underneath the Stars " ( 1996 ) and " Breakdown " ( 1998 ) as examples of songs she was unsuccessful in releasing .
= = Composition and remixes = =
" Breakdown " is a slow and sultry song , which blends hip @-@ hop and contemporary R & B genres . It incorporates drum notes , including heavy beats and grooves . The song features rap verses from two of the five members of Bone Thugs @-@ N @-@ Harmony , Krayzie Bone and Wish Bone . As part of " layering the song , " background vocals are featured throughout the chorus and sections of the bridge . It is set in the signature common time , and is written in the key of E major . It features a basic chord progression of A ♭ -F ♭ -1 . Carey 's vocal range in the song spans from the note of B2 to the high note of F ♯ 5 ; the piano and guitar pieces range from F ♭ 3 to G ♭ 5 as well . The song contains choral lyrics written by Carey , who produced the song 's melody and chorus as well . Aside from assisting with its writing and chord progression , Combs and Stevie co @-@ arranged and produced the track as well . A different edit of the song , titled The Mo ' Thugs remix , features longer raps from Krayzie and Wish Bone and an intro and verse from Layzie Bone , who was absent from the original mix . This version can be found on Bone Thugs @-@ n @-@ Harmony 's compilation The Collection Volume One .
= = Critical reception = =
" Breakdown " garnered positive reviews from local critics . David Browne from Entertainment Weekly praised the song , writing " for most of the album she keeps her notorious octave @-@ climbing chops at bay . Showing some admirable restraint , she nestles herself into downy @-@ soft beats . In ' Breakdown ' , she demonstrates she can match the staccato , lite @-@ reggae phrasing of her guests , two members of Bone Thugs @-@ n @-@ Harmony . " Rich Juzwiak from Slant called " Breakdown " " the song of Carey 's career , " noting its " lyrical strokes as broad and obvious as they are naked . Mariah the chanter flawlessly adapts to their singsong style , largely boxing her multi @-@ octave range into a sly , hypnotic melody so that when she really wails at the end , you really feel it . As with ' The Roof ' , Carey lunges toward musical maturity by embracing , not shunning hip @-@ hop . This is the height of her elegance and maybe hip @-@ hop @-@ soul 's , too . "
= = Chart performance = =
It was released as the album 's third single in 1998 in the United States , Canada , New Zealand and Australia only ( in Europe , " The Roof " was chosen as the third single instead ) . Because of conflict between Carey and her record label at the time , Sony Music Entertainment , it was only given a commercial release in Australia , where it performed modestly and remained in the top 40 for three weeks . A remix of the song was promoted to U.S. radio stations and debuted on Billboard magazine 's Hot R & B /
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Hip @-@ Hop Airplay chart in September @-@ October 1997 . However , it wasn 't released commercially in the U.S. until April 1998 , as a double A @-@ side with " My All . " It reached the top five on the Billboard 's Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart as " My All / Breakdown . " However , the song itself independently appeared on the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay chart and reached the top twenty on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Airplay and Rhythmic Airplay Chart charts . In New Zealand , the song performed well , peaking at number four and being certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) , denoting shipments of over 7 @,@ 500 units .
= = Music video = =
The single 's video ( released in March 1998 ) was directed by Carey with the assistance of Diane Martel . It sees her take on the role of various " casino girl " roles , including a cabaret girl , showgirl , cowgirl and lucky charm . The members of Bone Thugs @-@ n @-@ Harmony make appearances as well . In the video , Carey plays her part a cabaret girl , by dancing on a chair , accompanied by two other females. other scenes include Carey in a main casino hall , where Wish and Krayzie Bone make appearances . While they gamble with a large crowd surrounding them , Carey lounges on the table and cheers for them .
= = Live performances = =
Carey performed the song live during her 1998 Butterfly World Tour . Throughout the performances , Carey wore a short beige outfit and long semi @-@ teased up hair , accompanied by male and female dancers . During the song 's act , Carey would slowly sway hand @-@ in @-@ hand with other male dancers , giving the illusion of sultry compassion . Carey performed the song A Capella in Chicago during her 2000 Rainbow World Tour . During her Adventures of Mimi Tour in 2006 , Carey performed the song during select dates on the tour . The performance included many exotic female dancers , performing seductive pole dances and other similar routines . Carey , while singing , danced light routines on a chair , while wearing a red one piece suit . The song was also performed on select dates of Carey 's 2014 The Elusive Chanteuse Show tour .
= = Track listing and formats = =
U.S. CD Single
" My All " – 3 : 51
" Breakdown " – 4 : 58
CD Maxi @-@ Single
" Breakdown " ( Radio Edit ) – 4 : 15
" Breakdown " ( The Mo ' Thugs Remix ) – 4 : 58
" Breakdown " – 4 : 58
" Honey " ( Morales Dub Club ) – 10 : 58
" Honey " ( Mo ' Honey Club ) – 7 : 23
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the Butterfly liner notes .
Mariah Carey – vocals , songwriting , co @-@ producing
Stevie J. – songwriting , co @-@ producing
Anthony Henderson – songwriting
Charles Scruggs – songwriting
Puff Daddy – co @-@ producing
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Gliese 581 =
Gliese 581 ( / ˈɡliːzə / ) is a star of spectral type M3V ( a red dwarf ) about 20 light years away from Earth in the constellation Libra . Its estimated mass is about a third of that of the Sun , and it is the 89th closest known star to the Sun . Observations suggest that the star has a planetary system consisting of three known planets , designated Gliese 581 b , c , and e and a possibly confirmed planet , d , in order of discovery . Additional outer planets , which received the designations Gliese 581 f , and g have been proposed , but the evidence that led to the discovery claims has been shown to be the result of stellar activity mimicking the radial velocity variations due to orbiting planets .
Gliese 581 has been the subject of a " huge amount of attention " in the quest to discover the first habitable extrasolar planet ; first for c , and then d and g . Gliese 581 c , the first low @-@ mass extrasolar planet found near a habitable zone , was discovered in April 2007 . It has since been shown that under known terrestrial planet climate models , Gliese 581 c is likely to have a runaway greenhouse effect , and hence is probably too hot to be habitable , analogous to Venus . The proposed planets Gliese 581 d and Gliese 581 g also received attention as being located within the habitable zone , but their existence has subsequently been put into doubt by some authors .
On 27 November 2012 , the European Space Agency announced a debris disk , with at least ten times as many comets as the Solar System . This put constraints on possible planets beyond 0 @.@ 75 AU .
= = History of observations = =
Gliese 581 is known at least from 1886 , when it was included in Eduard Schönfeld 's Southern Durchmusterung ( SD ) — the fourth part of the Bonner Durchmusterung . The corresponding designation is BD -7 4003 .
= = Characteristics = =
The name Gliese 581 refers to the catalog number from the 1957 survey Gliese Catalogue of Nearby Stars of 965 stars located within 20 parsecs of the Earth . Other names of this star include BD @-@ 07 ° 4003 ( BD catalogue , first known publication ) and HO Librae ( variable star designation ) . It does not have an individual name such as Sirius or Procyon . The star is a red dwarf with spectral type M3V , located 20 @.@ 4 light @-@ years away from Earth . It is located about two degrees north of Beta Librae , the brightest star in the constellation Libra . Its mass is estimated to be approximately a third that of the Sun , and it is the 89th closest known star system to the Sun .
An M @-@ class dwarf star such as Gliese 581 has a much lower mass than the Sun , causing the core region of the star to fuse hydrogen at a significantly lower rate . From the apparent magnitude and distance , we can estimate an effective temperature of 3200 K and a visual luminosity of 0 @.@ 2 % of that of the Sun . However , a red dwarf such as Gliese 581 radiates primarily in the near infrared , with peak emission at a wavelength of roughly 830 nm ( estimated using Wien 's displacement law , which assumes the star radiates as a black body ) , so such an estimate will underestimate the star 's total luminosity . ( For comparison , the peak emission of the Sun is roughly 530 nm , in the middle of the visible part of the spectrum ) . When radiation over the entire spectrum is taken into account ( not just the part that humans are able to see ) , something known as the bolometric correction , this star has a bolometric luminosity 1 @.@ 3 % of the Sun 's total luminosity . A planet would need to be situated much closer to this star in order to receive a comparable amount of energy as the Earth . The region of space around a star where a planet would receive roughly the same energy as the Earth is sometimes termed the " Goldilocks Zone " , or , more prosaically , the habitable zone . The extent of such a zone is not fixed and is highly specific for each planetary system .
Gliese 581 is classified as a variable star of the BY Draconis type , and has been given the variable star designation HO Librae . This is a star that exhibits variability because of the presence of star spots combined with the rotation of the star . However , the measured variability is close to the margin of error , and , if real , is most likely a long term variability . Its brightness is stable to 1 % . Gliese 581 emits X @-@ rays .
= = Planetary system = =
Three confirmed planets and two possible planets are possibly known to orbit Gliese 581 , together with a debris disc . Most of the planets are located close to the star and have near @-@ circular orbits . In order of distance from the star , the planets are designated Gliese 581 e , Gliese 581 b and Gliese 581 c and possibly Gliese 581 g and Gliese 581 d . The letters represent the discovery order , with b being the first planet to be discovered around the star ( the letter d was used for a planet that was once no longer thought to be real and was an artifact caused by stellar activity , but reanalysis led to the conclusion that d might exist ) . The planets were all discovered with the radial velocity method which gives only lower limits on the planetary masses and no information about their radii . The minimum mass of the middle planet b is comparable to the solar system ice giants Uranus and Neptune , while the inner and outer planets have minimum masses a few times that of the Earth . The first three planets orbit closer to the star than the inner edge of the habitable zone , with the possibly reconfirmed planets Gliese 581 g and Gliese 581 d orbiting within the habitable zone .
The debris disc has an inclination between 30 ° and 70 ° . If the planetary orbits lie in the same plane , their masses would be between 1 @.@ 1 and 2 times the minimum mass values .
= = = Gliese 581 e = = =
Gliese 581 e is the innermost planet and with a minimum mass of 1 @.@ 7 Earth masses is the least massive of the three . Discovered in 2009 , it is also the most recent confirmed planet to have been discovered in this system . It takes 3 @.@ 15 days to complete an orbit . Initial analyses suggested that the planet 's orbit is quite elliptical but after correcting the radial velocity measurements for stellar activity , the data now indicate a circular orbit .
= = = Gliese 581 b = = =
Gliese 581 b is the most massive planet known to be orbiting Gliese 581 and was the first to be discovered .
= = = Gliese 581 c = = =
Gliese 581 c is the third planet orbiting Gliese 581 . It was discovered in April 2007 . In their 2007 paper , Udry et al. asserted that if Gliese 581 c has an Earth @-@ type composition , it would have a radius of 1.5R ⊕ , which would have made it at the time " the most Earth @-@ like of all known exoplanets " . A direct measurement of the radius cannot be taken because , viewed from Earth , the planet does not transit its star . The minimum mass of the planet is 5 @.@ 5 times that of Earth . The planet initially attracted attention as being potentially habitable , though this has since been discounted . The mean blackbody surface temperature has been estimated to lie between − 3 ° C ( for a Venus @-@ like albedo ) and 40 ° C ( for an Earth @-@ like albedo ) , however , the temperatures could be much higher ( about 500 degrees Celsius ) due to a runaway greenhouse effect akin to that of Venus . Some astronomers believe the system may have undergone planetary migration and Gliese 581 c may have formed beyond the frost line , with a composition similar to icy bodies like Ganymede . Gliese 581 c completes a full orbit in just under 13 days .
= = = Gliese 581 g = = =
Gliese 581 g is an exoplanet that was once considered disputed due to its existence depending on the eccentricity assumed for Gliese 581 d . But reanalysis suggests that Gliese 581 d could exist meaning that Gliese 581 g could exist too . Gliese 581 g is thought to be in the middle of the habitable zone . Its mass is thought to be 2 @.@ 2 Earth and has an orbital period of 32 days , with a semi @-@ major axis of 0 @.@ 13 with an eccentricity of 0 .
= = = Gliese 581 d = = =
Gliese 581 d is an exoplanet that was once considered disputed due to inaccurate analysis caused by noise and stellar activity , but reanalysis suggests that it does in fact exist , despite stellar variability . Its mass is thought to be 6 @.@ 98 Earths and its radius is thought to be 2.2R ⊕ . It is considered to be a super @-@ Earth , but remarkable in that its orbit is inside the habitable zone and has a solid surface allowing for any water present on its surface to form liquid oceans and even landmasses characteristic of Earth ’ s surface , although with a much higher surface gravity . Its orbital period is thought to be 66 @.@ 87 days long , with a semi @-@ major axis of 0 @.@ 21847 with an unconfirmed eccentricity , Analysis suggests that it orbits within the star 's habitable zone , where the temperatures are just right to support life .
= = = Debris disk = = =
On 27 November 2012 , the European Space Agency announced that the Herschel space observatory had discovered a comet belt " at 25 ± 12 AU to more than 60 AU " . It must have " at least 10 times " as many comets as does the Solar system . This likely rules out Saturn @-@ mass planets beyond 0 @.@ 75 AU . However another ( undiscovered ) planet further out , say a Neptune @-@ mass planet at 5 AU , might be required to keep the comet belt replenished .
= = = History of detections = = =
The first announcement of a planet around the star was Gliese 581 b discovered by astronomers at the Observatory of Geneva in Switzerland and Grenoble University in France . Detected in August 2005 and using extensive data from the ESO HARPS spectrometer it was the fifth planet to be discovered around a red dwarf . Further observations by the same group resulted in the detection of two more planets , Gliese 581 c and Gliese 581 d . The orbital period of Gliese 581 d was originally thought to be 83 days but was later revised to a lower value of 67 days . The revised orbital distance would place it at the outer limits of the habitable zone , the distance at which it is believed possible for liquid water to exist on the surface of a planetary body , given favourable atmospheric conditions . Gliese 581 d was estimated to receive about 30 % of the intensity of light the Earth receives from the Sun . By comparison , sunlight on Mars has about 40 % of the intensity of that on Earth , though if high levels of carbon dioxide are present in the planetary atmosphere , the greenhouse effect could keep temperatures above freezing .
The next discovery was the inner planet Gliese 581 e also by the Observatory of Geneva and using data from the HARPS instrument was announced on 21 April 2009 . This planet , at a minimum mass of 1 @.@ 9 Earths , was at the time the least massive confirmed exoplanet identified around a main @-@ sequence star .
On 29 September 2010 , astronomers using the Keck Observatory proposed two additional planets , Gliese 581 f and Gliese 581 g , both in nearly circular orbits based on analysis of a combination of data sets from the HARPS and HIRES instruments . The proposed planet Gliese 581 f was thought to be a 7 Earth @-@ mass planet in a 433 @-@ day orbit and too cold to support liquid water . The candidate planet Gliese 581 g attracted more attention : nicknamed Zarmina by one of its discoverers , the predicted mass of Gliese 581 g was between 3 and 4 Earth @-@ masses , with an orbital period of 37 days . The orbital distance was calculated to be well within the star 's habitable zone , though the planet was expected to be tidally locked with one side of the planet always facing the star . In an interview with Lisa @-@ Joy Zgorski of the National Science Foundation , Steven Vogt was asked what he thought about the chances of life existing on Gliese 581 g . Vogt was optimistic : " I 'm not a biologist , nor do I want to play one on TV . Personally , given the ubiquity and propensity of life to flourish wherever it can , I would say that ... the chances of life on this planet are 100 % . I have almost no doubt about it . "
Two weeks after the announcement of the discovery of Gliese 581 f and Gliese 581 g , astronomer Francesco Pepe of the Geneva Observatory reported that in a new analysis of 179 measurements taken by the HARPS spectrograph over 6 @.@ 5 years , neither planet g nor planet f was detectable , and the relevant measurements were included in a paper uploaded to the arXiv preprint server , though still unpublished in a refereed journal . The non @-@ existence of Gliese 581 f was accepted relatively quickly : it was shown that the radial velocity variations that led to the claimed discovery of Gliese 581 f were instead associated with the stellar activity cycle rather than an orbiting planet . Nevertheless , the existence of planet g remained controversial : Vogt responded in the media that he stood by the discovery and questions arose as to whether the effect was due to the assumption of circular rather than eccentric orbits or the statistical methods used .
Bayesian analysis found no clear evidence for a fifth planetary signal in the combined HIRES / HARPS data set , though other studies led to the conclusion that the data did support the existence of planet g , albeit with strong degeneracies in the parameters as a result of the first eccentric harmonic with the outer planet Gliese 581 d .
Using the assumption that the noise present in the data was correlated ( red noise rather than white noise ) , Roman Baluev called into question not only the existence of planet g , but Gliese 581 d as well , suggesting there were only three planets ( Gliese 581 b , c and e ) present . A different objection against the existence of Gliese 581 d was offered in a 2014 study whose authors argued that Gliese 581 d is " an artifact of stellar activity which , when incompletely corrected , causes the false detection of the planet g . " This remains controversial .
= = Radio signal sent from Earth = =
A Message from Earth ( AMFE ) is a high @-@ powered digital radio signal that was sent on 9 October 2008 toward Gliese 581 c . The signal is a digital time capsule containing 501 messages that were selected through a competition on the social networking site Bebo . The message was sent using the RT @-@ 70 radar telescope of Ukraine 's National Space Agency . The signal will reach Gliese 581 in early 2029 .
= She Wolf =
She Wolf ( Spanish : Loba ) is the eighth studio album by Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Shakira . It was released on 9 October 2009 , by Epic Records and Sony Music Latin . As executive producers , Shakira and Amanda Ghost enlisted collaborators including The Neptunes , John Hill , Wyclef Jean , Lukas Burton , Future Cut , Jerry Duplessis and Timbaland . Musically , the record shifts from her traditional Latin pop and pop rock musical styles , instead exploring electropop , with influences of folk and world music . The lyrical themes of the album mostly focus on love and relationships and were based on the conversations Shakira had with her friends .
She Wolf reached number one on the charts of Argentina , Ireland , Italy , Mexico and Switzerland . It also charted inside the top five in Spain , Germany and the United Kingdom . It debuted at number fifteen on the Billboard 200 . She Wolf was certified double @-@ platinum in Colombia and Mexico , platinum in Italy and Spain , and gold in numerous countries including France and the United Kingdom .
The album was supported by four singles . Its lead single , " She Wolf " , along with its Spanish @-@ language version " Loba " , which reached the top ten in several countries . " Did It Again " ( along with its Spanish @-@ language version " Lo Hecho Está Hecho " ) was released worldwide as the second single , except in the United States , where its release was substituted by " Give It Up to Me " . The fourth single was " Gypsy " , along with its Spanish @-@ language version " Gitana " . Shakira embarked on The Sun Comes Out World Tour in late @-@ 2010 to promote She Wolf .
= = Background and production = =
In 2005 , Shakira attained international success with the release of her fourth and fifth studio albums Fijación Oral Vol . 1 and Oral Fixation Vol . 2 , which spawned the highly successful singles " La Tortura " and " Hips Don 't Lie " , respectively . To promote both the albums , she embarked on the Oral Fixation Tour , which reportedly grossed more than US $ 100 million worldwide . In 2008 , Shakira signed a 10 @-@ year deal with international touring company Live Nation , which prompted Forbes to deem her the fourth highest earning female musician in history .
Soon , Shakira began work on her next studio album , titled She Wolf , which was , among other places , recorded at the Compass Point Studios in the Bahamas . In an interview with Rolling Stone , Shakira said that specifically chose the studio after she learned that it had previously been used for recording sessions by artists like Bob Marley , The Cure , and AC / DC , of whom she is a fan . Unlike most of her previous projects , which are predominantly composed of Latin and pop rock styles , She Wolf is an electropop album with world music influences . When asked why the album had electronic influences , Shakira responded , " I felt very curious and intrigued about the electro @-@ pop world and everything it has to offer . I wanted to make sure that this album was very bassy and that the kicks hit really hard , and I wanted to concentrate on the beat . But my music , to a certain extent , is very complex – because I always try to experiment with sounds from other parts of the world . " Explaining the meaning behind the title , Shakira said that " ' She Wolf ' is the woman of our time . The woman who knows what she wants and is free of prejudice and preconceived notions . She defends her deepest desires with teeth and claws like a wild animal " .
Shakira and Amanda Ghost , the executive producers of the album , enlisted a diverse group of producers to collaborate on the tracks , such as Pharrell Williams , one half of the record production duo The Neptunes , who co @-@ wrote four of the tracks on the album with Shakira . Other collaborators included John Hill , Sam Endicott , and Timbaland . Shakira later said that her collaboration with Williams helped her learn a lot , noting " When collaborating you always try and capture something from the other person and I learnt a lot from his method " . The singer revealed that the two readied four tracks in five days , and commented that " What was interesting is that he 's very fast and immediate in the studio and I 'm a little slower " . Endicott , musician and lead singer of American post @-@ punk band The Bravery , was personally called by Shakira to co @-@ compose the title track of the album along with Hill . He explained how they both began working with the single , saying she " contacted him [ Hill ] , asking if he had any stuff . We never had her in mind . We just made the thing independently of her , and then she liked it a lot , and she sang over it . She used some of the melodies we put in there and then wrote these crazy lyrics about being a werewolf . And that 's how it happened " . Haitian @-@ American rapper Wyclef Jean , who previously appeared as a featured artist on " Hips Don 't Lie " with Shakira , talked about his chemistry with her , saying " I have a natural chemistry with Shakira . I love the Latin vibe . The Lebanese vibe . I love the multicultural aspect of the CD . These days it 's hard for you to pick up a CD and love it from beginning to end . Shakira represents that 360 degrees of : You put it in , and the whole CD rocks " . In She Wolf , Jean appears as a featured artist on the track " Spy " .
= = Musical styles and lyrics = =
She Wolf is primarily an electropop album that combines influences from the musical styles of various countries and regions , like Africa , Colombia , India , and the Middle East . Shakira termed the album a " sonic experimental trip " , and said that she researched folk music from different countries in order to " combine electronics with world sounds , tambourines , clarinets , oriental and Hindu music , dancehall , etc . " The title track is an example of the electronic music styled production of the album , and is composed of 70s disco guitars and " heaps of robot effects " . " Did It Again " is a midtempo electropop song that contains elements of samba . World music influences surface on songs like " Why Wait " and " Gypsy " , the former is a heavy synth based electro @-@ funk song with Led Zeppelin @-@ inspired Middle Eastern strings , while the latter is included as the " closest thing to an acoustic song on the album " and features instrumentation from mandolin , banjo , sitar and tabla . Tracks like " Long Time " and " Good Stuff " display dancehall , electronica and Latin elements . Critics found the 1980s @-@ stylised electropop track " Men in This Town " similar to the work of American band No Doubt . The Wyclef Jean collaboration " Spy " is a bouncy disco and R & B song that is described as sultry and playful . Elements of rock music are also present on the album , mostly evident on the " noisy " stadium rock song " Mon Amour " . The US bonus track " Give It Up to Me " mixes pop and hip hop music with a playful rap by Lil Wayne . As Shakira wanted to make sure the " kicks hit really hard " , the tracks on She Wolf were made " very bass @-@ driven " . She revealed that she had no idea how the album would sound like at the end , describing it to be like " standing in front of a white canvas " , but admitted that she knew she wanted to make an electronica influenced album from the beginning .
The lyrics of the tracks on She Wolf , according to Shakira , have been written from a " very feminine perspective " . She attributed this to her growing maturity , noting " I think maybe because I feel more like a woman today " . Many of the songs focus on " emotions that a woman experiments when you 're in love or out of love — jealousy , fantasies , daydreams " , which the singer said were based on her conversations with girlfriends who are " struggling with their own romantic lives " . This issue is prominently covered in the track " Men in This Town " , in which Shakira sings about the lack of eligible bachelors in Los Angeles . The song contains references to American actors Angelina Jolie and Matt Damon , the latter of whom Shakira knows personally , and popular destinations like the SkyBar . Jocelyn Vena from MTV commented that " Shakira wasn 't afraid to get a little wacky when it came to the lyrics on She Wolf " . In an interview with Jim Cantiello , the singer was asked for the reason behind lyrics like " I 'm so happy I should get sued " ( in the track " Long Time " ) , to which Shakira replied " Maybe it rhymed . It 's hard to explain your own lyrics , you know " . In " Mon Amour " , she wishes that her ex @-@ boyfriend and his new girlfriend have a terrible vacation in Paris and are eaten alive by " French fleas " . Other themes the album touches upon include night @-@ life , sex , and seduction , in songs like " Did It Again " and " Spy " . Rolling Stone critic Jody Rosen labelled the latter " a meditation on masturbation " .
= = Release and promotion = =
She Wolf was released on 9 October 2009 , in Germany , Austria , Belgium , Italy , Ireland , the Netherlands and Switzerland . In the rest of Europe and Latin America , the album was released on 12 October , with subsequent releases in Spain , Japan , and Australia . It was scheduled to be released on 13 October in the United States , but was delayed and instead was released on 23 November . The reason for this delay was because Ghost decided to include the last @-@ minute Timbaland production " Give It Up to Me " on the tracklist of the US version of the album . In 2010 , She Wolf was reissued as Loba in Hispanic countries , which features additional remixes of the Spanish @-@ language songs on the original album .
= = = Singles = = =
The title track " She Wolf " was released as the lead single from the album on 10 July 2009 . It was well received by music critics , who praised its disco influences and unusual lyrics . Commercially , the song was a success and charted in the top 10 of countries like Belgium , Italy , Germany , Spain and the United Kingdom . In the United States , it peaked at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , and at number one on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart . " Loba " , the Spanish @-@ language version of the song , peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs and Tropical Songs charts . An accompanying music video was directed for the song by Jake Nava , and features Shakira dancing in various surroundings like a red cave and a golden cage .
" Did It Again " was released as the second single off the album worldwide on 16 October 2009 , excluding the United States , where it was substituted by " Give It Up to Me " . The song was met with positive reviews from music critics and was complimented for its expressive songwriting . Commercially , the song was moderately successful and charted within the top 20 of various countries . In the United States , " Did It Again " peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs . The Spanish @-@ language version of the song " Lo Hecho Está Hecho " peaked at number six on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart and at number 11 on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart . An accompanying music video for the song was directed by Sophie Muller , and features Shakira fighting a man in a bedroom .
" Give It Up to Me " , which features vocals from American rapper Lil Wayne , was commissioned as the third single off the album . It was officially released only in the United States , on 26 October 2009 . The song received generally favourable reviews from music critics and was appreciated for its production . It peaked at number 29 on the Billboard Hot 100 and at number 23 on the Pop Songs charts . An accompanying music video for the song was directed by Sophie Muller and features scenes of Shakira and Lil Wayne interspersed between scenes of Shakira dancing .
" Gypsy " was released as the fourth and final single off the album on 26 March 2010 . The song generated a positive response from music critics , many of whom praised its acoustic @-@ styled production . Commercially , the single was a success and charted inside the top 10 in countries like Germany , Mexico and Spain . " Gypsy " peaked at number 65 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , while the Spanish @-@ language version of the song " Gitana " peaked at number six on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart . An accompanying music video for the song , directed by Jaume de Laiguana , stars Spanish professional tennis player Rafael Nadal as Shakira 's love interest .
= = = Tour = = =
Shakira embarked on The Sun Comes Out World Tour in late @-@ 2010 , to promote She Wolf along with her ninth studio album Sale el Sol . Shakira 's official website first announced the three initial venues of the North American leg of the tour , on 3 May 2010 , and subsequently 22 more venues were listed . After a special tour preview show held in Montreal , Canada , on 15 September 2010 , the North American leg of the tour commenced at Uncasville , Connecticut , on 17 September , and closed at Rosemont , Illinois , on 29 October 2010 . The initial dates for the European leg of the tour were announced on 28 June 2010 , and subsequently 22 more shows were listed . The European leg of the tour was planned to commence at Lyon , France , on 16 November , and end in London , England , on 20 December 2010 . The tickets for the initial dates of the European leg were soon sold out , and Shakira extended the tour into 2011 , beginning by announcing a show at Paris , France ; venues at countries such as Croatia , Russia , Spain and Switzerland were soon added . The Latin American leg of the tour was a part of the Pop Festival , which was heralded as an initiative to bring international music stars to Latin America . Initial tour dates for the leg were announced on 3 December 2010 , and soon venues at countries like Argentina , Brazil , Colombia and Mexico were added to the tour dates .
The title track , " Why Wait " , and " Gypsy " were the only songs from She Wolf to be included on the setlist for the tour . The stage was shaped like the letter " T " to enable maximum amount of viewers to see Shakira easily . A large screen was set behind the stage , on which various visuals , designed by entertainment branding agency Loyalkaspar , were projected . For the performances , Shakira mainly wore a mesh gold crop top coupled with skin @-@ tight leather pants . Other attires Shakira wore during the concert shows included a hooded pink gown , a flamenco @-@ skirt , and a feathery blue dress .
The concert shows were well received by critics , many of whom praised the charisma Shakira displayed during the performances . Commercially , the tour was a success . It ranked at number 40 on Pollstar 's 2010 year @-@ end " Top 50 North American Tours " list as it grossed a total of $ 16 @.@ 9 million in the continent , with total ticket sales amounting up to 524 @,@ 723 . In North America , the tour sold an average of 9 @,@ 335 tickets , and a total of 205 @,@ 271 tickets . The tour was a bigger success worldwide , ranking at number 20 on Pollstar 's 2011 " Top 25 Worldwide Tours " with a total gross of $ 53 @.@ 2 million and ticket sales amounting up to 692 @,@ 064 . A live album of the show held at the Palais Omnisports de Paris @-@ Bercy in Paris , France , was released as Shakira : Live from Paris , on 5 December 2011 .
= = Critical reception = =
At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , She Wolf received an average score of 72 based on 15 reviews , indicating " generally favourable reviews " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic gave the album a very positive review and concluded that She Wolf is a " celebration of all the strange sensuality that comes out at night " . Simon Vozick @-@ Levinson from Entertainment Weekly praised the production and music of the album , calling the album " some of the most unusually effective dance @-@ floor dynamite you 're likely to encounter all year " . David Balls from Digital Spy complimented Shakira 's ability to " mix this album 's eclectic range of influences into a listenable , cohesive collection of songs " , but also noted that some fans may be disappointed over the fact that " She Wolf downplays Shakira 's Latin @-@ pop routes in favour of a sound that will appeal to radio playlisters the world over " . Neil McCormick from The Daily Telegraph praised Shakira 's inventiveness on the album and summed up the review by saying " incongruous elements only add to the perfection of Shakira 's She Wolf " . Michael Cragg from MusicOMH singled out the tracks produced by The Neptunes as the best on the album , and also noted that they are " very much Shakira songs , not merely songs produced by The Neptunes " . Johnny Davis from The Observer labelled the album " preposterously brilliant " , while Mike Diver from BBC Music thought it was " perhaps the most enjoyably varied pop album of 2009 " . Jody Rosen from Rolling Stone was also positive towards the album and called Shakira a " charmer — a globe @-@ straddling star you can cuddle up to " . Joey Guerra from Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer gave the album a very positive review , praising Shakira 's exploration of world music and her experimentation , saying " every song goes to completely unexpected places , veering from a perfectly commercial shine to avant @-@ garde pop . " Guerra also commended the Neptunes ' production , calling She Wolf " Shakira 's most compelling , consistently entertaining disc since 1998 's Dónde Están los Ladrones ? , " and concluded that " Shakira has created some of the most weirdly wonderful pop of the past year . " Moreover , the critic felt that Shakira had not completely abandoned her musical roots and commented : " the rumors of Shakira 's vanishing Latina identity have been grossly exaggerated . "
Ayala Ben @-@ Yehuda from Billboard positively noted that the album was " certainly more adventurous than anything from her peers " , but felt that its execution seemed a " little forced " . She singled out the tracks " Gypsy " and " Why Wait " as album highlights . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine thought that " she ( Shakira ) takes quite well to the ( electro @-@ pop ) sound " , but felt that the album had a " bit of an identity problem " . Ben Ratliff from The New York Times gave the album a negative review and criticized The Neptunes ' productions . He concluded the review by saying that " there should be no American edition of Shakira : you just take her , in all her daffiness , or leave her " .
= = = Recognition = = =
She Wolf was included in AllMusic 's year @-@ end " Favorite Albums , " " Favorite Latin Albums , " and " Favorite Pop Albums " lists . At the 2010 Premios Oye ! awards ceremony , the album received a nomination in the category " Spanish Album of the Year " . At the 2010 Premios Shock awards ceremony , it was nominated " Album of the Year " . Shakira was nominated for " Best International Female Solo Artist " at the 2010 Brit Awards ; it was her second nomination for the award .
= = Commercial performance = =
She Wolf attained international commercial success . In Austria , the album entered and peaked at number four on the Ö3 Austria Top 40 chart , staying on the chart for a total of 15 weeks . After debuting at number seven on the French Albums Chart , She Wolf went on to chart for a total of 79 weeks . The Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) certified the album gold for shipment of 50 @,@ 000 copies . She Wolf debuted atop the Irish Albums Chart , displacing American recording artist Madonna 's album Celebration from the top position . It was consequently certified gold by the Irish Recorded Music Association ( IRMA ) . In Italy , the album entered the top 20 of the FIMI Albums Chart at number seven and later peaked at number one for two consecutive weeks . It became Shakira 's first studio album to reach number one in the country . She Wolf stayed on the chart for a total of 20 weeks and was certified platinum for selling more than 60 @,@ 000 copies in the country . In Portugal , the album debuted outside of the top 10 of albums chart , but later re @-@ entered the chart at its peak position of number five . Its total stay on the chart , however , was short and lasted for five weeks . She Wolf became Shakira 's first studio album since Laundry Service ( 2001 ) to reach number one on the Swiss Albums Chart after it debuted at the top spot . The album appeared on the chart for 46 weeks in total . The International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) certified it gold for selling in excess of 15 @,@ 000 units in Switzerland . In the United Kingdom , the album entered and peaked at number four on the UK Albums Chart , and charted for seven weeks inside the top 40 . She Wolf was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipping 100 @,@ 000 units in the region .
The Spanish @-@ titled version of the album , Loba , was a success in Latin America . It peaked at number one on the albums chart in Argentina and was certified gold for selling 20 @,@ 000 units in the country . In Mexico , it debuted at number one on the Mexican Albums Chart . The success of the album in the country was such that it had shipped 90 @,@ 000 units within a week and was certified platinum and gold by the Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas ( AMPROFON ) . It stayed atop the chart for four consecutive weeks , while its total stay lasted for 43 weeks . AMPROFON eventually certified the album double @-@ platinum for shipments of 120 @,@ 000 units . In Spain , the album entered and peaked at number two on the Spanish Albums Chart , staying on the chart for a total of 54 weeks . Loba was certified platinum by the Productores de Música de España ( PROMUSICAE ) for shipments of 60 @,@ 000 units . Two months after its release , She Wolf had sold 1 @.@ 5 million copies in Europe and Latin America . In the United States , She Wolf debuted and peaked at number 15 on the Billboard 200 , with sales of 89 @,@ 000 units . The album spent a total of 14 weeks on the chart . Its chart performance in the US was said to be Shakira 's weakest in 10 years , and it became her first studio album since Dónde Están los Ladrones ? ( 1998 ) to miss peaking inside the top 10 . According to Nielson SoundScan , the album has sold 303 @,@ 000 copies in the US as of May 2010 . On the Digital Albums chart , the album peaked at number eight , spending a total of one week on the chart . Media outlets credited the poor performance of the album in the country to Ghost 's involvement , particularly her last @-@ minute decision to delay its release in order to add " Give It Up to Me " to the track list " after it already had been mastered and ready to ship . " 20 months after her run as the president of Epic , Ghost was fired from the record label . She Wolf was the 47th best @-@ selling album in the world in 2009 , according to the IFPI .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and
|
Long
|
wikitext-103-excerpt
|
personnel = =
Credits adapted from Allmusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Caesium =
Caesium or cesium is a chemical element with symbol Cs and atomic number 55 . It is a soft , silvery @-@ gold alkali metal with a melting point of 28 @.@ 5 ° C ( 83 @.@ 3 ° F ) , which makes it one of only five elemental metals that are liquid at or near room temperature . Caesium is an alkali metal and has physical and chemical properties similar to those of rubidium and potassium . The metal is extremely reactive and pyrophoric , reacting with water even at − 116 ° C ( − 177 ° F ) . It is the least electronegative element . It has only one stable isotope , caesium @-@ 133 . Caesium is mined mostly from pollucite , while the radioisotopes , especially caesium @-@ 137 , a fission product , are extracted from waste produced by nuclear reactors .
The German chemist Robert Bunsen and physicist Gustav Kirchhoff discovered caesium in 1860 by the newly developed method of flame spectroscopy . The first small @-@ scale applications for caesium were as a " getter " in vacuum tubes and in photoelectric cells . In 1967 , based on Einstein defining the speed of light as the most constant dimension in the universe , the International System of Units isolated two specific wave counts from an emission spectrum of caesium @-@ 133 to co @-@ define the second and the meter . Since then , caesium has been widely used in highly accurate atomic clocks .
Since the 1990s , the largest application of the element has been as caesium formate for drilling fluids . It has a range of applications in the production of electricity , in electronics , and in chemistry . The radioactive isotope caesium @-@ 137 has a half @-@ life of about 30 years and is used in medical applications , industrial gauges , and hydrology . Although the element is only mildly toxic , it is a hazardous material as a metal and its radioisotopes present a high health risk if released into the environment .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical properties = = =
Caesium is a very soft ( it has the lowest hardness of all elements , 0 @.@ 2 Mohs ) , very ductile , pale metal , which darkens in the presence of trace amounts of oxygen . It has a melting point of 28 @.@ 4 ° C ( 83 @.@ 1 ° F ) , making it one of the few elemental metals that are liquid near room temperature . Mercury is the only elemental metal with a known melting point lower than caesium . In addition , the metal has a rather low boiling point , 641 ° C ( 1 @,@ 186 ° F ) , the lowest of all metals other than mercury . Its compounds burn with a blue or violet colour .
Caesium forms alloys with the other alkali metals , as well as with gold , and amalgams with mercury . At temperatures below 650 ° C ( 1 @,@ 202 ° F ) , it does not alloy with cobalt , iron , molybdenum , nickel , platinum , tantalum or tungsten . It forms well @-@ defined intermetallic compounds with antimony , gallium , indium and thorium , which are photosensitive . It mixes with all the other alkali metals ( except lithium ) ; the alloy with a molar distribution of 41 % caesium , 47 % potassium , and 12 % sodium has the lowest melting point of any known metal alloy , at − 78 ° C ( − 108 ° F ) . A few amalgams have been studied : CsHg
2 is black with a purple metallic lustre , while CsHg is golden @-@ coloured , also with a metallic lustre .
= = = Chemical properties = = =
Caesium metal is highly reactive and very pyrophoric . In addition to igniting spontaneously in air , it reacts explosively with water even at low temperatures , more so than other members of the first group of the periodic table . The reaction with solid water occurs at temperatures as low as − 116 ° C ( − 177 ° F ) . Because of its high reactivity , the metal is classified as a hazardous material . It is stored and shipped in dry saturated hydrocarbons , such as mineral oil . Similarly , it must be handled under inert gas , such as argon . However , a caesium @-@ water explosion is often less powerful than a sodium @-@ water explosion with a similar amount of sodium . This is because caesium explodes instantly upon contact with water , leaving little time for hydrogen to accumulate . Caesium can be stored in vacuum @-@ sealed borosilicate glass ampoules . In quantities of more than about 100 grams ( 3 @.@ 5 oz ) , caesium is shipped in hermetically sealed , stainless steel containers .
The chemistry of caesium is similar to that of other alkali metals , but is more closely similar to that of rubidium , the element above caesium in the periodic table . As expected for an alkali metal , its only common oxidation state is + 1 . Some small differences arise from the fact that it has a higher atomic mass and is more electropositive than other ( nonradioactive ) alkali metals . Caesium is the most electropositive chemical element . The caesium ion is also larger and less " hard " than those of the lighter alkali metals .
= = = Compounds = = =
The vast majority of caesium compounds contain the element as the cation Cs + , which binds ionically to a wide variety of anions . One noteworthy exception is provided by the caeside anion ( Cs − ) . Other exceptions include the several suboxides ( see section on oxides below ) .
Returning to more normal compounds , salts of Cs + are almost invariably colourless unless the anion itself is coloured . Many of the simple salts are hygroscopic , but less so than the corresponding salts of the lighter alkali metals . The phosphate , acetate , carbonate , halides , oxide , nitrate , and sulfate salts are water @-@ soluble . Double salts are often less soluble , and the low solubility of caesium aluminium sulfate is exploited in the purification of Cs from its ores . The double salt with antimony ( such as CsSbCl
4 ) , bismuth , cadmium , copper , iron , and lead are also poorly soluble .
Caesium hydroxide ( CsOH ) is hygroscopic and a very strong base . It rapidly etches the surface of semiconductors such as silicon . CsOH has been previously regarded by chemists as the " strongest base " , reflecting the relatively weak attraction between the large Cs + ion and OH − ; it is indeed the strongest Arrhenius base , but a number of compounds that cannot exist in aqueous solution , such as n @-@ butyllithium and sodium amide , are more basic .
A stoichiometric mixture of caesium and gold will react to form yellow caesium auride ( Cs + Au − ) upon heating . The auride anion here behaves as a pseudohalogen . The compound reacts violently with water , yielding caesium hydroxide , metallic gold , and hydrogen gas ; in liquid ammonia it can be reacted with a caesium @-@ specific ion exchange resin to produce tetramethylammonium auride . The analogous platinum compound , the red caesium platinide ( Cs2Pt ) , contains the platinide ion that behaves as a pseudochalcogen .
= = = = Complexes = = = =
Like all metal cations , Cs + forms complexes with Lewis bases in solution . Because of its large size , Cs + usually adopts coordination numbers greater than six @-@ coordination , which is typical for the lighter alkali metal cations . This trend is already apparent by the 8 @-@ coordination in CsCl , vs. the halite motif adopted by the other alkali metal chlorides . Its high coordination number and softness ( tendency to form covalent bonds ) are the basis of the separation of Cs + from other cations , as is practiced in the remediation of nuclear wastes , where 137Cs + is separated from large amounts of nonradioactive K + .
= = = = Halides = = = =
Caesium fluoride ( CsF ) is a hygroscopic white solid that is widely used in organofluorine chemistry as a source of the fluoride anion . Caesium fluoride has the halite structure , which means that the Cs + and F − pack in a cubic closest packed array as do Na + and Cl − in sodium chloride . It is noteworthy as caesium and fluorine have the lowest and highest electronegativities respectively among all the known elements .
Caesium chloride ( CsCl ) crystallizes in the simple cubic crystal system . Also called the " caesium chloride structure " , this structural motif is composed of a primitive cubic lattice with a two @-@ atom basis , each with an eightfold coordination ; the chloride atoms lie upon the lattice points at the edges of the cube , while the caesium atoms lie in the holes in the center of the cubes . This structure is shared with CsBr and CsI , and many other compounds that do not contain Cs . In contrast , most other alkaline halides adopt the sodium chloride ( NaCl ) structure . The CsCl structure is preferred because Cs + has an ionic radius of 174 pm and Cl − 181 pm .
= = = = Oxides = = = =
More so than the other alkali metals , caesium forms numerous binary compounds with oxygen . When caesium burns in air , the superoxide CsO
2 is the main product . The " normal " caesium oxide ( Cs
2O ) forms yellow @-@ orange hexagonal crystals , and is the only oxide of the anti @-@ CdCl
2 type . It vaporizes at 250 ° C ( 482 ° F ) , and decomposes to caesium metal and the peroxide Cs
2O
2 at temperatures above 400 ° C ( 752 ° F ) . Aside from the superoxide and the ozonide CsO
3 , several brightly coloured suboxides have also been studied . These include Cs
7O , Cs
4O , Cs
11O
3 , Cs
3O ( dark @-@ green ) , CsO , Cs
3O
2 , as well as Cs
7O
2 . The latter may be heated under vacuum to generate Cs
2O . Binary compounds with sulfur , selenium , and tellurium also exist .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Caesium has a total of 39 known isotopes that range in their mass number ( i.e. number of nucleons in its nucleus ) from 112 to 151 . Several of these are synthesized from lighter elements by the slow neutron capture process ( S @-@ process ) inside old stars , as well as inside supernova explosions ( R @-@ process ) . However , the only stable caesium isotope is 133Cs , which has 78 neutrons . Although it has a large nuclear spin ( 7 / 2 + ) , nuclear magnetic resonance studies can be done with this isotope at a resonating frequency of 11 @.@ 7 MHz .
The radioactive 135Cs has a very long half @-@ life of about 2 @.@ 3 million years , longest of all radioactive isotopes of caesium . 137Cs and 134Cs have half @-@ lives of 30 and two years , respectively . 137Cs decomposes to a short @-@ lived 137mBa by beta decay , and then to nonradioactive barium , while 134Cs transforms into 134Ba directly . The isotopes with mass numbers of 129 , 131 , 132 and 136 , have half @-@ lives between a day and two weeks , while most of the other isotopes have half @-@ lives from a few seconds to fractions of a second . There are at least 21 metastable nuclear isomers . Other than 134mCs ( with a half @-@ life of just under 3 hours ) , all are very unstable and decay with half @-@ lives of a few minutes or less .
The isotope 135Cs is one of the long @-@ lived fission products of uranium which form in nuclear reactors . However , its fission product yield is reduced in most reactors because its predecessor , 135Xe , is an extremely potent neutron poison and transmutes frequently to stable 136Xe before it can decay to 135Cs .
Because of its beta decay ( to 137mBa ) , 137Cs is a strong emitter of gamma radiation . Its half @-@ life makes it the principal medium @-@ lived fission product along with 90Sr — both are responsible for radioactivity of spent nuclear fuel after several years of cooling up to several hundred years after use . For example , 137Cs together with 90Sr currently generate the largest source of radioactivity generated in the area around the Chernobyl disaster . It is not feasible to dispose of 137Cs through neutron capture ( due to the low capture rate ) and as a result it must be allowed to decay .
Almost all caesium produced from nuclear fission comes from beta decay of originally more neutron @-@ rich fission products , passing through various isotopes of iodine and of xenon . Because iodine and xenon are volatile and can diffuse through nuclear fuel or air , radioactive caesium is often created far from the original site of fission . With the commencement of nuclear weapons testing around 1945 , 137Cs was released into the atmosphere and then returned to the surface of the earth as a component of radioactive fallout .
= = = Occurrence = = =
Caesium is a relatively rare element as it is estimated to average approximately 3 parts per million in the Earth 's crust . This makes it the 45th most abundant of all elements and the 36th of all the metals . Nevertheless , it is more abundant than such elements as antimony , cadmium , tin and tungsten , and two orders of magnitude more abundant than mercury or silver , but 3 @.@ 3 % as abundant as rubidium — with which it is so closely associated , chemically .
Due to its large ionic radius , caesium is one of the " incompatible elements " . During magma crystallization , caesium is concentrated in the liquid phase and crystallizes last . Therefore , the largest deposits of caesium are zone pegmatite ore bodies formed by this enrichment process . Because caesium does not substitute for potassium as readily as does rubidium , the alkali evaporite minerals sylvite ( KCl ) and carnallite ( KMgCl
3 · 6H
2O ) may contain only 0 @.@ 002 % caesium . Consequently , Cs is found in few minerals . Percentage amounts of caesium may be found in beryl ( Be
3Al
2 ( SiO
3 )
6 ) and avogadrite ( ( K , Cs ) BF
4 ) , up to 15 wt % Cs2O in the closely related mineral pezzottaite ( Cs ( Be2Li ) Al2Si6O18 ) , up to 8 @.@ 4 wt % Cs2O in the rare mineral londonite ( ( Cs , K ) Al
4Be
4 ( B , Be )
12O
28 ) , and less in the more widespread rhodizite . The only economically important source mineral for caesium is pollucite Cs ( AlSi
2O
6 ) , which is found in a few places around the world in zoned pegmatites , and is associated with the more commercially important lithium minerals lepidolite and petalite . Within the pegmatites , the large grain size and the strong separation of the minerals create high @-@ grade ore for mining .
One of the world 's most significant and richest sources of the metal is the Tanco Mine at Bernic Lake in Manitoba , Canada . The deposits there are estimated to contain 350 @,@ 000 metric tons of pollucite ore , which represent more than two @-@ thirds of the world 's reserve base . Although the stoichiometric content of caesium in pollucite is 42 @.@ 6 % , pure pollucite samples from this deposit contain only about 34 % caesium , while the average content is 24 wt % . Commercial pollucite contains over 19 % caesium . The Bikita pegmatite deposit in Zimbabwe is mined for its petalite , but it also contains a significant amount of pollucite . Notable amounts of pollucite are also mined in the Karibib Desert , Namibia . At the present rate of world mine production of 5 to 10 metric tons per year , reserves will last for thousands of years .
= = Production = =
The mining of pollucite ore is a selective process and is conducted on a small scale in comparison with most metal mining operations . The ore is crushed , hand @-@ sorted , but not usually concentrated , and then ground . Caesium is then extracted from pollucite mainly by three methods : acid digestion , alkaline decomposition , and direct reduction .
In the acid digestion , the silicate pollucite rock is dissolved with strong acids , such as hydrochloric ( HCl ) , sulfuric ( H
2SO
4 ) , hydrobromic ( HBr ) , or hydrofluoric ( HF ) acids . With hydrochloric acid , a mixture of soluble chlorides is produced , and the insoluble chloride double salts of caesium are precipitated as caesium antimony chloride ( Cs
4SbCl
7 ) , caesium iodine chloride ( Cs
2ICl ) , or caesium hexachlorocerate ( Cs
2 ( CeCl
6 ) ) . After separation , the pure precipitated double salt is decomposed , and pure CsCl is obtained after evaporating the water . The method using sulfuric acid yields the insoluble double salt directly as caesium alum ( CsAl ( SO
4 )
2 · 12H
2O ) . The aluminium sulfate in it is converted to the insoluble aluminium oxide by roasting the alum with carbon , and the resulting product is leached with water to yield a Cs
2SO
4 solution .
The roasting of pollucite with calcium carbonate and calcium chloride yields insoluble calcium silicates and soluble caesium chloride . Leaching with water or dilute ammonia ( NH
4OH ) yields then a dilute chloride ( CsCl ) solution . This solution can be evaporated to produce caesium chloride or transformed into caesium alum or caesium carbonate . Albeit not commercially feasible , direct reduction of the ore with potassium , sodium or calcium in vacuum can produce caesium metal directly .
Most of the mined caesium ( as salts ) is directly converted into caesium formate ( HCOO − Cs + ) for applications such as oil drilling . To supply the developing market , Cabot Corporation built a production plant in 1997 at the Tanco mine near Bernic Lake in Manitoba , with a capacity of 12 @,@ 000 barrels ( 1 @,@ 900 m3 ) per year of caesium formate solution . The primary smaller @-@ scale commercial compounds of caesium are caesium chloride and its nitrate .
Alternatively , caesium metal may be obtained from the purified compounds derived from the ore . Caesium chloride , and the other caesium halides , as well , can be reduced at 700 to 800 ° C ( 1 @,@ 292 to 1 @,@ 472 ° F ) with calcium or barium , followed by distillation of the caesium metal . In the same way , the aluminate , carbonate , or hydroxide may be reduced by magnesium . The metal can also be isolated by electrolysis of fused caesium cyanide ( CsCN ) . Exceptionally pure and gas @-@ free caesium can be made by the thermal decomposition at 390 ° C ( 734 ° F ) of caesium azide CsN
3 , which is produced from aqueous caesium sulfate and barium azide . In vacuum applications , caesium dichromate can be reacted with zirconium forming pure caesium metal without other gaseous products .
Cs
2Cr
2O
7 + 2 Zr → 2 Cs + 2 ZrO
2 + Cr
2O
3
The price of 99 @.@ 8 % pure caesium ( metal basis ) in 2009 was about US $ 10 per gram ( $ 280 per ounce ) , but its compounds are significantly cheaper .
= = History = =
In 1860 , Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff discovered caesium in the mineral water from Dürkheim , Germany . Due to the bright blue lines in its emission spectrum , they chose a name derived from the Latin word caesius , meaning sky @-@ blue . Caesium was the first element to be discovered spectroscopically , only one year after the invention of the spectroscope by Bunsen and Kirchhoff .
To obtain a pure sample of caesium , 44 @,@ 000 litres ( 9 @,@ 700 imp gal ; 12 @,@ 000 US gal ) of mineral water had to be evaporated to yield 240 kilograms ( 530 lb ) of concentrated salt solution . The alkaline earth metals were precipitated either as sulfates or oxalates , leaving the alkali metal in the solution . After conversion to the nitrates and extraction with ethanol , a sodium @-@ free mixture was obtained . From this mixture , the lithium was precipitated by ammonium carbonate . Potassium , rubidium and caesium form insoluble salts with chloroplatinic acid , but these salts show a slight difference in solubility in hot water . Therefore , the less @-@ soluble caesium and rubidium hexachloroplatinate ( ( Cs , Rb ) 2PtCl6 ) could be obtained by fractional crystallization . After reduction of the hexachloroplatinate with hydrogen , caesium and rubidium could be separated by the difference in solubility of their carbonates in alcohol . The process yielded 9 @.@ 2 grams ( 0 @.@ 32 oz ) of rubidium chloride and 7 @.@ 3 grams ( 0 @.@ 26 oz ) of caesium chloride from the initial 44 @,@ 000 liters of mineral water .
The two scientists used the caesium chloride thus obtained to estimate the atomic weight of the new element at 123 @.@ 35 ( compared to the currently accepted one of 132 @.@ 9 ) . They tried to generate elemental caesium by electrolysis of molten caesium chloride , but instead of a metal , they obtained a blue homogeneous substance which " neither under the naked eye nor under the microscope " showed the slightest trace of metallic substance " ; as a result , they assigned it as a subchloride ( Cs
2Cl ) . In reality , the product was probably a colloidal mixture of the metal and caesium chloride . The electrolysis of the aqueous solution of chloride with a mercury anode produced a caesium amalgam which readily decomposed under the aqueous conditions . The pure metal was eventually isolated by the German chemist Carl Setterberg while working on his doctorate with Kekulé and Bunsen . In 1882 , he produced caesium metal by electrolysing caesium cyanide , and thus avoiding the problems with the chloride .
Historically , the most important use for caesium has been in research and development , primarily in chemical and electrical fields . Very few applications existed for caesium until the 1920s , when it came to be used in radio vacuum tubes . It had two functions ; as a getter , it removed excess oxygen after manufacture , and as a coating on the heated cathode , it increased its electrical conductivity . Caesium did not become recognized as a high @-@ performance industrial metal until the 1950s . Applications of nonradioactive caesium included photoelectric cells , photomultiplier tubes , optical components of infrared spectrophotometers , catalysts for several organic reactions , crystals for scintillation counters , and in magnetohydrodynamic power generators . Caesium also was , and still is , used as a source of positive ions in secondary ion mass spectrometry ( SIMS ) .
Since 1967 , the International System of Measurements has based its unit of time , the second , on the properties of caesium . The International System of Units ( SI ) defines the second as the duration of 9 @,@ 192 @,@ 631 @,@ 770 cycles at the microwave frequency of the spectral line corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine energy levels of the ground state of caesium @-@ 133 . The 13th General Conference on Weights and Measures of 1967 defined a second as : " the duration of 9 @,@ 192 @,@ 631 @,@ 770 cycles of microwave light absorbed or emitted by the hyperfine transition of caesium @-@ 133 atoms in their ground state undisturbed by external fields " .
= = Applications = =
= = = Petroleum exploration = = =
The largest current end @-@ use of nonradioactive caesium is in caesium formate @-@ based drilling fluids for the extractive oil industry . Aqueous solutions of caesium formate ( HCOO − Cs + ) — made by reacting caesium hydroxide with formic acid — were developed in the mid @-@ 1990s for use as oil well drilling and completion fluids . The function of a drilling fluid is to lubricate drill bits , to bring rock cuttings to the surface , and to maintain pressure on the formation during drilling of the well . Completion fluids assist the emplacement of control hardware after drilling but prior to production by maintaining the pressure .
The high density of the caesium formate brine ( up to 2 @.@ 3 g · cm − 3 , or 19 @.@ 2 pounds per gallon ) , coupled with the relatively benign nature of most caesium compounds , reduces the requirement for toxic high @-@ density suspended solids in the drilling fluid — a significant technological , engineering and environmental advantage . Unlike the components of many other heavy liquids , caesium formate is relatively environment @-@ friendly . The caesium formate brine can be blended with potassium and sodium formates to decrease the density of the fluids down to that of water ( 1 @.@ 0 g · cm − 3 , or 8 @.@ 3 pounds per gallon ) . Furthermore , it is biodegradable and reclaimable , and may be recycled , which is important in view of its high cost ( about $ 4 @,@ 000 per barrel in 2001 ) . Alkali formates are safe to handle and do not damage the producing formation or downhole metals as corrosive alternative , high @-@ density brines ( such as zinc bromide ZnBr
2 solutions ) sometimes do ; they also require less cleanup and reduce disposal costs .
= = = Atomic clocks = = =
Caesium @-@ based atomic clocks observe electromagnetic transitions in the hyperfine structure of caesium @-@ 133 atoms and use it as a reference point . The first accurate caesium clock was built by Louis Essen in 1955 at the National Physical Laboratory in the UK . They have been improved repeatedly over the past half @-@ century , and form the basis for standards @-@ compliant time and frequency measurements , and have been regarded as " the most accurate realization of a unit that mankind has yet achieved . " These clocks measure frequency with an error of 2 to 3 parts in 1014 , which would correspond to a time measurement accuracy of 2 nanoseconds per day , or one second in 1 @.@ 4 million years . The latest versions are accurate to better than 1 part in 1015 , which means they would be off by about 1 second in 20 million years , . Caesium clocks are also used in networks that oversee the timing of cell phone transmissions and the information flow on the Internet .
= = = Electric power and electronics = = =
Caesium vapour thermionic generators are low @-@ power devices that convert heat energy to electrical energy . In the two @-@ electrode vacuum tube converter , it neutralizes the space charge that builds up near the cathode , and in doing so , it enhances the current flow .
Caesium is also important for its photoemissive properties by which light energy is converted to electron flow . It is used in photoelectric cells because caesium @-@ based cathodes , such as the intermetallic compound K
2CsSb , have low threshold voltage for emission of electrons . The range of photoemissive devices using caesium include optical character recognition devices , photomultiplier tubes , and video camera tubes . Nevertheless , germanium , rubidium , selenium , silicon , tellurium , and several other elements can substitute caesium in photosensitive materials .
Caesium iodide ( CsI ) , bromide ( CsBr ) and caesium fluoride ( CsF ) crystals are employed for scintillators in scintillation counters widely used in mineral exploration and particle physics research , as they are well @-@ suited for the detection of gamma and X @-@ ray radiation . Caesium , being a heavy element , provides good stopping power , contributing to better detectivity . Caesium compounds may also provide a faster response ( CsF ) and be less hygroscopic ( CsI ) .
Caesium vapor is used in many common magnetometers . The element is also used as an internal standard in spectrophotometry . Like other alkali metals , caesium has a great affinity for oxygen and is used as a " getter " in vacuum tubes . Other uses of the metal include high @-@ energy lasers , vapour glow lamps , and vapor rectifiers .
= = = Centrifugation fluids = = =
Because of their high density , solutions of caesium chloride , caesium sulfate , and caesium trifluoroacetate ( Cs ( O
2CCF
3 ) ) are commonly used in molecular biology for density gradient ultracentrifugation . This technology is primarily applied to the isolation of viral particles , subcellular organelles and fractions , and nucleic acids from biological samples .
= = = Chemical and medical use = = =
There are relatively few chemical applications for caesium . Doping with caesium compounds is used to enhance the effectiveness of several metal @-@ ion catalysts used in the production of chemicals , such as acrylic acid , anthraquinone , ethylene oxide , methanol , phthalic anhydride , styrene , methyl methacrylate monomers , and various olefins . It is also used in the catalytic conversion of sulfur dioxide into sulfur trioxide in the production of sulfuric acid .
Caesium fluoride enjoys niche use in organic chemistry as a base , or as an anhydrous source of fluoride ion . Caesium salts sometimes replace potassium or sodium salts in organic synthesis , such as cyclization , esterification , and polymerization . It has also been used in thermoluminescent radiation dosimetry ( TLD ) : When exposed to radiation , it acquires crystal defects that , when heated , revert with emission of light proportionate to the received dose . Thus , measuring the light pulse with a photomultiplier tube can allow the accumulated radiation dose to be quantified .
= = = Nuclear and isotope applications = = =
Caesium @-@ 137 is a very common radioisotope used as a gamma @-@ emitter in industrial applications . Its advantages include a half @-@ life of roughly 30 years , its availability from the nuclear fuel cycle , and having 137Ba as a stable end product . The high water solubility is a disadvantage which makes it incompatible with large pool irradiators for food and medical supplies . It has been used in agriculture , cancer treatment , and the sterilization of food , sewage sludge , and surgical equipment . Radioactive isotopes of caesium in radiation devices were used in the medical field to treat certain types of cancer , but emergence of better alternatives and the use of water @-@ soluble caesium chloride in the sources , which could create wide @-@ ranging contamination , gradually put some of these caesium sources out of use . Caesium @-@ 137 has been employed in a variety of industrial measurement gauges , including moisture , density , leveling , and thickness gauges . It has also been used in well logging devices for measuring the electron density of the rock formations , which is analogous to the bulk density of the formations .
Isotope 137 has also been used in hydrologic studies analogous to those using tritium . It is a daughter product of nuclear fission reactions . With the commencement of nuclear testing around 1945 , and continuing through the mid @-@ 1980s , caesium @-@ 137 was released into the atmosphere , where it is absorbed readily into solution . Known year @-@ to @-@ year variation within that period allows correlation with soil and sediment layers . Caesium @-@ 134 , and to a lesser extent caesium @-@ 135 , have also been used in hydrology as a measure of caesium output by the nuclear power industry . While they are less prevalent than either caesium @-@ 133 or caesium @-@ 137 , these isotopes have the advantage of being produced solely from anthropogenic sources .
= = = Other uses = = =
Caesium and mercury were used as a propellant in early ion engines designed for spacecraft propulsion on very long interplanetary or extraplanetary missions . The ionization method was to strip the outer electron from the propellant upon contact with a tungsten electrode that had voltage applied . Concerns about the corrosive action of caesium on spacecraft components have pushed development in the direction of the use of inert gas propellants , such as xenon ; this is easier to handle in ground @-@ based tests and has less potential to interfere with the spacecraft . Eventually , xenon was used in the experimental spacecraft Deep Space 1 launched in 1998 . Nevertheless , Field Emission Electric Propulsion thrusters which use a simple system of accelerating liquid metal ions such as of caesium to create thrust have been built .
Caesium nitrate is used as an oxidizer and pyrotechnic colorant to burn silicon in infrared flares , such as the LUU @-@ 19 flare , because it emits much of its light in the near infrared spectrum . Caesium has been used to reduce the radar signature of exhaust plumes in the SR @-@ 71 Blackbird military aircraft . Caesium , along with rubidium , has been added as a carbonate to glass because it reduces electrical conductivity and improves stability and durability of fibre optics and night vision devices . Caesium fluoride or caesium aluminium fluoride are used in fluxes formulated for the brazing of aluminium alloys that contain magnesium .
Magnetohydrodynamic ( MHD ) power @-@ generating systems were researched , but failed to gain widespread acceptance . Caesium metal has also been considered as the working fluid in high @-@ temperature Rankine cycle turboelectric generators . Caesium salts have been evaluated as antishock reagents to be used following the administration of arsenical drugs . Because of their effect on heart rhythms , however , they are less likely to be used than potassium or rubidium salts . They have also been used to treat epilepsy .
= = Health and safety hazards = =
Nonradioactive caesium compounds are only mildly toxic . Exposure to large amounts can cause hyperirritability and spasms , due to the chemical similarity of caesium to potassium , but such amounts would not ordinarily be encountered in natural sources and nonradioactive caesium is not a significant environmental hazard . The median lethal dose ( LD50 ) value for caesium chloride in mice is 2 @.@ 3 g per kilogram , which is comparable to the LD50 values of potassium chloride and sodium chloride . However , in large quantities caesium competes with potassium in various biological processes . Accordingly , excess caesum intake can lead to hypokalemia , arrythmia , and acute cardiac arrest . The principal use of nonradioactive caesium , as caesium formate in petroleum drilling fluids , takes advantage of its low toxicity compared to less costly alternatives .
Caesium metal is one of the most reactive elements and is highly explosive when it comes in contact with water . The hydrogen gas produced by the reaction is heated by the thermal energy released at the same time , causing ignition and a violent explosion . This can occur with other alkali metals , but caesium is so potent that this explosive reaction can even be triggered by cold water . The autoignition temperature of caesium is also − 116 ° C , so it is highly pyrophoric , and ignites explosively in air to form caesium hydroxide and various oxides . Caesium hydroxide is a very strong base , and will rapidly corrode glass .
The isotopes 134 and 137 are present in the biosphere in small amounts from human activities and which differs between locations . Radiocaesium does not accumulate in the body as effectively as many other fission products ( such as radioiodine and radiostrontium ) . About 10 % of absorbed radiocaesium washes out of the body relatively quickly in sweat and urine . The remaining 90 % has a biological half @-@ life between 50 and 150 days . Radiocaesium follows potassium and tends to accumulate in plant tissues , including fruits and vegetables . Plants absorb caesium differently , some do not absorb it much , and some take it large amounts , sometimes displaying great resistance to it . It is also well @-@ documented that mushrooms from contaminated forests accumulate radiocaesium ( caesium @-@ 137 ) in their fungal sporocarps . Accumulation of caesium @-@ 137 in lakes has been a high concern after the Chernobyl disaster . Experiments with dogs showed that a single dose of 3 @.@ 8 millicuries ( 140 MBq , 4 @.@ 1 μg of caesium @-@ 137 ) per kilogram is lethal within three weeks ; smaller amounts may cause infertility and cancer . The International Atomic Energy Agency and other sources have warned that radioactive materials , such as caesium @-@ 137 , could be used in radiological dispersion devices , or " dirty bombs " .
= K @-@ 143 ( Kansas highway ) =
K @-@ 143 is a state highway in Saline County , Kansas . The route runs 4 @.@ 658 miles ( 7 @.@ 496 km ) in a general north @-@ south direction through lands mostly used for agriculture from an interchange at Interstate 70 ( I @-@ 70 ) in northern Salina , Kansas to a junction with U.S. Route 81 ( US @-@ 81 ) . The southern part of the route is a four @-@ lane divided highway while the rest is a two @-@ lane highway . It has an annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) between 1 @,@ 580 and 4 @,@ 133 vehicles . The route is paved with three different pavement types , and is not a part of the National Highway System . It was first designated as US @-@ 81 Alternate in the early 1970s with the designation being changed to K @-@ 143 in the early 1980s .
= = Route description = =
K @-@ 143 begins at an interchange with Interstate 70 in the northernmost parts of Salina , Kansas . For the first 0 @.@ 9 miles ( 1 @.@ 4 km ) of the route , the highway travels due north through commercial and agricultural land within the Salina city limits . A short distance after this , K @-@ 143 transitions from a divided four @-@ lane highway into a two @-@ lane highway . It then crosses the Saline River and continues north through primarily agricultural land north of Salina . At 2 @.@ 7 miles ( 4 @.@ 3 km ) , K @-@ 143 turns northwest and follows a gently curving path in that direction for the remainder of the route , ending at an interchange with US @-@ 81 . The total length of the route is 4 @.@ 658 miles ( 7 @.@ 496 km ) . K @-@ 143 has an AADT of 4 @,@ 133 vehicles in the southernmost 0 @.@ 9 miles ( 1 @.@ 4 km ) of the route , with an AADT of 1 @,@ 580 – 1 @,@ 595 vehicles in the remainder of the route . The route is paved with a combination of full @-@ design bituminous pavement , composite pavement , and partial @-@ design bituminous pavement . K @-@ 143 is not a part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
K @-@ 143 's route was established between 1970 and 1971 as US @-@ 81 Alternate . The numbering was changed to K @-@ 143 between 1981 and 1983 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Saline County .
= Manchester computers =
The Manchester computers were an innovative series of stored @-@ program electronic computers developed during the 30 @-@ year period between 1947 and 1977 by a small team at the University of Manchester , under the leadership of Tom Kilburn . They included the world 's first stored @-@ program computer , the world 's first transistorised computer , and what was the world 's fastest computer at the time of its inauguration in 1962 .
The project began with two aims : to prove the practicality of the Williams tube , an early form of computer memory based on standard cathode ray tubes ( CRTs ) ; and to construct a machine that could be used to investigate how computers might be able to assist in the solution of mathematical problems . The first of the series , the Small @-@ Scale Experimental Machine ( SSEM ) , ran its first program on 21 June 1948 . As the world 's first stored @-@ program computer , the SSEM , and the Manchester Mark 1 developed from it , quickly attracted the attention of the United Kingdom government , who contracted the electrical engineering firm of Ferranti to produce a commercial version . The resulting machine , the Ferranti Mark 1 , was the world 's first commercially available general @-@ purpose computer .
The collaboration with Ferranti eventually led to an industrial partnership with the computer company ICL , who made use of many of the ideas developed at the university , particularly in the design of their 2900 series of computers during the 1970s .
= = Small @-@ Scale Experimental Machine ( SSEM ) = =
The Manchester Small @-@ Scale Experimental Machine ( SSEM ) , also known as the Baby , was designed as a test @-@ bed for the Williams tube , an early form of computer memory , rather than as a practical computer . Work on the machine began in 1947 , and on 21 June 1948 the computer successfully ran its first program , consisting of 17 instructions written to find the highest proper factor of 218 ( 262 @,@ 144 ) by trying every integer from 218 − 1 downwards . The program ran for 52 minutes before producing the correct answer of 131 @,@ 072 .
The SSEM was 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) in length , 7 feet 4 inches ( 2 @.@ 24 m ) tall , and weighed almost 1 long ton . It contained 550 thermionic valves – 300 diodes and 250 pentodes – and had a power consumption of 3 @.@ 5 kilowatts . Its successful operation was reported in a letter to the journal Nature published in September 1948 , establishing it as the world 's first stored @-@ program computer . It quickly evolved into a more practical machine , the Manchester Mark 1 .
= = Manchester Mark 1 = =
Development of the Manchester Mark 1 began in August 1948 , with the initial aim of providing the university with a more realistic computing facility . In October 1948 UK Government Chief Scientist Ben Lockspeiser was given a demonstration of the prototype , and was so impressed that he immediately initiated a government contract with the local firm of Ferranti to make a commercial version of the machine , the Ferranti Mark 1 .
Two versions of the Manchester Mark 1 were produced , the first of which , the Intermediary Version , was operational by April 1949 . The Final Specification machine , which was fully working by October 1949 , contained 4 @,@ 050 valves and had a power consumption of 25 kilowatts . Perhaps the Manchester Mark 1 's most significant innovation was its incorporation of index registers , commonplace on modern computers .
= = Meg and Mercury = =
As a result of experience gained from the Mark 1 , the developers concluded that computers would be used more in scientific roles than pure maths . They therefore embarked on the design of a new machine which would include a floating point unit ; work began in 1951 . The resulting machine , which ran its first program in May 1954 , was known as Meg , or the megacycle machine . It was smaller and simpler than the Mark 1 , as well as quicker at solving maths problems . Ferranti produced a commercial version marketed as the Ferranti Mercury , in which the Williams tubes were replaced by the more reliable core memory .
= = Transistor Computer = =
Work on building a smaller and cheaper computer began in 1952 , in parallel with Meg 's ongoing development . Two of Kilburn 's team , R. L. Grimsdale and D. C. Webb , were assigned to the task of designing and building a machine using the newly developed transistors instead of valves . Initially the only devices available were germanium point @-@ contact transistors , less reliable than the valves they replaced but which consumed far less power .
Two versions of the machine were produced . The first was the world 's first transistorised computer , and became operational in November 1953 . The second version was completed in April 1955 . The 1955 version used 200 transistors , 1 @,@ 300 solid @-@ state diodes , and had a power consumption of 150 watts . The machine did however make use of valves to generate its 125 kHz clock waveforms and in the circuitry to read and write on its magnetic drum memory , so it was not the first completely transistorised computer , a distinction that went to the Harwell CADET of 1955 .
Problems with the reliability of early batches of transistors meant that the machine 's mean time between failures was about 90 minutes , which improved once the more reliable
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link London to Portsmouth , an idea which had been contemplated several times since 1641 . He chaired a meeting held at Guildford on 1 June 1811 , at which it was decided to press ahead with the canal , and put up £ 20 @,@ 000 of the initial £ 90 @,@ 500 estimated cost . The canal opened in September 1816 , but the estimated 100 @,@ 000 tons of traffic passing between London and the dockyards at Portsmouth , and the 30 @,@ 000 tons of local traffic , were far too optimistic , with actual traffic averaging around 15 @,@ 000 tons per year throughout its life .
The London to Portsmouth route was to be completed by the Portsmouth and Arundel Canal , in which Wyndham and the Cutfields , who also held many shares in the Arun Navigation , were both significant subscribers . This was authorised by Act of Parliament in 1817 , and an agreement was reached that the Arun would be improved to aid through traffic . Nevertheless , no work commenced on the Arun until the proprietors were sure that the Ford section of the new canal would actually be built . Once they were convinced , they obtained an Act of Parliament in May 1821 , and the engineer James Hollingworth oversaw the improvements , which were completed in mid @-@ 1823 . The work involved improving the depth and width of the channel , and some alterations to bridges and locks to make their size more uniform . The company borrowed £ 3000 to finance the work , which cost around £ 5000 in total . The loans had been repaid by 1831 , and the work allowed barge sizes to be increased from 30 tons to 40 tons , with the result that business improved .
Traffic increased , as shown by the number of boats belonging to residents of Arundel . There were 13 in 1801 , which had increased to 15 by 1803 , with a total tonnage of 266 . A timber merchant called John Boxold owned barges in 1815 and 1832 , while in 1820 , a company began running regular freight services to London , using three barges based near the town quay . By 1823 they had ten barges , which had reduced to seven by 1830 , and barges ran twice @-@ weekly to Chichester , London , Midhurst , and Petworth . The company was variously called Seward and Co . , The Arundel Barge Co . , and several other names .
= = = Decline = = =
From the 1840s , use of the river declined , as a result of competition from the railways , and changes in coastal shipping . Littlehampton grew in importance as a port and after years of resistance by the people of Arundel , the customs house was moved there in 1864 . The Mid @-@ Sussex Railway opened their line from Horsham to Pulborough and Petworth in 1859 , which was extended to Ford and Littlehampton in 1863 . Receipts from tolls had peaked at £ 2044 for the five years from 1835 to 1840 , when a dividend of 11 @.@ 8 percent was paid , but dropped quickly , raising just £ 389 for years between 1870 and 1875 , when the dividend was 1 percent .
By 1852 , the barge service to London only ran once a week , and it had ceased altogether three years later . Most vessels reaching Arundel were coasters rather than barges by 1886 , and just 20 ships used the facilities that year . The Wey and Arun Canal closed in 1871 . The proprietors of the upper river ceased to maintain the navigation from 1 January 1888 , and the last barge passed through Hardham Tunnel on 29 January 1889 . The river was abandoned as a navigation by a warrant issued as part of the Railway and Canal Traffic Act of 1888 . The River Lark in Suffolk was the only other river navigation abandoned at that time . The Board of Trade issued a closing order in 1896 , and after that , there was no navigation authority responsible for the upper river . However , traffic did not cease entirely .
Fifteen or twenty barges were still using the river in the 1880s , although the upper reaches were no longer accessible . Arundel docks silted up between 1875 and 1896 . In 1898 , the London , Brighton and South Coast Railway , who by this time were the owners of the railway from Horsham to Littlehampton , drilled down into the tunnel where the main line and the branch to Midhurst crossed its course , and poured tons of chalk into the tunnel to stabilise it . A trade in chalk and lime extracted from Amberley chalk pits continued into the early twentieth century . Some ships were towed to Arundel by paddle tugs , and imports of salt , timber and coal for the gasworks continued . Arundel was visited by its last steamer in 1914 , and the last sailing vessel to reach the port did so three years later . Passage of larger craft upstream was hindered by the construction of a swing bridge at Littlehampton in 1908 , and prevented by a fixed railway bridge at Ford built in 1938 . As freight traffic disappeared from the river , Edward Slaughter , who later became part of the company of Buller and Slaughter , was hiring pleasure craft by 1903 , and the company was still doing so in the 1990s .
= = = Present = = =
Authority for the river remains much as it was after 1896 , with the Littlehampton Harbour Board responsible for the section from the mouth up to Arundel Bridge , and no navigation authority for the river above that , although the Environment Agency have responsibility for its drainage functions . There are nine bridges with a minimum navigable headroom of between 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) and 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) at high water . The river is tidal to Pallingham Quay , 25 @.@ 5 miles ( 41 @.@ 0 km ) upstream from the sea at Littlehampton , and flows at 4 to 6 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 to 11 @.@ 1 km / h ) , making it one of the fastest flowing rivers in the country . The tidal range at Littlehampton is 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) at spring tides and 8 @.@ 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) at neap tides . High tide occurs 15 minutes later than high water at Dover , and high water at Pulborough is four hours later than at Littlehampton .
= = = Charitable organisations = = =
The Arun & Rother Rivers Trust ( ARRT ) is a charity set up in 2011 with objectives around education , fisheries , biodiversity , access and pollution amongst other issues .
The Wey and Arun Canal is being restored by the Wey and Arun Canal Trust , which was set up in the 1970s . The Wey and Arun Canal technically ended at Newbridge , but the restoration will include the Arun Navigation section down to Pallingham to reach the River Arun . For many years , the Solent and Arun Branch of the Inland Waterways Association organised an annual cruise on the river to ensure that the navigation rights were maintained . Responsibility for its organisation has now been passed to the Wey and Arun Canal Trust .
= = Route = =
At 37 miles ( 60 km ) from its source to the sea , the Arun is the longest of the rivers in Sussex . It rises as a series of streams , known locally as ghylls or gills , to the east of Horsham , in St Leonard 's Forest . It flows westwards , along the southern boundary of Horsham and turns briefly to the north to skirt Broadbridge Heath . Continuing westwards , it is joined by the North River , which is also known as the River Oke , whose headstreams are the heights of Leith Hill and Holmbury Hill in Surrey . After the junction , it passes under the A29 road , which follows the route of the Roman Stane Street at this point , and timber piles of a Roman bridge have been found in the riverbed . The earthworks from a Roman station are close by . To the south of Rudgwick it is crossed by a disused railway line , and at this point it crosses the 66 @-@ foot ( 20 m ) contour . Its course is marked by winding meanders as it turns towards the south , and the county boundary briefly follows its course , before it is joined by the partially restored Wey and Arun Canal . Its former course to the west of the canal can be clearly seen , and is followed by the boundary , but the main flow of the river follows a new straight cut just to the east of the canal . Once the boundary crosses back over the canal , the river resumes its meandering course on the eastern side of the canal .
A little further to the south is another straight cut , with the old course still visible on the other side of the canal . Soon it reaches Newbridge on the A272 road near Wisborough Green . The location of the wharf which was the northern terminus of the Arun Navigation was just to the south of the bridge . Wharf Farm was nearby , and the modern 1 : 2500 Ordnance Survey map shows buildings named " The Old Wharf " . Brockhurst Brook joins from the east before the river turns briefly westwards . Soon it is crossed by Orfold Aqueduct , which carried the Arun Navigation over the river channel . The River Kird joins it , flowing from the north , and it turns southwards again . At Pallingham the remains of Pallingham Manor are on the north bank , next to Pallingham Manor Farm , a 17th @-@ century timber @-@ framed farmhouse , which is Grade II listed . Pallingham Quay Farmhouse , another Grade II listed building dating from the 18th century , is on the west bank of the river just before its junction with the Arun Navigation cut . Below the junction , the river is tidal .
Continuing southwards , the river passes the gallops which are part of Coombelands Racing Stables , situated on the eastern bank , and Park Mount , a motte and bailey dating from the time of the Norman conquest . It is one of the best @-@ preserved monuments of this type in south east England . The river is crossed by Stopham Bridge , a fine medieval stone bridge built in 1422 @-@ 23 . The centre arch was raised as part of the improvements made to the navigation in 1822 . It is a Grade I listed structure , and also a Scheduled Ancient Monument . It was damaged by army lorries in the Second World War , but has been repaired , and the heavy traffic on the A283 road was diverted onto a new bridge just upstream of it in the 1980s .
Below the bridge is a small island , after which an artificial cut built to avoid the circuitous route of the River Rother Navigation heads westwards . The river now discharges over a weir at the site of the former Hardham corn mill to join the Arun a little further downstream , and the junction is followed by another small island . Hardham lock was necessary because of the drop in levels caused by the mill , and the branch through Hardham tunnel headed due south a little further up the Rother . Exploration of the tunnel was described by an article in Sussex County Magazine in 1953 , when both ends were accessible , and again in 2012 , when only the southern end was explored . A waterworks has been built over the bed of the canal at the northern end , and the tunnel mouth is within the site . The river continues in a large loop to the east . The Arun Valley railway line crosses it to reach Pulborough railway station . There is another island , with the A29 road crossing both channels . Pulborough Brooks nature reserve is to the east of the loop , and the course then meanders westwards to Greatham Bridge . The bridge consists of eight low elliptical arches , two taller arches , a cast iron span over the navigable channel , and a solid ramp to the east . Although its construction suggests that it is medieval , most of the arches were erected in 1827 .
On the west bank of the river below the bridge is Waltham Brooks nature reserve . Coldwaltham lock , on the branch through the Hardham Tunnel , is still marked on modern maps , and the section from the lock to the river still holds water . Just to the north of Amberley , the river is crossed by the Arun Valley line again at Timberley Bridge . At the village of Bury , the West Sussex Literary Trail joins the western bank and another footpath joins the eastern bank . The next bridge is Houghton Bridge , close to Amberley railway station . The river splits into two channels here , and the bridge spans both . Similar to Greatham Bridge , it looks medieval , but was built in 1875 . There is a solid section on the island between the channels , with a single arch over the eastern channel and four arches over the main river . The chalk pits which provided trade to the navigation are now the location of Amberley Museum & Heritage Centre , a 36 @-@ acre ( 15 ha ) site with many items of industrial heritage on display .
The river follows an " S " -shaped course , the northern loop encircling the village of North Stoke and the south one encircling South Stoke . Immediately to the south , the old course passes under the railway line , but a new channel was cut to the west of the railway . On the west bank is the hamlet of Offham and Arundel Wetland Centre , a 65 @-@ acre ( 26 ha ) haven for birds which is run by the Wildfowl & Wetlands Trust . The market town of Arundel is to the west of the river . It has a castle build on a motte , the construction of which was started in 1068 . It is owned by the Duke and Duchess of Norfolk . The present building consists of many different components , dating from the late eleventh century through to the nineteenth , and is Grade I listed . Two bridges span the river here , the first on the original road through the town , while the second carries the A284 Arundel Bypass . The final section is crossed by a railway bridge , built in 1908 , and the A259 road bridge , which carries the road into Littlehampton on the east bank . It discharges into the English Channel between the East and West Piers .
Littlehampton and its harbour were guarded from naval attack by Littlehampton Redoubt on the western bank at the mouth of the river , completed in 1854 , which is now screened from the open sea by Climping sand dunes . This fort replaced a seven @-@ gun battery on the east bank , which was built in 1764 .
= = Points of interest = =
= Paul Cornell ( lawyer ) =
Paul Cornell ( August 5 , 1822 – March 3 , 1904 ) was an American lawyer and Chicago real estate speculator who founded the Hyde Park Township that included most of what are now known as the south and far southeast sides of Chicago in Cook County , Illinois , United States . He turned the south side Lake Michigan lakefront area , especially the Hyde Park community area and neighboring Kenwood and Woodlawn neighborhoods , into a resort community that had its heyday from the 1850s through the early 20th century . He was also an urban planner who paved the way for and preserved many of the parks that are now in the Chicago Park District . Additionally , he was a successful entrepreneur with interests in manufacturing , cemeteries , and hotels .
His modern legacy includes several large parks now in the Chicago Park District : Jackson Park , Washington Park , Midway Plaisance and Harold Washington Park . Most of the South and Southeast Sides of Chicago were developed and eventually annexed into the City of Chicago as a result of his foresight .
= = Background = =
Born in Upstate New York , Cornell was from a distinguished New England family , was descendant from Thomas Cornell , the progenitor of the Cornell family in North America , and a cousin to Ezra Cornell , founder of Cornell University . When his father died ( he was 9 at that time ) the family moved to the Adams County , IL / Schuyler County , IL area , where he worked as a farmhand to pay for schooling . He passed the Illinois bar examination and moved to Chicago in 1847 . Unfortunately , his entire savings was stolen from his hotel room on his first night in town . A sympathetic lawyer provided him with both a loan and a job at the law office of Skinner and Hoyne , where he met Senator Stephen Douglas .
He was married to the sister @-@ in @-@ law of John Evans , after whom Evanston , IL was named . He had many strong local connections , being related to founders of Northwestern University ( Evans and Orrington Lunt ) and to George Kimbark of Riverside Improvement Company . His brother @-@ in @-@ law Kimbark purchased the area between 51st and 55th and Dorchester and Woodlawn to the west of Cornell 's purchase . Cornell later purchased this as well as other lands purchased by his Uncle , Hassan A. Hopkins , to add to Hyde Park .
= = Hyde Park = =
Douglas advised him to consider investing in land south of the city limits . After some horseback travels through the area , he began to envision a viable community there . In 1853 , following the advice of Douglas , he bought 300 acres ( 1 @.@ 21 km2 ) of property between 51st Street and 55th Street as a speculative investment . This area was 7 miles ( 11 @.@ 27 km ) south of the mouth of the Chicago River and 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 66 km ) south of downtown Chicago . In the 1850s , Chicago was still a walkable urban area well contained within a 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 22 km ) radius of the center . It was common for development companies to locate hotels near rail depots to introduce visitors to new suburbs . In 1856 , Paul Cornell invented the Chicago railroad suburb . In an effort to improve his land value , he deeded 60 acres ( 0 @.@ 24 km2 ) to the Illinois Central Railroad in exchange for a 53rd Street train station and a commitment of 6 daily connections to Chicago ’ s Central Depot in each direction . He then marketed the neighborhood to wealthy Chicagoans as a resort area . He selected the name Hyde Park to associate the area with the elite high class neighborhoods of New York and London .
At about the same time , he built the Hyde Park House a 4 story hotel at 53rd Street and Lake Michigan . The hotel became the focal point of the community and drew affluent guests with leisure time and discretionary income . This site is now occupied by the Hampton House . The hotel also helped others to envision a thriving affluent community in the area . By 1861 , the residents petitioned the Illinois General Assembly to create the Hyde Park Township .
Paul Cornell specifically forbade heavy industry development in Hyde Park . This philosophy later became a part of the Burnham Plan . He maintained the character of Hyde Park , which was intended to be an elite suburb bordering Chicago , by selling only large lots that the affluent could afford . The neighborhood flourished for the next two generations .
In 1889 , the entire Hyde Park township ( the area south of 39th Street , north of 138th Street , and east of State Street ) , which had quintupled in population from an 1880 population of 15 @,@ 716 to an 1889 population of 85 @,@ 000 , voted for annexation to the City of Chicago . Paul Cornell planned and advocated a town with a lakefront park , a plaisance , an adjoining park and boulevards shaped the town . His plan for a cornerstone institution to rival Evanston 's Northwestern University was at first thwarted by the decision to establish a theological seminary on the north side , but would come to fruition with the foundation of the University of Chicago through the philanthropy of John D. Rockefeller and Marshall Field in 1890 .
Hyde Park maintained racially restrictive covenants excluding African Americans from purchasing , leasing , or occupying homes in Hyde Park for nearly one hundred years until this segregative tool was struck down by the United States Supreme Court in a 1940 case , Lee v. Hansberry , concerning the nearby Washington Park Subdivision . At his death , Cornell bequeathed East End Park ( Now renamed Harold Washington Park ) to the city . The stone pictured above commemorates this gift .
= = Civic Leadership = =
Cornell is considered the " father of the South Parks System " for his extensive efforts after the American Civil War to create a parks system south of Chicago . Cornell , as a real estate developer , presented a convincing case to city developers that a parks system would increase the value of land surrounding it . Cornell based his arguments on New York City 's Central Park , which had substantially raised surrounding real estate values . Repeated attempts eventually got a plan through the Illinois General Assembly . As a civic leader he along with his peer William Le Baron Jenney , the West Parks commissioner , commissioned urban landscape designers such as Frederick Law Olmsted , Calvert Vaux , Ossian Simonds , H. W. S. Cleveland , and Jens Jensen to create landscaped cemeteries , to implement a coordinated parks and boulevard system and to design the railroad @-@ served suburbs to complement urban civilization .
In 1869 , the state passed the " Parks Law " , which created the north , south and west parks district . The parks districts were established as municipal corporations with funding based on the taxable real estate within its service area . The legislation provided for orderly growth and evolution of the city by outlining not only the powers and duties of the parks districts , but also the geography of the parks and connecting boulevards . Cornell was able to both benefit financially from the $ 46 million spent on the parks during the remainder of the century and to assume a position of influence over the parks . Cornell served for over 13 years on the South Parks Commission , which regulated parks south of the city . This position enabled him to pursue his vision which was to have a park system that would give " lungs to the great city and its future generations . " He also served as the Hyde Park Township 's first Town Supervisor . Today , Jackson Park , Washington Park and Harold Washington Park stand as a testament to his efforts . These parks became major selling points that contributed to the growth of Hyde Park .
= = Other ventures = =
In 1887 , Cornell built the Hyde Park Hotel ( left , 1887 – 1963 ) on the former site of his home at Lake Park and East Hyde Park Boulevard . The hotel was expanded in 1891 . In 1914 , the hotel expanded ( for a second time ) , which doubled its capacity to 300 rooms ( see right ) .
Paul Cornell also purchased the swampland and prairie 8 miles ( 12 @.@ 9 km ) south of the Loop at the intersection of the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway and the Illinois Central Railroad at a location that now is 75th Street and South Chicago Avenue in 1855 . He subdivided parcels for sale through the 1870s . The area , which was first named Cornell , became Grand Crossing . He had accumulated a total of 960 acres ( 1 @.@ 5 sq mi ; 3 @.@ 9 km2 ) land at one point . The reason that the name was changed was the pre @-@ existence of Cornell , Illinois .
Paul Cornell established the Cornell Watch Factory at 76th Street and the Illinois Central tracks in 1876 in Grand Crossing . Among his other ventures , Cornell founded Republic Life Insurance Company and the American Bronze Company . He served as secretary for a group of Chicagoans who purchased 167 acres ( 0 @.@ 68 km2 ) in 1853 to create Oak Woods Cemetery . He has a 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) tall zinc monument at the cemetery .
= = Memorials = =
Cornell Avenue running at along the 1600 east block from 4818 south to 9326 south and Cornell Drive running along the 1632 east block in Jackson Park . Although these streets have different names they are the same street .
The Hyde Park Historical Society gives out annual Paul Cornell Awards .
= M @-@ 80 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 80 is a state trunkline highway in the Upper Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . It runs from Kinross to M @-@ 129 near Donaldson . The highway serves the site of the former Kincheloe Air Force Base and the current Chippewa County International Airport . The designation has been used twice before on roads in the Lower Peninsula in the 1910s through 1930s while the current usage dates back to the mid @-@ 1990s .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 80 starts at exit 378 along Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) near Kinross . A short section of it runs concurrently with H @-@ 63 ( Mackinac Trail ) to connect to ramps in the interchange . This section runs northeast – southwest across the freeway from Mud Lake before the M @-@ 80 designation turns southeasterly along Tone Road running past Kinross Lake in a forested area . Tone Road curves sharply northeasterly and then southeasterly to run around the north end of the runway complex at the Chippewa County International Airport . The highway runs due east past the airport terminal area to the south and a prison and the residential area of the former Kincheloe Air Force Base to the north . Near Dukes Lake , M @-@ 80 crosses Gaines Highway and leaves the former base and runs through forest to the intersection with M @-@ 129 where M @-@ 80 terminates . The roadway continues eastward as 17 Mile Road in Pickford Township .
M @-@ 80 has not been listed on the National Highway System ( NHS ) by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) . The NHS is a network of highways important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . MDOT 's annual surveys of the traffic counts are used to compute a value called the annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measurement of the number of vehicles on a road for any given day of the year . The survey from 2009 showed that 2 @,@ 803 vehicles used the western section between I @-@ 75 and Gaines Highway , with 61 trucks included in the count . The eastern section was used by 1 @,@ 657 vehicles and 61 trucks .
= = History = =
On July 1 , 1919 , M @-@ 80 existed as a highway in the Lower Peninsula connecting Adrian with Somerset . The highway was included in the route of US Highway 127 in 1926 . The M @-@ 80 designation was then shifted to a section of highway that was previously part of M @-@ 18 near Beaverton The M @-@ 80 designation was decommissioned in 1939 when the roadway was transferred back to local control .
The current designation of M @-@ 80 was created in 1994 – 95 when Tone Road through Kinross and the former Kincheloe Air Force Base were transferred to MDOT . The department assigned the roadway its designation and included it on the 1995 map .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Chippewa County .
= Poland in the Early Middle Ages =
The main event that took place within the lands of Poland in the Early Middle Ages , as well as other parts of central @-@ eastern Europe , was the arrival , and subsequent permanent settlement , of the Slavic peoples . The Slavic migrations in the area of contemporary Poland started in the second half of the 5th century CE , some half century after these territories were vacated by Germanic tribes , their previous inhabitants . The first waves of the incoming Slavs settled the vicinity of the upper Vistula River and elsewhere in the lands of present southeastern Poland and southern Masovia . Coming from the east , from the upper and middle regions of the Dnieper River , the immigrants would have had come primarily from the western branch of the early Slavs known as Sclaveni , and since their arrival are classified as West Slavs . Their early archeological traces belong to the Prague @-@ Korchak culture , which is similar to the earlier Kiev culture .
From there the new population dispersed north and west over the course of the 6th century . The Slavs lived from cultivation of crops and were generally farmers , but also engaged in hunting and gathering . The migrations took place when the destabilizing invasions of eastern and central Europe by waves of people and armies from the east , such as the Huns , Avars and Magyars , were occurring . This westward movement of Slavic people was facilitated in part by the previous emigration of Germanic peoples toward the safer and more developed areas of western and southern Europe . The immigrating Slavs formed various small tribal organizations beginning in the 8th century , some of which coalesced later into larger , state @-@ like ones . Beginning in the 7th century , these tribal units built many fortified structures with earth and wood walls and embankments , called gords . Some of them were developed and inhabited , others had a very large empty area inside the walls .
By the 9th century , the Slavs had settled the Baltic coast in Pomerania , which subsequently developed into a commercial and military power . Along the coastline , remnants of Scandinavian settlements and emporia were to be found . The most important of them was probably the trade settlement and seaport of Truso , located in Prussia . Prussia itself was relatively unaffected by Slavic migration and remained inhabited by Baltic Old Prussians . During the same time , the tribe of the Vistulans ( Wiślanie ) , based in Kraków and the surrounding region , controlled a large area in the south , which they developed and fortified with many strongholds .
During the 10th century , the Polans ( Polanie , lit . " people of the fields " ) turned out to be of decisive historic importance . Initially based in the central Polish lowlands around Giecz , Poznań and Gniezno , the Polans went through a period of accelerated building of fortified settlements and territorial expansion beginning in the first half of the 10th century . Under Mieszko I of the Piast dynasty , the expanded Polan territory was converted to Christianity in 966 , which is generally regarded the birth of the Polish state . The contemporary names of the realm , " Mieszko 's " or " Gniezno state " , were dropped soon afterwards in favour of " Poland " , a rendering of the Polans ' tribal name . The Piast dynasty would continue to rule Poland until the late 14th century .
= = Origin of the Slavic peoples = =
= = = Slavic beginnings in Poland = = =
The origins of the Slavic peoples , who arrived on Polish lands at the outset of the Middle Ages , archeologically as the Prague culture , go back to the Kiev culture , which formed beginning early in 3rd century CE , and which is genetically derived from the Post @-@ Zarubintsy cultural horizon ( Rakhny – Ljutez – Pochep material culture sphere ) , and itself was one of the later post @-@ Zarubintsy culture groups . Such ethnogenetic relationship is apparent between the large Kiev culture population and the early ( 6th – 7th centuries ) Slavic settlements in the Oder and Vistula basins , but lacking between these Slavic settlements and the older local cultures within the same region , that ceased to exist beginning in the 400 – 450 CE period .
= = = Zarubintsy culture = = =
The Zarubintsy culture circle , in existence roughly from 200 BCE to 150 CE , extended along the middle and upper Dnieper and its tributary the Pripyat River , but also left traces of settlements in parts of Polesie and the upper Bug River basin . The main distinguished local groups were the Polesie group , the Middle Dnieper group and the Upper Dnieper group . The Zarubintsy culture developed from the Milograd culture in the northern part of its range and from the local Scythian populations in the more southern part . The Polesie group 's origin was also influenced by the Pomeranian and Jastorf cultures . The Zarubintsy culture and its beginnings were moderately affected by La Tène culture and the Black Sea area ( trade with the Greek cities provided imported items ) centers of civilization in the earlier stages , but not much by Roman influence later on , and accordingly its economic development was lagging behind that of other early Roman period cultures . Cremation of bodies was practiced , with the human remains and burial gifts including metal decorations , small in number and limited in variety , placed in pits .
= = = Kiev culture = = =
Originating from the Post @-@ Zarubintsy cultures and often considered the oldest Slavic culture , the Kiev culture functioned during the later Roman periods ( end of 2nd through mid @-@ 5th century ) north of the vast Chernyakhov culture territories , within the basins of the upper and middle Dnieper , Desna and Seym rivers . The archeological cultural features of the Kiev sites show this culture to be identical or highly compatible ( representing the same cultural model ) with that of the 6th @-@ century Slavic societies , including the settlements on the lands of today 's Poland . The Kiev culture is known mostly from settlement sites ; the burial sites , involving pit graves , are few and poorly equipped . Not many metal objects have been found , despite the known native production of iron and processing of other metals , including enamel coating technology . Clay vessels were made without the potter 's wheel . The Kiev culture represented an intermediate level of development , between that of the cultures of the Central European Barbaricum , and the forest zone societies of the eastern part of the continent . The Kiev culture consisted of four local formations : The Middle Dnieper group , the Desna group , the Upper Dnieper group and the Dnieper @-@ Don group . The general model of the Kiev culture is like that of the early Slavic cultures that were to follow and must have originated mainly from the Kiev groups , but evolved probably over a larger territory , stretching west to the base of the Eastern Carpathian Mountains , and from a broader Post @-@ Zarubintsy foundation . The Kiev culture and related groups expanded considerably after 375 CE , when the Ostrogothic state , and more broadly speaking the Chernyakhov culture , were destroyed by the Huns . This process was facilitated further and gained pace , involving at that time the Kiev 's descendant cultures , when the Hun confederation itself broke down in the mid @-@ 5th century .
= = = Written sources = = =
The eastern cradle of the Slavs is also directly confirmed by a written source . The anonymous author known as the Cosmographer of Ravenna ( c . 700 ) names Scythia , a geographic region encompassing vast areas of eastern Europe , as the place " where the generations of the Sclaveni had their beginnings " . Scythia , " stretching far and spreading wide " in the eastern and southern directions , had at the west end , as seen at the time of Jordanes ' writing ( first half to mid @-@ 6th century ) or earlier , " the Germans and the river Vistula " . Jordanes places the Slavs in Scythia as well .
= = = Alternative point of view = = =
According to an alternative theory , popular in the earlier 20th century and still represented today , the medieval cultures in the area of modern Poland are not a result of massive immigration , but emerged from a cultural transition of earlier indigenous populations , who then would need to be regarded as early Slavs . This view has mostly been discarded , primarily due to a period of archaeological discontinuity , during which settlements were absent or rare , and because of cultural incompatibility of the late ancient and early medieval sites .
A 2011 article on the early Western Slavs states that the transitional period ( of relative depopulation ) is difficult to evaluate archeologically . Some believe that the Late Antique " Germanic " populations ( in Poland late Przeworsk culture and others ) abandoned East Central Europe and were replaced by the Slavs coming from the east , others see the " Germanic " groups as staying and becoming , or already being , Slavs . Current archeology , says the author , " is unable to give a satisfying answer and probably both aspects played a role " . In terms of their origin , territorial and linguistic , " Germanic " groups should not be played off against " Slavs " , as our current understanding of the terms may have limited relevance to the complex realities of the Late Antiquity and Early Middle Ages . Local languages in the region cannot be identified by archeological studies , and genetic evaluation of cremation burial remains has not been possible .
= = Slavic differentiation and expansion ; Prague culture = =
= = = Kolochin culture , Penkovka culture and Prague – Korchak culture = = =
The final process of the differentiation of the cultures recognized as early Slavic , the Kolochin culture ( over the Kiev culture 's territory ) , the Penkovka culture and the Prague @-@ Korchak culture took place during the end of the 4th and in the 5th century CE . Beyond the Post @-@ Zarubintsy horizon the expanding early Slavs took over much of the territories of the Chernyakhov culture and the Dacian Carpathian Tumuli culture . As not all of the previous inhabitants ( from those cultures ) had left the area and some groups were assimilated , they probably contributed some elements to the Slavic cultures .
The Prague culture developed over the western part of the Slavic expansion , within the basins of the middle Dnieper , Pripyat , upper Dniester , up to the Carpathian Mountains and in southeastern Poland , that is the upper and middle Vistula basin . This culture was responsible for most of the growth in 6th and 7th centuries , by which time it also encompassed the middle Danube and middle Elbe basins . The Prague culture very likely corresponds to Jordanes ' Sclaveni , whose area he described as extending west to the Vistula sources . The Penkovka culture people inhabited the southeastern part , from Seversky Donets to the lower Danube ( including the region where the Antes would be ) , and the Kolochin culture was located north of the more eastern area of the Penkovka culture ( the upper Dnieper and Desna basins ) . The Korchak type designates the eastern part of the Prague @-@ Korchak culture , which because of its western expansion is somewhat less directly dependent on the mother Kiev culture than its two sister cultures . The early 6th @-@ century Slavic settlements covered an area three times the size of the Kiev culture region some hundred years earlier .
= = = Early settlements , economy and burials in Poland = = =
In Poland the earliest archeological sites considered Slavic include a limited number of 6th @-@ century settlements and a few isolated burial sites . The material obtained there consists mostly of simple , manually formed ceramics , typical of the entire early Slavic area . It is because of the different varieties of these basic clay pots and infrequent decorations that the three cultures are distinguished . The largest of the earliest Slavic ( Prague culture ) settlement sites in Poland that have been subjected to systematic research is located in Bachórz , Rzeszów County and dated the second half of 5th through 7th centuries . It consisted of 12 nearly square , partially dug out houses , each covering the area of 6 @.@ 2 to 19 @.@ 8 ( 14 @.@ 0 on the average ) square meters . A stone furnace was usually placed in a corner , which is typical for Slavic homesteads of that period , but clay ovens and centrally located hearths are also found . 45 younger , different type dwellings ( 7th / 8th to 9th / 10th centuries ) have also been discovered in the vicinity .
Characteristic of all early Slavic cultures are poorly developed handicraft and limited resources of their communities . There were no major iron production centers , but metal founding techniques were known ; among metal objects occasionally found are iron knives and hooks , as well as bronze decorative items ( 7th @-@ century finds in Haćki , Bielsk Podlaski County , a site of one of the earliest fortified settlements ) . The inventories of the typical , rather small , open settlements include normally also various clay ( including weights used for weaving ) , stone and horn utensils . The developments arranged as clusters of cabins along river or stream valleys , but above their flood levels , were usually irregular , and typically faced south . The wooden frame or pillar supported square houses covered with a straw roof had each side 2 @.@ 5
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to 4 @.@ 5 meters long . Fertile lowlands were sought , but also forested areas with diversified plant and animal environment to provide additional sustenance . The settlements were self @-@ sufficient — the early Slavs functioned without significant long @-@ distance trade . The potter 's wheel was being used from the turn of 7th century on . Some villages larger than a few homes have been investigated in the Kraków @-@ Nowa Huta region ( 6th to 9th century , for example cottages from about 625 CE ) , where , on the left bank of the Vistula , in the direction of Igołomia a complex of 11 settlements has been located . The original furnishings of Slavic huts are difficult to determine , because equipment was often made of perishable materials such as wood , leather or fabrics . Free standing clay dome stoves for bread baking were found on some locations . Another large 6th – to 9th @-@ century settlement complex existed in the vicinity of Głogów in Silesia .
Like others for many centuries in this part of the world , the Slavic people cremated their dead . The burials were usually single , the graves grouped in small cemeteries , with the ashes placed in simple urns more often than in ground indentations . The number of burial sites found is small in relation to the known settlement density . The food production economy was based on millet and wheat cultivation , cattle breeding ( swine , sheep and goats to a lesser extent ) , hunting , fishing and gathering .
= = = Geographic expansion in Poland and central Europe = = =
As the Slavs were arriving from the east beginning in the second half of 5th century , the earliest settlers reached southeastern Poland , that is the San River basin , then the upper Vistula regions including the Kraków area and Nowy Sącz Valley . Single early sites are also known around Sandomierz , Lublin , in Masovia and Upper Silesia . Somewhat younger settlement concentrations were discovered in Lower Silesia . In the 6th century the above areas were settled . At the end of this century , or in early 7th century the Slavic newcomers reached Western Pomerania . According to Theophylact Simocatta , the Slavs captured in 592 at Constantinople named the Baltic Sea coastal area as the place they came from .
As of that time and in the following decades this region , plus some of the Greater Poland , Lower Silesia and some areas west of the middle and lower Oder River make up the Sukow @-@ Dziedzice group . Its origin is the subject of debate among archeologists . First settlements appear in the early 6th century and cannot be directly derived from any other Slavic archeological culture . They reveal certain similarities to the findings of Dobrodzień group of the Przeworsk culture . According to some scholars like Siedow , Kurnatowska and Brzostowicz , it might be a direct continuation of the Przeworsk tradition . According to allochthonists , it represents a variant of the Prague culture and is considered its younger stage . Sukow @-@ Dziedzice group shows significant idiosyncrasies , as no graves or ( typical for the rest of the Slavic world ) rectangular dwellings set partially below the ground level were found within its span .
This particular pattern of expansion into the lands of Poland and then Germany ( another , more southern 6th @-@ century route took the Prague culture Slavs through Slovakia , Moravia and Bohemia ) was a part of the great Slavic migration , which took many of them during this 5th – to 7th @-@ century period from the lands of their origin to the various countries of central and southeastern Europe . In particular the Slavs reached the eastern Alps , populated the Elbe basin , and the Danube basin , from where they moved south to occupy the Balkans as far as Peloponnese .
= = = Slavic related Ancient and early Medieval written accounts = = =
Besides the Baltic Veneti ( see Poland in Antiquity article ) , ancient and medieval authors speak of the East European , or Slavic Venethi . It can be inferred from Tacitus ' description in Germania that his " Venethi " lived possibly around the middle Dnieper basin , which in his times would correspond to the Proto @-@ Slavic Zarubintsy cultural sphere . Jordanes , to whom the Venethi meant his contemporary Slavs , wrote of past fighting between the Ostrogoths and the Venethi , which took place during the third quarter of 4th century in today 's Ukraine . At that time the Venethi would therefore mean the Kiev culture people . The Venethi says Jordanes , who " now rage in war far and wide , in punishment for our sins " , were at that time made obedient to the Gothic king Hermanaric 's command . Jordanes ' 6th @-@ century description of the " populous race of the Venethi " range includes the regions near the left ( northern ) ridge of the Carpathian Mountains and stretching from there " almost endlessly " east , while in the western direction reaching the sources of the Vistula . More specifically he designates the area between the Vistula and the lower Danube as the country of the Sclaveni . " They have swamps and forests for their cities " ( hi paludes silvasque pro civitatibus habent ) , he adds sarcastically . The " bravest of these peoples " , the Antes , settled the lands between the Dniester and the Dnieper rivers . The Venethi were the third Slavic branch of an unspecified location ( the more distant from Jordanes ' vantage and more ancestral in relation to the other two , the Kolochin culture is the likely possibility ) , as well as the overall designation for the totality of the Slavic peoples , who " though off @-@ shoots from one stock , have now three names " . Procopius in De Bello Gothico located the " countless Antes tribes " even further east , beyond the Dnieper . Together with the Sclaveni they spoke the same language , of an " unheard of barbarity " . According to him the Heruli nation traveled in 512 across all of the Sclaveni peoples territories , and then west of there through a large expanse of unpopulated lands , as the Slavs were about to settle the western and northern parts of Poland in the decades to follow . All of the above is in good accordance with the findings of today 's archeology .
Byzantine writers held the Slavs in low regard for the simple life they lived and also for their supposedly limited combat abilities , but in fact they were already in the early 6th century a threat to the Danubian boundaries of the Empire , where they waged plundering expeditions . Procopius , the anonymous author of Strategicon known as Pseudo @-@ Maurice and Theophylact Simocatta wrote at some length on how to deal with the Slavs militarily , which suggests that they had become a formidable adversary . John of Ephesus actually goes as far as saying ( the last quarter of 6th century ) , that the Slavs had learned to conduct war better than the Byzantine army . The Balkan Peninsula was indeed soon overrun by the Slavic invaders , during the first half of 7th century , under Emperor Heraclius .
The above @-@ mentioned authors provide various details on the character , lifestyle and living conditions , social structure and economic activities of the early Slavic people , some of which are confirmed by the archeological discoveries as far as in Poland , as the Slavic communities were quite similar all over their range . Their uniform Old Slavic language remained in use until , depending on the region , the 9th to 12th centuries . For example , the Greek missionaries Saints Cyril and Methodius from Thessaloniki , where " everybody fluently spoke Slavic " , when sent in 863 by the Byzantine ruler to distant Moravia , were expected to be able to communicate there without any difficulty .
= = = Avar invasions in Europe and their presence in Poland = = =
In the 6th century , the Turkic speaking nomadic Avars moved into the middle Danube area . Twice ( 562 and 566 – 567 ) the Avars had undertaken military expeditions against the Franks and their routes went through the Polish lands . The Avar envoys bribed Slavic chiefs from the lands they did not control , including Pomerania , to secure their participation in Avar raids , but other than that the exact nature of their relations with the Slavs in Poland is not known . The Avars had some presence or contacts there also in the 7th and 8th centuries , when they left artifacts in the Kraków @-@ Nowa Huta region and elsewhere , including a bronze belt decoration found in the Krakus Mound . This last item , from the turn of 8th century , is used to date the mound itself .
= = Tribal differentiation = =
= = = 8th @-@ century settlements = = =
With the major population shifts completed , the 8th century brought a measure of stability to the Slavic people settled in Poland . About one million people actively developed and utilized no more than 20 – 25 % of the land , the rest being forest . Normal settlements , with the exception of a few fortified and cult places , were limited to lowland areas , below 350 meters above the sea level . Most villages built without artificial defensive structures were located within valley areas of natural bodies of water . The Slavs were very familiar with the water environment and used it as natural defense .
The living and economic activity structures were either distributed randomly , or arranged in rows or around a central empty lot . The larger settlements could have had over a dozen homesteads and be occupied by 50 to 80 residents , but more typically there were just several homes with no more than 30 inhabitants . From the 7th century on the previously common semi @-@ subterranean dwellings were being replaced by buildings located over most of their areas or wholly above the surface ( pits were dug for storage and other uses ) , but still consisted of just one room . As the Germanic people before , the Slavs were leaving no man 's land regions between developed areas , and especially along the limits of their tribal territories , for separation from strangers and to avoid conflicts .
= = = Gord construction = = =
The Polish tribes did however leave remnants of more imposing structures — fortified settlements and other reinforced enclosures of the gord ( Polish " gród " ) type . Those were being established on naturally suitable , defense enhancing sites beginning in late 6th or 7th century ( Szeligi near Płock and Haćki are the early examples ) , with a large scale building effort taking place in the 8th century . The gords were differently designed and of various sizes , from small to impressively massive . Ditches , walls , palisades and embankments were used to strengthen the perimeter , which involved an often complicated earthwork , wood and stone construction . Gords of the tribal period were irregularly distributed across the country ( fewer larger ones in Lesser Poland , more smaller ones in central and northern Poland ) , could cover an area from 0 @.@ 1 to 25 hectares , have a simple or multi @-@ segment architecture , and be protected by fortifications of different types . Some were permanently occupied by a substantial number of people or by a chief and his cohort of armed men , while others were utilized as refuges to protect the local population in case of external danger . The gords eventually ( beginning in the 9th century ) became the nuclei of future urban developments , attracting , especially in strategic locations , tradesmen of all kinds . Gords erected in the 8th century have been investigated for instance in Międzyświeć ( Cieszyn County , Gołęszyce tribe ) and Naszacowice ( Nowy Sącz County ) . The last one was destroyed and rebuilt four times , with the final reconstruction after 989 .
A monumental ( over 3 hectares ) and technically complex border protection area gord was built around 770 – 780 in Trzcinica near Jasło , on the site of an old Bronze Age era stronghold , probably the seat of a local ruler and his garrison . Thousands of relics were found there including a 600 pieces silver treasure . The gord was set afire several times and ultimately destroyed during the first half of the 11th century .
This larger scale gord building activity , from the mid @-@ 8th century on , was a manifestation of the emergence of tribal organisms , a new civilizational quality , representing rather efficient proto @-@ political organizations and social structures on a new level . They were based on these fortifications , defensive objects , of which the mid @-@ 8th century and later Vistulan gords in Lesser Poland are a good example . The threat coming from the Avar state in Pannonia could have had provided the original motivation for the organizing and the construction projects .
= = = Society organized into larger tribal units = = =
The Slavs in Poland , from the 8th century on , increasingly organized in larger structures , known as great tribes , either through voluntary or forced association , were primarily agricultural people . Fields were cultivated , as well as , within settlements , nearby gardens . Plowing was done using oxen and wooden , iron reinforced plows . Forest burning was used to increase the arable area , but also provided fertilizer , as the ashes lasted in that capacity for several seasons . Rotation of crops was practiced as well as the winter / spring crop system . After several seasons of exploitation the land was being left idle to regain fertility . Wheat , millet and rye were most important ; other cultivated plant species included oat , barley , pea , broad bean , lentil , flax , hemp , as well as apple , pear , plum , peach and cherry trees in fruit orchards . Beginning in the 8th century , swine gradually became economically more important than cattle ; sheep , goats , horses , dogs , cats , chickens , geese and ducks were also kept . The Slavic agricultural practices are known from archeological research , which shows progressive over time increases in arable area and resulting deforestation , and from written reports provided by Ibrahim ibn Yaqub , a 10th @-@ century Jewish traveler . Ibrahim described also other features of Slavic life , for example the use of steam baths . The existence of bath structures has been confirmed by archeology . An anonymous Arab writer from the turn of the 10th century mentions that the Slavic people made an alcoholic beverage out of honey and their celebrations were accompanied by music played on the lute , tambourines and wind instruments .
Gathering , hunting and fishing were still essential as sources of food and materials , such as hide or fur . The forest was also exploited as a source of building materials such as wood , wild forest bees were kept there , and as a place of refuge . The population was , until the 9th century , separated from the main centers of civilization , self @-@ sufficient with primitive , local community and household based manufacturing . Specialized craftsmen ( of rather mediocre qualifications ) existed only in the fields of iron extraction from ore and processing , and pottery ; the few luxury type items used were imports . From the 7th century on , modestly decorated ceramics was made with the potter 's wheel . 7th – to 9th @-@ century collections of objects have been found in Bonikowo and Bruszczewo , Kościan County ( iron spurs , knives , clay containers with some ornamentation ) and in Kraków @-@ Nowa Huta region ( weapons and utensils in Pleszów and Mogiła , where the most substantial of iron treasures was located ) , among other places . Slavic warriors were traditionally armed with spears , bows and wooden shields ; occasionally seen later axes and still later swords are of the types popular throughout 7th – to 9th @-@ century Europe . Independent of distant powers the Slavic tribes in Poland lived a relatively undisturbed life , but at the cost of some civilizational backwardness .
A qualitative change took place in the 9th century , when the Polish lands were crossed again by long @-@ distance trade routes , with Pomerania becoming a part of the Baltic trade zone , while Lesser Poland participated in exchange centered in the Danubian countries . Oriental silver jewelry and Arab coins , often cut into pieces , " grzywna " iron coin equivalents ( of the type used in Great Moravia ) in the Upper Vistula basin and even linen cloths served as currency .
The basic social unit was the nuclear family , consisting of parents and their children , which had to fit in a dwelling area of several to 25 square meters . The big family , a patriarchal , multi @-@ generational group of related families , a kin or clan , was of declining importance during the discussed period . A larger group was needed in the past ( 5th – 7th centuries ) for forest clearing and burning undertakings , when farming communities had to shift from location to location ; in the 8th @-@ century mature — settled phase of agriculture , a family was sufficient to take care of their arable land . A concept of agricultural land ownership was gradually developing , being at this point a matter of family , not individual prerogative . Several or more clan territories were grouped into a neighborhood association , or " opole " , which established a rudimentary self @-@ government . Such community was the owner of forested land , pastures , bodies of water and within it the first organizing around common projects and related development of political power took place . A big and resourceful opole could become , by extending its possessions , a proto @-@ state entity vaguely referred to as the tribe . The tribe was the top level of this structure , containing several opoles and controlling a region of several hundred up to about 1500 square kilometers , where internal relationships were arbitrated and external defense organized .
A general assembly of all tribesmen present took care of the most pressing of issues ( Thietmar of Merseburg wrote in the early 11th century of the Veleti , Polabian Slavs , that their assembly kept deliberating till everybody agreed ) , but this " war democracy " was gradually being replaced by a government system in which the tribal elders and rulers had the upper hand . This development facilitated the coalescing of tribes into great tribes , some of which under favorable conditions would later become tribal states . The communal and tribal democracy , with self @-@ imposed contributions by the community members , survived in small entities and local territorial subunits the longest ; on a larger scale it was being replaced by the rule of able leaders and then dominant families , ultimately leading inevitably to hereditary transition of supreme power , mandatory taxation , service etc . When social and economic evolution reached this level , the concentration of power was facilitated and made possible to sustain by parallel development of a professional military force ( called at this stage " drużyna " ) at the ruler 's or chief 's disposal .
= = = Burials and religion = = =
The burial customs , at least in southern Poland , included raising kurgans . The urn with the ashes was placed on the mound or on a post thrust into the ground . In that position few such urns survived , which may be why Slavic burial sites in Poland are rare . All dead , regardless of social status , were cremated and afforded a burial , according to Arab testimonies ( one from the end of 9th century and another one from about 930 ) . A Slavic funeral feast practice was also mentioned earlier by Theophylact Simocatta .
According to Procopius the Slavs believed in one god , creator of lightning and master of the entire universe , to whom all sacrificial animals ( sometimes people ) were offered . The highest god was called Svarog throughout the Slavic area , as other gods were worshiped too in different regions at different times , often with local names . Natural objects such as rivers , groves or mountains were also celebrated , as well as nymphs , demons , ancestral and other spirits , who were all venerated and bought off with offering rituals , which also involved augury . Such beliefs and practices were later continued , developed further and individualized by the many Slavic tribes .
The Slavs erected sanctuaries , created statues and other sculptures including the four @-@ faced Svetovid , whose carvings symbolize various aspects of the Slavic cosmology model . One 9th @-@ century specimen from the Zbruch River in today 's Ukraine , found in 1848 , is on display at the Archeological Museum in Kraków . Many of the sacred locations and objects were identified outside Poland , in northeastern Germany or Ukraine . In Poland religious activity sites have been investigated in northwestern Pomerania , including Szczecin , where a three @-@ headed deity once stood and the Wolin island , where 9th – to 11th @-@ century cult figurines were found . Archeologically confirmed cult places and figures have also been researched at several other locations .
= = Early Slavic states and other 9th @-@ century developments = =
= = = Samo 's realm = = =
The first Slavic state @-@ like entity , the Samo 's Realm of King Samo , originally a Frankish trader , was close to Poland ( in Bohemia and Moravia , parts of Pannonia and more southern regions between the Oder and Elbe rivers ) and existed during the 623 – 658 period . Samo became a Slavic leader by successfully helping the Slavs defend themselves against the Avar assailants . What Samo led was probably a loose alliance of tribes and it fell apart after his death . Slavic Carantania , centered on Krnski Grad ( now Karnburg in Austria ) , was more of a real state , developed possibly from one part of the disintegrating Samo 's kingdom , but lasted under a native dynasty throughout the 8th century and became Christianized .
= = = Great Moravia = = =
Larger scale state @-@ generating processes and in more remote ( in relation to Byzantium ) Slavic areas took place in the 9th century . Great Moravia became established in the early 9th century south of today 's Poland , but eventually encroached on and also included the Silesia and very likely southern Lesser Poland regions . The glory of the Great Moravian empire became fully apparent in light of archeological discoveries , of which lavishly equipped burials are especially spectacular . Such finds however do not extend to the peripheral areas of Great Moravia , the lands that now constitute southern Poland . The great territorial expansion of Great Moravia took place during the reign of Svatopluk I , at the end of 9th century . Beyond the original Moravia and western Slovakia the Great Moravian state incorporated then also , to various degrees , Bohemia , Pannonia and the above @-@ mentioned regions of Poland . In 906 Great Moravia , weakened by an internal crisis and Magyar invasions , ceased to exist .
In 831 Mojmir I was baptized and his Moravian state became a part of the Bavarian Passau diocese . Aiming to achieve ecclesiastical as well as political independence from East Frankish influence , his successor Rastislav asked the Byzantine emperor Michael III for missionaries . As a result , Cyril and Methodius arrived in Moravia in 863 and commenced missionary activities among the Slavic people there . To further their goals the brothers developed a written Slavic liturgical language — the Old Church Slavonic , using the Glagolitic alphabet created by them . Into this language they translated the Bible and other church texts , thus establishing a foundation for the later Slavic Eastern Orthodox churches .
= = = Czech state = = =
The fall of Great Moravia made room for the expansion of the Czech or Bohemian state , which likewise incorporated some of the Polish lands . The founder of the Přemyslid dynasty , Prince Bořivoj was baptized by Methodius in the Slavic rite during the later part of the 9th century and settled in Prague . His son and successor Spytihněv was baptized in Regensburg in the Latin rite , which marks the early stage of East Frankish / German influence , destined to be decisive in Bohemian affairs . Borivoj 's grandson Prince Wenceslaus , the future Czech martyr and patron saint , was killed , probably in 935 , by his brother Boleslaus . Boleslaus I solidified the power of the Prague princes and most likely dominated the Lesser Poland 's Vistulans and Lendians tribes and at least parts of Silesia .
= = = 9th @-@ century Polish lands = = =
In the 9th century the Polish lands were still on the peripheries in relation to the major powers and events of medieval Europe , but a measure of civilizational progress did take place , as evidenced by the number of gords built , kurgans raised and movable equipment used . The tribal elites must have been influenced by the relative closeness of the Carolingian Empire ; objects crafted there have occasionally been found . Poland was populated by many tribes of various sizes . The names of some of them , mostly from western part of the country , are known from written sources , especially the Latin @-@ language document written in the mid @-@ 9th century by the anonymous Bavarian Geographer . During this period typically smaller tribal structures were disintegrating , larger ones were being established in their place .
Characteristic of the turn of the 10th century in most Polish tribal settlement areas was a particular intensification of gord building activity . The gords were the centers of social and political life . Tribal leaders and elders had their headquarters in their protected environment and some of the tribal general assemblies took place inside them . Religious cult locations were commonly located in the vicinity , while the gords themselves were frequently visited by traders and artisans .
= = = Vistulan state = = =
A major development of this period concerns the somewhat enigmatic Wiślanie , or Vistulans ( Bavarian Geographer 's Vuislane ) tribe . The Vistulans of western Lesser Poland , mentioned in several contemporary written sources , already a large tribal union in the first half of the 9th century , were evolving in the second half of that century toward a super @-@ tribal state , until their efforts were terminated by the more powerful neighbors from the south . Kraków , the main town of the Vistulans , with its Wawel gord , was located along a major " international " trade route . The main Vistulan @-@ related archeological find ( in addition to the 8th @-@ century Krakus , Wanda and other large burial mounds and the remnants of several gords ) is the late 9th @-@ century treasure of iron @-@ ax shaped grzywnas , well known as currency units in Great Moravia . They were discovered in 1979 in a wooden chest , below the basement of a medieval house on Kanonicza Street , near the Vistula and the Wawel Hill . The total weight of the iron material is 3630 kilograms and the individual bars of various sizes ( 4212 of them ) were bound in bundles , which suggests that the package was being readied for transportation .
According to Constantine VII , in the 7th century Croats were dwelling beyond Bavaria , where White Croats lived in the 10th century . That was probably around the Upper Vistula region and in northern Bohemia . In the 7th century a Croat family of five brothers and two sisters left the area with their folk , and came to Dalmatia , with permission of Emperor Heraclius , to help defend the imperial borders .
Vistulan gords , built from the mid @-@ 8th century on , had typically very large area , often over 10 hectares . About 30 big ones are known . The 9th @-@ century gords in Lesser Poland and in Silesia had likely been built as a defense against Great Moravian military expansion . The largest one , in Stradów , Kazimierza Wielka County , had an area of 25 hectares and walls or embankments up 18 meters high , but parts of this giant structure were probably built later . The gords were often located along the northern slope of the western Carpathian Mountains , on hills or hillsides . The buildings inside the walls were sparsely located or altogether absent , so for the most part the gords ' role was other than that of settlements or administrative centers .
A large ( 2 @.@ 5 hectares ) gord was built at the turn of the 9th century in Zawada Lanckorońska , Tarnów County , and rebuilt after 868 . A treasure found there contains various Great Moravian type decorations dated from the late 9th century through mid @-@ 10th century . The treasure was hidden and the gord destroyed by fire during the second half of that century .
The large mounds , up to 50 meters in diameter , are found not only in Kraków , but also in Przemyśl and Sandomierz among other places ( about 20 total ) . They were probably funeral locations of rulers or chiefs , with the actual burial site , on the top of the mound , long lost . Besides the mounds @-@ kurgans , the degree of the Wawel gord development ( built in the 8th century ) and the grzywna treasure point to Kraków as the main center of Vistulan power ( in the past Wiślica was also suspected of that role ) .
The most important Vistulans related written reference comes from The Life of Saint Methodius , also known as The Pannonian Legend , written by Methodius ' disciples most likely right after his death ( 885 ) . The fragment speaks of a very powerful pagan prince , residing in the Vistulan country , who reviled the Christians and caused them great harm . He was warned by St. Methodius ' emissaries speaking on the missionary 's behalf ( St. Methodius himself may have been acting as Svatopluk 's agent here ) , advised to reform and voluntarily accept baptism in his own homeland . Otherwise , it was predicted , he would be forced to do so in a foreign land , and , according to the Pannonian Legend story , that is what eventually happened . This passage is widely interpreted as the indication that the Vistulans were invaded and overrun by the army of Great Moravia and their pagan prince captured . It would have to happen during Methodius ' second stay in Moravia , between 873 and 885 , and during Svatopluk 's reign .
A further elaboration on this story is possibly found in the chronicle of Wincenty Kadłubek , written some three centuries later . The chronicler , inadvertently or intentionally mixing different historic eras , talks of a past Polish war with the army of Alexander the Great . The countless enemy soldiers thrust their way into Poland , and the King himself , having previously subjugated the Pannonians , entered through Moravia like through the back door . He victoriously unfolded the wings of his forces and conquered the Kraków area lands and Silesia , leveling in process Kraków 's ancient city walls . It appears that at some point during the intervening period , or by the chronicler himself , the glitter of the Svatopluk 's army became confused with that of the emperor @-@ warrior of another place and time . A dozen or more southern Lesser Poland gords attacked and destroyed at the end of 9th century lends some archeological credence to this version of events .
East of the Vistulans , eastern Lesser Poland was the territory of the Lendians ( Lędzianie , Bavarian Geographer 's Lendizi ) tribe . In the mid @-@ 10th century Constantine VII wrote their name as Lendzaneoi . The Lendians had to be a very substantial tribe , since the names for Poland in the Lithuanian and Hungarian languages and for the Poles in medieval Ruthenian all begin with the letter " L " , being derived from their tribe 's name . The Poles historically have also referred to themselves as " Lechici " . After the fall of Great Moravia the Magyars controlled at least partially the territory of the Lendians . The Lendians were conquered by Kievan Rus ' during 930 – 940 ; at the end of the 10th century the Lendian lands became divided , with the western part taken by Poland , the eastern portion retained by Kievan Rus ' .
The Vistulans were probably also subjected to Magyar raids , as an additional layer of embankments was often added to the gord fortifications in the early part of the 10th century . In the early or mid @-@ 10th century the Vistulan entity , like Silesia , was incorporated by Boleslaus I of Bohemia into the Czech state . This association turned out to be beneficial in terms of economic development , because Kraków was an important station on the Prague — Kiev trade route . The first known Christian church structures were erected on the Wawel Hill . Later in the 10th century , under uncertain circumstances but in a peaceful way ( the gord network suffered no damage on this occasion ) , the Vistulans became a part of the Piast Polish state .
= = = Baltic coast = = =
In terms of economic and general civilizational achievement the most advanced region in the 9th century was Pomerania , characterized also by most extensive contacts with the external world , and accordingly , cultural richness and diversity . Pomerania was a favorite destination for traders and other entrepreneurs from distant lands , some of whom were establishing local manufacturing and trade centers ; those were usually accompanied by nearby gords inhabited by the local elite . Some of such industrial area / gord complexes gave rise to early towns — urban centers , such as Wolin , Pyrzyce or Szczecin . The Bavarian Geographer mentioned two tribes , the Velunzani ( Uelunzani ) and Pyritzans ( Prissani ) in the area , each with 70 towns . Despite the high civilizational advancement , no social structures indicative of statehood developed in Farther Pomeranian societies , except for the Wolin city @-@ state .
The Wolin settlement was established on the island of the same name in the late 8th century . Located at the mouth of the Oder River , Wolin from the beginning was involved with long distance Baltic Sea trade . The settlement , thought to be identical with both Vineta and Jomsborg , was pagan , multiethnic , and readily kept accepting newcomers , especially craftsmen and other professionals , from all over the world . Being located on a major intercontinental sea route , it soon became a big European industrial and trade power . Writing in the 11th century Adam of Bremen saw Wolin as one of the largest European cities , inhabited by honest , good @-@ natured and hospitable Slavic people , together with other nationalities , from the Greeks to barbarians , including the Saxons , as long as they did not demonstrate their Christianity too openly .
Wolin was the major stronghold of the Volinian tribal territory , comprising the island and a broad stretch of the adjacent mainland , with its frontier guarded by a string of gords . The city 's peak of prosperity occurred around and after year 900 , when a new seaport was built ( the municipal complex had now four of them ) and the metropolitan area was secured by walls and embankments . The archeological findings there include a great variety of imported ( even from the Far East ) and locally manufactured products and raw materials ; amber and precious metals figure prominently , as jewelry was one of the mainstay economic activities of the Wolinian elite .
Truso in Prussia was another Baltic seaport and trade emporium known from the reworking of the Orosius ' universal history by Alfred the Great . King Alfred included a description of the voyage undertaken around 890 by Wulfstan from the Danish port of Hedeby to Truso located near the mouth of the Vistula . Wulfstan gave a rather detailed description of the location of Truso , within the land of the Aesti , yet right close to the Slavic areas across ( west of ) the Vistula . Truso 's actual site was discovered in 1982 at Janów Pomorski , near Elbląg .
Established as a seaport by the Vikings and Danish traders at the end of the 8th century in the Prussian border area previously already explored by the Scandinavians , Truso lasted as a major city and commercial center until the early 11th century , when it was destroyed and by which time it was replaced in that capacity by Gdańsk . The settlement covered an area of 20 hectares and consisted of a two dock seaport , the craft @-@ trade portion , and the peripheral residential development , all protected by a wood and earth bulwark separating it from the mainland . The port @-@ trade and craftsmen zones were themselves separated by a fire control ditch with water flowing through it . There were several rows of houses including long Viking hall structures , waterside warehouses , market areas and wooden beam covered streets . Numerous relics were found , including weights used also as currency units , coins from English to Arab and workshops processing metal , jewelry or large quantities of amber . Remnants of long Viking boats were also found , the whole complex being a testimony to Viking preoccupation with commerce , the mainstay of their activities around the Baltic Sea region . The multi @-@ ethnic Truso had extensive trade contacts not only with distant lands and Scandinavia , but also the Slavic areas located to the south and west of it , from where ceramics and other products were transported along the Vistula in river crafts . Ironically , Truso 's sudden destruction by fire and subsequent disappearance was apparently a result of a Viking raid .
This connection to the Baltic trade zone led to an establishment of inner @-@ Slavic long @-@ distance trade routes . Lesser Poland participated in exchange centered in the Danubian countries . Oriental silver jewelry and Arab coins , often cut into pieces , " grzywna " iron coin equivalents ( of the type used in Great Moravia ) in the Upper Vistula basin and even linen cloths served as currency .
= = = Magyar intrusion = = =
The Magyars were at first still another wave of nomadic invaders . Of the Uralic languages family , coming from northwestern Siberia , they migrated south and west , occupying from the end of 9th century the Pannonian Basin . From there , until the second half of the 10th century , when they were forced to settle , they raided and pillaged vast areas of Europe , including Poland . A saber and ornamental elements were found in a Hungarian warrior 's grave ( from the first half of the 10th century ) in the Przemyśl area .
Geographically the Magyar invasions interfered with the previously highly influential contacts between Central Europe and Byzantine Christianity centers . It may have been the decisive factor that steered Poland toward the Western ( Latin ) branch of Christianity by the time of its adoption in 966 .
= = 10th @-@ century developments in Greater Poland ; Mieszko 's state = =
= = = Tribal Greater Poland = = =
This period brought a notable development in settlement stability on Polish lands . Short @-@ lived prehistoric settlements gradually gave way to villages on fixed sites . The number of villages grew with time , but their sites rarely shifted . The population distribution patterns established from that century on are evident on today 's landscape .
Sources from the 9th and 10th centuries make no mention of the Polans ( Polanie ) tribe . The closest thing would be the huge ( 400 gords ) Glopeani tribe of the Bavarian Geographer , whose name seems to be derived from that of Lake Gopło , but archeological investigations cannot confirm any such scale of settlement activity in Lake Gopło area . What the research does indicate is the presence of several distinct tribes in 9th @-@ century Greater Poland , one around the upper and middle Obra River basin , one in the lower Obra basin , and another one west of the Warta River . There was the Gniezno area tribe , whose settlements were concentrated around the regional cult center — the Lech Hill of today 's Gniezno . Throughout the 9th century the Greater Poland tribes did not constitute a uniform entity or whole in the cultural , or settlement pattern sense . The centrally located Gniezno Land was at that time rather isolated from external influences , such as from the highly developed Moravian @-@ Czech or Baltic Sea centers . Such separation ( also from the more expansive powers ) was probably a positive factor , facilitating at this stage the efforts of a lineage of leaders from an elder clan of a tribe there , known as the Piast House , which resulted in the early part of the 10th century in the establishment of an embryonic state .
= = = Mieszko 's state and its origins = = =
What was later to be called Gniezno state , also known as Mieszko 's state , was expanded at the expense of the subdued tribes in Mieszko 's grandfather and father times , and in particular by Mieszko himself . Writing around 965 or 966 Ibrahim ibn Yaqub described the country of Mieszko , " the king of the North " , as the most wide @-@ ranging of the Slavic lands . Mieszko , the ruler of the Slavs , was also mentioned as such at that time by Widukind of Corvey in his Res gestae saxonicae . In its mature form this state included the West Slavic lands between the Oder and Bug rivers and between the Baltic Sea and the Carpathian Mountains , including the economically crucial mouth areas of the Vistula and Oder rivers , as well as Lesser Poland and Silesia .
The name of Poles ( Polanians , Polyans , Polans ) appears in writing for the first time around year 1000 , like the country 's name Poland ( Latinized as Polonia ) . " Polanie " was possibly the name given by later historians to the inhabitants of Greater Poland ( a presumed tribe not mentioned in earlier sources ) . 10th @-@ century inhabitants of Greater Poland would originate from unknown ( by name ) tribes , which were instrumental in bringing about the establishment of the Polish state ; one such tribe had to constitute the immediate power base of Mieszko 's predecessors , if not Mieszko himself .
= = = Gallus Anonymus ' account vs. archeology = = =
In the early 12th century chronicler Gallus Anonymus wrote down or invented a dynastic legend of the House of Piasts . The story gives , amid miraculous details , the names of the supposed ancestors of the royal family , beginning with a man named Chościsko , the father of the central figure Piast , who was a humble farmer living in Gniezno , married to Rzepka . The male heads of the Piast clan following after him were , according to Gallus , Siemowit , Lestek , Siemomysł and Mieszko I , the first " Piast " known with historic certainty . Gallus expressed his own misgivings concerning the trustworthiness of the royal story he passed on ( he qualified it with words like " oblivion " , " error " and " idolatry " ) , but the sequence of the last three names of Mieszko 's predecessors he considered reliable .
The results of archeological studies of the Greater Poland 's 9th- and 10th @-@ century gords are at odds with the timing of this story . There was no Gniezno settlement in the 9th century ; there was a pagan cult site there beginning with the turn of the 10th century . The Gniezno gord was built around year 940 , possibly because the location , being of great spiritual importance to the tribal community , would rally the local population around the building and defense effort .
= = = Early Piast state and its expansion = = =
Under the old tribal system , the tribal assembly elected a chief in case of an external threat , to lead the defense effort , and it was a temporarily granted authority . The Piast clan was able to replace it in Gniezno area with its own hereditary rule over the tribe that inhabited it , which was in line with the trends of the times , and allowed them to create the state that they controlled . Greater Poland during the first half of the 10th century was not particularly densely populated or economically developed , lagging behind such regions as Pomerania , Silesia and Lesser Poland . It was favored by the above @-@ mentioned geographic isolation , central location among the culturally similar tribes and extensive network of suitable for transportation rivers . What made the ultimate difference however could be that some Piast family members were exceptional individuals , able to take advantage of the arising opportunities .
The development of the Piast state can be traced to some degree by following the disappearance of the old tribal gords ( many of them were built in Greater Poland during the later part of the 9th century and soon thereafter ) , destroyed by the advancing Gniezno tribe people . For example , the gords in Spławie , Września County and in Daleszyn , Gostyń County , both built soon after 899 , were attacked and taken over by the Piast state forces , the first one burned during the initial period of the armed expansion . The old gords were often rebuilt and enlarged or replaced , beginning in the first decades of the 10th century , by new , large and massively reinforced Piast gords . Gords of this type were erected or reconstructed from earlier ones initially in the tribe 's native Gniezno Land and then elsewhere in central Greater Poland , in Grzybowo near Września ( 920 – 930 ) , Ostrów Lednicki , Giecz , Gniezno , Bnin in Poznań County , Ląd in Słupca County and in Poznań ( Ostrów Tumski ) . Connected by water communication lines , in the mid @-@ 10th century the powerful gords served as the main concentrations of forces of the emerging state .
In parallel with the gord building activity ( 920 – 950 ) the Piasts undertook military expansion , crossing the Warta and moving towards the end of this period south and west within the Oder River basin . The entire network of tribal gords between the Obra and Barycz rivers , among other places , was eliminated . The conquered population was often resettled to central Greater Poland , which resulted in partial depopulation of previously well @-@ developed regions . At the end of this stage of the Piast state formation new Piast gords were built in the ( north ) Noteć River area and other outlying areas of the annexed lands , for example in Santok and Śrem around 970 . During the following decade the job of unifying the core of the early Piast state was finished — besides Greater Poland with Kujawy it included also much of central Poland . Masovia and parts of Pomerania found themselves increasingly under the Piast influence , while the southbound expansion was for the time being stalled , because large portions of Lesser Poland and Silesia were controlled by the Czech state .
The expanding Piast state developed a professional military force . According to Ibrahim ibn Yaqub , Mieszko collected taxes in the form of weights used for trading and spent those taxes as monthly pay for his warriors . He had three thousands of heavily armored mounted soldiers alone , whose quality according to Ibrahim was very impressive . Mieszko provided for all their equipment and needs , even military pay for their children regardless of their gender , from the moment they were born . This force was supported by a much greater number of foot fighters . Numerous armaments were found in the Piast gords , many of them of foreign , e.g. Frankish or Scandinavian origin . Mercenaries from these regions , as well as German and Norman knights , constituted a significant element of Mieszko 's elite fighting guard .
= = = Revenue generating measures and conquests = = =
To sustain this military machine and to meet other state expenses large amounts of revenue were necessary . Greater Poland had some natural resources used for trade such as fur , hide , honey and wax , but those surely did not provide enough income . According to Ibrahim ibn Yaqub , Prague in Bohemia , a city built of stone , was the main center for the exchange of trading commodities in this part of Europe . The Slavic traders brought here from Kraków tin , salt , amber and other products they had and most importantly slaves ; Muslim , Jewish , Hungarian and other traders were the buyers . The Life of St. Adalbert , written at the end of the 10th century by John Canaparius , lists the fate of many Christian slaves , sold in Prague " for the wretched gold " , as the main curse of the time . Dragging of shackled slaves is shown as a scene in the bronze 12th @-@ century Gniezno Doors . It may well be that the territorial expansion financed itself , and partially the expanding state , by being the source of loot , of which the captured local people were the most valuable part . The scale of the human trade practice is however arguable , because much of the population from the defeated tribes was resettled for agricultural work or in the near @-@ gord settlements , where they could serve the victors in various capacities and thus contribute to the economic and demographic potential of the state . Considerable increase of population density was characteristic of the newly established states in eastern and central Europe . The slave trade not being enough , the Piast state had to look for other options for generating revenue .
Thus , Mieszko throve to subdue Pomerania at the Baltic coast . The area was the site of wealthy trade emporia , frequently visited by traders , especially from the east , west and north . Mieszko had every reason to believe that great profits would have resulted from his ability to control the rich seaports situated on long distance trade routes , such as Wolin , Szczecin and Kołobrzeg .
The Piast state reached the mouth of the Vistula first . Based on the investigations of the gords erected along the middle and lower Vistula , it appears that the lower Vistula waterway was under Piast control from about the mid @-@ 10th century . A powerful gord built in Gdańsk , under Mieszko at the latest , solidified the Piast rule over Pomerelia . However , the mouth of the Oder River was firmly controlled by the Jomsvikings and the Volinians , who were allied with the Veleti . " The Veleti are fighting Mieszko " , reported Ibrahim ibn Yaqub , " and their military might is great " . Widukind wrote about the events of 963 , involving the person of the Saxon count Wichmann the Younger , an adventurer exiled from his country . According to Widukind , " Wichmann went to the barbarians ( probably the Veleti or the Wolinians ) and leading them ( ... ) defeated Mieszko twice , killed his brother , and acquired a great deal of spoils " . Thietmar of Merseburg also reports that Mieszko with his people became in 963 , together with other Slavic entities such as the Lusatians , subjects of the Holy Roman Emperor , forced into that role by the powerful Margrave Gero of the Saxon Eastern March .
= = = Mieszko 's relationship with Emperor Otto I = = =
Such series of military reverses and detrimental relationships , which also involved the Czech Přemyslids allied with the Veleti , compelled Mieszko to seek the support of the German Emperor Otto I. After the contacts were made , Widukind described Mieszko as " a friend of the Emperor " . A pact was negotiated and finalized no later than in 965 . The price Mieszko had to pay for the imperial protection was becoming the Emperor 's vassal , paying him tribute from the lands up to the Warta River , and , very likely , making a promise of accepting Christianity .
= = = Mieszko 's acceptance of Christianity = = =
In response to the immediate practical concerns , the Christian Church was installed in Poland in its Western Latin Rite . The act brought Mieszko 's country into the realm of the ancient Mediterranean culture . Of the issues requiring urgent attention the preeminent was the increasing pressure of the eastbound expansion ( between the Elbe and the Oder rivers ) of the German state , and its plans to control the parallel expansion of the Church through the archdiocese in Magdeburg , the establishment of which was finalized in 968 .
The baptism and the attendant processes did not take place through Mieszko 's German connections . At that time Mieszko was in process of fixing the uneasy relationship with the Bohemian state of Boleslaus I. The difficulties were caused mainly by the Czech cooperation with the Veleti . Already in 964 the two parties arrived at an agreement on that and other issues . In 965 Mieszko married Boleslaus ' daughter Doubravka . Mieszko 's chosen Christian princess , a woman possibly in her twenties , was a devout Christian and Mieszko 's own conversion had to be a part of the deal . This act in fact followed in 966 and initiated the Christianization of Greater Poland , a region up to that point , unlike Lesser Poland and Silesia , not exposed to Christian influence . In 968 an independent missionary bishopric , reporting directly to the Pope , was established , with Jordan installed as the first bishop .
The scope of the Christianization mission in its early phase was quite limited geographically and the few relics that have survived come from Gniezno Land . Stone churches and baptisteries were discovered within the Ostrów Lednicki and Poznań gords , a chapel in Gniezno . Poznań was also the site of the first cathedral , the bishopric seat of Jordan and Bishop Unger , who followed him .
= = = Piast early expansion , Great Moravian and Norman contributions = = =
Newer research points out some other intriguing possibilities regarding the early origins of the Polish state in Greater Poland . There are indications that the processes that led to the establishment of the Piast state began during the 890 – 910 period . During these years a tremendous civilizational advancement took place in central Greater Poland , as the unearthed products of all kinds are better made and more elaborate . The timing coincides with the breakdown of the Great Moravian state caused by the Magyar invasions . Before and after its 905 – 907 fall , fearing for their lives many Great Moravian people had to escape . According to the notes made by Constantine VII , they found refuge in the neighboring countries . Decorations found in Sołacz graves in Poznań have their counterparts in burial sites around Nitra in Slovakia . In Nitra area also there was in medieval times a well @-@ known clan named Poznan . The above indicates that the Poznań town was established by Nitran refugees , and more generally , the immigrants from Great Moravia contributed to the sudden awakening of the otherwise remote and isolated Piast lands .
Early expansion of the Gniezno Land tribe began very likely under Mieszko 's grandfather Lestek , the probable real founder of the Piast state . Widukind 's chronicle speaks of Mieszko ruling the Slavic nation called " Licicaviki " , which was what Widukind made out of " Lestkowicy " , the people of Lestko , or Lestek . Lestek was also reflected in the sagas of the Normans , who may have played a role in Poland 's origins ( an accumulation of 930 – 1000 period treasures is attributed to them ) . Siemomysł and then Mieszko continued after Lestek , whose tradition was alive within the Piast court when Bolesław III Wrymouth gave this name to one of his sons and Gallus Anonymous wrote his chronicle . The " Lechici " term popular later , synonymous with " Poles " , like the legend of Lech , written in a chronicle at the turn of the 14th century , may also have been inspired by Mieszko 's grandfather .
= = = Early capitals , large scale gord construction = = =
There is some disagreement as to the early seat of the ruling clan . Modern archeology has shown that the gord in Gniezno had not even existed before about 940 . This fact eliminates the possibility of Gniezno 's early central role , which is what had long been believed , based on the account given by Gallus Anonymus . The relics ( including a great concentration of silver treasures ) found in Giecz , where the original gord was built some 80 years earlier , later turned into a powerful Piast stronghold , point to that location . Other likely early capitals include the old gords of Grzybowo , Kalisz ( located away from Gniezno Land ) or Poznań . Poznań , which is older than Gniezno , was probably the original Mieszko 's court site in the earlier years of his reign . The first cathedral church , a monumental structure , was erected there . The events of 974 – 978 , when Mieszko , like his brother @-@ in @-@ law Boleslaus II of Bohemia , supported Henry II in his rebellion against Otto II , created a threat of the Emperor 's retribution . The situation probably motivated Mieszko to move the government to the safer , because of its more eastern location , Gniezno . The Emperor 's response turned out to be ineffective , but this geographical advantage continued in the years to come . The growing importance of Gniezno was reflected in the addition around 980 of the new southern part to the original two segments of the gord . In the existing summary of the Dagome iudex document written 991 / 992 before Mieszko 's death , Mieszko 's state is called Civitas Gnesnensis , or Gniezno State .
The enormous effort of the estimated population of 100 to 150 thousands of residents of the Gniezno region , who were involved in building or modernizing Gniezno and several other main Piast gords ( all of the local supply of oak timber was exhausted ) , was made in response to a perceived deadly threat , not just to help them pursue regional conquests . After 935 , when the Gniezno people were probably already led by Mieszko 's father Siemomysł , the Czechs conquered Silesia and soon moved also against Germany . The fear of desecration of their tribal cult center by the advancing Czechs could have mobilized the community . Also a Polabian Slavs uprising was suppressed around 940 by Germany under Otto I , and the eastbound moving Saxons must have added to the sense of danger at that time ( unless the Piast state was already allied with Otto , helping restrain the Polabians ) . When the situation stabilized , the Piast state consolidated and the huge gords turned out to be handy for facilitating the Piast 's own expansion , led at this stage by Siemomysł .
= = = Alliance with Germany and conquest of Pomerania = = =
Fighting the Veleti from the beginning of Mieszko 's rule led to an alliance of his state with Germany . The alliance was natural at this point , because , as the Polish state was expanding westbound , the German state was expanding eastbound , with the Veleti in between being the common target . A victory was achieved in September of 967 , when Wichmann , leading this time ( according to Widukind ) forces of the Volinians , was killed , and Mieszko , helped by additional mounted units provided by his father @-@ in @-@ law Boleslaus , had his revenge . Mieszko 's victory was recognized by the Emperor as the turning point in the struggle to contain the Polabian Slavs , which distracted him from pursuing his Italian policies . This new status allowed Mieszko to successfully pursue the efforts leading to obtaining by his country an independent bishopric . The Poles thus
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had their bishopric even before the Czechs , whose tradition of Christianity was much older . The 967 victory , as well as the successful fighting with Margrave Hodo that followed in the Battle of Cedynia of 972 , allowed Mieszko to conquer further parts of Pomerania . Wolin however remained autonomous and pagan . Kołobrzeg , where a strong gord was built around 985 , was probably the actual center of Piast power in Pomerania . Before , a Scandinavian colony in Bardy @-@ Świelubie near Kołobrzeg functioned as the center of this area . The western part of Mieszko controlled Pomerania ( the region referred to by Polish historians as Western Pomerania , roughly within the current Polish borders , as opposed to Gdańsk Pomerania or Pomerelia ) , became independent of Poland during the Pomeranian uprising of 1005 ; that was after Mieszko 's death , when Poland was ruled by his son Bolesław .
= = = Completion of Poland 's territorial expansion under Mieszko = = =
Around 980 in the west Lubusz Land was also under Mieszko 's control and another important gord was built in Włocławek much further east . Masovia was still more loosely associated with the Piast state , while the Sandomierz region was for a while their southern outpost .
The construction of powerful Piast gords in western Silesia region along the Oder River ( Głogów , Wrocław and Opole ) took place in 985 at the latest . The alliance with the Czechs was by that time over ( Doubravka died in 977 , leaving two children Bolesław and Świętosława ) , Mieszko allied with Germany fought the Přemyslids and took over that part of Silesia and then also eastern Lesser Poland , the Lendian lands . In 989 Kraków with the rest of Lesser Poland was taken over . The region , autonomous under the Czech rule , also enjoyed a special status within the Piast state . In 990 eastern Silesia was added , which completed the Piast takeover of southern Poland . By the end of Mieszko 's life , his state included the West Slavic lands in geographic proximity and connected by natural features , such as an absence of mountain ranges , to the Piast territorial nucleus of Greater Poland . Those lands have sometimes been regarded by historians as " Lechitic " , or ethnically Polish , even though linguistically in the 10th century all the western Slavic tribes , including the Czechs , were quite similar .
Silver treasures , common in the Scandinavian countries , are found also in Slavic areas including Poland , especially northern Poland . Silver objects , coins and decorations , often cut into pieces , are believed to have served as currency units , brought in by Jewish and Arab traders , but locally more as accumulations of wealth and symbols of prestige . The process of hiding or depositing them , besides protecting them from danger , is believed by the researchers to represent a cult ritual .
A treasure located in Góra Strękowa , Białystok County , hidden after 901 , includes dirhem coins minted between 764 and 901 and Slavic decorations made in southern Ruthenia , showing Byzantine influence . This find is a manifestation of a 10th @-@ century trade route running all the way from Central Asia , through Byzantium , Kiev , the Dnieper and Pripyat rivers basins and Masovia , to the Baltic Sea shores . Such treasures most likely belonged to members of the emerging elites .
= The Good Huswifes Jewell =
The Good Huswifes Jewell is an English cookery book by the cookery and housekeeping writer Thomas Dawson , first published in 1585 . It includes recipes for medicines as well as food . To the spices found in Medieval English cooking , the book adds herbs , especially parsley and thyme . Sugar is used in many of the dishes , along with now @-@ unfamiliar ingredients like violets and rosewater .
The book includes recipes still current , such as pancakes , haggis , and salad of leaves and flowers with vinaigrette sauce , as well as some not often made , such as mortis , a sweet chicken pâté . Some dishes have familiar names , such as trifle , but different ingredients from those used today .
The Jewell is the first English cookery book to give a recipe for sweet potatoes .
= = Context = =
The Elizabethan age represented the period of transition from Medieval to modern . Cookery was changing as trade brought new ingredients , and fashion favoured new styles of cooking , with , for example , locally @-@ grown herbs as well as imported spices . Cooking came to be seen as a subject in its own right , rather than being part of medicine or books of " secrets " . Little is known of the book 's author , Thomas Dawson , beyond the bare fact that he published several books on cooking including also his 1620 Booke of cookerie . Such books were becoming available to a wider audience than the aristocratic households of the Middle Ages , hence the " huswife " of Dawson 's title .
= = Book = =
= = = Overview = = =
The Good Huswifes Jewell gives recipes for making fruit tarts using fruits as varied as apple , peach , cherry , damson , pear , and mulberry . For stuffing for meat and poultry , or as Dawson says " to farse all things " , he recommends using the herbs thyme , hyssop , and parsley , mixed with egg yolk , white bread , raisins or barberries , and spices including cloves , mace , cinnamon and ginger , all in the same dish . A sauce for pork was made with white wine , broth , nutmeg , and the herbs rosemary , bay , thyme , and marjoram .
Familiar recipes include pancakes , which were made with cream , egg yolks , flour , and a little ale ; the cook was directed " let the fire be verie soft , and when the one side is baked , then turn the other , and bake them as dry as ye can without burning . " Blancmange appears as " Blewmanger " , made of cream , eggs , sugar and rosewater .
= = = Approach = = =
The recipes are written as goals , like " To make a Tarte of Spinadge " , with instructions to achieve the goal . Quantities are given , if at all , only in passing , either with vague phrases like " a good handful of persely and a few sweet hearbs " , or as " the yolks of 4 hard egges " . Cooking times are given only occasionally , as " let them seeth a quantitye of an houre " . Directions as to the fire are given where necessary , as " boyle it in a chafing dish of coales " or " with a fyre of Wood beate it the space of two houres " .
The recipe for a salad with a vinaigrette dressing runs as follows ( from the 1596 edition ) :
To Make a Sallet of All Kinde of Hearbes
Take your hearbes and picke them very fine into faire water , and picke your flowers by themselues , and washe them al cleane , and swing them in a strainer , and when you put them into a dish , mingle them with Cowcumbers or Lemmons payred and sliced , and scrape Suger , and put in vineger and Oyle , and throwe the flowers on the toppe of the sallet , and of every sorte of the aforesaide things and garnish the dish about with the foresaide things , and harde Egges boyled and laide about the dish and upon the sallet .
This recipe is taken up by the National Trust , which calls it " Stourhead herb and flower salad . "
= = = Contents = = =
The 1596 edition is structured as follows :
Order of meat how they must be served at the Table , with their sauces for flesh daies at dinner .
A Booke of Cookerie ( 39 double pages )
Approued pointes of Cookerie / Approued pointes of Husbandrie / Approued Medicines for sundry diseases
The table of the book following gathered according to euery folio throughout the whole Booke [ index ]
Part II ( 1597 )
The 1597 edition of Part II is structured as follows :
A Booke of Cookerie ( 72 single pages )
The Booke of Caruing and Sewing ( 38 single pages , not numbered )
Tearmes of a Caruer
( The book of Caruing )
How to make Marchpaine and Ipocras
= = = Illustrations = = =
The book is illustrated only with a frontispiece . In the 1610 edition this has six kitchen scenes , including a three @-@ legged pot over an open fire , cordials being distilled , a bread oven , and pots and roasts on a spit over a fire .
= = = Medicines = = =
Dawson 's recipes included medicines , some of which involved sympathetic magic . The Good Huswife 's Jewell described " a tart to provoke courage in either man or woman " , calling for the brains of male sparrows . Torn sinews are healed by taking " worms while they be nice " , crushing them and laying them on to the sore " and it will knit the sinew that be broken in two " .
= = = Editions = = =
First edition , Edward White , 1585
Second edition , Edward White , 1596
---reprinted 1996 , Southover Press , with introduction by Maggie Black
Third edition , Edward White , 1610
A book called The Second Part of the good Hus @-@ wiues Jewell was published by Edward White in 1597 .
= = Reception = =
The celebrity chef Clarissa Dickson Wright comments on Dawson 's trifle that it differs from the modern recipe , as it consists only of " a pinte of thicke Creame " , seasoned with sugar , ginger and rosewater , and warmed gently for serving . She notes , also from the Good Huswife 's Jewell , that the Elizabethans had a strong liking for sweet things , " richly demonstrated " in Dawson 's " names of all things necessary for a banquet " :
Sugar , cinnamon , liquorice , pepper , nutmegs , all kinds of saffron , sanders , comfits , aniseeds , coriander , oranges , pomegranate seeds , Damask water , turnsole , lemons , prunes , rose water , dates , currants , raisins , cherries conserved , barberries conserved , rye flower , ginger , sweet oranges , pepper white and brown , mace , wafers .
The culinary historian Alison Sim notes that " the closest the Tudors came to sponge were sponge @-@ like biscuits " , which could be raised with eggs or with yeast ; the " cracknels " in the Jewell were boiled before baking , being put into boiling water where they would sink and then rise to the top . Sim notes that Dawson 's " fine bisket bread " had to be beaten for two hours .
The culinary historian Ken Albala describes the Jewell as an " important cookbook " , and observes that it is the first English cookery book to give a recipe for sweet potatoes , while also listing " old medieval standbys " . He comments that there are several pudding recipes , both savoury and sweet , including haggis . He notes , too , that it gives instructions for the marzipan figures " so beloved on the Elizabethan banquetting table . "
The culinary historian Stephen Mennell calls the Jewell " more distinctively English " than the Boke of Kervynge and the Boke of Cokery from earlier in the century . It , like Gervase Markham 's The English Hus @-@ Wife of 1615 , was aimed at a more general audience , not only aristocrats but " housewives " , which Mennell glosses as " gentlewomen concerned with the practical tasks of running households " . Hence the book could treat not only food but medicines , dairy @-@ work , brewing , and preserving .
The historian Joanna Opaskar notes that the Elizabethans used what " may seem odd ingredients today " , such as rosewater and violets , and that Dawson provides a recipe for salmon with violets , the recipe calling for slices of onion with violets , oil , and vinegar . She also notes that sugar was included " in almost every kind of dish " , as well as spices that we would use in " sweet rather than savory dishes . "
= Terra ( Kingdom Hearts ) =
Terra ( Japanese : テラ , Hepburn : Tera ) is a fictional character from Square Enix 's video game franchise Kingdom Hearts . He was introduced in Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep as one of the three protagonists . He had a cameo appearance in a secret ending of Kingdom Hearts II and its re @-@ release Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix ; the later game included an optional boss fight against the Lingering Will ( 留まりし思念 , Todomarishi Shinen ) , a hollow armor containing Terra 's mind . In Birth by Sleep , Terra appears as one of the apprentices from Master Eraqus who trains him alongside his friends Aqua and Ventus to become masters of the Keyblade weapon . When Master Xehanort disappears , Terra is sent to find him and also tame the growing darkness within himself .
Terra 's character was designed by the director series Tetsuya Nomura when preparing the secret endings of Kingdom Hearts II and Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix . He was developed to be reminiscent to the Xehanort featured in previous titles as well as having a connection with Riku , one of the series ' main characters . Ryōtarō Okiayu has done the voice of Terra in Japanese and Jason Dohring in the English version . Video game publications gave mixed responses to Terra 's character , with many noting his similarity to the Final Fantasy VII character Zack Fair and later commenting on his naive portrayal in Birth by Sleep .
= = Appearances = =
Terra first made cameos in the secret endings of Kingdom Hearts II and Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix which depicted events from Birth by Sleep . Additionally , the Lingering Will , an armor containing Terra 's will , appears in Kingdom Hearts II : Final Mix as an optional boss in the world Keyblade Graveyard . The Lingering Will fights the game 's protagonist Sora upon sensing Sora 's Keyblade and mistaking Sora for Xehanort and acknowledges Sora as a Keyblade Master afterward .
In the prequel Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep , Terra is a trainee from Master Eraqus alongside Aqua and Ventus , developing a strong sibling @-@ like bond with both of them . One day , Terra participates with Aqua in an exam to become Keyblade Masters . Terra fails to pass the test as Eraqus detects darkness in his heart , which he disapproves . Eraqus later informs Terra and Aqua about the appearance of creatures known as the Unversed and the disappearance of Master Xehanort . He orders both of them to eliminate the Unversed and find Xehanort . During his search for the missing Xehanort , he interacts with several Disney characters for information on his whereabouts as he faces his inner darkness . When finding Xehanort , Terra is requested by him to kill Vanitas , a figure made from Ventus 's darkness and source of all the Unversed . Xehanort later makes Terra return to the Land of Departure to stop Eraqus from killing Ventus . Unwilling to let Ventus die , Terra rescues him and confronts Eraqus . As the battle finishes , both Terra and Eraqus apologize to each other for their actions , but Eraqus is then killed by Xehanort . Realizing Xehanort 's true nature , Terra goes to the Keyblade Graveyard where he reunites with Ventus and Aqua , and prepares to face Xehanort . There , Ventus tells Aqua and him that Xehanort plans to use him and Vanitas to create the legendary χ @-@ blade to help him in his plans which caused Eraqus to try to kill him . The three are then confronted by Xehanort and Vanitas and proceed to fight . When Ventus and Aqua are wounded in battle , Terra attacks Xehanort alone and unleashes the darkness in his heart , allowing Xehanort to take over his body . However , Terra 's mind persists in his discarded armor , becoming the Lingering Will , and continues to fight Xehanort , knocking him out . The Lingering Will remains in the Keyblade Graveyard , while Terra 's heart has an internal struggle with Xehanort 's in his original body when Xehanort battles Aqua . This results in Xehanort stabbing himself to stop Terra , but Terra 's presence remains within Xehanort , swearing to stop him .
While Terra does not appear in Kingdom Hearts Re : coded , aside from the Lingering Will making a cameo in the opening , he is mentioned by King Mickey , who is searching for the Birth by Sleep protagonists . Terra briefly appears in Kingdom Hearts 3D : Dream Drop Distance during Sora 's dream , where Sora 's friends , Riku and Kairi , are transformed into Terra and Aqua . Terra also appears when Sora declares his pride in being connected to many Keyblade wielders .
A vision of Terra makes an appearance in Kingdom Hearts 0 @.@ 2 Birth by Sleep : A fragmentary passage , a part of Kingdom Hearts HD 2 @.@ 8 Final Chapter Prologue . He appears to Aqua as she laments not being able to reverse time to spend one more night with her friends . While she is shocked at his appearance , thinking that he did not make it out of the Realm of Darkness , she resolves to continue her journey .
Terra 's role from Birth by Sleep is reprised in Tomoko Tanemaki 's light novels of the game . Additionally , the final chapter shows the Lingering Will fighting Sora from Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix .
= = Creation and development = =
Although Terra , Ventus and Aqua first appeared in the ending of Kingdom Hearts II wearing armor , director Tetsuya Nomura still had not designed their real look , having only thought about their story . Despite not revealing their identities , Nomura still said that they are characters from the past from the Kingdom Hearts series . Following the release of the Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix , Nomura revealed a connection between them and the game 's villain Xemnas but wanted to leave it up to people 's imaginations as he still could not reveal his identity . Terra 's face was first shown in the 2006 Tokyo Game Show in which he was described as an avenger of Xehanort . Nomura also confirmed that Lingering Will was connected with Terra . He also stated that his name means " earth " from Latin , following the " land " theme Riku represents as well as connecting him with the other main characters ' names from the series . In October 2007 , Nomura was asked if the Lingering Will was actually Terra due to their similarities , but he responded it was still uncertain . When asked about what was the Will 's true nature after being revealed to contain Terra 's memories , Nomura stated it was not a Heartless . Nomura expressed that the fans liked the inclusion of the Will 's battle due to his challenging difficulty , which led the staff to design another hard boss character for Birth by Sleep .
From the three protagonists from Birth by Sleep , Terra 's design was the only which was decided how should it be from the start , with Nomura stating he would be designed younger than shown in previous games . Japanese @-@ inspired designs were incorporated into Terra 's outfit based on the " master and apprentice " relationship featured in the game . Nomura had troubles designing Terra 's , Ventus 's and Aqua 's armors due how they would be able to summon them . Therefore , an " X " was added to their clothes as a mean to activate the armors as well as due to the fact it was one of the game 's keywords . Ever since development of Birth by Sleep started , the staff already decided that the three stories would be told in separate scenarios with Terra 's story being the first one written . Terra 's conversation with Riku was written by Nomura early on development wishing to explain the reason for Riku 's ability to use the Keyblade , and he requested the staff in charge to make it into the game . The staff also wanted emphasize the lack of coincidences in the series , leading to the interaction between the three scenarios . Nomura recommended players to first play as Terra in Birth by Sleep in order to understand the story better . His gameplay was also described by Nomura as " heavy " in comparison to Ventus 's and Aqua 's .
To expand the connection between Terra and Riku , scenes foreshadowing future events involving Riku from Terra 's perspective were added to the game , though Nomura has stated that these foreshadows are not of a precognitive nature . Nomura expects that in future games , the connection between both of them would be expanded . Ryōtarō Okiayu was chosen as Terra 's Japanese voice actor as the staff wanted one actor similar to Chikao Ōtsuka , Xehanort 's voice actor , and Akio Ōtsuka , Xehanort 's voice actor while using Terra 's body . The staff found Chikao 's was a dry sort of voice , Akio 's a deep resonating sort of voice , and liked how Okiayu bore elements from both actors .
= = Reception = =
When Terra 's character was first revealed , 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish found him to be very similar to Zack Fair from Final Fantasy VII to the point where he wondered whether he would actually be Zack . However , when considering Terra 's weapon being a Keyblade in contrast to all the other Final Fantasy characters shown in previous Kingdom Hearts games , he thought he may not be Zack . Amanda L. Kondolojy from Cheat Code Central found there have been various speculations regarding the similarities between Terra and Zack , but thought it would not be strange considering the existence of Nobodies in the series . Selecting Terra for a demo of Birth by Sleep IGN 's Ryan Clements agreed with Parish , finding only minor differences between their outfits .
Terra 's role in Birth by Sleep has received mixed critics with Adam Ghigiino from PALGN criticizing his naive personality when finding the three protagonists unappealing . VideoGamer.com writer Emily Gera stated that players may know little about them due to their role in Kingdom Hearts II , but with Birth by Sleep , players will able to know about them . Writing for GamesRadar , Crhis Antista commented that he did not understand the importance of him and the other characters being briefly featured in Kingdom Hearts II , although it could be explained once the player finishes Birth by Sleep . PlayStation LifeStyle 's Thomas Williams found the trio as welcome additions to the franchise , finding their stories enjoyable even though the three travel to the same worlds . X @-@ Play found Terra to be very similar to Riku due to his personality and vulnerability to evil 's allure . Kevin VanOrd of GameSpot criticized Jason Dohring 's work as Terra 's English voice actor , saying he " can 't express angst , excitement , sincerity , or any other emotion " , affecting the storyline . VanOrd also pointed this out when Terra interacts with Disney characters , finding the latters ' voice actors to be " uniformly excellent and absolutely comparable to the original source . " Bob Miur from Destructoid compared Terra 's storyline with the film Star Wars : Episode III – Revenge of the Sith due to the struggles he faces , and found that gamers familiar to the series may realize that his fate in the game " won 't turn out to be very pretty . " Miur also commented on Dohring 's work , praising how he makes Terra " tortured and conflicted " , but still criticizing the result . UGO Networks listed Terra 's Helmet nineteenth on their list of " The Coolest Helmets and Headgear in Video Games " , stating " For a minute , but only a minute , the two @-@ horned helmet will get you feeling like the Keyblade is a viable weapon . " In a Famitsu poll , Terra was voted as the fifth most popular Kingdom Hearts character .
= Underground City ( Beijing ) =
The Underground City ( Chinese : 地下城 ; pinyin : Dìxià Chéng ) is a Cold War era bomb shelter consisting of a network of tunnels located beneath Beijing , China . It has also been referred to as the Underground Great Wall since it was built for the purpose of military defense . The complex was constructed from 1969 to 1979 in anticipation of a nuclear war with the Soviet Union , as Sino @-@ Soviet relations worsened and was officially reopened in 2000 . Visitors were allowed to tour portions of the complex , which has been described as " dark , damp , and genuinely eerie " . Dixia Cheng has been closed for renovation since at least February 2008 .
= = Location = =
The tunnels of the Underground City run beneath Beijing 's city center , covering an area of 85 square kilometres ( 33 sq mi ) 8 to 18 metres ( 26 – 59 ft ) under the surface . At one time there were about 90 entrances to the complex , all of which were hidden in shops along the main streets of Qianmen . Many of the entrances have since been demolished or blocked off for reconstruction . Known remaining entrances include 62 West Damochang Street in Qianmen , Beijing Qianmen Carpet Factory at 44 Xingfu Dajie in Chongwen District , and 18 Dazhalan Jie in Qianmen .
= = History = =
At the height of Soviet @-@ Chinese tensions in 1969 , Chinese chairman Mao Zedong ordered the construction of the Underground City during the border conflict over Zhenbao Island in the Heilongjiang River . The Underground City was designed to withstand nuclear , biochemical and conventional attacks . The complex would protect Beijing 's population , and allow government officials to evacuate in the event of an attack on the city . The government claimed that the tunnels could accommodate all of Beijing 's six million inhabitants upon its completion .
The complex was equipped with facilities such as restaurants , clinics , schools , theaters , factories , a roller skating rink , grain and oil warehouses , and a mushroom cultivation farm . There were also almost 70 potential sites where water wells could easily be dug if needed . Elaborate ventilation systems were installed , with 2300 shafts that can be sealed off to protect the tunnels ' inhabitants from poison gases , Gas- and water @-@ proof hatches , as well as thick concrete main gates , were constructed to protect the tunnels from biochemical attacks and nuclear fallouts .
There is no official disclosure about the actual extent of the complex , but it is speculated that the tunnels may link together Beijing 's various landmarks , as well as important governmental buildings such as the Zhongnanhai , the Great Hall of the People , and even military bases in the outskirts of the city . The China Internet Information Center asserts that " they supposedly link all areas of central Beijing , from Xidan and Xuanwumen to Qianmen and [ the ] Chongwen district " , in addition to the Western Hills . It is also rumoured that every residence once had a secret trapdoor nearby leading to the tunnels . In the event of a nuclear attack , the plan was to move half of Beijing 's population underground and the other half to the Western Hills .
The tunnels were built by more than 300 @,@ 000 local citizens , including school students , on volunteer duties . Some portions were even dug without the help of any heavy machinery . Centuries @-@ old city walls , towers and gates , including the old city gates of Xizhimen , Fuchengmen , and Chongwenmen were destroyed to supply construction materials for the complex .
Since the complex 's completion , it has been utilized by locals for in various ways as the tunnels remain cool in summer and warm in winter . On busy streets , some portions of the complex were refurbished as cheap hotels , while others were transformed into shopping and business centers , or even theaters .
While the complex has never been used for its intended purpose , it has never been fully abandoned either . Local authorities still perform water leakage checks and pest control in the tunnels on a regular basis .
= = As a tourist attraction = =
The complex was officially opened in 2000 , but has been closed for renovation since at least February 2008 . While it was open , visitors were allowed to tour portions of the complex ; the Underground City was popular with foreign tourists but remained virtually forgotten by local citizens . Though there are many other entrances , foreign visitors entered approved sections accessed via a small shop front in Qianmen , south of Tiananmen Square , at 62 West Damochang Street . Tour groups could enter free of charge and without prior permission while individual tourists not part of a group were charged 20 yuan ( US $ 2 @.@ 40 ) each .
The official tour took visitors only on a small circular stretch of the Underground City . Inside the complex , visitors could see signposts to major landmarks accessible by the tunnels , such as Tiananmen Square and the Forbidden City , and could see chambers labeled with their original functions , such as cinemas , hospitals , or arsenals . A portrait of Mao Zedong could be seen amidst murals of locals volunteering to dig the tunnels and fading slogans such as " Accumulate Grain " , and " For the People : Prepare for War , Prepare for Famine " . Rooms with bunk beds and decayed cardboard boxes of water purifiers could be seen in areas not open to tourists . Visitors on the official tour would also pass by a functioning silk factory in one of the underground staff meeting rooms of the complex , and be given a demonstration of the process of obtaining silk from silkworm cocoons . They had a chance to buy souvenirs at a tourists ' shop operated by the state @-@ owned Qianmen Arts and Crafts Center and the China Kai Tian Silk Company .
= Bangladesh at the 2011 Commonwealth Youth Games =
Bangladesh competed in the 2011 Commonwealth Youth Games ( officially known as the IV Commonwealth Youth Games ) held in the Isle of Man from 7 to 13 September 2011 . This was their second appearance in the Commonwealth Youth Games . The nation was represented by the Bangladesh Olympic Association , which is responsible for the Commonwealth Games and Commonwealth Youth Games in Bangladesh .
The Bangladeshi delegation consisted of four officials and four competitors : two men and two women , who took part in three different sports — athletics , boxing and swimming . ( At the previous Commonwealth Youth Games , Bangladesh had a delegation of ten athletes . ) None of the athletes won any medals . Papia Rani Sarkar finished sixth in the semifinal round of the 100 metres for women ; bantamweight boxer Riyad Hossen received a bye into the quarterfinal , but then lost to Obedy Mutapa of Zambia . In the swimming heats , Sonia Akter finished 22nd in the 50 m backstroke and 19th in the 50 m butterfly , and Anik Islam finished 12th in the 50 m butterfly and 14th in the 100 m butterfly .
= = Background = =
Bangladesh became a member of the Commonwealth of Nations in 1972 and made its Commonwealth Games debut in the 1990 Commonwealth Games in Auckland , New Zealand . The Bangladesh Olympic Association , the country 's National Olympic Committee , is responsible for the Commonwealth and Commonwealth Youth Games in Bangladesh . Bangladesh did not participate in the first two Commonwealth Youth Games in Edinburgh ( 2000 ) and Bendigo ( 2004 ) . For the 2008 Commonwealth Youth Games in Pune , India , it entered ten athletes , all men , who competed in athletics , boxing and shooting , winning one bronze medal in Weightlifting . Bangladesh was one of the 63 nations and territories taking part in the 2011 Commonwealth Youth Games held in the Isle of Man from 7 to 13 September 2011 , making its second appearance in the games . This time Bangladesh , like 31 other countries , won no medals .
= = Delegation = =
The age of every participant at the Commonwealth Youth Games is between fourteen and eighteen years in the year of event . Each Commonwealth Games Association can send a maximum of one thousand competitors . The Bangladesh Olympic Association selected a delegation consisting of four officials and four competitors for the 2011 Commonwealth Youth Games . Riyad Hossen , the only one to have taken part in the previous games , boxed in the bantamweight class . Papia Rani Sarkar was the only Bangladeshi competing in athletics . Sonia Akter and Anik Islam , the delegation 's only two swimmers , each participated in two events . The head of delegation was A K Sarker .
= = Athletics = =
Athletics events were held in the National Sports Center Athletics Stadium . Papia Rani Sarkar represented Bangladesh in the women 's 100 m on 9 September 2011 . She ran it in 12 @.@ 66 seconds in the heats to qualify for the semifinals , and in 12 @.@ 63 seconds to place sixth in the first semifinal . The gold medal in this event was won by Sophie Papps of England , with a time of 11 @.@ 53 seconds in the final .
Q = Qualified for the next round
= = Boxing = =
Bangladesh 's boxing squad consisted of one contestant , Riyad Hossen , who boxed in the bantamweight class . He was eliminated in the quarterfinals , losing to Obedy Mutapa of Zambia with a points difference of 15 – 5 after receiving a bye in the previous round .
Bye = received a bye .
= = Swimming = =
Sonia Akter and Anik Islam were the two Bangladeshi swimmers . Akter entered three events , the 50 m butterfly , 50 m backstroke and 50 m breaststroke . She completed her preliminary heat of the 50 m butterfly in 32 @.@ 78 seconds , finishing in 19th place , not high enough to secure a place in the final . She was also eliminated in the preliminary heat of the 50 m backstroke , ranking 22nd with a time of 36 @.@ 00 seconds in the heats . She did not start in the preliminary heat of the 50 m breaststroke . Anik Islam swam in the 50 m and 100 m butterfly . He finished the 50 m butterfly in a time of 26 @.@ 97 seconds , ranking 14th , and the 100 m butterfly in 58 @.@ 41 seconds , ranking 12th .
DNS = Did not start .
= Saegusa – Ito oxidation =
The Saegusa – Ito oxidation is a chemical reaction used in organic chemistry . It was discovered in 1978 by Takeo Saegusa and Yoshihiko Ito as a method to introduce α @-@ β unsaturation in carbonyl compounds . The reaction as originally reported involved formation of a silyl enol ether followed by treatment with palladium ( II ) acetate and benzoquinone to yield the corresponding enone . The original publication noted its utility for regeneration of unsaturation following 1 @,@ 4 @-@ addition with nucleophiles such as organocuprates .
For acyclic substrates the reaction yields the thermodynamic E @-@ olefin product exclusively .
This discovery was preceded nearly eight years earlier by a report that treatment of unactivated ketones with palladium acetate yielded the same products in low yields . The major improvement provided by Saegusa and Ito was the recognition that the enol form was the reactive species , developing a method based on silyl enol ethers .
Benzoquinone is actually not a necessary component for this reaction ; its role is to regenerate palladium ( II ) from its reduced form palladium ( 0 ) , so that a smaller amount of expensive palladium ( II ) acetate is required at the beginning . The reaction conditions and purifications could be easily simplified by just using excess of palladium ( II ) acetate without benzoquinone , while at a much higher cost . Since the reaction typically employs near @-@ stoichiometric amounts of palladium and is therefore often considered too expensive for industrial usage , some progress has been made in the development of catalytic variants . Despite this shortcoming , the Saegusa oxidation has been used in a number of syntheses as a mild , late @-@ stage method for introduction of functionality in complex molecules .
= = Mechanism = =
The mechanism of the Saegusa – Ito oxidation involves coordination of palladium to the enol olefin followed by loss of the silyl group and formation of an oxoallyl @-@ palladium complex. β @-@ hydride elimination yields the palladium hydride enone complex which upon reductive elimination yields the product along with acetic acid and Pd0 . The reversibility of the elimination step allows equilibration , leading to the thermodynamic E @-@ selectivity in acyclic substrates . It has been shown that the product can form a stable Pd0 @-@ olefin complex , which may be responsible for the difficulty with re @-@ oxidation seen in catalytic variants of the reaction .
= = Scope = =
The wide applicability of the Saegusa – Ito oxidation is exemplified by its use in several classic syntheses of complex molecules . The synthesis of morphine by Tohru Fukuyama in 2006 is one such example , in which the transformation tolerates the presence of carbamate and ether substituents .
Samuel J. Danishefsky 's synthesis of both ( + ) and ( - ) peribysin began with a Saegusa – Ito oxidation of the Diels @-@ Alder adduct of carvone and 3 @-@ trimethylsilyloxy @-@ 1 @,@ 3 @-@ butadiene to yield the enone below . In this case the oxidation tolerated the presence of alkene and carbonyl moieties .
Yong Qiang Tu 's synthesis of the Alzheimer 's disease medication galanthamine likewise used this reaction in the presence of an acid @-@ sensitive acetal group .
Larry E. Overman 's synthesis of laurenyne utilizes a one @-@ pot oxidation with pyridinium chlorochromate followed by a Saegusa oxidation , tolerating the presence of a halogen and a sulfonate .
The synthesis of sambutoxin reported by David Williams uses a novel Saegusa – Ito oxidation involving an unprotected enol moiety . The enone product cyclized in situ to regenerate the enol and form the tetrahydropyran ring . Subsequent deprotection of the methoxymethyl group furnished the natural product .
= = Variations = =
The vast majority of improvements to this reaction have focused on rendering the transformation catalytic with respect to the palladium salt , primarily due to its high cost . The original conditions , though technically catalytic , still require 50 mol % of palladium ( II ) actetate , raising the cost to prohibitively high levels for large scale syntheses .
The major advances in catalytic versions of this reaction have steered towards co @-@ oxidants that regenerate the palladium ( II ) species effectively . Specifically , conditions using atmospheric oxygen as well as stoichiometric allylcarbonate have been developed .
With respect to the former , the method developed by Larock in 1995 represents an environmentally and cost @-@ attractive method as a catalytic substitute for the Saegusa – Ito oxidation .
This method suffers from long reaction times and often produces significantly lower yields than the stoichiometric equivalent as showcased in the synthesis of platyphillide by Nishida . The contrast of the two methods highlights the catalytic method 's shortcomings .
Catalytic variants employing stoichiometric diallylcarbonate and other allylic carbonates have also been developed , primarily by Jiro Tsuji . For these the choice of solvent is essential : nitrile solvents produce the desired enones while ethereal solvents produce α @-@ allyl ketones instead .
This latter method has enjoyed greater success as a synthetic tool , most notably in the Shibasaki total synthesis of the famous poison Strychnine .
Despite these methods , much work remains to be done with regard to catalytic installation of α @-@ β unsaturation .
= Wilco =
Wilco is an American alternative rock band based in Chicago , Illinois . The band was formed in 1994 by the remaining members of alternative country group Uncle Tupelo following singer Jay Farrar 's departure . Wilco 's lineup changed frequently during its first decade , with only singer Jeff Tweedy and bassist John Stirratt remaining from the original incarnation . Since early 2004 , the lineup has been unchanged , consisting of Tweedy , Stirratt , guitarist Nels Cline , multi @-@ instrumentalist Pat Sansone , keyboard player Mikael Jorgensen , and drummer Glenn Kotche . Wilco has released nine studio albums , a live double album , and four collaborations : three with Billy Bragg and one with The Minus 5 .
Wilco 's music has been inspired by a wide variety of artists and styles , including Bill Fay , The Beatles and Television , and has in turn influenced music by a number of modern alternative rock acts . The band continued in the alternative country of Uncle Tupelo on its debut album A.M. ( 1995 ) , but has since introduced more experimental aspects to their music , including elements of alternative rock and classic pop . Wilco 's musical style has evolved from a 1990s country rock sound to a current " eclectic indie rock collective that touches on many eras and genres . "
Wilco garnered media attention for their fourth album , Yankee Hotel Foxtrot ( 2002 ) , and the controversy surrounding it . After the recording sessions were complete , Reprise Records rejected the album and dismissed Wilco from the label . As part of a buy @-@ out deal , Reprise gave Wilco the rights to the album for free . After streaming Foxtrot on its website , Wilco sold the album to Nonesuch Records in 2002 . Both record labels are subsidiaries of Warner Music Group , leading one critic to say the album showed " how screwed up the music business is in the early twenty @-@ first century . " Yankee Hotel Foxtrot is Wilco 's most successful release to date , selling over 670 @,@ 000 copies . Wilco won two Grammy Awards for their fifth studio album , 2004 's A Ghost Is Born , including Best Alternative Music Album . Wilco 's released their ninth studio album , Star Wars , on July 16 , 2015 . On July 19 , 2016 Wilco set the release date for their tenth studio album , Schmilco , for September 9 , 2016 .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
Wilco was formed following the breakup of the influential alternative country music group Uncle Tupelo . Singer Jay Farrar quit the band in 1994 because of a soured relationship with co @-@ singer Jeff Tweedy . Both Tweedy and Farrar sought to form bands immediately after the breakup . Tweedy was able to keep the entire Uncle Tupelo lineup sans Farrar , including bassist John Stirratt , drummer Ken Coomer , and multi @-@ instrumentalist Max Johnston . He even enlisted Uncle Tupelo guest guitarist Brian Henneman of the Bottle Rockets , who performed on many of the tracks for Wilco 's debut album , A.M .. The band was tempted to keep the Uncle Tupelo name , but ultimately decided to rename the band . The group named itself " Wilco " after the military and commercial aviation radio voice abbreviation for " will comply " , a choice which Tweedy has called " fairly ironic for a rock band to name themselves . "
= = = A.M. and Being There = = =
After collaborating with Syd Straw on a cover version of the Ernest Tubb song " The T.B. is Whipping Me " ( released in September 1994 on the Red Hot + Country compilation produced by the Red Hot Organization ) , Wilco began recording tracks for A.M. , their first studio album , at Easley studio in June 1994 . A demo tape from these recordings was sent to executives at Reprise Records , a subsidiary of Warner Brothers , and the label signed Tweedy to a contract . Although Tweedy stated that he wanted a more collaborative project than Uncle Tupelo , only his name appeared on the Reprise contract . Tweedy requested songwriting submissions from other members , but only one submission — John Stirratt 's " It 's Just That Simple " — appeared on A.M .. It was the last song Wilco ever released that was lyrically solely written by a member besides Tweedy .
Stylistically similar to Uncle Tupelo , the music on A.M. was considered to be straightforward alternative country rock in what Tweedy later described as " trying to tread some water with a perceived audience . " A.M. peaked at number twenty @-@ seven on the Billboard Heatseekers chart , considerably lower than the debut album of Jay Farrar 's new band , Son Volt . The album was met with modest reviews though it would rank thirty @-@ fourth in the Village Voice 's 1995 Pazz & Jop critics poll . Critically and commercially paling in comparison to the reception of Son Volt 's album , the Wilco members perceived A.M. to be a failure . Shortly after the release of the album , multi @-@ instrumentalist Jay Bennett joined the band , providing the band with a keyboardist and another guitarist .
Wilco made its live debut on November 17 , 1994 to a capacity crowd at Cicero 's Basement Bar in St. Louis , Missouri ( the band was billed for the occasion as " Black Shampoo " ) .
During the two hundred @-@ date tour supporting A.M. , Tweedy began to write songs for a second album . The lyrical theme of the songs reflected a relationship between musical artist and a listener ; Tweedy chose this topic because he sought to eschew the alternative country fan base . Ken Coomer elaborated :
The whole No Depression thing was funny to us because people seemed to forget that Jeff was a bigger punk @-@ rock fan than a country fan . It led to things like us all switching instruments on " Misunderstood , " where I 'm playing guitar .
A number of songs were recorded with this theme , including " Sunken Treasure " and " Hotel Arizona " , however , Wilco also recorded a number of songs in the style of A.M. Wilco named the album Being There after a Peter Sellers film of the same name . The band went through some personnel changes during the recording sessions . Max Johnston left the band because he felt that his role in the band had diminished in favor of Bennett ; he had also been replaced by violinist Jesse Greene on one track because the band felt that Johnston was unable to play the part . Bob Egan of Freakwater briefly joined the band in the studio , playing pedal steel guitar on " Far , Far Away " and " Dreamer in My Dreams " , and then became an official member in September 1996 .
Unlike the A.M. recording sessions , the band had no vocation for producing a hit song from their second effort . The recording sessions produced nineteen songs , too many for a single album release . Tweedy was concerned about the high retail price that a double album would be sold for ( at least $ 30 ) , so he asked Reprise Records to release it as a double album at a single album price ( $ 17 @.@ 98 or less ) . Reprise agreed to this on the terms that they received Wilco 's share of the album royalties . It was estimated in 2003 that the band lost almost $ 600 @,@ 000 on the deal , but Tweedy was satisfied . Being There was well received by critics from several major media outlets , including Rolling Stone . The album reached No. 73 on the Billboard album charts , a significant improvement from A.M. , and placed fourteenth on the Pazz & Jop Critics Poll for 1996 . The album 's single " Outtasite ( Outta Mind ) " became the group 's first song to enter the Billboard charts , reaching No. 39 on the Modern Rock Tracks chart and No. 22 on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart .
= = = Summerteeth and the Mermaid Avenue sessions = = =
In November 1997 , Wilco entered Willie Nelson 's recording studio in Spicewood , Texas to record a third studio album . The album was lyrically inspired by the marital problems of Tweedy and his wife , as well as by twentieth @-@ century literature . Tweedy relied heavily on Bennett to provide music for the singer 's " bold , but depressing " lyrics . Wilco recorded several songs , including " Via Chicago " and " She 's a Jar , " but began working on another project before assembling the tracks into an album .
Nora Guthrie contacted singer @-@ songwriter Billy Bragg in spring 1995 about recording some unreleased songs by her father , folk singer Woody Guthrie . Most of the songs were written late in Guthrie 's life when he was unable to record due to the motor impairments of Huntington 's disease . By the 1990s , Woody Guthrie had become a " relic " to the MTV generation , and Nora sought to establish a different legacy for the musician . To Nora , Bragg was " the only singer I knew taking on the same issues as Woody . " Bragg was concerned , however , that his fans would not realize that the songs were written by Guthrie when he performed them on tour , so he decided to record the album with another band .
Bragg contacted Tweedy and Bennett about co @-@ recording the album while Wilco was on the European segment of their Being There tour . Bragg was particularly fond of Being There because their influences extended farther back than the 1950s . Although Tweedy was indifferent to the offer , Bennett was enthused about recording songs of one of his idols — Bennett 's previous band Titanic Love Affair was named after a Billy Bragg lyric . A recording contract between Bragg and Wilco was signed after a show at Shepherd 's Bush Empire . Bragg mostly recorded the politically charged lyrics , while Tweedy preferred to record lyrics that showcased Guthrie as a " freak weirdo " . The recording of Mermaid Avenue began on December 12 , 1997 , and was the topic of BBC 's Man in the Sand documentary film .
Tempers flared between Bragg and Wilco after the album was completed . Bennett believed that Bragg was overproducing his songs , a sharp contrast to Wilco 's sparser contributions . Bennett called Bragg about the possibility of remixing Bragg 's songs , to which Bragg responded " you make your record , and I 'll make mine , fucker . " Eventually Bragg sent copies of his recordings to Chicago for Bennett to remix , but Bragg refused to use the new mixes on the album . The two parties were unable to establish a promotional tour and quarreled over royalties and guest musician fees .
Despite these conflicts , the album was released on June 23 , 1998 , and sold over 277 @,@ 000 copies . The album received rave reviews from Robert Christgau and Rolling Stone , and was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Folk Album . It also placed fourth on the Pazz & Jop critics poll for 1998 . After the album was released , Bob Egan was replaced by multi @-@ instrumentalist Leroy Bach .
After the completion of the Mermaid Avenue sessions , Wilco returned to Spicewood to complete their third studio album , Summerteeth . Unlike previous Wilco and Uncle Tupelo recordings , the album featured a lot of overdubbing with Pro Tools . Stirratt and Coomer were concerned with the production , since it reduced their involvement in the music . According to Stirratt :
The story of Summerteeth is Jay bought a Mellotron and he was going to use it , no matter what . It was lovely , but it was overdone . Once they got going on the overdubs , they didn 't stop . And nobody in the band stepped up to stop the madness ... It reminds me of Heart of Darkness , where you knowingly extend the creative process for the purpose of exploration or redemption , or whatever it is you 're looking for .
During 1999 , Warner Brothers was looking to help repay a $ 16 billion debt acquired during the recent merger of parent company Warner Communications with Time Inc .. As a result , Warner 's imprints were under pressure to produce musical acts that would yield hit records . The head of Reprise , Howie Klein , who had previously authorized the release of Being There as a double album , was willing to let Wilco produce Summerteeth without label input . When Klein played the album for Reprise 's A & R department , however , they demanded a radio single for the album . Wilco agreed to do this " once and once only " and recorded a radio @-@ friendly version of " Can 't Stand It " at the request of David Kahne , the head of the A & R department . The single version of " Can 't Stand It " failed to cross over from Triple @-@ A radio to alternative rock stations . Consequently , the album sold only 200 @,@ 000 copies , significantly less than Being There . This was despite critical acclaim ; the album placed eighth on the Pazz & Jop critics ' poll for 1999 .
After the release of Summerteeth , the band resumed the Mermaid Avenue sessions . Although they had recorded enough material for a second release in 1998 , Wilco recorded a few new songs for Mermaid Avenue Vol . II . " Someday Some Morning Sometime , " featuring a vibraphone filtered through a space echo , was identified by Tweedy as being the " piece to the puzzle " towards the creation of their fourth studio album . The album was released on May 30 , 2000 , and was the last release from the sessions . The remainder of the sessions were released in 2012 as Mermaid Avenue Vol . III , also part of Mermaid Avenue : The Complete Sessions .
= = = Yankee Hotel Foxtrot = = =
Shortly after the recording sessions for Mermaid Avenue Vol . II , Wilco purchased a studio on Irving Park Road in Chicago , which they named the Wilco Loft . The band recorded some tracks in the studio in early 2000 for a fourth studio album . In May 2000 , Jeff Tweedy requested to perform with Jim O 'Rourke at a festival in Chicago ; Tweedy was a fan of O 'Rourke 's Bad Timing . O 'Rourke introduced Tweedy to drummer Glenn Kotche , and the trio enjoyed working together so much that they decided to record an album as a side project named Loose Fur . Wilco had recorded an entire album of music at this point , but Tweedy was unhappy with the drum parts . He enjoyed Kotche 's contributions to Loose Fur so much that Tweedy brought him into the studio to re @-@ record some demos . Some believe that Tweedy sought to make Wilco sound like Loose Fur after officially replacing Ken Coomer with Kotche in January 2001 .
Although Bennett sought to act as both mixer and engineer for Yankee Hotel Foxtrot , Tweedy was unsure of Bennett 's abilities against those of O 'Rourke . Tweedy and Bennett frequently argued over whether the album should be accessible to a general listener , or attempt to cover new musical ground . Unbeknownst to Bennett , Tweedy invited O 'Rourke to remix " I Am Trying to Break Your Heart " , and the results impressed the other band members — even Bennett . Tensions grew between Bennett and O 'Rourke because Bennett wanted to mix every song on the album . O 'Rourke cut the contributions of other members on several of the songs ; some songs , such as " Poor Places " , only featured the Loose Fur trio . The album was completed in 2001 , and Bennett was dismissed from the band immediately afterwards . The recording of the album was documented by Sam Jones and released in 2002 as the film I Am Trying to Break Your Heart : A Film About Wilco .
Time Warner , which owned Warner Bros. Records , merged with America Online in 2001 , leading to more pressure on Warner 's record labels to cut costs . Over 600 employees of Warner Music Group were fired , including Howie Klein , the president of Reprise Records . In absence of Klein , David Kahne became the interim head of Reprise . Kahne assigned Mio Vukovic to monitor the progress of Yankee Hotel Foxtrot and to offer suggestions . Music journalist Greg Kot claims that Vukovic disdained the album and was unhappy that Wilco ignored his suggestions . He brought the album to Kahne , who felt that there was no single on the album . In June 2001 , the album was rejected by Reprise and Wilco was asked to leave the label .
Wilco managed to negotiate terms to a buy @-@ out from Reprise . Music journalist Greg Kot claims that instead of financial compensation , the band agreed to leave the label with the master tapes of Yankee Hotel Foxtrot . The label was already receiving bad publicity for its treatment of the band and were willing to accommodate Wilco 's request . However , Allmusic claims that Wilco " bought the finished studio tapes from Warner / Reprise for a reported $ 50 @,@ 000 and left the label altogether " after Wilco was " [ u ] nwilling to change the album to make it more ' commercially viable ' " To curb the negative publicity , Reprise began to invest more in bands such as The Flaming Lips . Lead singer Wayne Coyne once remarked :
We are benefiting from the label 's regret over Wilco . We are living in the golden age of that being such a public mistake . The people on Warners said , " we 'll never have a band like Wilco feel we don 't believe in them again . " They 'd tell me that it would never happen to us . And what a great day for me !
As the band searched for a new label to release the album , they decided to stream it at their official website to discourage illegal trading of low @-@ quality MP3s . The band signed with
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the reviewer claimed that " Sky Blue Sky becomes the first Wilco album that sounds too careful for its own good . "
Pabs Hernandez , a reviewer for Lost at Sea praised the album 's " breezy atmosphere and pacing , " and noted that it is not " easily judged upon first listen . " Overall , Hernandez stated that it " may be no masterpiece , but at worst it 's a more than worthy entry into Wilco 's laudable catalogue . " Reviewer Greg Locke praised the record as " one of the best albums of the year , " calling it a " timeless record , full of sweet , hopeful sophistication and class " and " a lean , mean , soulful album . " Like Hernandez , Locke acknowledged that the album could not be properly judged just on the first listening . The NPR review also had a positive take on the record . While the NPR reviewer stated that the recording " isn 't groundbreaking , " they praised its " coherent musical expression " and emphasis on " solid songcraft without pretense " which created a " satisfying and melodically sound album . "
In anticipation of the 2008 US presidential election , Wilco released a downloadable version of Bob Dylan 's " I Shall Be Released " that they performed with Fleet Foxes . The MP3 was available as a free download from the band 's website in exchange for a promise to vote in the election . The band also made an appearance on The Colbert Report to support presidential candidate Barack Obama . Wilco released a live performance DVD , Ashes of American Flags , on April 18 , 2009 , to celebrate Record Store Day .
In December 2008 , Jeff Tweedy , Pat Sansone , Glenn Kotche and John Stirratt traveled to Auckland , New Zealand to participate in Neil Finn 's 7 Worlds Collide sequel project , The Sun Came Out , joined by Ed O 'Brien , Phil Selway , Johnny Marr , KT Tunstall , Liam Finn , and Lisa Germano . They wrote and recorded several new tracks for the Oxfam @-@ benefiting album including " You Never Know " , " What Could Have Been " , " Over and Done " and " Don 't Forget Me " . Jeff Tweedy co @-@ wrote " Too Blue " with Johnny Marr , and Glenn , John and Pat play on most tracks on the album .
Having enjoyed their time in New Zealand and the vibe of Finn 's own Roundhead Studios , the four members stayed in Auckland through January to record the foundation tracks for their next album . Jim Scott , who acted as engineer and mixer for the Neil Finn project , stayed on in the same capacity for the Wilco sessions . Nels Cline and Mikael Jorgensen would later add overdubs to these tracks at the band 's Chicago Loft .
= = = Wilco ( The Album ) = = =
Wilco released their seventh album , Wilco ( The Album ) , on June 30 , 2009 . In March 2009 , it was announced that singer @-@ songwriter Feist would make a guest appearance on the new album , on the track " You and I " . Like their previous three albums , Wilco streamed the entirety of the album on its website prior to release . The album hit the charts at a career @-@ high No. 4 with sales of 99 @,@ 000 on the Billboard Top 200 Album chart as well as the No. 2 spot on Billboard 's Top Rock Albums chart . It marked Wilco 's third top 10 album on the U.S. pop chart . The album 's first single " You Never Know " reached the No. 1 spot on the AAA Chart , their first No. 1 in twelve years .
Beginning in April 2009 , the band freely distributed a cover of Woody Guthrie 's " The Jolly Banker " , downloadable from their website . It was recorded at the Wilco loft in February of that year , at the suggestion of Guthrie 's daughter , Nora . Downloaders were encouraged to donate to the Woody Guthrie Foundation . Feist returned to accompany on the track , playing the Garden Weasel . The track eventually became unavailable for download . In October 2011 , the website began streaming the track via a plugin .
On May 25 , 2009 , former band member Jay Bennett died in his home in Urbana , Illinois . In a prepared statement , Jeff Tweedy remarked that he was " deeply saddened " by Bennett 's death .
Feist and Wilco performed " You and I " on Late Show with David Letterman on July 14 , 2009 . In June during their West Coast tour , Wilco joined Beck , Feist , Jamie Lidell and James Gadson in the studio to take part in Beck 's Record Club project , covering Skip Spence 's Oar album . The first song " Little Hands " was posted on Beck 's website on November 12 , 2009 .
On April 6 , 2010 , Wilco announced during their Boston performance that they would be headlining and curating a festival in North Adams , Massachusetts , dubbed Solid Sound Festival . The event ran at the Massachusetts Museum of Contemporary Art from August 13 – 15 , and featured various Wilco side projects , including The Autumn Defense , Pronto , The Nels Cline Singers , and Jeff Tweedy solo . Other bands who appeared included Mavis Staples , Avi Buffalo , Outrageous Cherry , Richard Bishop , The Books , and Vetiver . It also featured non @-@ musical media , such as the Bread and Puppet Theater and comedians Todd Barry , Kristen Schaal , John Mulaney , and Hannibal Buress as well as interactive musical installations by Cline and Kotche .
Wilco 's contract with Nonesuch ended in 2010 and they formed their own label . Wilco announced via their web site and Twitter page on January 27 , 2011 that the new label will be called dBpm Records ( Decibels per Minute ) and will be run out of the offices of their manager , Tony Margherita , in Easthampton , Massachusetts .
= = = The Whole Love = = =
Wilco 's eighth studio album , The Whole Love , was released on September 27 , 2011 . The first single of the album is titled " Art of Almost " . The B @-@ Side to " I Might " is a cover of Nick Lowe 's 1977 song " I Love My Label " . The single was shown at the Wilco 's 2011 Solid Sound Festival at MassMoca and was met by positive reviews . The entire album was streamed live on Wilco 's official website for 24 hours between September 3 and 4 , 2011 .
= = = Star Wars and Schmilco = = =
Wilco 's ninth studio album , Star Wars , was released on July 16 , 2015 , as a surprise free download . In October 2015 , Wilco announced that they would embark on a US tour beginning in early 2016 in support of the album . In December 2015 , Star Wars was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album .
On July 14 , 2016 , the band released a new single , titled " Locator " , as a free download . Four days later , the band released another new single , titled " If I Ever Was a Child " , and announced that their tenth album , Schmilco , would be released on September 9 .
= = Musical style and influence = =
Wilco 's music is typically categorized as alternative rock and alternative country . Despite their career @-@ long association with a major record label , they are generally associated with indie rock . Wilco draws influence from bands from a variety of musical genres , but primarily from music created between 1966 and 1974 . John Cale 's Paris 1919 was credited by the band as providing a musical parallel . According to Tweedy , " It was eye @-@ opening that I wasn 't the only person that felt like these worlds had a lot more in common than they 'd been given credit for — that experimentation and avant @-@ garde theory was not directly opposed to beauty , y 'know ? "
Other recording artists from that timespan appreciated by the band include John Lennon , Neil Young , and Brian Wilson . For his thirty @-@ fourth birthday , Tweedy received a private guitar lesson from Richard Lloyd of Television ; Tweedy was a fan of the group and was particularly fond of the guitar work , which he wanted to incorporate into his music . Uncle Tupelo was inspired by bands such as Jason & the Scorchers and The Minutemen , influencing the recording of Wilco 's A.M .. Tweedy and O 'Rourke enjoyed free jazz artists such as Ornette Coleman , Albert Ayler , and Derek Bailey ; they also listen to mainstream jazz by artists such as Miles Davis and John Coltrane . The lyrical structure of Wilco 's songs was dictated by classic literature and cadavre exquis — an exercise where band members take turns writing lines on a typewriter , but are only allowed to see the previously written line . Among the books that the band has cited as being stylistically influential include William H. Gass 's In the Heart of the Heart of the Country , Henry Miller 's Tropic of Cancer , and Harold Bloom 's The Anxiety of Influence : A Theory of Poetry .
Some critics have dubbed Wilco the " American Radiohead " , due to their stylistically diverse catalog . A critic from the New York Times argues that Wilco has a " roots @-@ rock ... [ sound which ] reached back to proven materials : the twang of country , the steady chug of 1960s rock , the undulating sheen of the Beach Boys , the honky @-@ tonk hymns of the Band and the melodic symmetries of pop . "
Rolling Stone described Wilco as " one of America 's most consistently interesting bands " and " America 's foremost rock impressionists . " Bands that have been influenced by Wilco include Derek Webb ( of Caedmon 's Call ) , The National , and Grace Potter and the Nocturnals . English indie rock band Cherry Ghost took its name from a lyric from the Wilco song " Theologians " ( from A Ghost Is Born ) — lead singer Simon Aldred is a self @-@ proclaimed " massive Wilco fan " . Other notable artists who have covered Wilco live include Norah Jones performing " Jesus , Etc . " which took place at the 2008 Bridge School Benefit where they both performed , a version of which was released as a bonus track on her 2009 release The Fall , Widespread Panic , and Counting Crows and the Wallflowers performing " California Stars . "
= = Band members = =
Current members
Jeff Tweedy - lead vocals , rhythm , acoustic and lead guitars , bass , harmonica ( 1994 – present )
John Stirratt - bass , backing vocals ( 1994 – present )
Glenn Kotche - drums , percussion ( 2000 – present )
Mikael Jorgensen - Samples and Sound Manipulation ( 2002 – 2004 ) , keyboards , synthesizers , effects , piano , organ ( 2004 – present )
Nels Cline - lead guitar , loops , lap steel ( 2004 – present )
Pat Sansone - keyboards , rhythm and lead guitars , backing vocals , synthesizers , maracas , tambourine ( 2004 – present )
Former members
Ken Coomer - drums , percussion ( 1994 – 2000 )
Max Johnston - dobro , fiddle , banjo , mandolin , backing vocals ( 1994 – 1996 )
Brian Henneman - lead guitar ( 1994 – 1995 )
Jay Bennett - rhythm and lead guitars , keyboards , backing vocals ( 1995 – 2001 )
Bob Egan - pedal steel , slide guitar ( 1995 – 1998 )
Leroy Bach - rhythm guitar , keyboards , backing vocals ( 1998 – 2004 )
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
A.M. ( 1995 )
Being There ( 1996 )
Summerteeth ( 1999 )
Yankee Hotel Foxtrot ( 2001 )
A Ghost Is Born ( 2004 )
Sky Blue Sky ( 2007 )
Wilco ( The Album ) ( 2009 )
The Whole Love ( 2011 )
Star Wars ( 2015 )
Schmilco ( 2016 )
= = = Collaborations with Billy Bragg = = =
Mermaid Avenue ( 1998 )
Mermaid Avenue Vol . II ( 2000 )
Mermaid Avenue : The Complete Sessions ( 2012 )
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = = Grammy Awards = = =
= = = Shortlist Music Prizes = = =
= = = Wired Rave Awards = = =
= 1899 New Richmond tornado =
The 1899 New Richmond Tornado was an estimated F5 tornado that nearly destroyed the town of New Richmond , Wisconsin , on June 12 , 1899 , killing 117 and injuring 125 people . More than $ 300 @,@ 000 ( USD ) ( $ 8 @,@ 533 @,@ 000 in today 's dollars ) in damage was reported .
= = History = =
June 12 , 1899 , was the day of the Gollmar Brothers Circus , which drew hundreds of visitors in addition to the town 's 2 @,@ 500 inhabitants . Around 3 : 00 p.m. , clouds began to build , and the sky became quite dark . As the circus ended for the day around 4 : 30 PM , a heavy rain , with some hail , began to fall . The rain let up around 5 : 00 PM , and people began to head home for the day . By 6 : 00 PM , the streets of New Richmond were full of tourists , travelers and residents .
Meanwhile , the tornado had already touched down to the southwest . It began as a waterspout on the east bank of Lake St. Croix , about 15 miles ( 24 @.@ 1 km ) from New Richmond , at around 5 : 30 PM . The tornado was described as a " boiling cloud " , which seemed to skirt the hills to the east of Lake St. Croix , and then head straight for New Richmond . Passing over mostly open country , it destroyed several farm buildings near the rural communities of Burkhardt and Boardman as it traveled northeast . Three people were killed there .
There was little warning in New Richmond . The tornado was completely illuminated by lightning , but it was visible for only a few minutes before it reached the town . Homes and businesses were demolished and torn from their foundations , flying debris filled the air , and people were swept away . The brick , three @-@ story Nicolett Hotel was completely leveled by the tornado . Some barely had time to scramble for shelter in storm cellars , but many were caught in the streets . Even some who did take refuge were killed anyway , such as those who ran into the O.J. Williams dry goods store . The store was swept away , and the people taking shelter in the basement were pelted to death by flying bricks and timbers . Most people who could not find shelter were killed . Debris of all sorts flew through the air at tremendous speeds . A 3 @,@ 000 pound safe was flung a block from its original location . Trees and timbers were hurled " like javelins " through the air , and the intense winds swept people up and threw them against walls or the ground . The northern residential section of town was completely obliterated by the tornado , with nothing left but small pieces of debris scattered about . Every home in that area was leveled or swept away . The tornado dissipated shortly after exiting the town .
Shortly thereafter , another storm with strong winds swept through , sending people back into their shelters . It is likely that some died in fires while potential help was hiding from the possibility of another tornado .
= = Aftermath = =
All but the extreme western end of the town was obliterated by the tornado and subsequent fires . More than 300 buildings were destroyed , and the only significant surviving structures were the Catholic and Baptist churches . The town 's electrical plant and water facilities were destroyed , so fires ran rampant through the scattered debris . Many bodies found in the aftermath were burnt beyond recognition — it was impossible to tell if they died from the tornado or from being trapped and burned alive .
Twenty @-@ six families experienced multiple deaths , and six reported four or more deaths in the family . After order was restored , authorities determined that a total of 117 people had been killed ( 64 in the town itself ) and more than 150 injured . This is the ninth highest death toll for any single tornado in American history . The New Richmond Tornado is generally assumed to have been an F5 tornado , with winds in excess of 261 mph .
The town was so completely damaged that it had to be essentially rebuilt . Damage claims exceeded $ 300 @,@ 000 ( $ 7 million in 2006 dollars ) , however , damages may have been as high as $ 600 @,@ 000 ( $ 14 million in 2006 dollars ) .
= Charlotte ( anime ) =
Charlotte ( シャーロット , Shārotto ) is a 13 @-@ episode Japanese anime television series produced by P.A.Works and Aniplex and directed by Yoshiyuki Asai . The anime aired in Japan between July 5 and September 27 , 2015 . An original video animation episode was released in March 2016 . Two manga series are serialized in ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki G 's Comic . The story takes place in an alternate reality where a small percentage of children manifest superhuman abilities upon reaching puberty . A focus is placed on Yuu Otosaka , a high school boy who awakens the ability to temporarily possess others , which brings him to the attention of Nao Tomori , the student council president of a school founded as a haven for children with such abilities .
The story was originally conceived by Jun Maeda , who also wrote the screenplay and composed some of the music , with original character design by Na @-@ Ga . Both Maeda and Na @-@ Ga are from the visual novel brand Key , and Charlotte is the second original anime series created by Key following Angel Beats ! in 2010 . Maeda had thought up the concept for Charlotte long before he was approached in early 2012 to work on another anime series after Angel Beats ! . Maeda narrowed down the number of main characters compared to Angel Beats ! and attempted to put more of a focus on their behavior . Instead of employing the same staff that had worked on Angel Beats ! , the aim for Charlotte was to bring together a staff that would add a new variety to the creative process to prevent being influenced by the work done on Angel Beats ! .
Charlotte was praised for its unpredictability and evocative moments , but its pacing and structure have been criticized as inefficient . It has been described as approachable for a wide audience and for defying the " moe anime " stereotype . Although the comedic elements have been called dumb and corny , they have overall been lauded for offering some relief from the serious moments , which one reviewer likened to a palate cleanser . P.A.Works ' production was praised for its beautiful animation sequences and expressive cinematography .
= = Plot = =
Charlotte takes place in an alternate reality where a short @-@ period comet called Charlotte passes near Earth every 75 years . When this happens , it spreads dust onto the Earth , which causes a small percentage of preadolescent children who inhale the dust to manifest superhuman abilities upon reaching puberty . The story follows the protagonist Yuu Otosaka , a boy who awakens the ability to temporarily possess others . Although hoping to use his ability to fraudulently live a carefree high school life , he is exposed by Nao Tomori , a girl who can make herself invisible to a specific target . She forces him to transfer to Hoshinoumi Academy ( 星ノ海学園 , Hoshinoumi Gakuen , " Sea of Stars Academy " ) and join its student council , of which she is the president . Also on the student council is Jōjirō Takajō , a boy who can move at uncontrollably high speeds . The student council 's main objective is to ensure the safety of ability users from organizations who seek to exploit their powers . In doing so , the student council warns ability users of the potential danger of openly using their abilities . This leads the student council to Yusa Nishimori , a girl who has the ability to channel the dead as a medium . Yusa 's dead older sister Misa makes use of this ability to freely possess her at any time , which allows Misa to use her own ability , pyrokinesis . Nao soon arranges for Yusa to transfer to Hoshinoumi Academy and join the student council .
Yuu 's younger sister Ayumi eventually awakens an ability to cause anything around her to suddenly collapse , which results in her death . Yuu falls into a deep depression as a result and isolates himself , but Nao successfully manages to pull him out of his depression and gets him to return to the student council . While attending a concert of the post @-@ rock band Zhiend with Nao , Yuu recollects previously suppressed memories of his brother Shunsuke , who has the ability to time travel . Shunsuke had used this ability to found Hoshinoumi Academy and an affiliated organization attempting to develop a vaccine to prevent children from developing abilities before they manifest , but repeated use leaves him blind . Yuu learns that the true nature of his ability enables him to steal someone 's ability by possessing them . Yuu steals Shunsuke 's ability to go back in time and ultimately prevent Ayumi 's death by stealing her collapse ability before she can use it .
A terrorist group manages to abduct Nao and Kumagami , one of Shunsuke 's closest friends and aides , and holds them hostage in exchange for Yuu , who attempts to rescue them . However , the operation does not go as planned , which results in Kumagami 's death and Yuu being gravely injured . After Yuu recovers , he resolves to protect all of the ability users around the world by stealing their abilities per Nao 's suggestion . As Yuu travels the world stealing abilities , the more powers he takes on soon takes its toll on him as he starts losing his memories and sense of self . However , he still manages to steal everyone 's abilities throughout the world before collapsing , Nao 's parting gift acting as his motivation . Shunsuke rescues Yuu , bringing him back to Japan among friends and family . Yuu is left with no past memories , but Nao tells him she is his girlfriend . Yuu and his friends look forward to the memories they will make from now on as Yuu continues to recover from his ordeal .
= = Characters = =
= = = Main characters = = =
Yuu Otosaka ( 乙坂 有宇 , Otosaka Yuu )
Voiced by : Kōki Uchiyama ( Japanese ) ; Ray Chase ( English )
Yuu is the protagonist of Charlotte . He develops a rude and narcissistic personality once he discovers he has the ability to take over another person 's body for five seconds , ep 1 but the true nature of his ability enables him to steal someone 's superhuman ability by possessing them.ep 9 Yuu is a first @-@ year student at Hoshinoumi Academy , and he is forced to join its student council . Initially a fake honors student and chronic cheater , Yuu is reluctant to use his ability to aide the student council , ep 2 but as time goes on , he becomes less narcissistic and much more selfless and caring towards others.ep 8 Over the course of the story , he becomes a fan of the post @-@ rock band Zhiend and falls in love with Nao.ep 9 , ep 12 After Yuu travels worldwide to steal every ability user 's power to protect them from being exploited , the strain of it causes him to lose all of his past memories.ep 13 His older brother is Shunsuke and his younger sister is Ayumi.ep 1 , ep 9
Nao Tomori ( 友利 奈緒 , Tomori Nao )
Voiced by : Ayane Sakura ( Japanese ) ; Lauren Landa ( English )
Nao is a first @-@ year student at Hoshinoumi Academy and is also its student council president.ep 1 She is a hardworking , intelligent , and shrewd girl , but is also narcissistic , self @-@ righteous , and short @-@ tempered.ep 2 , ep 3 She has the ability to make herself invisible , but this is limited to one person of her choosing at a time . She uses this ability to her advantage to attack others she believes deserve to be kicked , but this causes her to be shunned and bullied by her peers . Although she initially shows no attraction towards Yuu , ep 1 she eventually falls in love with him and stays by his side even after he loses all of his memories of her.ep 13 She is a fan of Zhiend , influenced by her older brother Kazuki ( 一希 , Voiced by : Kazuyuki Okitsu ) , who once had the ability to control air movements and vibrations , which he used when playing the guitar.ep 2
Jōjirō Takajō ( 高城 丈士朗 , Takajō Jōjirō )
Voiced by : Takahiro Mizushima ( Japanese ) ; Lucien Dodge ( English )
Jōjirō is a first @-@ year student at Hoshinoumi Academy and is a member of its student council . His ability enables him to move at very fast speeds , but he is not able to control where he stops , resulting in frequent injuries.ep 1 To counteract this , he wears protective gear under his clothes . He is a huge fan of Yusa Nishimori and is extremely obsessed with her.ep 3
Yusa Nishimori ( 西森 柚咲 , Nishimori Yusa ) / Yusa Kurobane ( 黒羽 柚咲 , Kurobane Yusa )
Voiced by : Maaya Uchida ( Japanese ) ; Ryan Bartley ( English )
Yusa , also known as " Yusarin " , is a first @-@ year student at Hoshinoumi Academy and is a member of its student council.ep 4 She has a bright and innocent personality that compliments her popularity as a pop idol and singer of the band How @-@ Low @-@ Hello . Although her actual surname is Kurobane , she uses the stage surname Nishimori.ep 3 She has a series of " magic spells " derived from her time as a regular on a variety show.ep 4 She has the ability to channel the dead as a medium . However , she is initially not aware of this and only thinks that she is sleepwalking whenever she is possessed.ep 3
Misa Kurobane ( 黒羽 美砂 , Kurobane Misa )
Voiced by : Maaya Uchida ( Japanese ) ; Ryan Bartley ( English )
Misa is Yusa 's deceased older sister by one year who died in an accident six months prior to the beginning of the story . Misa freely possess her at any time , represented by a change in Yusa 's eye and hair color . While possessing Yusa , Misa is able to use her own ability , pyrokinesis . Misa has a tomboyish and ill @-@ tempered personality , and she is not afraid to be violent against anyone looking to harm her sister.ep 3 She disappears after Yuu takes away Yusa 's power.ep 12
Ayumi Otosaka ( 乙坂 歩未 , Otosaka Ayumi )
Voiced by : Momo Asakura ( Japanese ) ; Kira Buckland ( English )
Ayumi is Yuu 's and Shunsuke 's energetic younger sister in junior high school.ep 1 She has an innocent personality and deeply cares for Yuu , providing moral support to him . Ayumi often cooks for Yuu and has a tendency to add pizza sauce to every food she makes , unaware that Yuu 's modern tastes cannot handle the sweetness.ep 2 , ep 3 She is a fan of the band How @-@ Low @-@ Hello and an avid admirer of Yusa.ep 6 She eventually awakens an ability to cause anything around her to suddenly collapse , but this is stolen by Yuu to prevent her death.ep 10
= = = Other characters = = =
Shunsuke Otosaka ( 乙坂 隼翼 , Otosaka Shunsuke ) is Yuu 's and Ayumi 's older brother , who has the ability to time travel . Using this power , he eventually manages to found Hoshinoumi Academy to protect his fellow ability users . Overuse of his ability leads him to become blind , preventing him from making further use of it.ep 10 He is voiced by Daisuke Ono .
Kumagami ( 熊耳 ) is a mysterious student at Hoshinoumi Academy , who has the ability to locate an ability user and determine their ability . He helps the student council in finding ability users.ep 2 He works for Shunsuke , who nicknames him " Pooh " .ep 10 He is killed after protecting Nao from some falling wreckage.ep 11 He is voiced by Eiji Takemoto .
Medoki ( 目時 ) has the ability of hypnotism , which she uses to make someone fall asleep , but as a result , she falls asleep as well . She works for Shunsuke.ep 10 She is voiced by Asami Seto .
Shichino ( 七野 ) has the ability of permeation , which he uses to pass through solid matter . However , this causes extreme exhaustion . He works for Shunsuke.ep 10 He is voiced by Kengo Kawanishi
Maedomari ( 前泊 ) has the ability to erase one 's memory , which requires physical contact and time to find the wanted memories . He works for Shunsuke.ep 10 He is voiced by Natsuki Hanae .
= = Production = =
= = = Creation and conception = = =
The original creators of Charlotte are Jun Maeda and Na @-@ Ga of Key , and Charlotte is the second original anime series created by Key following Angel Beats ! ( 2010 ) . Hironori Toba of Aniplex approached Maeda in early 2012 with an offer from P.A.Works president Kenji Horikawa to do another anime series with the studio . Maeda was surprised by this , as he never expected to work with P.A.Works again . Horikawa explained that the production staff could now handle things that were not able to be fully materialized during the production of Angel Beats ! . Maeda did not think he would ever be involved in the planning of another anime series , but he said that he had no choice but to accept Horikawa 's offer after discussing it with him . Toba asked Maeda to write a " Key @-@ like story " , and Maeda started out by applying his prior experience of working on Angel Beats ! . He went through a trial @-@ and @-@ error process to work out what kind of setting and story would work well for an anime series .
Long before working on Charlotte , Maeda had thought up a concept for a story with characters who have imperfect superpowers that must cooperate with each other to resolve any incidents that arise . Maeda originally submitted three separate ideas for a story to Toba , and he asked him which one he liked best . However , after Toba pointed out one of the other two , Maeda made it clear that he wanted to do the story that would become Charlotte . When writing the story , Maeda also reconsidered how he had done certain things with Angel Beats ! . In particular , he attempted to put more of a focus on the behavior of the characters . Maeda also narrowed down the number of main characters in Charlotte compared to Angel Beats ! , which could not put a focus on each and every character . Toba felt that Maeda was influenced by his work on Angel Beats ! , which changed his thought process and what he wanted to depict in Charlotte .
Maeda thought issues had arisen with the large cast of characters in Angel Beats ! , such as overlapping personality traits and not being able to remember everyone , and he used those considerations when writing Charlotte . Similarly , when designing the characters in Angel Beats ! , Na @-@ Ga had been concerned about designs being too similar among the characters , and went on to make use of that experience with Charlotte . When developing Jōjirō Takajō , he originally had a different appearance and personality , but over the course of the development process , he eventually became similar to Takamatsu from Angel Beats ! . Maeda decided fairly early on to make Yuu Otosaka a low @-@ life cheater at the start of Charlotte because he had never created a character like that before . When trying to choose a title for Charlotte , Maeda 's friend Taisei Nakagawa proposed a title which could be abbreviated as " AA " based on its similarity to Angel Beats ! ' s abbreviation of " AB " . However , Maeda did not like the title , and devised the title Charlotte as one that would surpass the original " AA " title . The title Charlotte came from the song " Charlotte " ( シャーロット , Shārotto ) by the Japanese band Art @-@ School .
= = = Development = = =
When deciding on Charlotte 's staff , Toba thought it would be better not to have exactly the same team that produced Angel Beats ! . Having already decided to stick with Maeda , Na @-@ Ga and P.A.Works , Toba aimed to bring together a staff that would add a new variety to the creative process , and in doing so would prevent being influenced by the work done on Angel Beats ! . With that in mind , Toba wanted a director who had a good understanding of Angel Beats ! and who would also be suitable as Charlotte 's director , leading him to seek out Yoshiyuki Asai . Toba took into consideration the storyboarding Asai had done for two episodes of Angel Beats ! , and he thought that Charlotte would be a good opportunity to have a first @-@ time series director . Asai was also chosen as someone who could handle both comedic and serious moments . When Horikawa first looked at Charlotte 's incomplete script , he told Maeda that it did not feel like it had the same kind of zeal that Angel Beats ! had . However , once he saw the whole script , his concerns with it were dispelled , much to Maeda 's relief .
While the entire script was still in the draft phase , Maeda revised lines that felt unnatural after asking others for their opinions on it , including Na @-@ Ga . When writing the script , Maeda made a conscious effort to write Charlotte in the framework of an anime series , as opposed to when he wrote the script for Angel Beats ! , which he admits he wrote more akin to the framework of a video game . In this way , Toba felt that Charlotte was Maeda 's effort to write a story in its purest form that could not be made into a video game , unlike Angel Beats ! . Toba also noted that the characters in Charlotte are not written for a video game scenario , especially the protagonist , and went on to echo Horikawa 's sentiment that Charlotte is akin to an I novel for Maeda . Toba explained that this is a result of Maeda 's effort to remove the restrictions that come from writing the scenario for a video game .
Kanami Sekiguchi was chosen as the character designer after Horikawa took notice of her work as the animation director of episode nine of Angel Beats ! , and Toba was eager to see how she would render Na @-@ Ga 's original designs . When it came time to choose an art director , Kazuki Higashiji was chosen for his zeal in the workplace and Horikawa 's confidence in his artistic talent ; Higashiji had also been the art director for Angel Beats ! . Similarly , Satoki Iida was brought back to work on Charlotte again as the sound and music director , and he also helped with the proofreading of the script as he had done for Angel Beats ! . Iida was largely chosen for his good communication with Maeda , and so that he could make the best use of his experience working on Angel Beats ! . When writing the music for How @-@ Low @-@ Hello , Maeda reused some older songs he had composed as a student in the 1990s that he felt were selective of his best songs from that period . At the time , his concept when composing the songs was " early B 'z " , but Maeda notes that this is no longer the case with the completed songs .
= = Media = =
= = = Manga = = =
A four @-@ panel comic strip manga , illustrated by Haruka Komowata and titled Charlotte The 4 @-@ koma : Seishun o Kakenukero ! ( Charlotte The ４コマ せーしゅんを駆け抜けろ ! ) , began serialization in the May 2015 issue of ASCII Media Works ' Dengeki G 's Comic sold on March 30 , 2015 . The first tankōbon volume for Charlotte The 4 @-@ koma was released on September 26 , 2015 . A second manga , illustrated by Makoto Ikezawa and Yū Tsurusaki , is titled Charlotte and began serialization in the September 2015 issue of Dengeki G 's Comic sold on July 30 , 2015 . Charlotte is also available on Kadokawa Corporation 's ComicWalker website . The first tankōbon volume for Charlotte , which contains chapters published before the serialization , was released on August 27 , 2015 . The second volume was released on May 26 , 2016 .
= = = Anime = = =
The Charlotte anime television series is directed by Yoshiyuki Asai and produced by P.A.Works and Aniplex . The series aired in Japan between July 5 and September 27 , 2015 . The screenplay is written by Jun Maeda , who originally conceived the series . The chief animators are Noboru Sugimitsu and Kanami Sekiguchi , and Sekiguchi based the character design used in the anime on Na @-@ Ga 's original designs . Sound and music direction is headed by Satoki Iida . The series is being released on seven Blu @-@ ray / DVD compilation volumes between September 23 , 2015 and March 30 , 2016 in limited and regular editions . The seventh volume featured an original video animation episode . Three drama CDs , written by Maeda and performed by the anime 's cast , were released with the first , third and fifth volumes . In North America , the series is licensed by Aniplex of America , who simulcasted the series on Aniplex Channel , Crunchyroll , Hulu , Daisuki , Viewster , and Animax Asia . The series was obtained by Madman Entertainment for digital distribution in Australia and New Zealand who simulcasted the series on AnimeLab .
The anime 's music is composed by Maeda , Hikarishuyo , and the group Anant @-@ Garde Eyes , who also provided the musical arrangement . The music is released on Key 's record label Key Sounds Label . The single " Bravely You / Yakeochinai Tsubasa " ( 灼け落ちない翼 ) was released on August 26 , 2015 in limited ( CD + DVD ) and regular ( CD ) editions ; the limited edition 's DVD contains the opening and ending videos without the credits . There are two in @-@ story bands : How @-@ Low @-@ Hello featuring vocals by Maaya Uchida , and Zhiend featuring vocals by Marina . One single and one album was released for both bands in 2015 . How @-@ Low @-@ Hello 's single " Rakuen Made / Hatsunetsu Days " ( 楽園まで / 発熱デイズ ) was released on September 2 , and the band 's album Smells Like Tea , Espresso was released on September 30 . Zhiend 's single " Trigger " was released on September 9 , and the band 's album Echo was released on October 14 as a two @-@ CD set for both English and Japanese lyrics . The anime 's original soundtrack was released on November 4 , 2015 as a two @-@ CD set .
An Internet radio show to promote the series titled Charlotte Radio : Tomori Nao no Seitokai Katsudō Nikki ( Charlotteラジオ 〜 友利奈緒の生徒会活動日誌 〜 , Charlotte Radio : Nao Tomori 's Student Council Activity Log ) streamed 13 weekly broadcasts between July 6 and September 28 , 2015 on Niconico . The show was also available via Hibiki Radio Station and Onsen , and was hosted by Ayane Sakura ( the voice of Nao ) . Two CD compilation volumes for the show were released between September 30 , 2015 and January 27 , 2016 .
= = Reception = =
In a review by Anime News Network , reviewer Gabriella Ekens praised the series for " sculpting singular , evocative moments " , but went on to say that a " problem arises when you try to tie them into a bigger picture . " Ekens criticized the pacing and structure of the show , calling it an " inefficient ... collection of sprawling narrative ideas " and comparing it to " Anohana suddenly turn [ ing ] into Darker than Black . " Ekens also notes that its thematic purpose " seems to be Jun Maeda 's opportunity for melodramatic elaboration on the emotional dilemmas posed by Madoka Magica . " Overall , Charlotte was lauded for its entertainment value and unpredictability , but " disappoints as a work of art . " Early on , Ekens described the series as having " sharp comedic timing , " and by episode four , she praised the comedic elements as " already much funnier than Plastic Memories . " She went on to say that " it 's dumb , but I like it for the same reasons I liked the comedy in Seraph of the End : Vampire Reign . " Chris Beveridge of The Fandom Post found Charlotte 's unpredictability " engaging " and its animation " beautiful " . Ekens praised P.A. Works for their dynamic direction and " expressive cinematography " which offers " a distinct , pleasant aesthetic . "
In a column on Mainichi Shimbun 's Mantanweb portal , Charlotte was praised for the balance it strikes to reach a wide audience , from " core fans " of anime to casual viewers , in regards to its creative use of peculiar characters coupled with a scenario focused on resolving problems . Columnist Ryō Koarai commended Charlotte for pulling in the viewer from the first episode due to Yuu 's surprising , unorthodox personality in contrast with how he uses his superhuman ability in his everyday life . Writer Seiji Nakazawa lauded Charlotte for defying the " moe anime " stereotype at first glance and for instead being what he describes as a " human drama " . He notes that Charlotte is written in much the same way as Maeda 's previous works by inserting jokes between serious moments to offer some relief to the viewer . While Nakazawa admits that some may find the jokes in Charlotte corny , he finds them acceptable and likens them to a palate cleanser .
The seven Blu @-@ ray compilation volumes ranked in the top 15 on Japan 's Oricon weekly Blu @-@ ray sales chart for animation : Volume one ranked at No. 1 , volume two ranked at No. 6 , volume three ranked at No. 9 , volume four ranked at No. 4 , volume five ranked at No. 10 , volume six ranked at No. 13 , and volume seven ranked at No. 3 . The opening and ending theme song single " Bravely You / Yakeochinai Tsubasa " debuted at No. 4 on Japan 's Oricon weekly singles chart , selling over 23 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of sales . How @-@ Low @-@ Hello 's single " Rakuen Made / Hatsunetsu Days " debuted at No. 9 on the Oricon singles chart , selling about 9 @,@ 300 copies in its first week of sales . How @-@ Low @-@ Hello 's album Smells Like Tea , Espresso debuted at No. 12 on the Oricon albums chart , selling about 9 @,@ 500 copies in its first week of sales . Zhiend 's single " Trigger " debuted at No. 11 on the Oricon singles chart , selling about 14 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of sales . Zhiend 's album Echo debuted at No. 4 on the Oricon albums chart , selling about 10 @,@ 300 copies in its first week of sales . The Charlotte Original Soundtrack debuted at No. 9 on the Oricon albums chart , selling about 6 @,@ 600 copies in its first week of sales .
= War of the Worlds ( 2005 film ) =
War of the Worlds is a 2005 American science fiction disaster film directed by Steven Spielberg and written by Josh Friedman and David Koepp , loosely based on the novel of the same title by H. G. Wells . It stars Tom Cruise , Dakota Fanning , Justin Chatwin , Miranda Otto and Tim Robbins , with narration by Morgan Freeman . In the film , an American dock worker is forced to look after his children , from whom he lives separately , and struggles to protect them and reunite them with their mother when extraterrestrials invade the Earth and devastate cities with towering war machines .
The film was shot in 73 days , using five different sound stages as well as locations in California , Connecticut , New Jersey , New York , and Virginia . The film was surrounded by a secrecy campaign so few details would be leaked before its release . Tie @-@ in promotions were made with several companies , including Hitachi . The film was released in the United States on June 29 and in United Kingdom on July 1 . War of the Worlds was a box office success , and became 2005 's fourth most successful film both domestically , with $ 234 million in North America , and $ 591 million overall . At the time of release , it was the highest @-@ grossing film starring Tom Cruise .
= = Plot = =
A narrator explains how humans were unaware that a race of intelligent extraterrestrials were making plans to occupy Earth . Ray Ferrier is a divorced crane operator longshoreman who works at a dock in Brooklyn and lives in Bayonne , NJ . Ray is estranged from his children . His former wife , Mary Ann , later drops off the children , ten @-@ year @-@ old daughter Rachel and teenage son Robbie , at Ray 's house in Bayonne on her way to visit her parents in Boston . Unexplained changes in the weather occur , including lightning that strikes multiple times in the middle of an intersection and disrupts all electricity .
Ray joins the crowd at the scene of the lightning strikes , and witnesses a massive " Tripod " war machine emerge from the ground and use alien weaponry to incinerate most of the witnesses . Ray collects his children , steals a car and drives to Mary Ann 's home in suburban New Jersey to take refuge . The next morning , he discovers that a Boeing 747 has crashed in the street . A news team scavenging for food explain that there are multiple Tripods that have attacked major cities including New York City , Washington , D.C. , and London , and have force shields to protect them from human weapons . They also explain that the lightning was how the aliens were able to enter the Tripods . Ray decides to take the kids to Boston to be with their mother . The three are forced to abandon the stolen car after a mob takes it by force . They later survive a Tripod attack which causes a Hudson River ferry to sink . During a desperate battle between the U.S. Marines and the aliens , Ray is forced to choose between being separated from Rachel and preventing Robbie from joining the fight ; he lets Robbie go with the Marines , who are overwhelmed . While escaping , Ray and Rachel are offered shelter by Harlan Ogilvy , who presumes that the aliens had buried their technology on Earth millions of years ago and has delusions that they can fight against the aliens themselves by observing their operations , as they are right next to their camp .
The three remain undetected for two days , even as a probe and a group of the aliens themselves explore the basement . The next morning , Ogilvy suffers a mental breakdown while witnessing a Tripod harvesting human blood and tissue to fertilize an alien vegetation . Concerned that the aliens may hear Ogilvy 's madness , Ray is forced to murder him . The basement hideout is exposed when a second probe catches them sleeping . Rachel is soon abducted by a nearby Tripod and Ray allows himself to be abducted , being placed in the same cage with Rachel and other prisoners . As the aliens select him for harvesting , Ray takes a belt of grenades into the machine , having pulled out the pins . The Tripod is destroyed and releases the cage , with Ray and Rachel making it out alive .
Ray and Rachel arrive in a devastated Boston , where the Tripods are collapsing . Ray notices birds landing on a nearby Tripod , indicating that its shields are down . Ray alerts the soldiers escorting his refugee group and they shoot it down . As soldiers advance on the downed Tripod , a hatch opens releasing a liquid and then an alien struggles halfway out , and then decays immediately . Ray and Rachel reach Mary Ann 's parents ' house , where they are reunited with Mary Ann and , to their surprise , Robbie . The closing narration reveals that the aliens were immune to man 's machines , but were not immune to the microbes present on Earth .
= = Cast = =
Tom Cruise as Ray Ferrier
Dakota Fanning as Rachel Ferrier
Justin Chatwin as Robbie Ferrier
Miranda Otto as Mary Ann Ferrier
Tim Robbins as Harlan Ogilvy
Rick Gonzalez as Vincent
Yul Vázquez as Julio
Lenny Venito as Manny the Mechanic
Lisa Ann Walter as Cheryl
Ann Robinson as Grandmother ( played lead role of Sylvia van Buren in the 1953 film )
Gene Barry as Grandfather ( played lead role of Dr. Clayton Forrester in the 1953 film )
David Alan Basche as Tim
Roz Abrams as Herself
Camillia Sanes as News Producer
Amy Ryan as Neighbor with Toddler
Danny Hoch as Policeman
Morgan Freeman as the Narrator ( voice )
Channing Tatum as Boy in Church Scene ( uncredited )
Dee Bradley Baker as Alien Vocals ( uncredited )
Columbus Short as Soldier ( uncredited )
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
After collaborating in 2002 's Minority Report , Steven Spielberg and Tom Cruise were interested in working together again . Spielberg stated about Cruise , " He 's such an intelligent , creative partner , and brings such great ideas to the set that we just spark each other . I love working with Tom Cruise . " Cruise met with Spielberg during the filming of Spielberg 's Catch Me If You Can ( 2002 ) and gave three options of films to create together , one of them being an adaptation of The War of the Worlds . Spielberg chose The War of the Worlds and stated , " We looked at each other and the lights went on . As soon as I heard it , I said ' Oh my God ! War of the Worlds – absolutely . ' That was it . "
The film is Spielberg 's third on the subject of alien visitation , along with Close Encounters of the Third Kind and E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial . Producer and longtime collaborator Kathleen Kennedy notes that with War of the Worlds , Spielberg had the opportunity to explore the antithesis of the characters brought to life in E.T. and Close Encounters of the Third Kind . " When we first started developing E.T. , it was a much edgier , darker story and it actually evolved into something that was more benign . I think that the edgier , darker story has always been somewhere inside him . Now , he '
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4 ) , survived the crash . Sikorski was subsequently buried in a brick @-@ lined grave at the Polish War Cemetery in Newark @-@ on @-@ Trent , England on 16 July that year . Winston Churchill delivered a eulogy at his funeral . On 14 September 1993 , his remains were exhumed and transferred via Polish Air Force TU @-@ 154M , and escorted by RAF 56 Sqn Tornado F3 jets , to the royal crypts at Wawel Castle in Kraków , Poland .
= = Aftermath and remembrance = =
Immediately after the crash , a Polish officer who had witnessed the event from the airstrip began sobbing quietly and repeating : " This is the end of Poland . This is the end of Poland . " ( " To Polska stracona ! " ) General Sikorski 's death marked a turning point for Polish influence amongst the Anglo @-@ American allies . No Pole after him would have much sway with the Allied politicians . Sikorski had been the most prestigious leader of the Polish exiles and his death was a severe setback for the Polish cause . After the Soviets had broken off diplomatic relations with Sikorski 's government in April 1943 , in May and June Stalin had recalled several Soviet ambassadors for " consultations " : Maxim Litvinov from Washington , Fyodor Gusev from Montreal , and Ivan Maisky from London . While Churchill had been publicly supportive of Sikorski 's government , reminding Stalin of his pact with Nazi Germany in 1939 and their joint attack on Poland , in secret consultations with Roosevelt he admitted that some concessions would have to be made by Poland to appease the powerful Soviets . The Polish – Soviet crisis was beginning to threaten cooperation between the western Allies and the Soviet Union at a time when the Poles ' importance to the western Allies , essential in the first years of the war , was beginning to fade with the entry into the conflict of the military and industrial giants , the Soviet Union and the United States .
The Allies had no intention of allowing Sikorski 's successor , Stanisław Mikołajczyk , to threaten the alliance with the Soviets . No representative of the Polish government was invited to the Tehran Conference ( 28 November – 1 December 1943 ) or the Yalta Conference ( 4 – 11 February 1945 ) , the two crucial events in which the Western Allies and the Soviet Union discussed the shape of the post @-@ war world and decided on the fate of Poland . Only four months after Sikorski 's death , in November 1943 , at Tehran , Churchill and Roosevelt agreed with Stalin that the whole of Poland east of the Curzon Line would be ceded to the Soviets . In Teheran , neither Churchill nor Roosevelt objected to Stalin 's suggestion that the Polish government in exile in London was not representing Polish interests ; as historian Anita Prażmowska noted , " this spelled the end of that government 's tenuous influence and raison d 'être . " After the Teheran Conference , Stalin decided to create his own puppet government for Poland , and a Committee of National Liberation ( PKWN ) was proclaimed in the summer of 1944 . The Committee was recognized by the Soviet Government as the only legitimate authority in Poland , while Mikołajczyk 's Government in London , was termed by the Soviets an " illegal and self @-@ styled authority . " Mikołajczyk would serve in the Prime Minister 's role until 24 November 1944 , when , realizing the increasing powerlessness of the government in exile , he resigned and was succeeded by Tomasz Arciszewski , " whose obscurity " , in the words of historian Mieczysław B. Biskupski , " signaled the arrival of the government in exile at total inconsequentiality . " Stalin soon began a campaign for recognition by the Western Allies of a Soviet @-@ backed Polish government led by Wanda Wasilewska , a dedicated communist with a seat in the Supreme Soviet , with General Zygmunt Berling , commander of the 1st Polish Army in Russia , as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of all Polish armed forces . By the time of the Potsdam conference in 1945 , Poland has been relegated to the Soviet sphere of influence ; an abandonment of the Polish government in exile that has led to the rise of the Western betrayal concept .
A number of poems dedicated to Sikorski have been written by Polish authors during the war . In its aftermath , in the People 's Republic of Poland , Sikorski 's historic role , like that of all the adherents of the London government , would be minimized and distorted by propaganda , and those loyal to the government @-@ in @-@ exile would be liable to imprisonment and even execution . In time , restrictions on discussing Sikorski began to ease ; on a centennial anniversary of his birth in 1981 , commemorative events were held on the Rzeszów Voivodeship , including an academic conference , and revealing of plaques in Nisko and Leżajsk . Ryszard Zieliński published a novel on him , Wejście w mrok ( 1971 ) , and in 1983 a movie , Katastrofa w Gibraltarze by Bohdan Poręba , was made . The Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile , of which Sikorski was the first Prime Minister , would continue in existence until the end of communist rule in Poland in 1990 , when Lech Wałęsa became the first post @-@ communist President of Poland . On 17 September 1993 a statue of Sikorski , sculpted by Wiesław Bielak , was revealed in Rzeszów . In 1995 , Sikorski became the patron of the newly formed Polish 9th Mechanized Brigade . In 2003 , the Polish parliament ( Sejm ) declared the year ( 60th anniversary of Sikorski 's death ) to be the " Year of General Sikorski " . A number of streets and schools in Poland bear Sikorski 's name .
Memory of General Sikorski was also preserved both in Poland and abroad , by organizations like the Sikorski Institute in London . In the UK , Sikorski received honoris causa degrees from the University of Liverpool and University of St Andrews . In 1981 , a commemorative plaque was revealed at Hotel Rubens in London , where during the war Polish Military Headquarters , including Sikorski 's office , were located . He is commemorated in London 's Portland Place , near the Embassy of Poland , with a larger than life statue , unveiled in 2000 . A propeller from the plane in which he died is the centrepiece of a new memorial to Sikorski at Europa Point , Gibraltar .
= = Controversy surrounding his death = =
A British Court of Inquiry convened on July 7 that year investigated the crash of Sikorski 's Liberator II serial AL 523 , but was unable to determine the cause , finding only that it was an accident and " due to jamming of elevator controls " , noting that " it has not been possible to determine how the jamming occurred but it has been established that there was no sabotage . " . The Polish government refused to endorse this report , due to the contradiction about the cause not being determined but sabotage being ruled out .
The political context of the event , coupled with a variety of curious circumstances , immediately gave rise to numerous speculation that Sikorski 's death had been no accident , and may have been the direct result of a Soviet , British , or even Polish conspiracy . Some modern sources still note that the accident is not fully explained ; for example Jerzy Jan Lerski in his Historical Dictionary of Poland ( 1996 ) , entry on the " Gibraltar , Catastrophe of " , notes that " there are several theories explaining the event , but the mystery was never fully solved . " However , as Roman Wapiński noted in his biographical entry on Sikorski in the Polish Biographical Dictionary in 1997 , no conclusive evidence of any wrongdoing has been found , and Sikorski 's official cause of death is listed as an accident .
In 2008 Sikorski was exhumed and his remains were examined by Polish scientists , who in 2009 concluded that he died due to injuries consistent with an air crash , and that there was no evidence that Sikorski was murdered , ruling out theories that he was shot or strangled before the incident ; however they did not rule out the possibility of sabotage , which is still being investigated by the Polish Institute of National Remembrance . As of 2012 , the investigation continues .
= = Honours and awards = =
Order of the White Eagle ( posthumously in 1943 )
Commander 's Cross of the Order of Virtuti Militari ( in 1923 ; previously awarded the Silver Cross in 1921 )
Grand Cross of the Order of Polonia Restituta ( previously awarded the Commander 's Cross )
Order of the Cross of Grunwald , I Class - July 2 , 1946 , posthumously by the State National Council
Cross of Valour - four times
Gold Cross of Merit
Grand Officer of the Order of Leopold ( Belgium )
Grand Cross of the Order of the White Lion ( Czechoslovakia )
Cross of Liberty ( Estonia ) , Classes I and II ( Estonia )
Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour ( France )
War Cross - August 1943 , posthumously ( Norway )
Grand Cross of the Order of the Crown of Romania , with spades ( Romania )
= = Works = =
General Sikorski was also an active writer on the subjects of military tactics and describing his personal war experiences . His works include :
Regulamin musztry Związku Strzeleckiego i elementarna taktyka piechoty ( Drill Regulations of the Riflemen 's Association and Basic Infantry Tactics ) , 1911 .
Nad Wisłą i Wkrą . Studium do polsko – radzieckiej wojny 1920 roku ( At the Vistula and the Wkra Rivers : a Contribution to the Study of the Polish – Soviet War of 1920 ) , 1923 ; latest edition , Warsaw , 1991 .
O polską politykę państwową . Umowy i deklaracje z okresu pełnienia urzędu prezesa Rady Ministrów 18 XII 1922 – 26 V 1923 ( Polish National Policies : Agreements and Declarations from My Tenure as Prime Minister , December 18 , 1922 to May 26 , 1923 ) , 1923 .
Podstawy organizacji naczelnych władz wojskowych w Polsce ( Basic Organization of the Supreme Military Authorities in Poland ) , 1923 .
Polesie jako węzeł strategiczny wschodniego frontu ( Polesie as a Strategic Node of the Eastern Front ) , 1924 .
La campagne polono @-@ russe de 1920 ( French : The Polish @-@ Russian Campaign of 1920 ) , 1928 .
Polska i Francja w przeszłości i w dobie współczesnej ( Poland and France in the Past and in the Present Day ) , 1931 .
Przyszła wojna – jej możliwości i charakter oraz związane z nimi zagadnienia obrony kraju ( War in the Future : Its Capacities and Character and Associated Questions of National Defense ) , 1934 ; translated into French in 1934 , and into English in 1943 ; latest edition Warsaw , MON , 1972 .
Some of his works have been collected in :
Generał Władysław Sikorski : Publicystyka generała Władysława Sikorskiego na łamach Kuriera Warszawskiego w latach 1928 – 1939 ( General Władysław Sikorski : Articles by General Władysław Sikorski in the Warsaw Courier , 1928 – 1939 ) , Oficyna Wydawnicza Aspra , 1999 , ISBN 83 @-@ 908937 @-@ 3 @-@ 8 .
= = = Other sources = = =
Dead Men 's Secrets the Mysterious Death of General Sikorski , The History Channel DVD , ASIN : B0007V0YCQ
Whiteley , Justin , Smierc Generala Sikorskiego , Bellona , 2007 , ISBN 978 @-@ 83 @-@ 11 @-@ 10921 @-@ 6
Generał Sikorski , premier , naczelny wodz ( General Sikorski : Prime Minister , Commander in Chief ) , London , Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum , 1981 , ISBN 0 @-@ 902508 @-@ 09 @-@ 1 .
= Little Athletics =
Little Athletics is an Australian activity program that involves modified athletics events for children aged 5 to 15 ( or 16 in ACT , NSW , Qld and SA ) . More than 100 @,@ 000 young Australians competed in the sport in the 2013 / 14 season .
The competitions were founded by Trevor Billingham , a young Australian athletics enthusiast from Geelong , Victoria , in 1964 . By 1967 , there were more than 35 Little Athletics clubs in Victoria , and the decision was made to start the Victorian Little Athletics Association ( VLAA ) .
Soon after the formation of the VLAA , other states expressed interest in Little Athletics . In February 1968 , a year after the formation of the VLAA , Western Australia held its first Little Athletics meet at Perry Lakes Stadium . In 1972 , the states of Victoria , New South Wales , Northern Territory and Western Australia became the founding members of The Australian Little Athletics Union ( ALAU ) , which was formed in Perth . By 1974 , Tasmania , Australian Capital Territory , South Australia and Queensland had all joined the ALAU .
= = Events = =
Available Little Athletics events vary between age groups and from state to state . The following represents the range of events available .
= = Structure and governance = =
Under the independent governing body Little Athletics Australia ( LAA ) , each mainland state and territory has its own association , responsible for running Little Athletics in that state . Each state body controls the relevant centres and events in their state or territory . Clubs are the lowest level of the Little Athletics structure . Clubs are sections of centres , often have separate training sections and inform athletes of upcoming events .
= = History = =
In October 1963 , three young boys turned up at a senior athletics meet in Geelong , Victoria . They approached official Trevor Billingham , but Billingham turned them away citing their youth as a reason for them not to be allowed to compete . A few months later , Billingham held a coaching camp for secondary school students . His camp had a lot of primary school students in attendance .
Billingham decided to set up a Saturday competition for younger children . The first competition was on 3 October 1964 , in Geelong . Billingham had advertised the event in the Geelong Advertiser by saying :
" Also starting this Saturday , will be the special morning meeting for boys and girls . These will commence at 10 : 30 a.m. each Saturday and will be open to any school age competitor . It is intended that boys and girls not old enough to compete in the afternoon will take part in these special meetings . Anyone interested in the sport may attend , including parents , while the one @-@ hour of athletics is conducted . All of the standard athletic events will be conducted and boys and girls will be graded in each event . "
After the event , he wrote a one @-@ page article titled " Junior Athletics in Wet Conditions " , which appeared in the Geelong Advertiser on 5 October 1964 . He wrote that more than 80 boys and girls attended . He also wrote that there was a considerable need for such junior athletic competitions at the time , that the event was a success , and more events of the same type were to be held in the future .
By 1965 , Billingham had still not convinced the Geelong branch of the Victorian Amateur Athletics Association ( VAAA ) . In January 1965 , Billingham acquired lights for the Geelong senior athletics oval , Landy Field , which was also where the Little Athletics competition were . The lights were originally erected at Kardinia Park for the 1956 Olympics ; Billingham asked the Geelong Football Club if he could use the lights , and they allowed him . Billingham invited Ron Clarke to the now lighted Landy Field to break the 20 @,@ 000 meters and one hour run world records , and Clarke accepted . In January 1965 , Billingham also thought up the name " Little Athletics " ; previously the events had been called " Junior Athletics " . He took his two proposals to the VAAA , and both were accepted .
On 9 October 1965 , the 1965 / 66 Geelong Little Athletics season started . 14 meets were held , with a fee of three shillings for the season .
Billingham was the sole preparer for the Ron Clarke visit . When Clarke came , he broke both world records and brought fame to the Geelong Centre of the VAAA at Landy Field .
Despite his success with Clarke , Billingham still could not get support for Little Athletics from VAAA ; instead , they suggested he drop the junior competition and focus on the rapidly expanding senior one . One of the delegates , Jack Frewin , encouraged him to push through with his idea , so he published a notice in the Geelong Advertiser announcing that he needed to start a formation of Little Athletics clubs . There was a meeting of interested parents , and Billingham told them that he thought an organisation should be set up based on his experience from the seniors competitions but he need some parents to help him . On 27 November 1965 , six clubs were formed . They were run by parents with Billingham as an overall manager . By the end of the 1965 / 66 season , more than 200 boys and girls were competing regularly across nine clubs , and more than 500 had tried out at least once . The first Geelong championships were held in March 1966 over the long weekend .
There was another meeting in March 1966 . John McGlynn , an executive from the Ford Motor Company , suggested that there was a need to encourage other clubs from areas outside Geelong to start up . By September 1966 , there were clubs in Geelong , Belmont , Newtown , Lara , Corio YMCA and St Thomas . They were all based around local high schools .
In May 1967 , the Victorian Little Athletics Association ( VLAA ) was formed . By 1969 , there were 39 clubs in the VLAA . The first Western Australian meet was in February 1968 at Perry Lakes Stadium . In March 1968 , a Western Australian association was formed . Competitions in New South Wales started in October 1968 . In 1972 , the Australian Little Athletics Union ( ALAU ) was formed in Perth . Victoria , New South Wales , Northern Territory and Western Australia were the founding members . Tasmania , South Australia , Australian Capital Territory and Queensland joined shortly afterwards .
= = Current = =
In the 2013 / 14 season , Little Athletics had more than 100 @,@ 000 athletes and approximately 500 centres . Every year , there is a national championship for athletes under 13 years old , in which each state has a team of its best athletes .
In July 2014 , Jetstar Airways announced a two @-@ year sponsorship deal with Little Athletics Australia ( LAA ) , which saw the Australian airline becoming the first naming partner of LAA .
= Andre Boucaud =
Andre Christopher Boucaud ( born 10 October 1984 ) is a professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for League Two club Dagenham & Redbridge .
Boucaud started his career in the youth system at Queens Park Rangers before moving to Reading , with whom he signed a professional contract in 2002 . He had two spells on loan with Peterborough United in 2003 and signed for the club permanently in 2004 . He had a loan spell with Aldershot Town of the Conference National in 2005 and was released by Peterborough in 2006 . Boucaud spent a season with Kettering Town in the Conference North before signing for League Two club Wycombe Wanderers in 2007 . He was released after one season and went on to spend two and a half seasons with Kettering after returning in 2008 . He left them after signing for York City in 2011 , following an initial loan spell at the club . Boucaud signed for Luton Town shortly after a year with York . Less than a year later he joined Notts County on loan , before signing permanently in 2013 . In 2014 he signed for League Two side Dagenham & Redbridge after leaving Notts County .
Despite being born in England , Boucaud has represented Trinidad and Tobago , the homeland of his parents , at international level . He made his debut in 2004 as a substitute against Iraq , with his first start coming against Northern Ireland . He played in three 2006 FIFA World Cup qualifiers for Trinidad .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Born in Enfield , London , Boucaud joined the youth system at Queens Park Rangers in 2000 and after the club lost their Academy status he moved to the Reading youth system towards the end of 2001 . After breaking into Reading 's reserve team he signed a professional contract with the club on 25 March 2002 that contracted him at the club until the summer of 2004 . Boucaud was pursued by Premier League club Arsenal although he stayed with Reading as they gave him a three @-@ year contract . He was loaned out to Second Division side Peterborough United until the end of the 2002 – 03 season on 27 March 2003 and he made his debut two days later as an 85th minute substitute in a 5 – 1 victory at Mansfield Town . He finished the season with six appearances for Peterborough .
Reading agreed to allow Boucaud to rejoin Peterborough on loan in June 2003 , and Reading manager Alan Pardew said " he 's done enough to convince me that I shouldn 't keep him there for too long " . His return to Peterborough was completed on an initial one @-@ month loan on 8 August 2003 . His first appearance after returning was in a 4 – 3 defeat to Hartlepool United the following day , and in September 2003 Peterborough manager Barry Fry said he wanted to extend Boucaud 's stay at the club . Having made nine appearances and scored one goal for Peterborough in two months , he returned to Reading on 7 October 2003 .
= = = Peterborough United = = =
Fry spoke of his desire to re @-@ sign Boucaud , and after Reading released him on 10 May 2004 he re @-@ signed for Peterborough on a two @-@ year contract on 14 May . He made 24 appearances and scored one goal during the 2004 – 05 season . Boucaud joined Conference National team Aldershot Town on a three @-@ month loan on 16 September 2005 . He returned to Peterborough after being recalled from his loan on 15 December 2005 , which he finished with 13 appearances . Following his return to the club he was challenged by manager Mark Wright to fight for his place in the team . After failing to figure in Wright 's and subsequently Steve Bleasdale 's plans , Boucaud was released by Peterborough on 9 May 2006 after his contract was allowed to expire .
= = = Kettering Town = = =
He signed for Conference North team Kettering Town on 19 May 2006 and made his debut in a 1 – 0 victory over Hyde United on 12 August . He stayed with the club for one season and appeared in both legs of the play @-@ off semi @-@ final against Farsley Celtic , which Kettering lost 4 – 2 in a penalty shoot @-@ out following a 1 – 1 draw on aggregate . He made 50 appearances and scored five goals for the club before leaving on 5 June 2007 after new manager Mark Cooper decided against retaining him .
= = = Wycombe Wanderers = = =
Boucaud joined League Two side Wycombe Wanderers on a free transfer on a one @-@ year contract on 8 August 2007 after impressing during a pre @-@ season trial . His debut came as a 78th @-@ minute substitute in Wycombe 's opening day 1 – 0 defeat against Accrington Stanley on 11 August 2007 . This was followed by his first start in a 2 – 2 draw at Dagenham & Redbridge the following weekend . He finished the 2007 – 08 season with 11 appearances for Wycombe and the club released him on 21 May 2008 .
= = = Return to Kettering Town = = =
He rejoined Kettering , by this time in the Conference Premier , on a one @-@ year contract on 5 August 2008 . He played for Kettering when they were defeated 4 – 2 by Premier League side Fulham in the fourth round of the FA Cup on 24 January 2009 , and was named man of the match by the Daily Mirror , who reported that Boucaud " ran the midfield " . Manager Cooper said in February 2009 he believed Boucaud was set " for greater things " after his performances during the 2008 – 09 season . He finished the season with 55 appearances and Kettering took up an option to extend his contract in May 2009 . He played a part when Kettering reached the FA Cup second round in the 2009 – 10 season , playing in a 1 – 1 draw with League One team Leeds United and in the 5 – 1 defeat in the replay . This season saw Boucaud make 41 appearances .
Boucaud committed his future to Kettering after signing a new two @-@ year contract with the club in May 2010 . He made his first appearance of the 2010 – 11 season in a 0 – 0 draw at Gateshead on 14 August 2010 . He was handed the captaincy in October following the appointment of Marcus Law as manager .
= = = York City = = =
After Kettering chairman Imraan Ladak decided to reduce the club 's wage bill , Boucaud joined Conference Premier rivals York City on loan until January 2011 on 26 November 2010 , with a view to a permanent transfer upon completion of the loan period . He had made 21 appearances for Kettering up to that point in the season . His debut for York came as a 76th @-@ minute substitute in a 0 – 0 draw at Kidderminster Harriers on 30 November 2010 , which was followed by his first start and home debut in a 1 – 0 defeat to Conference North side Boston United in the FA Trophy first round on 11 December . Boucaud signed for York permanently for a fee of £ 20 @,@ 000 on 5 January 2011 on a two @-@ and @-@ half @-@ year contract that would expire in the summer of 2013 . His first game after signing permanently came after starting in a 1 – 0 victory over Grimsby Town on 11 January 2011 . He finished the season with 20 York appearances .
Boucaud scored his first goal for York with the side 's opening goal in a 5 – 1 victory away at former club Kettering on 23 August 2011 . He was handed a three @-@ match suspension after being red carded during a 0 – 0 draw away at Barrow on 19 November 2011 after being adjudged by the referee to have raised his arms during the melee following the sending off of teammate Jason Walker during stoppage time . York 's Conference Premier rivals Fleetwood Town made an offer for Boucaud during the January 2012 transfer window , but this was rejected by manager Gary Mills .
= = = Luton Town = = =
Boucaud signed for York 's Conference Premier rivals Luton Town on a one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract for a fee of £ 25 @,@ 000 on 31 January 2012 . He played in six games before falling out of favour with new Luton manager Paul Buckle , who used Boucaud in just one game as a substitute .
= = = Notts County = = =
During pre @-@ season for the 2012 – 13 campaign , Buckle stated that " [ Boucaud ] ’ s not in our plans , he knows that . " On 1 August 2012 , Boucaud joined League One side Notts County on loan until January 2013 . He made his debut for Notts County in a 2 – 0 victory over Hartlepool on 21 August 2012 , winning the man of the match award in what was described as an " assured performance ... knitting play together well with short , sharp passes " . Boucaud scored his first goal for the club in a 2 – 1 victory over Coventry City on 20 October 2012 , with a strike from 25 yards . It was also his first Football League goal in eight years . He signed for Notts County permanently on a one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract for an undisclosed fee on 10 January 2013 . Boucaud was a key player for County as he completed the season with 43 appearances and one goal for Notts County . However , he fell out of favour under Shaun Derry and was released in May 2014 having made 33 appearances in the 2013 – 14 season .
= = = Dagenham & Redbridge = = =
In July 2014 , he joined League Two side Dagenham & Redbridge on trial , and impressed in the pre @-@ season before signing a one @-@ year contract on 7 August . He made his debut in a 3 – 0 home defeat to Morecambe on the opening day of the 2014 – 15 season on 9 August 2014 .
= = International career = =
Although born in England , Boucaud qualifies to play for Trinidad and Tobago through his parents , with his father born in Port of Spain and his mother born in Princes Town . At the age of 19 his international debut came as a 61st @-@ minute substitute in a 2 – 0 friendly victory over Iraq at The Hawthorns on 23 May 2004 . A week later , he played in a 4 – 1 defeat against Scotland on 30 May 2004 , in which he forced goalkeeper Craig Gordon into making a save from a " raking drive " . His first start for Trinidad was in a 3 – 0 defeat to Northern Ireland on 6 June 2004 . He played in three 2006 FIFA World Cup qualifiers for Trinidad , playing against Saint Kitts and Nevis once and Mexico twice .
Boucaud was called up by Trinidad for the first time since 2004 for a friendly against Haiti on 10 August 2011 , although the game was postponed due to a lack of funds . This was followed by a call @-@ up for Trinidad 's 2014 FIFA World Cup qualifiers against Bermuda and Barbados . He was named on the bench for both of these matches . Boucaud was not capped again until 4 June 2013 , when he started in Trindad 's 4 – 0 friendly defeat away to Romania . He scored his first international goal in a 3 – 1 win over Saudi Arabia in the 2013 OSN Cup on 9 September 2013 .
= = Style of play = =
Boucaud is a midfielder who can play in attacking and defensive midfield positions . He is described as a " stylish player with a deft touch " who has " the ability to create chances as well as provide a shield to the [ defence ] " . After signing for Wycombe in 2007 he was described by manager Paul Lambert as a " gritty competitor who is also very good on the ball " .
= = Personal life = =
While suffering an unknown illness in the summer of 2009 , it was suspected that Boucaud could have contracted swine flu . His first child was born in 2010 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of match played 7 May 2016 .
= = = International = = =
As of match played 3 June 2016 .
= = = International goals = = =
As of match played 3 June 2016 . Trinidad and Tobago score listed first , score column indicates score after each Boucaud goal .
= Yesterday 's Enterprise =
" Yesterday 's Enterprise " is the 63rd episode of the television series Star Trek : The Next Generation . It was the 15th episode of the third season . The episode first aired in syndication the week of February 19 , 1990 . In the plot , the crew of the USS Enterprise @-@ D must decide whether to send the time @-@ travelling Enterprise @-@ C back through a temporal rift to its certain destruction in order to prevent their own disastrous timeline from ever occurring .
The plot for " Yesterday 's Enterprise " came from the uniting of two story ideas ; one which featured the crew of the time @-@ travelling Enterprise @-@ C , and another episode which featured the return of Denise Crosby , whose character had been killed in the show 's first season . Trent Christopher Ganino and Eric A. Stillwell rewrote the story to more prominently feature the character of Guinan , and the script was completed by a team of five writers .
Filming of the episode lasted a week ; some planned elements , including death scenes for many of the characters , were either too time @-@ intensive or costly to film . In syndication , " Yesterday 's Enterprise " outperformed most of the third season 's episodes with a 13 @.@ 1 ranking , the third @-@ highest number for the series at the time . The episode is cited as a favorite by members of the cast and by reviewers .
In December 2015 , writer / director Quentin Tarantino cited this episode as one he feels could be expanded into a feature film ( on Podcast " The Nerdist " hosted by Chris Hardwick on December 18 , 2015 ) .
= = Plot = =
The Enterprise @-@ D encounters a rift in space @-@ time while on a routine mission . As they monitor the anomaly , the heavily damaged USS Enterprise @-@ C , a ship believed destroyed more than two decades earlier , emerges . Instantly , the Enterprise @-@ D undergoes a sudden and radical change : it is now a warship and the Federation is at war with the Klingons . Neither Worf nor Counselor Troi are seen or referred to , and Tasha Yar runs the tactical station . None of the crew notice the change , but Guinan senses that reality has changed , and has a meeting with Captain Picard . She says , for example , that there are supposed to be children on the ship , which of course is completely impractical on a warship . She suggests that the Enterprise @-@ C does not belong in their time and should return to the past . Picard , who knows that this would be a suicide mission , refuses to give such an order on Guinan 's intuition alone .
Captain Rachel Garrett of the Enterprise @-@ C and her crew learn they have travelled into the future . Garrett explains that they were responding to a distress call from the Klingon outpost on Narendra III , and were attacked by Romulan warbirds . While the crew works to repair the Enterprise @-@ C and tend to the crew 's injuries , Picard and his command staff discuss whether or not the ship should return to the past . Riker argues that their deaths would be meaningless , but Data suggests that it would be considered an honorable act by the Klingons . Picard discusses the situation with Garrett , who tells him that her crew will serve the Federation in the present . Picard quietly reveals to her that the Federation is on the verge of defeat and the presence of one ship will make no difference , but if the Enterprise @-@ C were to return to the past they might prevent the war from ever starting . Garrett agrees and announces to her crew that they will return through the anomaly , but at that moment , the two ships are ambushed by a Klingon Bird of Prey . Garrett is killed , and her helmsman , Richard Castillo , takes command .
During the repair efforts , Yar has become close to Castillo , but is unnerved by tense interactions with Guinan . Guinan reveals to Yar that she knows that Yar dies a meaningless death in the alternate timeline , and the two never should have met . Yar requests a transfer to the Enterprise @-@ C based on Guinan 's advice , to which Picard agrees .
As the Enterprise @-@ C prepares to return through the anomaly , three Klingon battlecruisers attack . With the anomaly becoming unstable , Picard orders the Enterprise @-@ D to cover the Enterprise @-@ C 's withdrawal . The Enterprise @-@ D suffers major crew losses under the Klingon barrage , including the death of Commander Riker , forcing Picard to man tactical himself . With the Enterprise @-@ D on the brink of destruction , the Enterprise @-@ C traverses the anomaly .
In the restored timeline , Guinan , still subtly aware of these events , asks La Forge to tell her more about Yar .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
At the beginning of Star Trek : The Next Generation 's third season , Michael Piller became the series ' head writer . Among the changes he implemented was to open the submission process for stories to non @-@ professional writers , or those not represented by agents ; though the studio resisted the effort , The Next Generation became the first show in Hollywood to allow such writers to submit their scripts . As soon as word got out , the studio was swamped with scripts — more than 5 @,@ 000 would arrive in a single year .
Among the scripts submitted by freelance or aspiring writers was one by Trent Christopher Ganino . Ganino completed a third draft of his speculative script in April 1989 and submitted it to the office of pre @-@ production associate Eric A. Stillwell . Ganino 's script , titled " Yesterday 's Enterprise " , ran 106 pages , far longer than the usual 65 @-@ page submission guideline , but a special allowance was made since the script was double @-@ spaced . The story involved the Enterprise @-@ D 's response to a crisis in the Golecian sector and the discovery of the Enterprise @-@ C , which had been destroyed 18 years before . The crew of the Enterprise @-@ C is in awe of the newer ship 's technology , but Picard is confronted with revealing to their guests their ultimate fate . An Enterprise @-@ C ensign accidentally discovers the fate of his vessel and panics ; Worf and Riker must capture him after he attempts to escape . When Golecian warships attack , Picard defends the Enterprise @-@ C using the same maneuver that caused the vessel 's destruction in the past . The ensign is hypnotized and returned to his ship , which returns to the past to its certain destruction .
Due to the backlog of scripts , processing all the drafts could take anywhere from weeks to a year . Ganino 's script was " logged " on May 2 and first read later that month by Richard Manning , a co @-@ producer on the writing staff . Manning commented that the draft was " not horrible , not particularly original , but good in spots , lousy in others " ; while not the review Ganino had hoped for , it was enough to keep the script in circulation .
Meanwhile , Ganino and Stillwell had struck up a friendship and began to develop ideas for other episodes . Gene Roddenberry had distributed a memo that suggested that though it would be unlikely to feature Leonard Nimoy as Spock on the series due to financial considerations , he suggested a reasonable alternative would be to feature Mark Lenard , who played Spock 's father , Sarek . Stillwell also met Denise Crosby , who had played Tasha Yar in the show 's first season , at a 1989 fan convention in San Jose . Over dinner , Crosby admitted she missed being part of the show and suggested that Stillwell could write a script to bring back her character , who had been killed off in the episode " Skin of Evil " . Ganino and Stillwell began to work on script ideas that would involve both Yar and Sarek .
In the meantime , executive story editor Melinda Snodgrass read Ganino 's spec script for " Yesterday 's Enterprise " in June and attached a post @-@ it note that declared that the story was an " interesting idea " . A " coverage " of the script , which outlined the plot and provided creative feedback , was written in August . The coverage 's analysis called the script a " good effort by an unrepresented writer " , and considered the script 's weak characterization and plot issues correctable . The main issue was whether the producers wanted to do a show with time travel .
Ganino and Stillwell were particular fans of two episodes from the original Star Trek series , " Mirror , Mirror " and " The City on the Edge of Forever " , and wanted to combine elements from them for a Next Generation episode . The foundation of their episode involved a team of Vulcans investigating the Guardian of Forever . In the past , the founder of modern Vulcan logic , Surak , is killed , causing massive changes to the timeline . The Romulans and Vulcans joined forces to attack the Federation ; Worf is no longer a crewmember on the Enterprise and Tasha Yar remains alive . Sarek and the Vulcans on the surface are the only people not affected by the timeline change , and in the end Sarek returns to the past to take Surak 's place and restore the timeline . Satisfied with the story , the writers decided to pitch the idea to Piller .
Piller read " Yesterday 's Enterprise " and suggested to producer Rick Berman that the story , not the script , be bought from Ganino . In a meeting , Piller told Ganino that he wanted to make changes to the story , which included the addition of Tasha Yar . Fearing that what they considered a better story was to be lost if the changes to " Yesterday 's Enterprise " were undertaken , Stillwell talked to Piller and pitched their Guardian of Forever story . While intrigued by elements , Piller felt the use of the Guardian was a " gimmick " and wanted The Next Generation to stand on its own . Instead , Piller suggested that they merge the two stories , with Stillwell and Ganino to share a writing credit . In meetings with the writers , Piller suggested that the Enterprise crew immediately undergo changes due to the presence of the older Enterprise , and that Guinan be integral to the realization that something was wrong . Ganino and Stillwell were ultimately given two weeks to complete their new story .
= = = Writing = = =
Ganino and Stillwell managed to complete their new combined story in slightly over a week ; the two writers spent hours each day at Stillwell 's apartment working over every detail . They were under pressure to write a story Piller would find acceptable , as they wanted to have the opportunity to write the teleplay . The story treatment was turned in on October 10 . Piller immediately decided to purchase the story , and distributed the treatment to the writing staff while he discussed changes . Piller felt Data 's romantic feelings for Tasha Yar were over @-@ the @-@ top , and that the alien probe that served as a central part of the story felt like a cheat in terms of resolving Picard 's dilemma . The writer wanted Ganino and Stillwell to beef up Guinan 's role and find another character arc for Tasha Yar . A revised treatment was submitted on October 29 , which incorporated Piller 's changes , but the writers learned that they would not be involved in development of the teleplay ; each was paid the Writers Guild minimum of $ 2400 .
Meanwhile , production of the episode was moved up from January 1990 to December 1989 , as this was the only time both Crosby and Whoopi Goldberg would be available for filming . The task of writing and polishing the new treatment in half the time fell upon writer Ronald D. Moore , who submitted his first draft on November 9 . Moore 's script made the alternate universe militaristic , with the Federation at war with the Klingons , and the alien probe was removed . The writing staff sat down in mid @-@ November to " break " the story , and turn the treatment into a rough script outline . Some characters , such as Troi , appeared only briefly at the beginning of the episode in order to offer more screen time to the guest characters of Guinan , Yar , Garrett , and Castillo . The beat sheet for the episode , which detailed characters and scenes , was distributed on November 27 .
Because of the lack of time before production needed to start , a team of writers was assigned to the task of writing the teleplay . In addition to the story credit to Ganino and Stillwell , Moore , Ira Steven Behr , Hans Beimler and Richard Manning would work on the teleplay with Piller to provide a final polish — a total of seven writers . Some of the staff were convinced that with so many writers , the script would be a disaster . Because the Writers Guild would not allow more than three staff writers to appear in the credits ( four after a special waiver was granted ) , Piller agreed not to feature his name in the credits . A partial first draft was turned in on November 30 so that preproduction for the episode could commence . The altered timeline provided the chance to show the Enterprise crew in a much more dramatic and human light than would be allowable in a normal episode ; since the original timeline was to be restored , Behr explained , the writers had the freedom to include more action . " Even though it was an alternate universe , [ Moore ] and I got all excited because we realized we were going to kill everyone on screen ! " he said . Michael Okuda and Rick Sternbach submitted technical memos on what kind of anomaly might drag the Enterprise @-@ C through time , and suggested interstellar , super @-@ dense strings as a possibility . The first draft teleplay was completed by December 4 , and a preproduction meeting was held the same day ; the various departments argued over costs and what items could be cut to reduce the budget . The final draft was finished and turned in on December 8 .
= = = Design = = =
After everyone had read the script , the studio decided to spend a little more on the episode than average ( at that time , Daily Variety estimated an average cost of $ 1 @.@ 2 million . ) This gave the production departments added liberties beyond what had been expected in the script . Among the reasons for the increase in budget was that " Yesterday 's Enterprise " would air during February sweeps , an important time for the studio to attract solid ratings . As The Next Generation was syndicated directly by the studio , the episode 's performance would impact advertising revenue for the future .
The script called for the creation of the Enterprise @-@ C. In the first season , illustrator Andrew Probert , who had designed the Enterprise @-@ D , was interested in a display of the design lineage of the ship from James T. Kirk 's Enterprises to The Next Generation 's much larger ship ( realized as a wall relief in the conference lounge behind the command bridge ) . Like most others , Probert assumed that the Enterprise @-@ B was an Excelsior @-@ class vessel and reasoned that the C would share design elements with its Excelsior @-@ class predecessor and its Galaxy @-@ class successor , Picard 's ship . The artist also produced a small color sketch of his version of Enterprise @-@ C , but left at the end of the season ; with his absence , no one knew what the drawing was intended to be .
When Rick Sternbach took over Probert 's duties , he believed the sketch was a rejected concept for the Enterprise @-@ D , but the ship 's design stayed with him . When he learned about the ship requirement for " Yesterday 's Enterprise " , he followed a thought process similar to Probert and built off the old sketch . Probert 's version had a highly curved engineering hull reminiscent of a sailing ship , but Sternbach was worried a design with so many compound curves would prove difficult to fabricate in the available time , so he made the hull entirely circular . A set of orthographic views was created and sent to Greg Jein , who fabricated the shooting model ; the model cost more than $ 10 @,@ 000 to produce .
The crew took several steps to differentiate the alternate universe from the original one . A " military log " is substituted for a captain 's log , " combat date " rather than stardate , and the absence of a counselor . The expanded budget allowed the bridge to be entirely redressed , something that would normally be infeasible . Steps replaced the bridge 's ramps , and the captain 's chair was elevated and made more throne @-@ like . Longer , more military @-@ looking tables were substituted for the usual decor in the Ten @-@ Forward lounge . While enlisted crew aboard the darker Enterprise wore variations of the Season 1 – 2 uniforms , the senior officers wore slightly modified versions of the uniforms added that season . The Enterprise @-@ C officers wore feature film costumes due to the expense and time @-@ consuming nature of creating more than a half @-@ dozen or so new uniforms for the episode . Costume designer Robert Blackman 's solution to change their appearance was to remove the turtleneck collars underneath the red tunics , as well as the belts , although the rear belt loop remained .
= = = Filming and casting = = =
Filming began on Monday , December 11 , 1989 and lasted for seven days . The episode was directed by David Carson , who had only helmed one other episode before " Yesterday 's Enterprise " was shot . Carson felt that his relative lack of experience helped because he had no preconceptions about how things should be done . Since much of the episode took place in the darker alternate universe , Carson wanted to emphasize the effect decades of war had on the crew and the bridge . " Picard really looked tired and worn and like a battle @-@ weary commander , and that 's what we wanted the bridge to look like--a battle weary bridge . I had lots of thoughts about making it as strong as possible using a lot of low lights , a lot of dark blues , making it very much more moody , " he said . In order to heighten the impact of the physical set changes , Carson took a different approach to how he constructed shots . " It was my intention to make it as much like a submarine as possible and to use low @-@ angle lighting ; basically , to do everything the opposite way that the Enterprise was normally shot . " The cameras were equipped with longer lenses than usual in order to reduce the depth of the scenes and provide a grittier feel . The use of low angles forced the lighting to be modified in order to prevent the scene from looking " like a hotel lobby " , in Carson 's words .
Two new roles needed to be filled for the production : Garrett and Castillo . The actors selected were both Star Trek fans . Christopher McDonald was picked for Castillo . " What impressed me about [ McDonald ] , " Carson remembers , " was that he wasn 't just your romantic leading man ; he was actually a very impressive actor . " Tricia O 'Neil was cast for similar reasons ; the actress was not the normal Star Trek commander type . Carson was also pleased to work with Crosby and Goldberg . The main cast enjoyed the opportunity to play their characters differently . The result was an unusual degree of friction between characters . This provoked some concern with the producers ; Berman was afraid that the episode was pushing the timeline too far .
Ganino and Stillwell visited the set frequently during filming . Members of the main cast approached Stillwell with questions about the nature of the altered universe and if they were still the same character . Goldberg asked Ganino about changing a piece of dialogue on set ; since Ganino was not the author of the teleplay , he deferred to Stillwell , who notified the production office . When Berman found out that Ganino and Stillwell were on set and talking to the actors , he banned them from setting foot on the sets again . Due to time constraints many planned elements were never filmed ; Moore had hoped for an extended battle scene in which Data would be electrocuted , and Wesley blown up in an explosion . Production of the episode wrapped on December 19 .
= = Release and reception = =
" Yesterday 's Enterprise " was first broadcast the week of February 19 , 1990 . Because The Next Generation aired in syndication , " Yesterday 's Enterprise " did not air on a specific day or time slot . The episode received a 13 @.@ 1 rating for the time period from February 19 to March 4 — the third highest rating for the series , and the highest for the entire season . While the season had averaged 9 @,@ 817 @,@ 000 households , " Yesterday 's Enterprise " attracted 12 @,@ 070 @,@ 000 households . The episode ranked first in Entertainment Weekly 's list of top 10 Star Trek : The Next Generation episodes .
Screenwriters John Logan and Roberto Orci , writers for the 2002 film Star Trek : Nemesis and the 2009 reboot Star Trek , respectively , cite " Yesterday 's Enterprise " as one of their favorite episodes and influences .
" Yesterday 's Enterprise " was also included as one of four episodes ( along with " The Best of Both Worlds , Parts I and II " and " The Measure of a Man " ) in a DVD collection entitled " The Best of Star Trek : The Next Generation " . Critic Marc Bernardin described the episode as Star Trek 's " smartest time @-@ travel experiment " and a fan favorite . The Toronto Star listed The Next Generation 's time @-@ shifting episodes , including " Yesterday 's Enterprise " as one of the twenty best elements of the show .
" Yesterday 's Enterprise " was the third most popular episode of Star Trek : The Next Generation according to an April 2013 poll issued by startrek.com. The two most popular episodes were " The Best of Both Worlds " and " The Inner Light " .
= The Rejected =
The Rejected ( 1961 ) is a made @-@ for @-@ television documentary film about homosexuality , produced for KQED in San Francisco by John W. Reavis . The Rejected was the first documentary program on homosexuality broadcast on American television . It initially ran on KQED on September 11 , 1961 , and was later syndicated to National Educational Television ( NET ) stations across the country . The Rejected received positive critical reviews upon airing .
= = Production = =
Reavis , an independent producer who was apparently unconnected to the homophile movement , wrote up his idea for The Rejected in 1960 . Reavis originally titled the documentary The Gay Ones . He explained his goals for the program in his proposal :
The object of the program will be to present as objective analysis of the subject as possible , without being overly clinical . The questions will be basic ones : who are the gay ones , how did they become gay , how do they live in a heterosexual society , what treatment is there by medicine or psychotherapy , how are they treated by society , and how would they like to be treated ?
Thus , Reavis approached the topic from the standpoint of homosexuality being a social problem akin to alcoholism or prostitution . This echoed how many earlier programs , often produced as episodes of local talk shows , addressed homosexuality with shows bearing such titles as " Homosexuals and the Problems They Present " and " Homosexuality : A Psychological Approach " . The Rejected focused exclusively on gay men , with no representation of lesbians . Reavis expressed his reluctance to include lesbians in his proposal :
First , the repugnance — or desire not to think about the problem — is even greater in society than that towards the problem of Gay men . Second , the number of persons involved is much smaller .... Third , the problems are vastly different , as are the solutions . For example , promiscuity is much less , relationships apt to be bilateral , economic and social sanctions are less , and the ability to carry on a relationship of this sort is greatly simplified .
Commercial stations turned down the program , as did sponsors . KQED bought the project in early 1961 under the new title . The documentary was shot entirely in the KQED studio except for one segment on location at the Black Cat Bar , a San Francisco gay bar that had been fighting state and police harassment since 1948 . Reavis and co @-@ producer Irving Saraf filmed The Rejected on a budget of less than $ 100 .
Reavis and director Richard Christian utilized the talk show format , breaking down the subject matter into a series of smaller topics . Each segment included one or more subject matter experts discussing homosexuality from a different perspective . Within each segment , Reavis presented a stereotype about homosexuality and then challenged the validity of that stereotype through the expert interviews . His goal , as he noted in his original proposal , was to give the viewer " a feeling he is confused and that society as a whole is confused about homosexuality " . Experts interviewed for the program included :
Margaret Mead speaking from an anthropological standpoint . Mead spoke of the positive roles that homosexuality had played in the cultures of Ancient Greece and the South Sea Islands and in Inuit and Native American societies . Mead noted that it is society and not the individual that determines how homosexuality and homosexual behaviour are viewed .
Psychiatrist Karl Bowman of the Langley Porter Psychiatric Institute , who explained the Kinsey scale of human sexuality and who spoke against a punitive approach to treating homosexual patients . Medical doctor Erwin Braff also addressed medical issues .
Episcopal Bishop of San Francisco James Pike and rabbi Alvin Fine addressed religious topics . Each man espoused his belief that sodomy laws should be repealed because in his opinion homosexuality was a mental illness . Pike specifically compared homosexuality to chronic alcoholism , but called for homosexuals to be treated with " love and concern and interest " and for not condemning them as " evil " .
The city 's district attorney , Thomas C. Lynch , covered legal issues along with lawyers J. Albert Hutchinson , Al Bendich , and Morris Lowenthal ( who had previously defended the Black Cat Bar during its 15 @-@ year legal battle against police and government harassment ) .
Openly gay Mattachine Society president Hal Call , Mattachine executive secretary Donald Lucas and Mattachine treasurer Les Fisher spoke for gay men . The Rejected was unusual for its time in that it included actual gay people as opposed to only presenting ostensibly heterosexual experts .
KQED station manager James Day opened the documentary by reading a statement from California 's then @-@ Attorney General Stanley Mosk :
With all the revulsion that some people feel toward homosexuality , it cannot be dismissed by simply ignoring its presence . It is a subject that deserves discussion . We might just as well refuse to discuss alcoholism or narcotics addiction as to refuse to discuss this subject . It cannot be swept under the rug . It will not just go away .
= = Critical and popular response = =
The Rejected was critically and popularly well @-@ received upon its initial airing . Variety described it as handling the topic in a " matter @-@ of @-@ fact down @-@ the @-@ middle manner , covering it quite thoroughly and , for the most part , interestingly " . Terrence O 'Flaherty , critic for the San Francisco Chronicle , concurred , praising KQED for its courage in addressing the subject matter , as did the San Francisco Examiner , which said the program " handled [ the topic ] soberly , calmly and in great depth " . Of the letters KQED received , which numbered in the hundreds , 97 % were positive and many of the writers encouraged the station to make more programs like it . Dorian Book Service out of San Francisco published a transcript of The Rejected , and close to 400 people ordered copies . KQED syndicated The Rejected to NET channels across the country ; it aired on as many of 40 of the 55 NET stations and was repeated on educational stations in 1963 and 1964 . Conservative members of the gay community were pleased with how the Mattachine members presented themselves as ordinary people , an image that differed from the perception held by many outside the community . Some more radical activists , including Frank Kameny and Randy Wicker , found the program wanting for the apologetic tone it took toward homosexuality .
In 2002 , the Gay & Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation presented KQED with the first Pioneer Award , in recognition of its production of The Rejected as the beginning of a long history of LGBT @-@ related programming .
= = Availability = =
KQED , after airing The Rejected , did not archive a hard copy of the documentary , and for many years , the full documentary was considered lost , with only transcripts available . Robert Chehoski , an archivist for KQED , and Alex Cherian , an archivist for the J. Paul Leonard Library at San Francisco State University , searched for any remaining hard copy for up to six years . Eventually , the two found that the film was owned by WNET , which funded the film , and a single 2 @-@ inch quad videotape was archived in the Library of Congress . The Library 's Recording Laboratory had already remastered the film onto a digital format and provided the San Francisco Bay Area Television Archive with a copy , for the purpose of making it available online . The 60 @-@ minute film was released by the TV Archive online on May 22 , 2015 .
The co @-@ producer of the film , Irving Saraf , also alluded to 30 extra minutes of unaired footage , including content filmed in the Black Cat Bar . This extra footage has not been recovered . Production correspondence written from March to July 1961 between KQED 's Program Manager Jonathan Rice and NET 's Director of TV Programming Donley F. Feddersen refer to scenes featuring the bar and its owner Sol Stouman that had been shot but were probably going to be cut from the final edit . These documents were preserved by the Wisconsin Historical Society .
= The Carpet from Bagdad =
The Carpet from Bagdad is a 1915 American silent adventure film directed by Colin Campbell and based on Harold MacGrath 's 1911 eponymous novel . In the story , Horace Wadsworth ( played by Guy Oliver ) , one of a gang of criminals also planning a bank robbery in New York , steals the titular prayer rug from its Baghdad mosque . He sells the carpet to antique dealer George Jones ( Wheeler Oakman ) to fund the robbery scheme . But the theft places both men and Fortune Chedsoye ( Kathlyn Williams ) , the innocent daughter of another conspirator , in danger from the carpet 's guardian .
Marketing for the film included a media tour of part of the set and an invitation @-@ only screening sponsored by the publisher of MacGrath 's book . The Carpet from Bagdad was released on 3 May 1915 to mostly positive reviews . Many praised the tinted desert scenes and realistic Middle East imagery , although some felt the scenery overshadowed the characters . The film is now mostly lost , although one badly damaged reel was salvaged from the RMS Lusitania in 1982 .
= = Plot = =
Horace Wadsworth , disinherited brother of New York banker Arthur Wadsworth , joins a gang of international criminals . He plots to rob his brother 's bank by constructing a tunnel from the nearby home of antique dealer George Jones , who is currently on a trip to Cairo to purchase antique rugs . Horace follows him there , and , learning of the Sacred Carpet of Bagdad , joins the caravan of its sworn guardian , Mohamed . Meanwhile , Horace 's confederates Major Callahan and Mrs. Chedsoye arrive in Cairo along with Mrs. Chedsoye 's daughter , Fortune , who is unaware of her mother 's illicit activities .
When the criminals meet with Jones in Cairo , Jones becomes enamored of Fortune . Horace steals the Sacred Carpet from Mohamed 's mosque and sells it to Jones to fund the robbery plan . Fortune , becoming suspicious of her mother and the surrounding events , steals the prayer rug from Jones and hides it in her mother 's effects . Unable to locate the stolen carpet , Mohamed kidnaps Horace , Jones , and Fortune . Meanwhile , Mrs. Chedsoye and Major Callahan return to New York , where a fourth member of the conspiracy , Wallace , has acquired forged paperwork to gain access to the Jones residence .
The captives escape from Mohamed 's planned torture and flee to Damascus . Horace immediately returns to New York to rejoin his compatriots . Fortune and Jones , who have fallen in love , also travel back to New York . Once there , Jones learns of the forgery , and returns home to confront the gang , who still have the Sacred Carpet and who have completed their tunnel into the vaults of Arthur Wadsworth 's bank . Sympathetic to Horace after their shared experiences , Jones offers the robbers a two @-@ hour lead before he notifies the police , but keeps the prayer rug . Meanwhile , Mohamed resigns himself to the loss of the carpet .
= = Cast = =
Kathlyn Williams as Fortune Chedsoye
Wheeler Oakman as George P.A. Jones
Guy Oliver as Horace Wadsworth
Eugenie Besserer as Mrs. Chedsoye
Frank Clark as Major Callahan
Charles Clary as Mohamed
Harry Lonsdale as Arthur Wadsworth
Fred Huntley as Wallace
= = Production and marketing = =
The Carpet from Bagdad is a film adaptation of Harold MacGrath 's 1911 novel of the same name . MacGrath was a well @-@ traveled , successful author of over a dozen novels . Stories with Asian settings were in vogue at the time , and both The Carpet from Bagdad and the Selig Polyscope Company 's previous adaptation of MacGrath 's work , the popular serial The Adventures of Kathlyn , are set in part in the Near East .
Director Colin Campbell was concerned with the film 's realism . He had sets constructed to represent the streets of Cairo , Baghdad , and Damascus , and used animals from the Selig Zoo . Scenes set in the Arabian and Sahara Deserts were filmed in the deserts of California . The Arab characters ' clothing was genuine , and the actors portraying those roles were required to remain dressed in @-@ character throughout the several days of desert filming to ensure they would appear more natural in the imported garments . Much of the film , including the desert scenes , was hand tinted . Production costs exceeded $ 35 @,@ 000 , the equivalent of over $ 800 @,@ 000 in present @-@ day terms .
William Selig aggressively promoted his studio and its films . One such promotion , a March 1915 media tour of the unfinished Selig Zoo , allowed reporters a visit to The Carpet from Bagdad 's bazaar set . This was the first film distributed by V @-@ L @-@ S @-@ E , a conglomerate created by Vitagraph Studios , Lubin Manufacturing Company , Selig Polyscope Company , and Essanay Studios . The film was also screened in a special invitation @-@ only showing at the art gallery of the Bobbs @-@ Merrill Company , publisher of MacGrath 's novel , an early example of a sponsored exhibition of a feature film in a location other than a theater .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The Carpet from Bagdad was released on 3 May 1915 , to generally positive reviews . Variety described it as a more interesting film than its title might imply , with " perfect direction and faultless acting " . Peter Milne of Motion Picture News approved of Campbell 's attention to detail and realism . The Moving Picture World 's James McQuade praised the film 's acting and special effects . Although he believed an unfilmed Cairo scene made Mohamed 's motivations easier to understand in the novel , he considered the film a " close second " to Campbell 's 1914 The Spoilers . Clarence Caine 's review in Motography also compared the The Carpet from Bagdad favorably to The Spoilers , but he viewed the film 's color as its best feature , especially the closing scene of a desert sunset . Several newspaper reviews also complimented the tinted desert scenes , with New Zealand 's The Levin Chronicle describing the film as " a gem of the cinematographer 's art " for its use of color . The Chicago Daily Tribune offered a more mixed opinion on the film ; reviewer Kitty Kelly found it difficult to care about characters " overshadowed by environment " , and considered the 35 @-@ year @-@ old Williams unconvincing as an ingenue .
Despite the acclaim from many contemporary reviewers , modern scholars of the silent film era would not consider The Carpet from Bagdad a masterpiece , according to the British Film Institute 's Clyde Jeavons .
= = = Partial rediscovery = = =
Like many films from the silent era , The Carpet from Bagdad was believed completely lost , but in 1982 an Oceaneering International diving expedition salvaged a number of artifacts from the wreck of the RMS Lusitania , including one reel of film . With the assistance of BBC technical advisor Laurie Ward , the BFI National Archive was able to recover images from several feet of the film , sufficient to identify the title , but not to restore any of the film to projectable condition . Although there was a theater on the Lusitania , this print of The Carpet from Bagdad was probably being taken to London as a film distributor 's preview , as was the case for several other films known to have been on board .
= Loving You No More =
" Loving You No More " is a song by American rapper and producer Diddy and his band Dirty Money , from their debut album , Last Train to Paris . It was written by Dawn Richard of the group , as well as Mario Winans and Canadian rapper Drake , the latter of whom featured on the song . Sean Garrett and his production group , Team S. Dot , receive writing and production credits , as does Miykal Snoddy . The song was released as the album 's second single in the United States on September 21 , 2010 .
According to Diddy , the song is about loving someone so much that you forget about yourself . It is a R & B tune , which integrates usage of electronica and hip @-@ hop influences , while having a melodic , piano @-@ laden background . The song 's official remix features American rappers Gucci Mane and Red Cafe , while rapper and producer Jermaine Dupri also recorded a remix to the song . While critics were divided over Diddy 's part in the track , most complimented the song 's production , Drake 's cameo , and Harper and Richard 's vocals .
" Loving You No More " peaked at ninety @-@ one on the Billboard Hot 100 on two occasions . Meanwhile , it peaked in the top twenty of both the US R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs and Hot Rap Songs charts . The song 's Gil Green @-@ directed accompanying music video shows Diddy , accompanied by Richard and Kalenna Harper , reminiscing on a past love in a mansion , and in a club scene with Drake . The group performed the song on BET 's 106 & Park , during promotion of the album .
= = Background = =
" Loving You No More " first leaked under the title " Hurt " on November 13 , 2009 . After being announced as the second single from Last Train to Paris on August 26 , 2010 , the mastered version of the song was leaked . In an interview with MTV News , Diddy explained the meaning behind the song , commenting , " The concept of the song is about when you love somebody so much that you forget about yourself . You love them more than you love yourself . " The song 's official remix , released on October 22 , 2010 , features American rappers Gucci Mane and Red Cafe . Producer and rapper Jermaine Dupri also remixed the song with rap vocals from him , which was unveiled on September 29 , 2010 . The group performed the song on one occasion , during their takeover of 106 & Park to promote the album , on December 16 , 2010 .
= = Composition = =
The song is a mid @-@ tempo R & B song , with a length of four minutes and six seconds . Including electronica influences , it has a piano @-@ heavy beat , and has been described as " melodic " . Diddy has lead vocals , with Kalenna Harper and Dawn Richard singing background and having full vocals in numerous parts . Diddy 's lines feature the use of the auto @-@ tune effect . The song also integrates hip @-@ hop , featuring a rap cameo by Drake . Ed Easton , Jr. of WNOW @-@ FM summed up the track as " an emotional track about losing touch with a significant other . " According to Easton , the song also featured Diddy 's signature " rhythmic talking disguised as singing . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Sara D. Anderson of AOL Radio Blog said , " the duo '
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towards religious tolerance . Galerius , by contrast , was a devoted and passionate pagan . According to Christian sources , he was consistently the main advocate of such persecution . He was also eager to exploit this position to his own political advantage . As the lowest @-@ ranking emperor , Galerius was always listed last in imperial documents . Until the end of the Persian war in 299 , he had not even had a major palace . Lactantius states that Galerius hungered for a higher position in the imperial hierarchy . Galerius 's mother , Romula , was bitterly anti @-@ Christian , for she had been a pagan priestess in Dacia , and loathed the Christians for avoiding her festivals . Newly prestigious and influential after his victories in the Persian war , Galerius might have wished to compensate for a previous humiliation at Antioch , when Diocletian had forced him to walk at the front of the imperial caravan , rather than inside it . His resentment fed his discontent with official policies of tolerance ; from 302 on , he probably urged Diocletian to enact a general law against the Christians . Since Diocletian was already surrounded by an anti @-@ Christian clique of counsellors , these suggestions must have carried great force .
= = = Manichean persecution = = =
Affairs quieted after the initial persecution . Diocletian remained in Antioch for the following three years . He visited Egypt once , over the winter of 301 – 302 , where he began the grain dole in Alexandria . In Egypt , some Manicheans , followers of the prophet Mani , were denounced in the presence of the proconsul of Africa . On March 31 , 302 , in a rescript from Alexandria , Diocletian , after consultation with the proconsul for Egypt , ordered that the leading Manicheans be burnt alive along with their scriptures . This was the first time an Imperial persecution ever called for the destruction of sacred literature . Low @-@ status Manicheans were to be executed ; high @-@ status Manicheans were to be sent to work in the quarries of Proconnesus ( Marmara Island ) or the mines of Phaeno . All Manichean property was to be seized and deposited in the imperial treasury .
Diocletian found much to be offended by in Manichean religion . His championing of traditional Roman cults impelled him to use the language of religious fervor . The proconsul of Africa forwarded Diocletian an anxious inquiry on the Manichees . In late March 302 , Diocletian responded : the Manicheans " have set up new and hitherto unheard of sects in opposition to the older creeds so that they might cast out the doctrines vouchsafed to us in the past by divine favour , for the benefit of their own depraved doctrine " . He continued : " .. our fear is that with the passage of time , they will endeavour ... to infect ... our whole empire ... as with the poison of a malignant serpent " . " Ancient religion ought not to be criticized by a new @-@ fangled one " , he wrote . The Christians of the empire were vulnerable to the same line of thinking .
= = = Diocletian and Galerius , 302 – 303 = = =
Diocletian was in Antioch in the autumn of 302 , when the next instance of persecution occurred . The deacon Romanus visited a court while preliminary sacrifices were taking place and interrupted the ceremonies , denouncing the act in a loud voice . He was arrested and sentenced to be set aflame , but Diocletian overruled the decision , and decided that Romanus should have his tongue removed instead . Romanus would be executed on November 18 , 303 . The boldness of this Christian displeased Diocletian , and he left the city and made for Nicomedia to spend the winter , accompanied by Galerius .
Throughout these years the moral and religious didacticism of the emperors was reaching a fevered pitch ; now , at the behest of an oracle , it was to hit its peak . According to Lactantius , Diocletian and Galerius entered into an argument over what imperial policy towards Christians should be while at Nicomedia in 302 . Diocletian argued that forbidding Christians from the bureaucracy and military would be sufficient to appease the gods , while Galerius pushed for their extermination . The two men sought to resolve their dispute by sending a messenger to consult the oracle of Apollo at Didyma . Porphyry may also have been present at this meeting . Upon returning , the messenger told the court that " the just on earth " hindered Apollo 's ability to speak . These " just " , Diocletian was informed by members of the court , could only refer to the Christians of the empire . At the behest of his court , Diocletian acceded to demands for a universal persecution .
= = Great Persecution = =
= = = First edict = = =
On February 23 , 303 , Diocletian ordered that the newly built Christian church at Nicomedia be razed , its scriptures burned , and its treasures seized . February 23 was the feast of the Terminalia , for Terminus , the god of boundaries . It was the day they would terminate Christianity . The next day , Diocletian 's first " Edict against the Christians " was published . The key targets of this piece of legislation were , as they had been during Valerian 's persecution , Christian property and senior clerics . The edict prohibited Christians from assembling for worship , and ordered the destruction of their scriptures , liturgical books , and places of worship across the empire . But Christians tried to retain the scriptures as far as possible , though " it appears that giving them up ... was not regarded as a sin " in the East ; some of them must have been successfully saved , which is evident from the findings of " early biblical papyri " . They might give apocryphal works , or refused to surrender their scriptures despite it must be paid with their lives , and there were cases where the scriptures were not destructed . Christians were also deprived of the right to petition the courts , making them potential subjects for judicial torture ; Christians could not respond to actions brought against them in court ; Christian senators , equestrians , decurions , veterans , and soldiers were deprived of their ranks ; and imperial freedmen were re @-@ enslaved .
Diocletian requested that the edict be pursued " without bloodshed " , against Galerius 's demands that all those refusing to sacrifice be burned alive . In spite of Diocletian 's request , local judges often enforced executions during the persecution , as capital punishment was among their discretionary powers . Galerius 's recommendation — burning alive — became a common method of executing Christians in the East . After the edict was posted in Nicomedia , a man named Eutius tore it down and ripped it up , shouting " Here are your Gothic and Sarmatian triumphs ! " He was arrested for treason , tortured , and burned alive soon after , becoming the edict 's first martyr . The provisions of the edict were known and enforced in Palestine by March or April ( just before Easter ) , and was in use by local officials in North Africa by May or June . The earliest martyr at Caesarea was executed on June 7 ; the edict was in force at Cirta from May 19 . The first edict was the sole legally binding edict in the West ; in Gaul and Britain , however , Constantius did not actually impose this edict . In the East , however , progressively harsher legislation was devised .
= = = Second , third , and fourth edicts = = =
In the summer of 303 , following a series of rebellions in Melitene ( Malatya , Turkey ) and Syria , a second edict was published , ordering the arrest and imprisonment of all bishops and priests . In the judgment of historian Roger Rees , there was no logical necessity for this second edict ; that Diocletian issued one indicates that he was either unaware the first edict was being carried out , or that he felt it was not working as quickly as he needed it to . Following the publication of the second edict , prisons began to fill — the underdeveloped prison system of the time could not handle the deacons , lectors , priests , bishops , and exorcists forced upon them . Eusebius writes that the edict netted so many priests that ordinary criminals were crowded out , and had to be released .
In anticipation of the upcoming twentieth anniversary of his reign on November 20 , 303 , Diocletian declared a general amnesty in a third edict . Any imprisoned clergyman could now be freed , so long as he agreed to make a sacrifice to the gods . Diocletian may have been searching for some good publicity with this legislation . He may also have sought to fracture the Christian community by publicizing the fact that its clergy had apostatized . The demand to sacrifice was unacceptable to many of the imprisoned , but wardens often managed to obtain at least nominal compliance . Some of the clergy sacrificed willingly ; others did so on pain of torture . Wardens were eager to be rid of the clergy in their midst . Eusebius , in his Martyrs of Palestine , records the case of a clergy who , after being brought to an altar , had his hands seized and made to complete a sacrificial offering . The clergyman was told that his act of sacrifice had been recognized and was summarily dismissed . Others were told they had sacrificed even when they had done nothing .
In 304 , the fourth edict ordered all persons , men , women , and children , to gather in a public space and offer a collective sacrifice . If they refused , they were to be executed . The precise date of the edict is unknown , but it was probably issued in either January or February 304 , and was being applied in the Balkans in March . The edict was in use in Thessalonica ( Thessaloniki , Greece ) in April 304 , and in Palestine soon after . This last edict was not enforced at all in the domains of Maximian and Constantius . In the East , it remained applicable until the issue of the Edict of Milan by Constantine and Licinius in 313 .
= = = Abdications , instability , and renewed toleration , 305 – 311 = = =
Diocletian and Maximian resigned on May 1 , 305 . Constantius and Galerius became Augusti ( senior emperors ) , while two new emperors , Severus and Maximinus , became Caesars ( junior emperors ) . According to Lactantius , Galerius had forced Diocletian 's hand in the matter , and secured the appointment of loyal friends to the imperial office . In this " Second Tetrarchy " , it seems that only the Eastern emperors , Galerius and Maximinus , continued with the persecution . As they left office , Diocletian and Maximian probably imagined Christianity to be in its last throes . Churches had been destroyed , the Church leadership and hierarchy had been snapped , and the army and civil service had been purged . Eusebius declares that apostates from the faith were " countless " ( μυρίοι ) in number . At first , the new Tetrarchy seemed even more vigorous than the first . Maximinus in particular was eager to persecute . In 306 and 309 , he published his own edicts demanding universal sacrifice . Eusebius accuses Galerius of pressing on with the persecution as well .
In the West , however , the loose ends of the Diocletianic settlement were about to bring the whole Tetrarchic tapestry down . Constantine , son of Constantius , and Maxentius , son of Maximian , had been overlooked in the Diocletianic succession , offending the parents and angering the sons . Constantine , against Galerius 's will , succeeded his father on July 25 , 306 . He immediately ended any ongoing persecutions and offered Christians full restitution of what they had lost under the persecution . This declaration gave Constantine the opportunity to portray himself as a possible liberator of oppressed Christians everywhere . Maxentius , meanwhile , had seized power in Rome on October 28 , 306 , and soon brought toleration to all Christians within his realm . Galerius made two attempts to unseat Maxentius , but failed both times . During the first campaign against Maxentius , Severus was captured , imprisoned , and executed .
= = = The Peace of Galerius and the Edict of Milan , 311 – 313 = = =
In the East , the persecution was officially discontinued on April 30 , 311 , although martyrdoms in Gaza continued until May 4 . Galerius , now on his deathbed , issued a proclamation to end hostilities , and give Christians the rights to exist freely under the law , and to peaceable assembly . Persecution was everywhere at an end . Lactantius preserves the Latin text of this pronouncement , describing it as an edict . Eusebius provides a Greek translation of the pronouncement . His version includes imperial titles and an address to provincials , suggesting that the proclamation is , in fact , an imperial letter . The document seems only to have been promulgated in Galerius 's provinces .
Among all the other arrangements that we are always making for the benefit and utility of the state , we have heretofore wished to repair all things in accordance with the laws and public discipline of the Romans , and to ensure that even the Christians , who abandoned the practice of their ancestors , should return to good sense . Indeed , for some reason or other , such self @-@ indulgence assailed and idiocy possessed those Christians , that they did not follow the practices of the ancients , which their own ancestors had , perhaps , instituted , but according to their own will and as it pleased them , they made laws for themselves that they observed , and gathered various peoples in diverse areas . Then when our order was issued stating that they should return themselves to the practices of the ancients , many were subjected to peril , and many were even killed . Many more persevered in their way of life , and we saw that they neither offered proper worship and cult to the gods , or to the god of the Christians . Considering the observation of our own mild clemency and eternal custom , by which we are accustomed to grant clemency to all people , we have decided to extend our most speedy indulgence to these people as well , so that Christians may once more establish their own meeting places , so long as they do not act in a disorderly way . We are about to send another letter to our officials detailing the conditions they ought to observe . Consequently , in accord with our indulgence , they ought to pray to their god for our health and the safety of the state , so that the state may be kept safe on all sides , and they may be able to live safely and securely in their own homes .
Galerius 's words reinforce the Tetrarchy 's theological basis for the persecution ; the acts did nothing more than attempt to enforce traditional civic and religious practices , even if the edicts themselves were thoroughly nontraditional . Galerius does nothing to violate the spirit of the persecution — Christians are still admonished for their nonconformity and foolish practices — Galerius never admits that he did anything wrong . The admission that the Christians ' god might exist is made only grudgingly . Certain early 20th @-@ century historians have declared that Galerius 's edict definitively nullified the old " legal formula " non licet esse Christianos , made Christianity a religio licita , " on a par with Judaism " , and secured Christians ' property , among other things .
Not all have been so enthusiastic . The 17th @-@ century ecclesiastical historian Tillemont called the edict " insignificant " ; likewise , the late 20th @-@ century historian Timothy Barnes cautioned that the " novelty or importance of [ Galerius ' ] measure should not be overestimated " . Barnes notes that Galerius 's legislation only brought to the East rights Christians already possessed in Italy and Africa . In Gaul , Spain , and Britain , moreover , Christians already had far more than Galerius was offering to Eastern Christians . Other late 20th @-@ century historians , like Graeme Clark and David S. Potter , assert that , for all its hedging , Galerius 's issuance of the edict was a landmark event in the histories of Christianity and the Roman empire .
Galerius 's law was not effective for long in Maximinus 's district . Within seven months of Galerius 's proclamation , Maximinus resumed persecution . Persecution would continue in Maximinus 's district until 313 , soon before his death . At a meeting between Licinius and Constantine in Milan in February 313 , the two emperors drafted the terms of a universal peace . The terms of this peace were posted by the victorious Licinius at Nicomedia on June 13 , 313 . Later ages have taken to calling the document the " Edict of Milan " .
We thought it fit to commend these things most fully to your care that you may know that we have given to those Christians free and unrestricted opportunity of religious worship . When you see that this has been granted to them by us , your Worship will know that we have also conceded to other religions the right of open and free observance of their worship for the sake of the peace of our times , that each one may have the free opportunity to worship as he pleases ; this regulation is made that we may not seem to detract from any dignity or any religion .
= = Regional variation = =
The enforcement of the persecutory edicts was inconsistent . Since the Tetrarchs were more or less sovereign in their own realms , they had a good deal of control over persecutory policy . In Constantius 's realm ( Britain and Gaul ) the persecution was , at most , only lightly enforced ; in Maximian 's realm ( Italy , Spain , and Africa ) , it was firmly enforced ; and in the East , under Diocletian ( Asia Minor , Syria , Palestine and Egypt ) and Galerius ( Greece and the Balkans ) , its provisions were pursued with more fervor than anywhere else . For the Eastern provinces , Peter Davies tabulated the total number of martyrdoms for an article in the Journal of Theological Studies . Davies argued that the figures , although reliant on collections of acta that are incomplete and only partially reliable , point to a heavier persecution under Diocletian than under Galerius . The historian Simon Corcoran , in a passage on the origins of the early persecution edicts , criticized Davies ' over @-@ reliance on these " dubious martyr acts " and dismissed his conclusions .
= = = Britain and Gaul = = =
The sources are inconsistent regarding the extent of the persecution in Constantius 's domain , though all portray it as quite limited . Lactantius states that the destruction of church buildings was the worst thing that came to pass . Eusebius explicitly denies that any churches were destroyed in both his Ecclesiastical History and his Life of Constantine , but lists Gaul as an area suffering from the effects of the persecution in his Martyrs of Palestine . A group of bishops declared that " Gaul was immune " ( immunis est Gallia ) from the persecutions under Constantius . The death of Saint Alban , the first British Christian martyr , was once dated to this era , but most now assign it to the reign of Septimius Severus . The second , third and fourth edicts seem not to have been enforced in the West at all . It is possible that Constantius 's relatively tolerant policies were the result of Tetrarchic jealousies ; the persecution , after all , had been the project of the Eastern emperors , not the Western ones . After Constantine succeeded his father in 306 , he urged the recovery of Church property lost in the persecution , and legislated full freedom for all Christians in his domain .
= = = Africa = = =
While the persecution under Constantius was relatively light , there is no doubt about the force of the persecution in Maximian 's domain . Its effects are recorded at Rome , Sicily , Spain , and in Africa — indeed , Maximian encouraged particularly strict enforcement of the edict in Africa . Africa 's political elite were insistent that the persecution be fulfilled , and Africa 's Christians , especially in Numidia , were equally insistent on resisting them . For the Numidians , to hand over scriptures was an act of terrible apostasy . Africa had long been home to the Church of the Martyrs — in Africa , martyrs held more religious authority than the clergy — and harbored a particularly intransigent , fanatical , and legalistic variety of Christianity . It was Africa that gave the West most of its martyrdoms .
Africa had produced martyrs even in the years immediately prior to the Great Persecution . In 298 , Maximilian , a soldier in Tebessa , had been tried for refusing to follow military discipline ; in Mauretania , again in 298 , the soldier Marcellus refused his army bonus and took off his uniform in public . Once persecutions began , public authorities were eager to assert their authority . Anullinus , proconsul of Africa , expanded on the edict , deciding that , in addition to the destruction the Christians ' scriptures and churches , the government should compel Christians to sacrifice to the gods . Governor Valerius Florus enforced the same policy in Numidia during the summer or autumn of 303 , when he called for " days of incense burning " ; Christians would sacrifice or they would lose their lives . In addition to those already listed , African martyrs also include Saturninus and the Martyrs of Abitina , another group martyred on February 12 , 304 in Carthage , and the martyrs of Milevis ( Mila , Algeria ) .
The persecution in Africa also encouraged the development of Donatism , a schismatic movement that forbade any compromise with Roman government or traditor bishops ( those who had handed scriptures over to secular authorities ) . One of the key moments in the break with the mainline Church occurred in Carthage in 304 . The Christians from Abitinae had been brought to the city and imprisoned . Friends and relatives of the prisoners came to visit , but encountered resistance from a local mob . The group was harassed , beaten , and whipped ; the food they had brought for their imprisoned friends was scattered on the ground . The mob had been sent by Mensurius , the bishop of the city , and Caecilian , his deacon , for reasons that remain obscure . In 311 , Caecilian was elected bishop of Carthage . His opponents charged that his traditio made him unworthy of the office , and declared itself for another candidate , Majorinus . Many others in Africa , including the Abitinians , also supported Majorinus against Caecilian . Majorinus 's successor Donatus would give the dissident movement its name . By the time Constantine took over the province , the African church was deeply divided . The Donatists would not be reconciled to the Catholic Church until after 411 .
= = = Italy and Spain = = =
Maximian probably seized the Christian property in Rome quite easily — Roman cemeteries were noticeable , and Christian meeting places could have been easily found out . Senior churchmen would have been similarly prominent . The bishop of the city , Marcellinus , seems not to have ever been imprisoned , however , a fact which has led some to believe Maximian did not enforce the order to arrest clergy in the city . Others assert that Marcellinus was a traditor . Marcellinus appears in the 4th @-@ century Church 's depositio episcoporum but not its feriale , or calendar of feasts , where all Marcellinus 's predecessors from Fabian had been listed — a " glaring " absence , in the opinion of historian John Curran . Within forty years , Donatists began spreading rumors that Marcellinus had been a traditor , and that he had even sacrificed to the pagan gods . The tale was soon embroidered in the 5th @-@ century forgery , the ' Council of Sinuessa ' , and the vita Marcelli of the Liber Pontificalis . The latter work states that the bishop had indeed apostatized , but redeemed himself through martyrdom a few days afterward .
What followed Marcellinus 's act of traditio , if it ever actually happened , is unclear . There appears to have been a break in the episcopal succession , however . Marcellinus seems to have died on October 25 , 304 , and ( if he had apostatized ) was probably expelled from the church in early 303 , but his successor , Marcellus , was not consecrated until either November or December 306 . In the meantime , two factions diverged in the Roman church , separating the lapsed , Christians who had complied with the edicts to ensure their own safety , and the rigorists , those who would brook no compromise with secular authority . These two groups clashed in street fights and riots , eventually leading to murders . Marcellus , a rigorist , purged all mention of Marcellinus from church records , and removed his name from the official list of bishops . Marcellus himself was banished from the city , and died in exile on January 16 , 308 .
Maxentius , meanwhile , took advantage of Galerius 's unpopularity in Italy ( Galerius had introduced taxation for the city and countryside of Rome for the first time in the history of the empire ) to declare himself emperor . On October 28 , 306 , Maxentius convinced the Praetorian Guard to support him , mutiny , and invest him with the purple robes of the emperor . Soon after his acclamation , Maxentius declared an end to persecution , and toleration for all Christians in his realm . The news traveled to Africa , where in later years a Christian of Cirta could still recall the precise date when " peace " was ushered in . Maxentius did not permit the restitution of confiscated property , however .
On April 18 , 308 , Maxentius allowed the Christians to hold another election for the city 's bishop , which Eusebius won . Eusebius was a moderate , however , in a still @-@ divided church . Heraclius , head of the rigorist faction , opposed readmission of the lapsed . Rioting followed , and Maxentius exiled the combative pair from the city , leaving Eusebius to die in Sicily on October 21 . The office was vacant for almost three years , until Maxentius permitted another election . Miltiades was elected on July 2 , 311 , as Maxentius prepared to face Constantine in battle . Maxentius , facing increasingly strong domestic opposition to his rule , now agreed to the restitution of Christian property . Miltiades sent two deacons with letters from Maxentius to the prefect of Rome , the head of the city , responsible for publishing imperial edicts within the city , to ensure compliance . African Christians were still recovering lost property as late as 312 .
Outside Rome , there are fewer sure details of the progress and effects of the persecution in Italy ; there are not many deaths securely attested for the region . The Acta Eulpi records the martyrdom of Euplus in Catania , Sicily , a Christian who dared to carry the holy gospels around , refusing to surrender them . Euplus was arrested on April 29 , 304 , tried , and martyred on August 12 , 304 . In Spain the bishop Ossius of Corduba would later declare himself a confessor . After 305 , the year when Diocletian and Maximian abdicated and Constantius became Augustus , there were no more active persecutions in the West . Eusebius declares that the persecution lasted " less than two years " .
After a brief military standoff , Constantine confronted and defeated Maxentius , killing him at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge outside Rome on October 28 , 312 . He entered the city the next day , but declined to take part in the traditional ascent up the Capitoline Hill to the Temple of Jupiter . Constantine 's army had advanced on Rome under a Christian sign . It had become , officially at least , a Christian army . Constantine 's apparent conversion was visible elsewhere , too . Bishops dined at Constantine 's table , and many Christian building projects began soon after his victory . On November 9 , 312 , the old headquarters of the Imperial Horse Guard were razed to make way for the Lateran Basilica . Under Constantine 's rule , Christianity became the prime focus of official patronage .
= = = Nicomedia = = =
Before the end of February 303 , a fire destroyed part of the imperial palace . Galerius convinced Diocletian that the culprits were Christian conspirators who had plotted with palace eunuchs . An investigation into the act was commissioned , but no responsible party was found . Executions followed . The palace eunuchs Dorotheus and Gorgonius were eliminated . One individual , a Peter , was stripped , raised high , and scourged . Salt and vinegar were poured in his wounds , and he was slowly boiled over an open flame . The executions continued until at least April 24 , 303 , when six individuals , including the bishop Anthimus , were decapitated . The persecution intensified . Now presbyters and other clergymen could be arrested without having even been accused of a crime , and condemned to death . A second fire appeared sixteen days after the first . Galerius left the city , declaring it unsafe . Diocletian would soon follow . Lactantius blamed Galerius 's allies for setting the fire ; Constantine , in a later reminiscence , would attribute the fire to " lightning from heaven " .
Lactantius , still living in Nicomedia , saw the beginnings of the apocalypse in Diocletian 's persecution . Lactantius 's writings during the persecution exhibit both bitterness and Christian triumphalism . His eschatology runs directly counter to Tetrarchic claims to " renewal " . Diocletian asserted that he had instituted a new era of security and peace ; Lactantius saw the beginning of a cosmic revolution .
= = = Palestine and Syria = = =
= = = = Before Galerius 's edict of toleration = = = =
Palestine is the only region for which an extended local perspective of the persecution exists , in the form of Eusebius 's Martyrs of Palestine . Eusebius was resident in Caesarea , the capital of Roman Palestine , for the duration of the persecution , although he also traveled to Phoenicia and Egypt , and perhaps Arabia as well . Eusebius 's account is imperfect . It focuses on martyrs that were his personal friends before the persecutions began , and includes martyrdoms that took place outside of Palestine . His coverage is uneven . He provides only bare generalities at the bloody end of the persecutions , for example . Eusebius recognizes some of his faults . At the outset of his account of the general persecution in the Ecclesiastical History , Eusebius laments the incompleteness of his reportage : " how could one number the multitude of martyrs in each province , and especially those in Africa and Mauretania , and in Thebaid and Egypt ? "
Since no one below the status of governor held the legal power to enforce capital punishment , most recalcitrant Christians would have been sent to Caesarea to await punishment . The first martyr , Procopius , was sent to Caesarea from Scythopolis ( Beit She 'an , Israel ) , where he had been a reader and an exorcist . He was brought before the governor on June 7 , 303 , and asked to sacrifice to the gods , and to pour a libation for the emperors . Procopius responded by quoting Homer : " the lordship of many is not a good thing ; let there be one ruler , one king " . The governor beheaded the man at once .
Further martyrdoms followed in the months thereafter , increasing in the next spring , when the new governor , Urbanus , published the fourth edict . Eusebius probably does not list a complete account of all those executed under the fourth edict — he alludes in passing to others imprisoned with Thecla of Gaza , for example , though he does not name them .
The bulk of Eusebius 's account deals with Maximinus . Maximinus took up the office of emperor in Nicomedia on May 1 , 305 , and immediately thereafter left the city for Caesarea , hurrying , Lactantius alleges , so as to oppress and trample the diocese of Oriens . Initially , Maximinus governed only Egypt and the Levant . He issued his own persecutory edict in the spring of 306 , ordering general sacrifice . The edict of 304 had been difficult to enforce , since the Imperial government had no record of city @-@ dwelling subjects who held no agricultural land . Galerius solved this problem in 306 by running another census . This contained the names of all urban heads of household and the number of their dependents ( past censuses had only listed persons paying tax on land , such as landowners and tenants ) . Using lists drawn up by the civil service , Maximinus ordered his heralds to call all men , women , and children down to the temples . There , after tribunes called everyone by name , everyone sacrificed .
At some point after the publication of Maximinus 's first edict , perhaps in 307 , Maximinus changed the penalty for transgressions . Instead of receiving the death penalty , Christians would now be mutilated and condemned to labor in state @-@ owned mines . Since Egyptian mines were overstaffed , mostly due to the influx of Christian prisoners , Egyptian penitents were increasingly sent to the copper mines at Phaeno in Palestine and Cilicia in Asia Minor . At Diocaesarea ( Tzippori , Israel ) in the spring of 308 , 97 Christian confessors were received by Firmilianus from the porphyry mines in the Thebaid . Firmilianus cut the tendons on their left feet , blinded their right eyes , and sent them to the mines of Palestine . On another occasion , 130 others received the same punishment . Some were sent to Phaeno , and some to Cilicia .
Eusebius characterizes Urbanus as a man who enjoyed some variety in his punishments . One day , shortly after Easter 307 , he ordered the virgin Theodosia from Tyre ( Ṣūr , Lebanon ) thrown to the sea for conversing with Christians attending trial and refusing sacrifice ; the Christians in court , meanwhile , he sent to Phaeno . On a single day , November 2 , 307 , Urbanus sentenced a man named Domninus to be burned alive , three youths to fight as gladiators , and a priest to be exposed to a beast . On the same day , he ordered some young men to be castrated , sent three virgins to brothels , and imprisoned a number of others , including Pamphilus of Caesarea , a priest , scholar , and defender of the theologian Origen . Soon after , and for unknown reasons , Urbanus was stripped of his rank , imprisoned , tried , and executed , all in one day of expedited proceedings . His replacement , Firmilianus , was a veteran soldier and one of Maximinus 's trusted confidants .
Eusebius notes that this event marked the beginning of a temporary respite from persecution . Although the precise dating of this respite is not specifically noted by Eusebius , the text of the Martyrs records no Palestinian martyrs between July 25 , 308 and November 13 , 309 . The political climate probably impinged on persecutory policy here : This was the period of the conference of Carnuntum , which met in November 308 . Maximinus probably spent the next few months in discussion with Galerius over his role in the imperial government , and did not have the time to deal with the Christians .
In the autumn of 309 , Maximinus resumed persecution by issuing letters to provincial governors and his praetorian prefect , the highest authority in judicial proceedings after the emperor , demanding that Christians conform to pagan customs . His new legislation called for another general sacrifice , coupled with a general offering of libations . It was even more systematic than the first , allowing no exceptions for infants or servants . Logistai ( curatores ) , strategoi , duumviri , and tabularii , who kept the records , saw to it that there were no evasions . Maximinus introduced some innovations to the process , making him the only known persecuting emperor to have done so . This edict now required food sold in the marketplaces to be covered in libation . Maximinus sent sentries to stand guard at bathhouses and city gates to ensure that all customers sacrificed . He issued copies of the fictitious Acts of Pilate to encourage popular hatred of Christ . Prostitutes confessed , under judicial torture , to having engaged in debaucheries with Christians . Bishops were reassigned to work as stable boys for the Imperial horse guard or keepers of the Imperial camels .
Maximinus also worked for a revival of pagan religion . He appointed high priests for each province , men who were to wear white robes and supervise daily worship of the gods . Maximinus also demanded that vigorous restoration work be done on decaying temples within his domain .
The next few months saw the worst extremes of the persecution . On December 13 , 309 , Firmilianus condemned some Egyptians arrested at Ascalon ( Ashkelon , Israel ) on their way to visit the confessors in Cilicia . Three were beheaded ; the rest lost their left feet and right eyes . On January 10 , 310 , Peter and the bishop Asclepius from the dualist Christian sect Marcionism , both from Anaia , near ( Eleutheropolis , Israel ) , were burned alive . On February 16 , Pamphilus and his six companions were executed . In the aftermath , four more members of Pamphilus 's household were martyred for their displays of sympathy for the condemned . The last martyrs before Galerius 's edict of toleration were executed on March 5 and 7 . Then the executions stopped . Eusebius does not explain this sudden halt , but it coincides with the replacement of Firmilianus with Valentinianus , a man appointed at some time before Galerius 's death . The replacement is only attested to via epigraphic remains , like stone inscriptions ; Eusebius does not mention Valentinianus anywhere in his writings .
= = = = After Galerius 's edict of toleration = = = =
After Galerius 's death , Maximinus seized Asia Minor . Even after Galerius 's edict of toleration in 311 , Maximinus continued to persecute . His name is absent from the list of emperors publishing Galerius 's edict of toleration , perhaps through later suppression . Eusebius states that Maximinus complied with its provisions only reluctantly . Maximinus told his praetorian prefect Sabinus to write to provincial governors , requesting that they and their subordinates ignore " that letter " ( Galerius 's edict ) . Christians were to be free from molestation , and their mere Christianity would not leave them open to criminal charges . Unlike Galerius 's edict , however , Maximinus 's letter made no provisions for Christian assembly , nor did he suggest that Christians build more churches .
Maximinus issued orders in Autumn 311 forbidding Christians to congregate in cemeteries . After issuing these orders , he was approached by embassies from cities within his domain , demanding he begin a general persecution . Lactantius and Eusebius state that these petitions were not voluntary , but had been made at Maximinus 's behest . Maximinus began persecuting Church leaders before the end of 311 . Peter of Alexandria was beheaded on November 26 , 311 . Lucian of Antioch was executed in Nicomedia on January 7 , 312 . According to Eusebius , many Egyptian bishops suffered the same fate . According to Lactantius , Maximinus ordered confessors to have " their eyes gouged out , their hands cut off , their feet amputated , their noses or ears severed " . Antioch asked Maximinus if it could forbid Christians from living in the city . In response , Maximinus issued a rescript encouraging every city to expel its Christians . This rescript was published in Sardis on April 6 , 312 , and in Tyre by May or June . There are three surviving copies of Maximinus 's rescript , in Tyre , Arycanda ( Aykiriçay , Turkey ) , and Colbasa . They are all essentially identical . To address a complaint from Lycia and Pamphylia about the " detestable pursuits of the atheists [ Christians ] " , Maximinus promised the provincials whatever they wanted — perhaps an exemption from the poll tax .
When Maximinus received notice that Constantine had succeeded in his campaign against Maxentius , he issued a new letter restoring Christians their former liberties . The text of this letter , which is preserved in Eusebius 's Historia Ecclesiastica , however , suggests that the initiative was Maximinus 's alone , and not that of Constantine or Licinius . It is also the only passage in the ancient sources providing Maximinus 's rationale for his actions , without the hostility of Lactantius and Eusebius . Maximinus states that he supported Diocletian and Galerius 's early legislation but , upon being made Caesar , came to realize the drain such policies would have on his labor force , and began to employ persuasion without coercion . He goes on to assert that he resisted petitions from Nicomedians to forbid Christians from their city ( an event Eusebius does not otherwise record ) , and that when he accepted the demands of deputations from other cities he was only following imperial custom . Maximinus concludes his letter by referencing the letter he wrote after Galerius 's edict , asking that his subordinates be lenient . He does not refer to his early letters , which encouraged avid persecution .
In the early spring of 313 , as Licinius advanced against Maximinus , the latter resorted to savagery in his dealings with his own citizens , and his Christians in particular . In May 31
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15 activists was held in Saint Petersburg . The protest site was occupied by a large number of demonstrators , some of whom were dressed as Russian Orthodox priests and Cossacks . In total , 67 protestors were arrested for creating a public disturbance .
Activists also called for a boycott of Stolichnaya vodka , who had prominently branded itself as a Russian vodka ( going as far as to dub itself " [ the ] Mother of All Vodkas from The Motherland of Vodka " in an ad campaign ) . However , its Luxembourg @-@ based parent company , Soiuzplodoimport , responded to the boycott effort , noting that the company was not technically Russian , did not support the government 's opinion on homosexuality , and described itself as a " fervent supporter and friend " of LGBT people .
= = Prosecutions and other effects = =
The first arrest made under the propaganda law occurred just hours after it was passed : 24 @-@ year @-@ old activist Dmitry Isakov was arrested in Kazan for publicly holding a sign reading " Freedom to the Gays and Lesbians of Russia . Down With Fascists and Homophobes " , and ultimately fined 4 @,@ 000 rubles ( US $ 115 ) . Isakov had performed a similar protest in the same location the previous day as a " test " run , but was later caught in an altercation with police officers who targeted his pro @-@ gay activism , and arrested him for swearing . He would be released without charge , but pledged to return there the next day to show that he would " not be cowed by such pressure . " Isakov also claimed that he had been fired from his job at a bank as a result of the conviction .
In December 2013 , Nikolay Alexeyev and Yaroslav Yevtushenko were fined 4 @,@ 000 rubles ( US $ 115 ) for picketing outside a children 's library in Arkhangelsk with banners reading , " Gays aren 't made , they 're born ! " Their appeal was denied . Alexeyev later criticized Western media outlets for its " biased " coverage of his conviction .
In January 2014 , Alexander Suturin , editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the Khabarovsk newspaper Molodoi Dalnevostochnik , was fined 50 @,@ 000 rubles ( US $ 1 @,@ 400 ) for publishing a news story discussing the teacher Alexander Yermoshkin , who had been fired for self @-@ admittedly holding " rainbow flash mobs " in Khabarovsk with his students , and was subsequently attacked by right @-@ wing extremist groups because of his sexuality . The fine centred around a quote in the article by the teacher , who stated that his very existence was " effective proof that homosexuality is normal . "
Elena Klimova has been charged under the law multiple times for operating Children @-@ 404 — an online support group for LGBT youth on the social networking services VKontakte and Facebook . The first of these charges was overturned in February 2014 , after a court ruled in consultation with a mental health professional that the group " helps teenagers exploring their sexuality to deal with difficult emotional issues and other problems that they may encounter " , and that these activities did not constitute " propaganda of non @-@ traditional sexual relationships " as defined under the law . In January 2015 , Klimova was sent to court for the same charges . They were overturned on appeal , only for the same court to convict Kilmova and issue a fine of 50 @,@ 000 rubles in July 2015 , pending an appeal .
In May 2014 , it was revealed that in accordance with the propaganda law , the computer game The Sims 4 — a new instalment in a life simulation game franchise that has historically allowed characters to participate in same @-@ sex relationships , had been given a " 18 + " rating , allowing its sale to adults only . In contrast , the pan @-@ European ratings board PEGI has historically given The Sims games a " 12 " rating , while the German rating board USK had given The Sims 3 an even lower " 6 + " rating .
In November 2014 , one day after current Apple Inc . CEO Tim Cook publicly announced that he was proud of being gay , it was reported that an iPhone @-@ shaped memorial honoring Apple founder Steve Jobs had been removed from a Saint Petersburg university campus by its installer , the West European Financial Union [ ZEFS ] , which issued a press release citing the law and noting that the memorial was in an area frequented by minors . However , the reports were later found to be a hoax , and the monument had actually been removed for maintenance . In September 2015 , Apple became the subject of an investigation by officials in Kirov for implementing emoji on its operating systems which depict same @-@ sex relationships , over whether they may constitute a promotion of non @-@ traditional sexual relationships to minors . Roskomnadzor later ruled that by themselves , emoji depicting same @-@ sex couples did not constitute a violation of the propaganda law , as whether they have a positive or negative connotation depends on their actual context and usage .
= = = Effects on sports = = =
The 2013 World Championships in Athletics , held at Moscow 's Luzhniki Stadium in August 2013 , were overshadowed by comments and protests over the law by athletes . After winning a silver medal at the event , U.S. runner Nick Symmonds stated that " whether you 're gay , straight , black , white , we all deserve the same rights . If there 's anything I can do to champion the cause and further it , I will , shy of getting arrested . " Swedish athletes Emma Green Tregaro and Moa Hjelmer painted her fingernails in rainbow colors as a symbolic protest . However , Tregaro was forced to re @-@ paint them after they were deemed a political gesture that violated the rules of the IAAF . In response , she re @-@ painted them red as a symbol of love . Russian pole vaulter Yelena Isinbaeva criticized Tregaro 's gesture as being disrespectful to the host country , stating in a press conference that " we have our law which everyone has to respect . When we go to different countries , we try to follow their rules . We are not trying to set our rules over there . We are just trying to be respectful . " After Isinbaeva 's remarks were characterized as being homophobic , she argued that her choice of words had been misinterpreted by the media , and that she was against the discrimination of gays .
The implications of the law on Russia 's hosting of two major international sporting events ; the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi ( where seven LGBT athletes , all female , were expected to compete ) and the 2018 FIFA World Cup , were called into question . In the case of the World Cup , FIFA had recently established an anti @-@ discrimination task force , and was also facing criticism for awarding the 2022 World Cup to the country of Qatar , where homosexuality is illegal ; in August 2013 , FIFA requested information from the Russian government on the law and its potential effects on the association football tournament . In the case of the Winter Olympics , critics considered the law to be inconsistent with the Olympic Charter , which states that " [ discrimination ] on grounds of race , religion , politics , gender or otherwise is incompatible with belonging to the Olympic Movement . " In August 2013 , the International Olympic Committee " received assurances from the highest level of government in Russia that the legislation will not affect those attending or taking part in the Games " , and also received word that the government would abide by the Olympic Charter . The IOC also confirmed that it would enforce Rule 50 of the Olympic Charter , which forbids political protest , against athletes who make displays of support for the LGBT community at the Games . Vladimir Putin also made similar assurances prior to the Games , but warned LGBT attendees that they would still be subject to the law .
Athletes and supporters used the Olympics as leverage for further campaigns against the propaganda law . A number of athletes came out as lesbian , gay , or bisexual to spread awareness of the situation in Russia , including Australian snowboarder Belle Brockhoff , Canadian speed skater Anastasia Bucsis , gold medal figure skater Brian Boitano , and Finnish swimmer Ari @-@ Pekka Liukkonen . There were also calls to boycott the Games , drawing comparisons to the Summer Olympics of 1980 in Moscow , the last time the Olympics were held on what is now Russian soil . A campaign known as Principle 6 was established in collaboration between a group of Olympic athletes , the organizations All Out and Athlete Ally , and clothing maker American Apparel , selling merchandise ( such as clothing ) with a quotation from the Olympic Charter to support pro @-@ LGBT organizations . Toronto advertising copywriter Brahm Finkelstein also began to market a rainbow @-@ coloured matryoshka doll set known as " Pride Dolls " , designed by Italian artist Danilo Santino , to benefit the Gay and Lesbian International Sport Association , organizers of the World OutGames .
Action was leveraged directly against Olympic sponsors and partners as well ; in late @-@ August 2013 , the Human Rights Campaign sent letters to the ten Worldwide Olympic Partner companies , urging them to show opposition towards anti @-@ LGBT laws , denounce homophobic violence , ask the IOC to obtain written commitments for the safety of LGBT athletes and attendees , and oppose future Olympic bids from countries that outlaw support for LGBT equality . In February 2014 , prior to the games , a group of 40 human rights organizations ( including Athlete Ally , Freedom House , Human Rights Campaign , Human Rights Watch and Russian LGBT network among others ) also sent a joint letter to the Worldwide Olympic Partners , urging them to use their prominence to support the rights of LGBT athletes under the Olympic Charter , and pressure the IOC to show greater scrutiny towards the human rights abuses of future host countries . On 3 February 2014 , USOC sponsor AT & T issued a statement in support of LGBT rights at the Games , becoming the first major Olympic advertiser to condemn the laws . Several major non @-@ sponsors also made pro @-@ LGBT statements to coincide with the opening of the Games ; Google placed a quotation from the Olympic Charter and an Olympic @-@ themed logo in the colours of the rainbow flag on its home page worldwide , while Channel 4 ( who serves as the official British broadcaster of the Paralympics ) adopted a rainbow @-@ coloured logo and broadcast a " celebratory " , pro @-@ LGBT advert entitled " Gay Mountain " on 7 February 2014 , alongside an interview with former rugby union player and anti @-@ homophobia activist Ben Cohen . As part of its Dispatches series , Channel 4 had also broadcast a documentary during the week of the Opening Ceremony entitled Hunted , which documented the violence and abuse against LGBT people in Russia in the wake of the law .
= Roland ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Roland " is the twenty @-@ third episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on May 6 , 1994 . It was written by Chris Ruppenthal and directed by David Nutter . The episode featured guest appearances by Željko Ivanek , James Sloyan and Kerry Sandomirsky . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Roland " earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 9 , being watched by 7 @.@ 4 million households in its initial broadcast ; and received mixed reviews from critics , although Ivanek 's guest role was met with acclaim .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . When Mulder and Scully investigate a series of murders at an aerospace testing facility , they find that a mentally handicapped janitor may be responsible — and that he is being telepathically controlled by one of the facility 's former researchers .
" Roland " was the first of two episodes of The X @-@ Files written by Chris Ruppenthal , who would go on to write the second season episode " 3 " , which was heavily rewritten by series regulars Glen Morgan and James Wong . " Roland " contains the series ' first mention of Fox Mulder 's father Bill , although the character would not actually make an appearance until the second season episode " Colony " .
= = Plot = =
At a research lab in Colson , Washington , intellectually disabled janitor Roland Fuller is scolded by scientist Dr. Keats for forgetting how to use the facility 's keycard locks . Keats walks in on his colleagues , Frank Nollette and Ronald Surnow , as they argue over a prototype jet engine they are developing . Nollette wants to push testing of the engine to break mach 15 , but Surnow is unwilling to risk damaging the prototype . After Keats and Nollette angrily leave , Surnow enters the facility 's wind tunnel to make adjustments . However , Roland activates the tunnel 's turbines , sending Surnow flying to his death .
Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) are brought in to investigate Surnow 's death . Scully notes that another member of the research team , Arthur Grable , had mysteriously died several months earlier , and believes it to be a case of industrial espionage . Mulder examines the handwriting on the team 's whiteboard and concludes that it has been written by at least four different people , leading him to suspect that a fourth individual was present . Keats and Nollette both inform the agents that Roland Fuller was the only one left in the facility at the time of Surnow 's death , but do not believe him to be capable of murder .
Nevertheless , Mulder and Scully visit the care home where Roland lives . When they gently ask him about the night of the murder , he tells them he had not seen anything out of the ordinary . He also inadvertently reveals his mathematical prowess by rapidly counting the star designs visible on Scully 's blouse ; however , his handwriting does not match the fourth sample taken from the whiteboard . The discussion ends when Roland experiences a violent vision and has what seems to be a fit . Later that night , Roland has another vision in which he sees someone killing Keats . He appears at the lab and murders Keats by submerging his head in a tank of liquid nitrogen . Keats ' frozen body is left to shatter as Roland begins typing at one of the computers .
The next day , the agents notice that the computer had been used for five hours after Keats ' death . Attempting to open the file that was being worked on , Mulder realizes that the number Roland had written on an art project the previous day is the computer 's password . The file turns out to be the work of Arthur Grable , a scientist who had supposedly died several months earlier , and has been worked on constantly since his death .
Looking into Grable 's death , the agents find that it was he who had hired Roland . They begin to think that Grable faked his death and is killing his former colleagues , using Roland as a patsy . Grable 's body was never brought to the morgue , nor was a funeral ever held . However , Nollette brings the agents to a neuropreservation facility where Grable 's remains are being stored . When a photo of Grable is found , the agents discover that he is Roland 's identical twin brother . Speaking to Roland again , Mulder becomes convinced that the janitor is being periodically controlled by Grable .
Meanwhile , Nollette sneaks into the cryogenic facility and tampers with Grable 's storage unit , thawing his remains . Roland returns to the lab and is in the process of pushing the prototype engine to mach 15 when Nollette enters . Nollette admits to stealing Grable 's work and prepares to shoot Roland , but is distracted by some equations . Roland strikes him with a computer keyboard and drags him into the wind tunnel . The agents arrive in time to convince Roland not to kill Nollette . At the same time , the rising temperatures in the storage unit kill Grable . Roland is removed from the care home , to be taken to a psychiatric institute for testing . However , as he leaves he stops to comb his hair in a style reminiscent of his brother , raising the question of whether he is actually free of Grable 's control .
= = Production = =
" Roland " was the first of two episodes of The X @-@ Files written by Chris Ruppenthal . He would return to write the second season episode " 3 " , which was heavily rewritten by series regulars Glen Morgan and James Wong . Željko Ivanek , who plays the episode 's title character , was the first actor to read for the part . Series creator Chris Carter felt that Ivanek 's audition " just blew [ him ] away " , deciding almost immediately to cast him . Garry Davey , who portrays scientist Dr. Keats , also appeared in several other episodes of the series , and was also at one time the artistic director of the William Davis Centre for Actors Study , working alongside William B. Davis , who plays the series ' villain The Smoking Man . Art director Graeme Murrary spent time scouting universities and research facilities in Vancouver to aid in creating the right look for the episode 's laboratory and wind tunnel sets .
" Roland " contains the series ' first mention of Fox Mulder 's father Bill , although the character would not actually make an appearance until the second season episode " Colony " . In the original draft of the script for " Roland " , however , Mulder 's mention of his father was instead meant to be his sister , Samantha . The scene depicting the aftermath of the Dr. Keats ' murder — with the scattered pieces of his shattered frozen body marked off with multiple chalk outlines — has been described as " truly inspired " . Chris Carter noted that " any shock and horror was eliminated by the laugh you got when you saw those little pieces on the floor " , also commenting that the actual murder takes place off @-@ screen , and is only heard .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Roland " premiered on the Fox network on May 6 , 1994 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on March 2 , 1995 . This episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 7 @.@ 9 , with a 14 share , meaning that in the US , roughly 7 @.@ 9 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 14 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 7 @.@ 4 million households .
Director David Nutter felt that casting Željko Ivanek was the key to creating the episode , feeling that " Roland " was " probably the weakest script from start to finish " that the director had seen , but that once Ivanek had been cast , it became " important to push that as much as possible , to help outweigh the frailties in the script " . Chris Carter has also praised Ivanek 's involvement with the episode , calling the actor 's portrayal " just an amazing performance . This guy , Zeljko , should have won an award for this " . Glen Morgan , a regular writer for the series , felt that the episode " wasn 't completely effective " , but also added that it offered a " softer " outlook compared to the series ' other episodes so far , feeling that it was important to include several " episodes that demonstrate the paranormal isn 't always horrifying " .
In a retrospective of the first season in Entertainment Weekly , " Roland " was rated a B + , with guest star Željko Ivanek 's portrayal of the eponymous Roland being called " astonishing ( and convincing ) " , and the episode 's " excellent death scenes " noted as highlights . Zack Handlen , writing for The A.V. Club , had mixed feelings about the episode , feeling that its plot was too similar to the previous episode " Born Again " , though rating Ivanek 's acting as " authentic " and " uncontrived " ; ultimately calling the episode " well @-@ built enough to be enjoyable despite its familiarity " . Matt Haigh , writing for Den of Geek , felt negatively about the episode , again finding it too similar to other episodes of the season , finding it to be " nothing incredibly exciting " , noting that it " follows pretty much the same template as many of the other episodes " .
= M @-@ 79 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 79 is an east – west state trunkline highway in the central portion of Lower Peninsula of the U.S. state of Michigan . The western terminus is about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) southeast of Hastings at the junction with M @-@ 37 and the eastern terminus is in downtown Charlotte at the junction with M @-@ 50 and Business Loop Interstate 69 ( BL I @-@ 69 ) . It passes through Quimby and Nashville , where there is a junction with M @-@ 66 . The entire highway is undivided surface road . It has no direct access with Interstate 69 ( I @-@ 69 ) , although a sign for the highway is located on southbound I @-@ 69 at exit 61 .
The highway was first designated in 1919 between Hastings and Battle Creek . It was later moved to run to Charlotte . A section of M @-@ 79 was designated as M @-@ 214 in the 1930s . M @-@ 214 would later be decommissioned as a highway designation and the M @-@ 79 designation was reapplied to the roadway .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 79 starts south of Hastings at a three @-@ way intersection with M @-@ 37 in Hastings Township . The trunkline runs east and parallel to a section of the Thornapple River through wooded terrain that is interspersed with farm fields . South of Thornapple Lake , M @-@ 79 angles southeasterly moving from Quimby Road to Scott Road running parallel to the Thornapple River again into the community of Nashville . M @-@ 79 meets M @-@ 66 and turns south along the latter highway 's route along Main and Durkee streets through the community . South of town in Maple Grove Township , M @-@ 79 separates from M @-@ 66 and turns east along Lawrence Road . Outside of Charlotte , M @-@ 79 curves southeast to transition to Lawrence Avenue through town . The eastern terminus is at an intersection with Cochran Avenue , which carries BL I @-@ 69 and M @-@ 50 .
= = History = =
M @-@ 79 was formed as a state trunkline by July 1 , 1919 along part of its present routing . At the time , it ran between Hastings and Nashville as it does today . From Nashville , the trunkline turned south and west to end at the contemporary M @-@ 17 in Battle Creek . By 1927 , the southernmost section of M @-@ 79 was truncated when M @-@ 78 was extended to Battle Creek . In late 1930 , the southernmost section is shortened once again as a new M @-@ 14 designation replaced M @-@ 79 south of Nashville . An eastward extension of M @-@ 79 at the same time carries the highway designation to Vermontville .
M @-@ 79 was extended easterly to Charlotte in 1934 at the same time that the section of the trunkline between Nashville and Vermontville was redesignated M @-@ 214 . M @-@ 79 was rerouted along Assyria and Lawrence roads at the time to connect the sections of M @-@ 79 on either side of M @-@ 214 . By 1941 , M @-@ 214 was shortened to a 3 @-@ mile ( 5 km ) connector route in downtown Nashville running between M @-@ 79 and M @-@ 66 . In 1953 , M @-@ 79 replaced M @-@ 214 and the latter designation was retired from the highway system . The last section of gravel roadway in Eaton County was paved by 1960 .
= = Major intersections = =
= USS President ( 1800 ) =
USS President was a wooden @-@ hulled , three @-@ masted heavy frigate of the United States Navy , nominally rated at 44 guns . George Washington named her to reflect a principle of the United States Constitution . She was launched in April 1800 from a shipyard in New York City . President was one of the original six frigates whose construction the Naval Act of 1794 had authorized , and she was the last to be completed . Joshua Humphreys designed these frigates to be the young Navy 's capital ships , and so President and her sisters were larger and more heavily armed and built than standard frigates of the period . Forman Cheeseman , and later Christian Bergh were in charge of her construction . Her first duties with the newly formed United States Navy were to provide protection for American merchant shipping during the Quasi War with France and to engage in a punitive expedition against the Barbary pirates in the First Barbary War .
On 16 May 1811 , President was at the center of the Little Belt Affair ; her crew mistakenly identified HMS Little Belt as HMS Guerriere , which had impressed an American seaman . The ships exchanged cannon fire for several minutes . Subsequent U.S. and Royal Navy investigations placed responsibility for the attack on each other without a resolution . The incident contributed to tensions between the U.S. and Great Britain that led to the War of 1812 .
During the war , President made several extended cruises , patrolling as far away as the English Channel and Norway ; she captured the armed schooner HMS Highflyer and numerous merchant ships . In January 1815 , after having been blockaded in New York for a year by the Royal Navy , President attempted to run the blockade , and was chased by a blockading squadron . During the chase , she was engaged and crippled by the frigate HMS Endymion off the coast of the city . The British squadron captured President soon after , and the Royal Navy took her into service as HMS President until she was broken up in 1818 . President 's design was copied and used to build the next HMS President in 1829 .
= = Design and construction = =
During the 1790s , American merchant vessels began to fall prey to Barbary Pirates in the Mediterranean , most notably from Algiers . Congress 's response was the Naval Act of 1794 . The Act provided funds for the construction of six frigates ; however , it included a clause stating that construction of the ships would cease if the United States agreed to peace terms with Algiers .
Joshua Humphreys ' design was long on keel and narrow of beam ( width ) to allow for mounting very heavy guns . The design incorporated a diagonal scantling ( rib ) scheme to limit hogging ( warping ) ; the ships were given extremely heavy planking . This gave the hull greater strength than those of more lightly built frigates . Humphreys developed his design after realizing that the fledgling United States Navy could not match the navies of the European states for size . He therefore designed his frigates to be able to overpower other frigates , but with the speed to escape from a ship of the line .
George Washington named President in order to reflect a principle of the United States Constitution . In March 1796 , before President 's keel could be laid down , a peace accord was announced between the United States and Algiers . Construction was suspended in accordance with the Naval Act of 1794 . At the onset of the Quasi @-@ War with France in 1798 , funds were approved to complete her construction , and her keel was laid at a shipyard in New York City . Her original naval constructor was Forman Cheeseman and the superintendent was Captain Silas Talbot .
Based on experience Humphreys gained during construction of President 's sister ships , Constitution and United States , he instructed Cheeseman to make alterations to the frigate 's design . These included raising the gun deck by 2 in ( 5 @.@ 1 cm ) and moving the main mast 2 ft ( 61 cm ) further rearward . President was built to a length of 175 ft ( 53 m ) between perpendiculars and a beam of 44 @.@ 4 ft ( 13 @.@ 5 m ) .
Although construction was begun at New York in the shipyard of Foreman Cheesman , work on her was discontinued in 1796 . Construction resumed in 1798 , under Christian Bergh and naval constructor William Doughty .
= = = Armament = = =
President 's nominal rating was that of a 44 @-@ gun ship . However , she usually carried over 50 guns . President was originally armed with a battery of 55 guns : thirty @-@ two 24 @-@ pounder ( 10 @.@ 9 kg ) cannon , twenty @-@ two 42 @-@ pounder ( 19 kg ) carronades , and one 18 @-@ pounder ( 8 kg ) long gun .
During her Royal Navy service as HMS President , she was initially rated at 50 guns , although she was at this stage armed with 60 guns — thirty 24 @-@ pounders ( 10 @.@ 9 kg ) on the upper deck , twenty @-@ eight 42 @-@ pounder ( 19 kg ) carronades on the spar deck , plus two more 24 @-@ pounder guns on the forecastle . In February 1817 , she was again re @-@ rated , this time to 60 guns .
Unlike modern Navy vessels , ships of this era had no permanent battery of guns . Guns were portable and were often exchanged between ships as situations warranted . Each commanding officer modified his vessel 's armaments to his liking , taking into consideration factors such as the overall tonnage of cargo , complement of personnel aboard , and planned routes to be sailed . Consequently , a vessel 's armament would change often during its career ; records of the changes were not generally kept .
= = Quasi and First Barbary Wars = =
President launched on 10 April 1800 — the last of the original six frigates to do so . After her fitting out , she departed for Guadeloupe on 5 August with Captain Thomas Truxtun in command . She conducted routine patrols during the latter part of the Quasi @-@ War and made several recaptures of American merchant ships . Nevertheless , her service in this period was uneventful . She returned to the United States in March , after a peace treaty with France was ratified on 3 February 1801 . During the Quasi @-@ War , the United States paid tribute to the Barbary States to ensure that they would not seize or harass American merchant ships . In 1801 Yusuf Karamanli of Tripoli , dissatisfied with the amount of tribute in comparison to that paid to Algiers , demanded an immediate payment of $ 250 @,@ 000 . Thomas Jefferson responded by sending a squadron of warships to protect American merchant ships in the Mediterranean and to pursue peace with the Barbary States .
In May , Commodore Richard Dale selected President as his flagship for the assignment in the Mediterranean . Dale 's orders were to present a show of force off Algiers , Tripoli , and Tunis and maintain peace with promises of tribute . Dale was authorized to commence hostilities at his discretion if any Barbary State had declared war by the time of his arrival . Dale 's squadron consisted of President , Philadelphia , Essex , and Enterprise . The squadron arrived at Gibraltar on 1 July ; President and Enterprise quickly continued to Algiers , where their presence convinced the regent to withdraw threats he had made against American merchant ships . President and Enterprise subsequently made appearances at Tunis and Tripoli before President arrived at Malta on 16 August to replenish drinking water supplies .
Blockading the harbor of Tripoli on 24 August , President captured a Greek vessel with Tripolitan soldiers aboard . Dale negotiated an exchange of prisoners that resulted in the release of several Americans held captive in Tripoli . President arrived at Gibraltar on 3 September . Near Mahón in early December , President struck a large rock while traveling at 6 knots ( 11 km / h ; 6 @.@ 9 mph ) . The impact brought Dale on deck and he successfully navigated President out of danger . An inspection revealed that the impact had twisted off a short section of her keel . President remained in the Mediterranean until March 1802 ; she departed for the United States and arrived on 14 April .
Although President remained in the United States , operations against the Barbary States continued . A second squadron assembled under the command of Richard Valentine Morris in Chesapeake . Morris ' poor performance resulted in his recall and subsequent dismissal from the Navy in 1803 . A third squadron assembled under the command of Edward Preble in Constitution ; by July 1804 , they had fought the Battle of Tripoli Harbor .
= = = Second Barbary patrol = = =
In April 1804 , President Jefferson decided to reinforce Preble 's squadron . President , Congress , Constellation , and Essex prepared to sail as soon as possible under the direction of Commodore Samuel Barron . Barron selected President as his flagship , but she required a new bowsprit and repairs to her masts and rigging . Some two months passed before the squadron was ready to sail . They departed in late June and arrived at Gibraltar on 12 August .
President left Gibraltar on 16 August with Constellation ; the frigates paused at Malta before arriving off Tripoli on 10 September , joining Constitution , Argus , and Vixen . Sighting three ships running the blockade of Tripoli , the squadron moved in to capture them ; during the pursuit , a sudden change in wind direction caused President to collide with Constitution . The collision caused serious damage to Constitution 's stern , bow , and figurehead . Two of the captured ships were sent to Malta with Constitution ; President sailed to Syracuse , Sicily , arriving on 27 August .
When Barron arrived in the Mediterranean , his seniority of rank over Preble entitled him to assume the duties of commodore . However , soon after replacing Preble , Barron went ashore at Syracuse in poor health and became bedridden . Under command of Captain George Cox , President began routine blockade duties of Tripoli during the winter months of 1804 – 05 . In late April 1805 , Constitution captured three ships off Tripoli . President escorted them to port at Malta before rejoining Constitution .
Barron 's fragile health necessitated his resignation ; he passed command to John Rodgers in late May 1805 . Barron ordered Cox to command Essex , and turned President over to his brother , James Barron , on 29 May . On 3 June , after the Battle of Derne , the U.S signed a peace treaty with Tripoli . President sailed for the United States on 13 July , carrying the ailing Barron and many sailors released from captivity in Tripoli .
= = Little Belt Affair = =
In 1807 , the Chesapeake @-@ Leopard Affair heightened tensions between the United States and Britain . In preparation for further hostilities , Congress began authorizing naval appropriations , and President recommissioned in 1809 under the command of Commodore John Rodgers . She made routine and uneventful patrols , mainly along the United States ' eastern seaboard , until 1 May 1811 , when the British frigate HMS Guerriere stopped the American brig Spitfire 18 mi ( 29 km ) from New York and impressed a crewman .
Rodgers received orders to pursue Guerriere , and President sailed immediately from Fort Severn on 10 May . On 16 May , approximately 40 miles ( 64 km ) northeast of Cape Henry , a lookout spotted a sail on the horizon . Closing to investigate , Rodgers determined the sail belonged to a warship , and raised signal flags to identify his ship . The unidentified ship , later learned to be HMS Little Belt — a 20 @-@ gun sixth rate — hoisted signal flags in return , but the hoist was not understood by President 's crew . Little Belt sailed southward and Rodgers , believing the ship to be Guerriere , pursued .
Darkness set in before the ships were within hailing distance , and Rodgers hailed twice , only to have the same question returned to him : " What ship is that ? " According to Rodgers , immediately after the exchange of hails , Little Belt fired a shot that tore through President 's rigging . Rodgers returned fire . Little Belt promptly answered with three guns , and then a whole broadside . Rodgers ordered his gun crews to fire at will ; several accurate broadsides heavily damaged Little Belt in return . After five minutes of firing , President 's crew realized their adversary was much smaller than a frigate and Rodgers ordered a cease fire . However , Little Belt fired again and President answered with more broadsides . After Little Belt became silent , President stood off and waited overnight . At dawn it was obvious that Little Belt was greatly damaged from the fight ; Rodgers sent a boat over from President to offer assistance in repairing the damage . Her Captain , Arthur Bingham , acknowledged the damage ; declining any help , he sailed to Halifax , Nova Scotia . President had one sailor slightly wounded in the exchange , while Little Belt suffered 31 killed or wounded .
Upon President 's return to port , the U.S. Navy launched an investigation into the incident . Gathering testimony from President 's officers and crewmen , they determined that Little Belt had fired the first shot in the encounter . In the Royal Navy investigation , Captain Bingham insisted that President had fired the first shot and continued firing for 45 minutes , rather than the five minutes Rodgers claimed . In all subsequent reports , both captains continually insisted that the other ship had fired the first shot . Reaching a stalemate , the American and British governments quietly dropped the matter .
= = War of 1812 = =
The United States declared war against Britain on 18 June 1812 . Three days later , within an hour of receiving official word of the declaration , Commodore Rodgers sailed from New York City . The commodore sailed aboard President , leading a squadron consisting of United States , Congress , Hornet , and Argus on a 70 @-@ day North Atlantic cruise . A passing American merchant ship informed Rodgers about a fleet of British merchantmen en route to Britain from Jamaica . Rodgers and his squadron sailed in pursuit , and on 23 June they encountered what was later learned to be HMS Belvidera . President pursued the ship , and in what is recorded as the first shot of the War of 1812 , Rodgers himself aimed and fired a bowchaser at Belvidera , striking her rudder and penetrating the gun room . Upon President 's fourth shot at Belvidera , a cannon one deck below Rodgers burst , killing or wounding 16 sailors and throwing Rodgers to the deck with enough force to break his leg .
The ensuing confusion allowed Belvidera to fire her stern chasers , killing six more men aboard President . Rodgers kept up the pursuit , using his bow chasers to severely damage Belvidera 's rigging , but his two broadsides had little effect . The crew of Belvidera quickly made repairs to the rigging . They cut loose her anchors and boats and pumped drinking water overboard to lighten her load , thereby increasing her speed . Belvidera soon gained enough speed to distance herself from President , and Rodgers abandoned the pursuit . Belvidera sailed to Halifax to deliver the news that war had been declared .
President and her squadron returned to the pursuit of the Jamaican fleet , and on 1 July began to follow the trail of coconut shells and orange peels the Jamaicans had left behind them . President sailed to within one day 's journey of the English Channel , but never sighted the convoy . Rodgers called off the pursuit on 13 July . During their return trip to Boston , Rodgers ' squadron captured seven merchant ships and recaptured one American vessel .
After some refitting , President , still under Rodgers ' command , sailed on 8 October with Congress , United States , and Argus . On 12 October , United States and Argus parted from the squadron for their own patrols . On 10 October , President chased HMS Nymphe , but failed to overtake her . On 17 October President captured the British packet ship Swallow , which carried a large amount of currency on board . On 31 October , President and Congress began pursuit of HMS Galatea , which was escorting two merchant ships . The chase lasted about three hours , and in that time Congress captured the merchant ship Argo . Meanwhile , President kept after Galatea and drew very close , but lost sight of her in the night . Congress and President remained together , but did not find any ships to capture during November . Returning to the United States , they passed north of Bermuda and proceeded toward the Virginia capes ; they arrived in Boston on 31 December , having taken nine prizes . President and Congress found themselves blockaded there by the Royal Navy until April 1813 .
On 30 April , President and Congress sailed through the blockade on their third cruise of the war . On 2 May , they pursued HMS Curlew , but she outran them and escaped . President parted company with Congress on 8 May , and Rodgers set a course along the Gulf Stream to search for merchant ships to capture . By June , not having come across a single ship , President turned north ; she put into North Bergen , Norway , on 27 June to replenish her drinking water . Sailing soon after , President captured two British merchant ships , which helped to replenish her stores . On 10 June President captured the outward @-@ bound Falmouth packet Duke of Montrose , Captain Aaron Groub Blewett , which managed to throw her mails overboard before President could send a prize crew aboard . President made a cartel of Duke of Montrose , putting all of President 's prisoners on board and then sending her into Falmouth under the command of an American officer . When Duke of Montrose arrived at Falmouth the British Government abrogated the cartel on the grounds that they had advised the American Government that the British would not recognize agreements entered into on the high seas .
Around the same time , two Royal Navy ships came into view . President set all sails to escape , and outran them in a chase lasting 80 hours . Rodgers reported that his decision to flee the ships was based on identifying them as a ship of the line and a frigate . Royal Navy records later revealed that the vessels were actually the 32 @-@ gun frigate Alexandria and the 16 @-@ gun fireship Spitfire .
Spending a few days near the Irish Channel , President captured several more merchant ships . She then set a course for the United States . In late September , she encountered HMS Highflyer along the east coast of the United States . Rodgers used his signal flags to trick Highflyer into believing that President was HMS Tenedos . Lieut . George Hutchinson , Highflyer 's captain , came aboard President only to discover he had walked into a trap ; President captured Highflyer without a shot being fired . President 's long cruise netted her 11 merchant ships , in addition to Highflyer .
On 4 December , President sailed from Providence , Rhode Island . On the 25th , she encountered two frigates in the dark , one of which fired at her . Rodgers believed the ships to be British , but they were two French frigates , Méduse and Nymphe . Afterward , Rodgers headed toward Barbados for an eight @-@ week cruise in the West Indies , reportedly making three small captures . Returning to New York City on 18 February 1814 , President encountered HMS Loire , which turned to escape once the latter 's crew realized President was a 44 @-@ gun frigate . President remained in New York for the duration of 1814 due to the harbor 's blockade by a British squadron consisting of HMS Endymion , Majestic , Pomone , and Tenedos .
= = = Capture = = =
The Treaty of Ghent , ending hostilities between the United States and Britain , was signed on 24 December 1814 . However , the United States did not ratify the treaty until 18 February 1815 . The war carried on in the interim .
Stephen Decatur assumed command of President in December 1814 , planning a cruise to the West Indies to prey on British shipping . In mid @-@ January 1815 , a snowy gale with strong winds forced the British blockading squadron away from New York Harbor , giving Decatur the opportunity to put to sea . On the evening of 14 January , President headed out of the harbor but ran aground , the result of harbor pilots incorrectly marking a safe passage . Stranded on the sand bar , President lifted and dropped with the incoming tide . Within two hours her hull had been damaged , her timbers twisted , and masts sprung . Damage to her keel caused the ship to hog and sag . Decatur was finally able to float President off the bar and , assessing the damage , he decided to return to New York for repairs ; however , the wind direction was not favorable and President was forced to head out to sea .
Unaware of the exact location of the blockading squadron , Decatur set a course to avoid them and seek a safe port , but approximately two hours later the squadron 's sails were spotted on the horizon . President changed course to outrun them , but the damage she suffered the night before had significantly reduced her speed . Attempting to gain speed , Decatur ordered expendable cargo thrown overboard ; by late afternoon of 15 January , HMS Endymion under Captain Henry Hope came alongside and proceeded to fire broadsides . Decatur planned to bring President in close to Endymion , whereby President 's crew could board and capture the opposing ship and sail her to New York . ( President would be scuttled to prevent her capture ) .
Making several attempts to close on Endymion , Decatur discovered that President 's damage limited her maneuverability , allowing Endymion to anticipate , and draw away from , positions favorable for boarding . Faced with this new dilemma , Decatur ordered bar and chain shot fired to disable Endymion 's sails and rigging , the idea being to shake his pursuer and allow President to proceed to a safe port without being followed . At noon , Endymion , being the much better sailer , was close @-@ hauled , outpacing her squadron and leaving them behind . At 2 pm , she gained on President and took position on the American ship 's quarter , shooting into President as she tried to escape . Endymion was able to rake President three times and did considerable damage to her ; by contrast , President primarily directed her fire at Endymion 's rigging in order to slow her down during the two @-@ hour engagement .
Finally at 7 : 58 pm , President ceased fire and hoisted a light in her rigging , indicating that she had surrendered . Endymion ceased firing on the defeated American ship but did not board to take possession of her prize , due to a lack of undamaged boats . Endymion 's foresails had been damaged in the engagement and while she hove to for repairs , Commodore Stephen Decatur took advantage of the situation and , despite having struck , made off to escape at 8 @.@ 30 pm ; Endymion , hastily completed repairs and resumed the chase at 8 @.@ 52 pm .
President drew away while her crew made hurried repairs of their own . Within two hours , one of her lookouts spotted the remainder of the enemy squadron drawing near . President continued her escape attempt , but by nightfall HMS Pomone and Tenedos had caught up and began firing broadsides . Realizing his situation , Decatur surrendered President again , just before midnight .
= = As HMS President = =
Now in possession of the Royal Navy , President and her crew were ordered to proceed to Bermuda with Endymion . During the journey , they encountered a dangerous gale . The storm destroyed President 's masts and strained Endymion 's timbers so badly that all the upper @-@ deck guns were thrown overboard to prevent her from sinking . Decatur and his crew were briefly held prisoner in Bermuda . Upon the prisoners ' return to the United States , a U.S. Navy court martial board acquitted Decatur , his officers , and his men of any wrongdoing in the surrender of President .
President and Endymion continued to England , arriving at Spithead on 28 March . President was commissioned into the Royal Navy under the name HMS President . Her initial rating was set at 50 guns , although she was at this stage armed with 60 guns — thirty 24 @-@ pounders ( 10 @.@ 9 kg ) on the upper deck , twenty @-@ eight 42 @-@ pounder ( 19 kg ) carronades on the spar deck , plus two more 24 @-@ pounder guns on the forecastle . In February 1817 she was again re @-@ rated , this time to 60 guns .
In March 1818 she was considered for refitting . A drydock inspection revealed that the majority of her timber was defective or rotten and she was broken up at Portsmouth in June . President 's design was copied and used to build HMS President in 1829 , although this was reportedly more of a political maneuver than a testament to the design . The Royal Navy wished to retain the name and likeness of the American ship on their register as a reminder to the United States and other nations of the capture .
= Joseph Tydings =
Joseph Davies Tydings ( born May 4 , 1928 ) is a former Democratic member of the United States Senate , representing the state of Maryland from 1965 to 1971 .
Born in North Carolina , Tydings moved to Maryland as a youth after he was adopted by Millard Tydings , U.S. Senator from Maryland . After serving in the military , he obtained his law degree and entered into practice . He served in the Maryland House of Delegates from 1955 to 1961 , and as United States Attorney from 1961 until his resignation in 1963 to run for Senate .
Tydings won election to the Senate in 1964 . However , his controversial stances on gun control and crime in the District of Columbia cost him re @-@ election in 1970 . He made another attempt at his old seat in 1976 , but was defeated in the Democratic primary election by Paul Sarbanes . He later served as a member of the Board of Regents of the University of Maryland , College Park and the University System of Maryland , and continues to practice law .
= = Early life = =
Tydings was born in Asheville , North Carolina , but attended the public schools of Aberdeen , Maryland . He was adopted as a child by his stepfather , Millard Tydings , who also was a Maryland Senator . His maternal grandfather was Joseph E. Davies , who served as U.S. Ambassador to Belgium , Luxembourg , and the Soviet Union . Tydings went on to graduate from the McDonogh School in 1946 , the University of Maryland , College Park in 1950 where he became a brother of Alpha Phi Omega , and the University of Maryland School of Law in 1953 .
Following the Second World War , Tydings served as a corporal in the Sixth Constabulary Regiment of the United States Army 's European occupation . After his service , he was admitted to the bar in 1952 and was elected to the Maryland House of Delegates in 1955 from Harford County , Maryland .
Tydings served as a delegate until 1961 , when he was appointed United States Attorney for Maryland by President John F. Kennedy , a close friend . As U.S. Attorney , Tydings oversaw the prosecution of several people in the savings and loan business . In 1963 , Tydings served as the United States representative at the Interpol Conference in Helsinki , Finland , and at the International Penal Conference in Bellagio , Italy .
= = 1964 United States Senate election = =
In the 1964 elections , Tydings was frequently mentioned as a potential candidate to compete for the United States Senate seat of Republican J. Glenn Beall , Sr. While initially hesitant , Tydings resigned as U.S. Attorney on November 21 , 1963 to test his political support across the state . On January 14 , 1964 , Tydings officially declared his candidacy , stating he was challenging the " old guard " of the Maryland Democratic Party political machine . He also said he would work to bring a " new era of leadership into Maryland " .
During the primary election in May 1964 , Tydings faced Maryland Comptroller Louis L. Goldstein , who had won the endorsement of both J. Millard Tawes , Governor of Maryland , and Daniel Brewster , the other U.S. Senator from Maryland . Despite the support of
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the party leaders , Goldstein was trounced by Tydings in the primary , losing by nearly a two @-@ to @-@ one margin .
Having secured his party 's nomination , Tydings moved forward to face Beall in the general election . The final election results gave Tydings nearly 63 % of 1 @,@ 081 @,@ 042 votes cast . His large margin of victory was due at least in part to the landslide win by fellow Democrat Lyndon B. Johnson for President in the same election , which likely increased voter turnout .
Upon his election , Tydings began to lay out his legislative agenda for his upcoming term , which included water conservation , pollution and air purity , and mass transportation . He also expressed interest in serving on the Senate Committee on the District of Columbia . Tydings was permitted to serve on the committee , and was eventually appointed chairman in 1969 .
= = Bid for re @-@ election = =
Leading up to the elections of 1970 , Tydings faced criticism from both parties for his actions as senator . In July 1970 , syndicated columnist Marquis Childs noted that Tydings ' problems on the left stemmed from his support of a crime bill for the District of Columbia , which was perceived as repressive against African Americans . There was also criticism directed at the bill for writing into law the practices of preventive detention and no knock warrants .
Tydings ' difficulties with the right stemmed from his sponsorship of the Firearms Registration and Licensing Act , which would have required the registration of firearms . An avid hunter himself , his efforts agitated the gun lobby and the NRA . One Maryland activist group , Citizens Against Tydings , was formed solely because of Tydings ' gun registration platform . Further complicating his relations with the right were the efforts by the American Security Council Foundation , which graded him as a " zero " on national security issues and spent over $ 150 @,@ 000 to campaign against his bid for re @-@ election .
In the Democratic primary , Tydings was challenged by perennial candidate and Dixiecrat George P. Mahoney and two others . After a divisive campaign , Tydings beat Mahoney by 53 % to 37 % .
For the general election , Tydings ' opponent was freshman Congressman J. Glenn Beall , Jr. from Western Maryland , the son of J. Glenn Beall , Sr. , whom Tydings had defeated in 1964 . Beall 's campaign strategy " leaned heavily on his affable , noncontroversial personality " and avoided turning the campaign negative . As a result of Tydings ' unpopularity and Beall 's campaign strategy , Tydings was defeated 51 % to 48 % .
In a review of the election , The Washington Post noted one of Tydings ' major problems was identifying with his constituents . Despite the 3 @-@ 1 advantage of registered Democrats versus Republicans in the state , Tydings had been labeled as an " ultraliberal " by many Marylanders , and Vice President Spiro Agnew , formerly the Governor of Maryland , had called Tydings " radical " while campaigning for Beall . Tydings was also wealthy , and was seen as having an " aloof " disposition .
= = Return to politics = =
Tydings resumed his legal career after he lost his Senate seat , entering into practice with a Washington law firm that included Giant Food President Joseph Danzansky . After several years out of politics , he began traveling the state in 1975 to gauge his chances for winning a rematch versus Beall , who was coming up for re @-@ election in 1976 . On January 10 , 1976 , Tydings announced his candidacy to retake the seat , which he argued was taken unfairly in 1970 due to an undisclosed $ 180 @,@ 000 gift to the Beall campaign .
In the primary , Tydings faced a strong challenge from Congressman Paul Sarbanes , who had entered the race several months earlier . This head start gave Sarbanes a considerable organizational and monetary advantage , and he had already secured influential endorsements . To fend off Sarbanes , Tydings hoped his name recognition and charisma on television would compensate for Sarbanes ' other advantages . He also worked to relabel himself as more fiscally conservative than Sarbanes , since both candidates were seen as liberal .
For the primary election , Tydings needed a large margin of victory from precincts in the Washington , D.C. suburbs of Prince George 's and Montgomery Counties , where he was most popular . However , despite Tydings winning both counties , Sarbanes performed well in the rest of the state and defeated Tydings by over 100 @,@ 000 votes , 61 % to 39 % . Sarbanes had managed to outspend Tydings two @-@ to @-@ one during the campaign . After defeating Tydings , Sarbanes won the general election and served as senator until 2007 .
= = Post @-@ Senate career = =
After defeat , Tydings returned to his law career at Danzansky 's firm . He also worked as a partner in the law firm of Finley , Kumble , Wagner , Underberg , Manley , Myerson & Casey , which collapsed in 1987 . Later , Tydings worked at Anderson Kill Olick & Oshinsky from 1988 until his departure with Jerold Oshinsky in 1996 to join Dickstein Shapiro in Washington , D.C. As of 2008 , he is a senior counsel at Dickstein Shapiro .
In academics , Tydings was a member of the Board of Regents of the University of Maryland from 1974 to 1984 , serving as chairman from 1982 to 1984 ; it became University of Maryland , College Park in 1988 . In 1977 , Tydings called for the Board of Regents of the University of Maryland to divest its endowment from companies doing business with the apartheid regime in South Africa . He later served as a member of Board of Regents of the University System of Maryland from 2000 to 2005 . In September 2008 , he was appointed by Maryland Governor Martin O 'Malley to the board of the University of Maryland Medical System . As of 2016 , he resides in Harford County , Maryland .
= Characters of Shakespear 's Plays =
Characters of Shakespear 's Plays is an 1817 book of criticism of Shakespeare 's plays , written by early nineteenth century English essayist and literary critic William Hazlitt . Composed in reaction to the neoclassical approach to Shakespeare 's plays typified by Dr. Johnson , it was among the first English @-@ language studies of Shakespeare 's plays to follow the manner of German critic A. W. Schlegel , and , with the work of Coleridge , paved the way for the increased appreciation of Shakespeare 's genius that was characteristic of later nineteenth century criticism . It was also the first book to cover all of Shakespeare 's plays , intended as a guide for the general reader .
Then becoming known as a theatre critic , Hazlitt had been focusing increasingly on drama as literature , contributing miscellaneous literary criticism to various journals , including the prestigious Edinburgh Review . This was the first of his book @-@ length literary studies . The plays , the thirty @-@ five that Hazlitt considered genuine , are covered in thirty @-@ two chapters , with new material added to passages reworked from periodical articles and reviews . A Preface establishes his main theme of the uniqueness of Shakespeare 's characters and looks back at earlier Shakespearean criticism . Two concluding chapters on " Doubtful Plays of Shakespear " and the " Poems and Sonnets " round out the book .
The centre of attention is in large part on the characters , described often with a personal slant and using memorable expressions ( " It is we who are Hamlet " ) , and incorporating psychological insights that were to become highly influential in later criticism . Though at first less influential , Hazlitt 's comments on the plays ' dramatic structure and poetry , and on the central themes and general mood of each play , laid the groundwork for later critics ' more elaborate interpretations . Frequently expressing the view that stage presentation could not do justice to Shakespeare 's plays , Hazlitt nevertheless also found certain plays eminently actable , and he frequently voices admiration for the performances of certain actors , particularly Edmund Kean .
At first highly acclaimed — it made an immediate and powerful impact on the poet John Keats among others — then brutally criticised , Hazlitt 's book lost much of its influence in the author 's lifetime , only to reenter the mainstream of Shakespearean criticism in the late nineteenth century . The first edition sold out quickly ; sales of the second , in mid @-@ 1818 , were at first brisk , but they ceased entirely in the wake of harshly antagonistic , personally directed , politically motivated reviews in the Tory literary magazines of the day . Although some interest continued to be shown in Hazlitt 's work as an essayist , it was not until the end of the nineteenth century , long after Hazlitt 's death , that significant interest was again shown in his interpretations of Shakespeare . In the twentieth century , the influential critic A.C. Bradley and a few others began to take seriously the book 's interpretations of many of Shakespeare 's characters . But then Hazlitt along with Bradley was censured for displaying faults of the " character " school of Shakespearean criticism , primarily that of discussing dramatic characters as though they were real people , and again Hazlitt 's contributions to Shakespearean criticism were deprecated .
A revival of interest in Hazlitt as a thinker began in the middle of the twentieth century . As it gained momentum , his thoughts on Shakespeare 's plays as a whole , particularly the tragedies ; his discussions of certain characters , such as Shylock , Falstaff , Imogen , Caliban , and Iago ; and his ideas about the nature of drama and poetry in general , as expressed for example in the essay on Coriolanus , gained renewed appreciation and influenced other Shakespearean criticism .
Hazlitt 's ideas about many of the plays have now come to be valued as thought @-@ provoking alternatives to those of his contemporary Coleridge , and Characters of Shakespear 's Plays is now viewed as a major study of Shakespeare 's plays , placing Hazlitt with Schlegel and Coleridge as one of the three most notable Shakespearean critics of the Romantic period .
= = Background = =
On 26 January 1814 , Edmund Kean debuted as Shylock in Shakespeare 's Merchant of Venice at London 's Drury Lane theatre . William Hazlitt , drama critic for the Morning Chronicle since the previous September , was in the audience . He wrote a stunning review , followed by several others applauding ( but sometimes censuring ) Kean 's performances in other Shakespearean tragedies , including King Richard II , King Richard III , Hamlet , Macbeth , Romeo and Juliet , and , what Hazlitt considered the best of Kean 's performances , Othello . ( These were written for the Morning Chronicle , the Champion , and the Examiner ; he was to continue as principal drama critic for the last of these for three years . ) Kean was hitherto unknown in London . Hazlitt , having recently begun a career as a theatrical reviewer , was no better known than the subject of his reviews . These notices quickly brought both Kean and Hazlitt before the public eye .
In the course of his preparing for a drama review , Hazlitt was in the habit of reading or rereading the play he was soon to see , and his reviews came to include extensive commentary on the plays themselves , turning rapidly from dramatic criticism to literary criticism . With Shakespeare in particular , this led to considerations of the ways in which the actors — again , particularly his favourite Kean — communicated the message of the plays . But he also noted ways in which no actor 's interpretation could live up to the dramatist 's conception .
As his musings developed along these lines , Hazlitt continued to contribute miscellaneous articles to various periodicals . In February 1816 , he reviewed August Wilhelm Schlegel 's Lectures on Dramatic Literature for the Edinburgh Review . The German critic Schlegel showed an appreciation for Shakespeare of a kind that no one in Hazlitt 's country had yet demonstrated , and Hazlitt , sympathising with many of Schlegel 's ideas , felt there was a place for a whole book that would provide appreciative criticism of all of Shakespeare 's plays . Such a book would provide liberal quotations from the text , and focus on the characters and various qualities particular to each play ; and he felt that he could write it . His writing career was now moving in this direction ( he had been contributing miscellaneous literary criticism to the Examiner and elsewhere during this period ) , he needed the money to support his family , and his growing reputation as a drama critic enabled him to have his name appear on the title page ( as a reviewer for periodicals , his contributions were anonymous , as was customary at the time ) .
Thus , Characters of Shakespear 's Plays was born . Considerable material that he had already worked up in his drama reviews was incorporated into the book . One essay , on A Midsummer Night 's Dream , was taken entire from a contribution to " The Round Table " series in the Examiner , first published on 26 November 1815 , with a concluding paragraph tacked on from a drama review , also published in the Examiner , on 21 January 1816 . There was material from other essays . Most of " Shakespear 's Exact Discrimination of Nearly Similar Characters " ( the Examiner , 12 May 1816 ) made its way into the chapters on King Henry IV , King Henry VI , and Othello . Portions of " Shakespear 's Female Characters " ( the Examiner , 28 July 1816 ) found a place in the chapters on Cymbeline and Othello . Hazlitt filled out the rest of what he needed to make a complete book in 1816 and possibly early 1817 .
At this time , unhappy with the way his collection The Round Table , issued in the same year , was being promoted by its publisher , he began to promote his new book himself , partly by word of mouth and also by getting a friend to publish the chapter on Hamlet in The Times and requesting Francis Jeffrey , editor of the Edinburgh Review , to notice it in that periodical . He had already had it printed privately ( instead of offering it directly to a publisher ) by his friend the printer Carew Henry Reynell , who purchased the copyright for £ 100 . As a publicity tactic , copies were circulated privately . Finally , Hazlitt got the book published , by Rowland Hunter and the brothers Charles and James Ollier in collaboration , who brought it out on 9 July 1817 . It was extremely successful , this first edition selling out in six weeks . A second edition was issued by Taylor and Hessey in 1818 , and later that year an unlicensed edition was brought out in Boston by Wells and Lilly . No further editions appeared in Hazlitt 's lifetime .
= = Essays = =
Characters of Shakespear 's Plays consists primarily of Hazlitt 's impressions of and thoughts about all of William Shakespeare 's plays he believed to be genuine . It was the first book of the kind that anyone had yet written . His main focus is on the characters that appear in the plays , but he also comments on the plays ' dramatic structure and poetry , referring frequently to commentary by earlier critics , as well as the manner in which the characters were acted on stage . The essays on the plays themselves ( there is a " Preface " as well as an essay on " Doubtful Plays of Shakespear " and one on the " Poems and Sonnets " ) number thirty @-@ two , but with two of the essays encompassing five of the plays , the plays discussed amount to thirty @-@ five in number . Though each essay constitutes a chapter in a book , in style and length they resemble those of Hazlitt 's miscellaneous collection The Round Table ( published also in 1817 , a collaboration with Leigh Hunt ) , which followed the model for periodical essays established a century earlier in The Spectator .
Though Hazlitt could find much to appreciate in the comedies , tragedy was to him inherently more important , and he weights the tragedies much more heavily . In this he differed from Johnson , who thought Shakespeare best at comedy . The greatest of the plays were tragedies — particularly Macbeth , Othello , King Lear , and Hamlet — and Hazlitt 's comments on tragedy are often integrated with his ideas about the significance of poetry and imaginative literature in general . As he expressed it at the end of " Lear " , tragedy describes the strongest passions , and " the greatest strength of genius is shewn here in describing the strongest passions : for the power of the imagination , in works of invention , must be in proportion to the force of the natural impressions , which are the subject of them . "
= = = Preface = = =
In the " Preface " Hazlitt establishes his focus on " characters " by quoting Pope 's comment that " every single character in Shakespear , is as much an individual , as those in life itself " . After reviewing various other critics of Shakespeare , Hazlitt focuses on two of the most important , including the influential Dr. Johnson . Hazlitt found the Shakespearean criticism of Johnson , the premier literary critic of the previous era , troubling in several ways . He insufficiently valued the tragedies ; he missed the essence of much of the poetry ; and he " reduced everything to the common standard of conventional propriety [ ... ] the most exquisite refinement or sublimity produced an effect on his mind , only as they could be translated into the language of measured prose " . Johnson also believed that every character in Shakespeare represents a " type " or " species " , whereas Hazlitt , siding with Pope , emphasised the individuality of Shakespeare 's characters , while discussing them more comprehensively than anyone had yet done .
Rather than an English critic , it was the German August Wilhelm Schlegel , whose lectures on the drama had recently been translated into English , whom Hazlitt believed to be the greatest critic of Shakespeare 's plays . Hazlitt here includes long extracts from Schlegel on Shakespeare , differing with him principally with respect to what he called a " mysticism " that appears in Schlegel 's interpretations . He shared with Schlegel an enthusiasm for Shakespeare that he found lacking in Dr. Johnson . " An overstrained enthusiasm " , he remarks , " is more pardonable with respect to Shakespear than the want of it ; for our admiration cannot easily surpass his genius . "
= = = Cymbeline = = =
As one of his favourites , Hazlitt places Cymbeline first in his discussions of Shakespeare 's plays , according it extensive treatment . This includes his personal impressions of individual characters — as the book 's title would lead us to expect — but also the kind of broader consideration for which he would not be credited for at least a century and a half .
The play 's " greatest charm is the character of Imogen " , writes Hazlitt . He observes how , in justifying her actions , " she relies little on her personal charms " or a prudish " affected antipathy to vice " but rather " on her merit , and her merit is in the depth of her love , her truth and constancy . " Shakespeare 's presentation is full and rounded . We see her beauty as observed by others ( as by the villain Iachimo ) , but more often we see her from the inside , and are touched when , after endless nights of crying herself awake over the loss of Posthumus , she is outraged to learn ( as she is falsely informed ) that " ' Some Jay of Italy [ ... ] hath betrayed him . ' " And we witness a moment in the development of her character , as her resolve to disguise herself to seek out Posthumus grows firmer . " Of all Shakespear 's women she is perhaps the most tender and most artless . "
Hazlitt broadens the scope of these reflections into a consideration of " Shakespear 's heroines " in general , writing , " No one ever hit the true perfection of the female character , the sense of weakness leaning on the strength of its affections for support , so well as Shakespear " . ( Here Hazlitt incorporates material from his essay " Shakespear 's Female Characters " , published in the Examiner on 28 July 1816 . )
Hazlitt comments to a lesser degree on other characters , such as Bellarius , Guiderius , and Arviragus ; more often he shows how the characters relate to each other and to the structure of the play . These three , for example , " are a fine relief to the intrigues and artificial refinements of the court from which they are banished . "
The character of Cloten , " the conceited , booby lord " , is discussed as an occasion for noting how Shakespeare depicted what is most contradictory in human nature . Cloten , " with all the absurdity of his person and manners , is not without shrewdness in his observations . " And again Hazlitt steps back and points out how Shakespeare set one character off against the other and presented characters of similar types but with slight modifications of their otherwise similar traits to convey a certain impression about human nature . Hazlitt observes :
[ A ] s it happens in most of the author 's works , there is not only the utmost keeping in each separate character ; but in the casting of the different parts , and their relation to one another , there is an affinity and harmony , like what we may observe in the gradations of colour in a picture . The striking and powerful contrasts in which Shakespear abounds could not escape observation ; but the use he makes of the principle of analogy to reconcile the greatest diversities of character and to maintain a continuity of feeling throughout , has not been sufficiently attended to .
As he does with character , Hazlitt observes patterns he discovers in the plot . He will have nothing of criticising it in terms of the classical " unities " . The plot must be taken on its own terms . If the action is long @-@ drawn @-@ out , " the interest becomes more aerial and refined from the principle of perspective introduced into the subject by the imaginary changes of scene , as well as by the length of time it occupies . "
Regarding Shakespeare 's weaving together of the story 's threads , Hazlitt marvels at the " ease and conscious unconcern " with which " [ t ] he most straggling and seemingly casual incidents are contrived [ and ] in such a manner as to lead at last to the most complete developement of the catastrophe . " Again , he broadens the discussion and argues against the view of Dr. Johnson " that Shakespear was generally inattentive to the winding @-@ up of his plots . We think the contrary is true ; and we might cite in proof of this remark not only the present play , but the conclusion of Lear , of Romeo and Juliet , of Macbeth , of Othello , even of Hamlet , and of other plays of less moment , in which the last act is crowded with decisive events brought about by natural means . "
Beyond plot , beyond individual characters , Hazlitt rounds out his discussion by noting the prevailing mood , the " tender gloom [ that ] overspreads the whole " play . He sees the parallel yet subtly contrasting lines of the story playing against each other " unconsciously " in the mind of the reader as of the author , working by " the force of natural association , a particular train of thought suggesting different inflections of the same predominant feeling , melting into , and strengthening one another , like chords in music . " Thus , far more than simply commenting on particular characters , Hazlitt elucidates the character of the play as a whole .
= = = Coriolanus = = =
Hazlitt 's focus in the essay on Coriolanus is less on the various characters of Shakespeare 's tragedy than on the fundamental moral and political principles behind their actions . For Hazlitt , this play showed in action the concepts behind political writings of his own day , such as Edmund Burke 's Reflections on the Revolution in France and Thomas Paine 's Rights of Man . The character of Coriolanus is a type of the aristocratic hero , though presented as a well @-@ rounded individual , with a " pride " consisting of " inflexible sternness of will " , a " love of reputation " and " glory " , and a " contempt of popular opinion " . Hazlitt also comments on the characters of Coriolanus 's mother and wife , and he points out the substantial fidelity of this play to its source in Thomas North 's translation of Plutarch 's Lives of the Noble Greeks and Romans , extracting long passages from the life of Coriolanus .
His primary focus , however , is on Shakespeare 's dramatisation of " the arguments for and against aristocracy or democracy , on the privileges of the few and the claims of many " . Shakespeare shows the weaknesses of both the nobles and the people , but , thought Hazlitt , he was biased somewhat in favour of the nobility , leading him to gloss over their defects more so than those of the common people .
But Hazlitt goes further , to develop an idea that only much later was seen to have radical implications for literary theory : he claims that it is of the very nature of poetry to glorify the aristocrat , the solitary hero , and the monarch , while being much less suited to represent , in ways that capture the imagination , the social problems of the common people . Poetic " imagination naturally falls in with the language of power . The imagination is an exaggerating and exclusive faculty : it takes from one thing to add to another : it accumulates circumstances together to give the greatest possible effect to a favourite object . " On the other hand , the language that would be used to argue the cause of the people relies more on " the understanding " , which " is a dividing and measuring faculty : it judges of things not according to their immediate impression on the mind , but according to their relations to one another . [ ... ] Poetry [ on the other hand ] is right @-@ royal . It puts the individual for the species , the one above the infinite many , might before right . "
" So we feel some concern for the poor citizens of Rome when they meet together to compare their wants and grievances , till Coriolanus comes in and with blows and big words drives this set of ' poor rats , ' this rascal scum , to their homes and beggary before him . There is nothing heroical in a multitude of miserable rogues not wishing to be starved [ ... ] but when a single man comes forward to brave their cries and to make them submit to the last indignities , from mere pride and self @-@ will , our admiration of his prowess is immediately converted into contempt for their pusillanimity . " The key for Hazlitt is the innate human " love of power " . This love of power is not necessarily expressed by a will to dominate others physically ; but there is at least the tendency to side with power in the imagination , to be swayed and carried away emotionally by the power of poetic language . Hazlitt 's own worship of Napoleon , it was later observed , could be taken as an example of this tendency .
Hazlitt for the most part agreed with his contemporary Romantics that poetry can make us better human beings . The following year , in his Lectures on the English Poets , referring to tragic poetry especially , he would observe how " in proportion as it sharpens the edge of calamity and disappointment , it strengthens the desire of good . " Yet , he remained alert to ways in which poetry can also express and reinforce our less admirable tendencies . Following an observation of Burke he notes that " people flock to see a tragedy ; but if there were a public execution in the next street , the theatre would very soon be empty . [ ... ] We are [ ... ] fond of indulging our violent passions [ .... ] We cannot help it . The sense of power is as strong a principle in the mind as the love of pleasure . "
Alarmingly , this tendency , as shown in Coriolanus , could seem to so glorify tyranny and oppression as to lead people to accept it in practice :
The whole dramatic moral of Coriolanus is that those who have little shall have less , and that those who have much shall take all that others have left . The people are poor ; therefore they ought to be starved . They are slaves ; therefore they ought to be beaten . They work hard ; therefore they ought to be treated like beasts of burden . They are ignorant ; therefore they ought not to be allowed to feel that they want food , or clothing , or rest , that they are enslaved , oppressed , and miserable . This is the logic of the imagination and the passions ; which seek to aggrandise what excites admiration and to heap contempt on misery , to raise power into tyranny , and to make tyranny absolute ; to thrust down that which is low still lower , and to make wretches desperate : to exalt magistrates into kings , kings into gods ; to degrade subjects to the rank of slaves , and slaves to the condition of brutes . The history of mankind is a romance , a mask , a tragedy , constructed upon the principles of poetical justice ; it is a noble or royal hunt , in which what is sport to the few is death to the many , and in which the spectators halloo and encourage the strong to set upon the weak , and cry havoc in the chase though they do not share in the spoil . We may depend upon it that what men delight to read in books , they will put in practice in reality .
In this way Hazlitt demonstrated how poetry might be used to glorify tyranny and oppression , a tendency he saw disturbingly prominent in Coriolanus . A lifelong advocate of individual freedom and the cause of the people as against the oppression of aristocracy , the tyranny of " legitimate " monarchy , Hazlitt was disturbed by this tendency in the human imagination as expressed in poetry , and it was here that these misgivings first entered into his general theory of poetry . These thoughts were not particularly noticed for a century and a half , when critic John Kinnaird pointed out how curiously at odds with the more typical critical theories of poetry Hazlitt 's idea was , setting him apart from contemporaries such as Wordsworth and Coleridge : " Students of Hazlitt 's thought have strangely neglected this passage , yet the idea it introduces is perhaps the most original , and surely the most heretical , idea in the entire range of his criticism . " Kinnaird notes that Lionel Trilling was the first critic to grasp the " originality and importance of this passage " , though even Trilling interpreted Hazlitt 's idea of the human love of power in too narrow a sense .
Having observed the workings of what he thought an alarming tendency of the poetic imagination , as well as Shakespeare 's possible aristocratic bias , Hazlitt then observes that , after all , traits of Coriolanus 's character emerge , even in this dramatic context , that Shakespeare clearly shows to be less than admirable . For example , " Coriolanus complains of the fickleness of the people : yet , the instant he cannot gratify his pride and obstinacy at their expense , he turns his arms against his own country . If his country was not worth defending , why did he build his pride in its defence ? "
Ultimately , Hazlitt tried to form a balanced judgement of the play . Comparing Hazlitt 's account with that of a famous contemporary , David Bromwich thought that nothing like this critical stance can " be found anywhere in the whole range of Coleridge 's criticism . "
= = = Falstaff ( Henry IV and The Merry Wives of Windsor ) = = =
The character of Sir John Falstaff appeared in three of Shakespeare 's plays , Henry IV , Part 1 , Henry IV , Part 2 , and The Merry Wives of Windsor . The bulk of Hazlitt 's commentary on the two history plays is devoted to Falstaff , whom he considers to be " perhaps the most substantial comic character ever invented " .
Falstaff had been of interest to Shakespearean commentators for years . Forty years earlier , a full @-@ length book had appeared , An Essay on the Dramatic Character of Sir John Falstaff ( 1777 ) , by Maurice Morgann , often taken as the beginning of that school of Shakespearean criticism which considers the characters of Shakespeare 's plays as though they were real people . Hazlitt , who seems to have had little acquaintance with Morgann 's work , is careful never to lose sight of Falstaff 's status as a character in a play — three plays , in fact , though the two parts of Henry IV are examined in a single essay .
In conveying his impressions of Falstaff , Hazlitt first emphasises the sheer physical bulk that we remember him by : " We are as well acquainted with his person as his mind , and his jokes come upon us with double force and relish from the quantity of flesh through which they make their way , as he shakes his fat sides with laughter [ ... ] .
Then Hazlitt observes the connection between Falstaff 's body and his " wit " : " Falstaff 's wit is an emanation of a fine constitution ; an exuberance of good @-@ humour and good @-@ nature ; an overflowing of his love of laughter and good fellowship ; a giving vent to his heart 's ease , and over @-@ contentment with himself and others . "
Answering those who consider Falstaff a " mere sensualist " , he points out how little we actually see Falstaff indulging himself . " All this is as much in imagination as in reality . His sensuality does not engross and stupify his other faculties [ ... ] . His imagination keeps up the ball after his senses have done with it . He seems to have even a greater enjoyment of the freedom from restraint , of good cheer , of his ease , of his vanity , in the ideal exaggerated description he gives of them , than in fact . "
This leads Hazlitt to consider why , when Falstaff " is represented as a liar , a braggart , a coward , a glutton , etc . , [ ... ] we are not offended but delighted with him [ ... ] . " The answer is that " he is all these as much to amuse others as to gratify himself . He openly assumes all these characters to shew the humourous part of them . The unrestrained indulgence of his own ease , appetites , and convenience , has neither malice nor hypocrisy in it . In a word , he is an actor in himself almost as much as upon the stage , and we no more object to the character of Falstaff in a moral point of view than we should think of bringing an excellent comedian , who should represent him to the life , before one of the police offices . "
Hazlitt goes on to present extracts of his favourite scenes , including those between Falstaff and Prince Hal , and Falstaff and Mistress Quickly . This is merged into a consideration of the way Falstaff interacts with some other characters , and the way Shakespeare 's characters reflect on one another , each in his or her behaviour shedding light on key traits in the others .
This in turn leads to commentary on the " heroic and serious parts of " Henry IV , parts 1 and 2 , and , finally , to more general reflections on Shakespeare 's genius . But the character of Falstaff has had the lion 's share of the discussion , and Hazlitt ends his essay on the two history plays by balancing his personal feelings about Falstaff with a more distanced , objective comment on the dramas as history plays in a broader context :
" The truth is , that we never could forgive the Prince 's treatment of Falstaff [ ... ] " by banishing him after the Prince has become King Henry V , " though perhaps Shakespear knew what was best , according to the history , the nature of the times , and of the man . "
Hazlitt 's enthusiastic explanation of how Falstaff 's fatness contributes to our amused sympathy with him was later especially admired by the critic John Dover Wilson . And John Kinnaird considered the " sketch of Falstaff " in this essay to be a " masterpiece " , " a brilliant [ ... ] portrait of comic exuberance incarnate " , though perhaps in part a creation of his own imagination rather than being entirely faithful to the character as created by Shakespeare .
Falstaff 's appearance in The Merry Wives of Windsor is far less significant ; although he found things to admire in this play , to Hazlitt , " Falstaff in the Merry Wives of Windsor is not the man he was in the two parts of Henry IV . "
= = = Hamlet = = =
Though at times Hazlitt delighted in actors ' interpretations of Shakespearean characters , and he thought some of Shakespeare 's plays eminently suited for the stage , he opens the chapter on Hamlet by proclaiming , " We do not like to see our author 's plays acted , and least of all , Hamlet " . Here , more than anywhere else , he sides with Charles Lamb in believing Shakespeare 's plays to suffer in stage presentation . Neither John Kemble nor his favourite actor Edmund Kean played the role of Hamlet to his satisfaction . " Mr. Kean 's Hamlet is as much too splenetic and rash as Mr. Kemble 's is too deliberate and formal . " This , he felt , is a play to be read , and he noted that by his time it had already been so often read as to have become part of the common culture . " This is that Hamlet the Dane , whom we read of in our youth " . One might say , he observes , that Hamlet is just a character in a play : " Hamlet is a name ; his speeches and sayings but the idle coinage of the poet 's brain . " Yet Shakespeare gives those sayings a reality in the mind of the reader , making them " as real as our own thoughts . "
Of all Shakespeare 's plays , this one is " the most remarkable for the ingenuity , originality , and unstudied developement of character " , writes Hazlitt . He thought of Hamlet more often than any of Shakespeare 's other plays because " it abounds most in striking reflections on human life , and because the distresses of Hamlet are transferred , by the turn of his mind , to the general account of humanity . "
" The character of Hamlet [ ... ] is not a character marked by strength of will or even of passion , but by refinement of thought and sentiment " , writes Hazlitt , and he sides with Schlegel and Coleridge in thinking that Hamlet " seems incapable of deliberate action " . " His ruling passion is to think , not to act " .
Although the focus in this essay is largely on the character of Prince Hamlet , Hazlitt also comments on the movement of the dramatic action . Shakespeare lends all the characters and settings an air of verisimilitude , so that the reader might consider " the whole play [ to be ] an exact transcription of what might be supposed to have taken place at the court of Denmark , at the remote period of time fixed upon , before the modern refinements in morals and manners were heard of . [ ... ] the characters think and speak and act just as they might do , if left entirely to themselves . There is no set purpose , no straining at a point . "
Hazlitt also reflects on Shakespeare 's thorough understanding of the complexity of human character . Queen Gertrude , " who was so criminal in some respects [ was ] not without sensibility and affection in other relations of life . " Again , he comments on the idea expressed by other critics that some characters are too inconsistent in their behaviour to be plausible , particularly Polonius . If " his advice to [ his son ] Laertes is very excellent , and his advice to the King and Queen on the subject of Hamlet 's madness very ridiculous " , that is " because [ Shakespeare ] kept up the distinction which there is in nature , between the understandings and the moral habits of men . [ ... ] Polonius is not a fool , but he makes himself so . "
Hazlitt 's essay on Hamlet was later used by David Bromwich in an extensive comparison of Coleridge 's and Hazlitt 's critical views in general . Although , to Bromwich , Coleridge 's criticism of Hamlet contained a greater number of original ideas , including the general assessment of Prince Hamlet 's character , Hazlitt 's view is notable in that it does not , like Coleridge , reduce that character to a single dominating flaw , his inability to act . In one of his lectures on Shakespeare , Coleridge claimed that " Shakespeare wished to impress upon us the truth that action is the chief end of existence — that no faculties of intellect , however brilliant , can be considered valuable , or indeed otherwise than as misfortunes , if they withdraw us from or render us repugnant to action , and lead us to think and think of doing , until the time has elapsed when we can do anything effectually . " Hazlitt , on the other hand , instead of applying this moral , pointed to the necessity of each reader 's identifying with Hamlet to understand him ( which , he believed , occurred more readily than with any other of Shakespeare 's characters ) and the reader 's judging of Hamlet in part on the basis of what that reader then saw in himself . This made it unlikely that Hamlet 's entire character would be reduced to a single flaw that would provide the reader with a moral lesson .
Shakespeare did not force Prince Hamlet to conform to any particular rules of morality . " The moral perfection of this character has been called in question " , Hazlitt writes , but " the ethical delineations of [ Shakespeare ] do not exhibit the drab @-@ coloured quakerism of morality . " Hazlitt understood that human character is too complicated for such a portrayal to conform to the truth of human nature . " On the morality of literature " , observes Bromwich , " Coleridge will usually be found a resolute guide , and Hazlitt an unsettling observer . "
John Kinnaird also paid particular attention to Hazlitt 's " celebrated " sketch of Prince Hamlet in this essay . Although Hazlitt does not entirely belong to the school of pure " character " critics , this essay does tend to be more of a " character " criticism than others , asserts Kinnaird , because Hazlitt shared with his Romantic contemporaries an " ambivalence toward tragedy " . Hamlet to him as to his contemporaries was a modern character who was " obsessed with evil in the world [ , ] [ ... ] long [ ed ] to escape from knowledge of it in themselves [ and had a ] pessimistic sense that suffering changes nothing and that the world must go on as it is . " Thus , Hazlitt could declare , " It is we who are Hamlet . "
Hazlitt incorporated into this chapter material from his review of Kean 's performance of Hamlet at Drury Lane on 12 March 1814 ( " Mr. Kean 's Hamlet " , The Morning Chronicle , 14 March 1814 ) . That review already included Hazlitt 's musings on the difficulty of presenting Hamlet on stage , after seeing how even his favourite Kean failed to interpret Hamlet 's character adequately . The celebrated passages that begin with " This is that Hamlet the Dane " and include the assertion " It is we who are Hamlet " appear , however , only in the final form of the essay in Characters of Shakespear 's Plays .
= = = King Lear = = =
In the essay on King Lear , which he entitled simply " Lear " , Hazlitt makes no references to the performances of any actors . In fact , here he fully agrees with Lamb that King Lear , like Hamlet , cannot be adequately presented on stage . No actors , he felt , could do justice to the overwhelming imaginative power of this play .
Hazlitt was so deeply affected by this tragedy that he begins the chapter with a regret that he had to write about it at all . " To attempt to give a description of the play itself or its effect upon the mind , is mere impertinence " . Yet what he did write turned out to be a major piece of literary criticism that contributed to his general concepts about tragedy and poetry , and made a powerful impression on the poet John Keats .
" The greatest strength of genius " , Hazlitt writes , " is shewn in describing the strongest passions " . This play takes as its subject the strongest passions , and Shakespeare 's genius rose to the occasion . Here , Shakespeare was more " in earnest " than in any of his other creations , and " he was fairly caught in the web of his own imagination " . The result was his best tragedy , and therefore his best play .
Of King Lear in general , Hazlitt writes :
The passion which he has taken as his subject is that which strikes its root deepest into the human heart [ ... ] This depth of nature , this force of passion , this tug and war of the elements of our being , this firm faith in filial piety , and the giddy anarchy and whirling tumult of the thoughts at finding this prop failing it , the contrast between the fixed , immovable basis of natural affection , and the rapid , irregular starts of imagination , suddenly wrenched from all its accustomed holds and resting @-@ places in the soul , this is what Shakespear has given , and what nobody else but he could give .
Some space is devoted to the psychological scrutiny of the principal characters , but with consideration , also , of their function in the dramatic construct . " The character of Lear " is perfectly conceived for its place in the play , " the only ground on which such a story could be built with the greatest truth and effect . It is his rash haste , his violent impetuosity , his blindness to every thing but the dictates of his passions or affection , that produces all his misfortunes , that aggravates his impatience of them , that enforces our pity for him . "
Hazlitt then comments on some of the other characters seen not in isolation but as they interact with and affect one another , comparing and contrasting them to highlight subtle differences . For example , the characters of Goneril and Regan , the comparison of which he begins with a note of personal distaste ( " they are so thoroughly hateful that we do not even like to repeat their names " ) , are shown , he points out , partly in their reaction to their sister Cordelia 's desire that they treat their father well — " ' Prescribe not to us our duties ' " — and partly by the contrast of their hypocrisy with the candor of the otherwise evil Edmund .
Hazlitt lingers briefly on the character of Lear 's third daughter , Cordelia , observing , in one of his psychological asides , that " the indiscreet simplicity of her love [ ... ] has a little of her father 's obstinacy in it " .
Going beyond specific characters , or even specific interactions among them , Hazlitt delineates what he calls the " logic of passion " , the rhythm of emotions in the drama , and its effect on the mind of the reader or viewer . " We see the ebb and flow of the feeling , its pauses and feverish starts , its impatience of opposition , its accumulating force when it has had time to recollect itself , the manner in which it avails itself of every passing word or gesture , its haste to repel insinuation , the alternate contraction and dilatation of the soul , and all ' the dazzling fence of controversy ' in this mortal combat with poisoned weapons , aimed at the heart , where each wound is fatal . " He observes , too , in explaining an instance of what later came to be called comic relief , how when the reader 's feelings are strained to the utmost , " just as [ ... ] the fibres of the heart [ ... ] are growing rigid from over @-@ strained excitement [ ... ] [ t ] he imagination is glad to take refuge in the half @-@ comic , half @-@ serious comments of the Fool , just as the mind under the extreme anguish of a surgical operation vents itself in sallies of wit . "
And again , on Shakespeare 's artistry , Hazlitt remarks on the way the second plot , involving Gloucester , Edgar , and Edmund , is interwoven with the main plot : " Indeed , the manner in which the threads of the story are woven together is almost as wonderful in the way of art as the carrying on the tide of passion , still varying and unimpaired , is on the score of nature . "
Hazlitt appreciatively quotes long extracts from what he considered some of the best scenes , and remarks that , as sad as the concluding events are , " The oppression of the feelings is relieved by the very interest we take in the misfortunes of others , and by the reflections to which they give birth . " This leads to his mentioning the then @-@ current practice of substituting , on stage , a happy ending for Shakespeare 's tragic one , which had been approved by no less an authority than Dr. Johnson . Arguing against this practice , Hazlitt brings in a lengthy quote from an article Lamb wrote for Leigh Hunt 's Reflector , which concludes : " A happy ending ! — as if the living martyrdom that Lear had gone through , — the flaying of his feelings alive , did not make a fair dismissal from life the only decorous thing for him . "
Hazlitt , however , in the view of John Kinnaird , goes beyond Lamb in maintaining that it is Lear 's very despair , by which " all the powers of thought and feeling " were elicited and intensified , that gives him tragic " strength and grandeur " .
By early 1818 , a few months after the publication of Characters of Shakespear 's Plays , John Keats had acquired a copy . Fascinated by what he read , particularly by the essay on King Lear , he underlined passages and added comments in the margins . Keats especially liked what Hazlitt wrote on the play 's " ebb and flow of the feeling " and noted , using a term he had heard Hazlitt himself apply to Shakespeare in his 27 January lecture " On Shakspeare and Milton " , " This passage has to a great degree hieroglyphic visioning . " Together with what he had already read of Hazlitt 's work , especially the essay " On Gusto " from The Round Table , which had helped him develop his celebrated idea about " Negative Capability " , this essay on King Lear inspired much of his own poetry and thoughts about poetry .
Hazlitt ends the chapter by making four points about genius , poetry , and especially tragedy . To David Bromwich the most important of these is the third , " That the greatest strength of genius is shewn in describing the strongest passions : for the power of the imagination , in works of invention , must
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be in proportion to the force of the natural impressions , which are the subject of them . "
Bromwich noted that Hazlitt 's thoughts , particularly as applied to Lear , are here in line with those of Shelley in his Defence of Poetry . Bromwich also noted that for Hazlitt the power of this play is achieved by Shakespeare 's unwillingness to soften the harshness of " nature " , as expressed in Lear 's halting , broken outcries , such as " I will have such revenges on you both , [ Goneril and Regan ] / That all the world shall — — " . This approach is never quite followed by even so great a contemporary poet as Wordsworth . To Hazlitt , this is a demonstration of why the greatest poetry of his own age failed to achieve the level of greatness that Shakespeare reached here . That King Lear is strongest in subordinating the artistry of dramatic poetry to the power of nature is also why its kind of poetry is superior to the more artificial kind produced by Pope .
= = = Macbeth = = =
Among Shakespeare 's four principal tragedies , Macbeth , according to Hazlitt in this chapter , is notable for its wild extremes of action , its preponderance of violence , and its representation of " imagination " strained to the verge of the forbidden and the darker mysteries of existence . " This tragedy is alike distinguished for the lofty imagination it displays , and for the tumultuous vehemence of the action ; and the one is made the moving principle of the other " , Hazlitt writes . Macbeth " moves upon the verge of an abyss , and is a constant struggle between life and death . The action is desperate and the reaction is dreadful . [ ... ] The whole play is an unruly chaos of strange and forbidden things , where the ground rocks under our feet . "
Here again , Hazlitt is interested not merely in individual characters but in the character of the play as a whole , focusing especially on the supernatural underpinnings , with the prophecies of the three witches on the " blasted heath " , with which Macbeth struggles , wrestling with his destiny , through to the play 's tragic climax . Hazlitt is especially interested in the " design " of Macbeth , in its general mood , its " full poetic ' impression ' " , and in this , according to John Kinnaird , he anticipates the method of the twentieth @-@ century Shakespearean critic G. Wilson Knight . " Shakespear " , writes Hazlitt , " lost sight of nothing that could in any way give relief or heightening to his subject [ ... ] . "
Further noting Shakespeare 's crafting of the play , Hazlitt points to fine touches at the beginning that contribute to a unified effect : " The wildness of the scenery , the sudden shifting of the situations and characters , the bustle , the expectations excited , [ all ] are equally extraordinary . " " Shakespear " , he writes , " excelled in the openings of his plays : that of Macbeth is the most striking of any . "
He also , as in his essay on Hamlet , notes the realistic effect of Macbeth : " His plays have the force of things upon the mind . What he represents is brought home to the bosom as a part of our experience , implanted in the memory as if we had known the places , persons , and things of which he treats . "
In considering the characters , Hazlitt emphasises the importance of their interaction , the way in which a major character 's behaviour helps define that of another . This is especially true of Macbeth and Lady Macbeth , locked together in a struggle against all Scotland and their fate . Macbeth , as he is about to commit his bloodiest deeds , is " assailed by the stings of remorse , and full of ' preternatural solicitings . ' [ ... ] In thought he is absent and perplexed , sudden and desperate in act , from his own irresolution . " This is in contrast with , and " set off by " the character of " Lady Macbeth , whose obdurate strength of will and masculine firmness give her the ascendancy over her husband 's faultering virtue . [ ... ] The magnitude of her resolution almost covers the magnitude of her guilt . " But in effect Macbeth and Lady Macbeth exchange places as the action develops . He " becomes more callous as he plunges deeper in guilt [ ... ] and [ ... ] in the end anticipates his wife in the boldness and bloodiness of his enterprises , while she for want of the same stimulus of action , [ ... ] goes mad and dies . "
Here as elsewhere , Hazlitt illuminates the characters not only by contrast with others in the same play but with characters in other plays . A lengthy passage , adapted from an 1814 drama review by Hazlitt , compares Macbeth and King Richard III from Shakespeare 's play of that name . Both characters " are tyrants , usurpers , murderers , both aspiring and ambitious , both courageous , cruel , treacherous . " But Richard is " naturally incapable of good " and " wades through a series of crimes [ ... ] from the ungovernable violence of his temper and a reckless love of mischief " , while Macbeth , " full of ' the milk of human kindness ' " , " is with difficulty prevailed upon to commit [ ... ] the murder of Duncan " and is filled " with remorse after its perpetration . "
Similarly , though Lady Macbeth is evil , " [ s ] he is only wicked to gain a great end " and it is only her " inexorable self @-@ will " that prevents her being diverted from her " bad purpose " which masks her " natural affections " ; whereas Goneril and Regan , in King Lear , " excite our loathing and abhorrence " as Lady Macbeth does not . Further , Hazlitt notes that Lady Macbeth displays human emotions , " swelling exultation and keen spirit of triumph , [ ... ] uncontroulable eagerness of anticipation [ ... ] solid , substantial flesh and blood display of passion " ; while the witches from the same play are only " hags of mischief " , " unreal , abortive , half @-@ existences " .
Because of their human qualities , we never entirely lose sympathy with Macbeth and Lady Macbeth , and our imagination participates with theirs in the tragedy . Their imagination makes the two more human and yet also destroys them . As Kinnaird points out ( elaborating on an idea of Joseph W. Donohue , Jr . ) , Hazlitt in part sees Macbeth as a tragedy of imagination itself .
One concern addressed by Hazlitt is the assertion by previous critics that Macbeth is little more than a crude and violent amalgam of extremes filled with " Gothic " barbarisms . Hazlitt notes , however , that should anyone think Macbeth 's character is so composed of contradictory extremes as to be implausible , it is , rather , the circumstances and the passions in conflict that provide the extremes , while Macbeth 's character retains a strong underlying unity throughout . " Macbeth in Shakespear no more loses his identity of character in the fluctuations of fortune or the storm of passions than Macbeth in himself would have lost the identity of his person . " Kinnaird notes that here , as if anticipating it by a century , Hazlitt argues against the view advanced by Elmer Edgar Stoll in 1933 , that Macbeth 's character is too full of contradictions to be plausible .
Although he lingers nostalgically on his memory of the great actress Sarah Siddons 's performance as Lady Macbeth , and a few years earlier had acknowledged that Kean and John Kemble had been at least partly successful in the role of Macbeth ( though each in different portions of it ) , on the whole he expressed doubts about the success of the staging of this play , again agreeing with Lamb . By the time he composed this chapter of Characters , he could write , " We can conceive [ ... ] no one to play Macbeth properly , or to look like a man that had encountered the Weïrd Sisters . " Further observations follow about the witches themselves . Part of the problem was that by his day , there remained few who really believed in the supernatural , and " by the force of the police and of philosophy [ ... ] the ghosts in Shakespear will become obsolete . " He concludes by quoting at length a passage from an essay by Lamb on the originality of Shakespeare 's portrayal of the witches .
= = = The Merchant of Venice = = =
Hazlitt 's treatment of The Merchant of Venice centres on the character of Shylock . A few years earlier , Edmund Kean had appeared as the Jewish moneylender in his debut performance at Drury Lane . Hazlitt , the drama critic for the Morning Chronicle in January 1814 , sat close to the stage and watched every facial expression , every movement . He was astounded at Kean 's , for the time , radically unconventional portrayal of Shylock as a full , rounded , complex human being , full of vigour , rather than a doddering , malevolent stereotype . His positive review of Kean 's performance became critical in boosting the actor 's career . But Kean 's performance also helped alter Hazlitt 's own view of Shylock , which made its way into this essay a few years later . Hazlitt admitted that he had tended to accept the older interpretation of Shylock 's character as it had been depicted on stage , which followed centuries @-@ old prejudices against the Jews , and made him a one @-@ dimensional character . Kean 's performance led him to study the play closely and think deeply about Shylock . Though Shylock 's " mind is warped with prejudices and passion [ ... ] that he has but one idea , is not true ; he has more ideas than any other person in the piece ; and if he is intense and inveterate in the pursuit of his purpose , he shews the utmost elasticity , vigour , and presence of mind , in the means of attaining it " .
Although old prejudices against the Jews were starting to disappear , as Hazlitt notes ( he refers to the portrayal of " the benevolent Jew " in Richard Cumberland 's play The Jew of 1794 ) , and some reviewers had begun to discover something respectable in Shylock 's figure , a century and a half later critic David Bromwich would suggest that , in retrospect , it was Hazlitt himself , even more than Kean , who paved the way for what became the prevalent reading of Shylock 's character . Though Shylock is serious about revenge , he is true to himself in other ways that cast a less than favourable light on other characters in the play . After Hazlitt 's account , according to Bromwich , it became less easy to find a simple resolution to the problems in the play or to withhold entirely our sympathy for Shylock , particularly in view of a passage like the following :
Shylock is a good hater ; " a man no less sinned against than sinning . " If he carries his revenge too far , yet he has strong grounds for " the lodged hate he bears Anthonio " , which he explains with equal force of eloquence and reason . He seems the depositary of the vengeance of his race ; and though the long habit of brooding over daily insults and injuries has crusted over his temper with inveterate misanthropy , and hardened him against the contempt of mankind , this adds but little to the triumphant pretensions of his enemies . There is a strong , quick , and deep sense of justice mixed up with the gall and bitterness of his resentment . [ ... ] The desire of revenge is almost inseparable from the sense of wrong ; and we can hardly help sympathising with the proud spirit , hid beneath his " Jewish gaberdine " , stung to madness by repeated undeserved provocations , and labouring to throw off the load of obloquy and oppression heaped upon him and all his tribe by one desperate act of " lawful " revenge , till the ferociousness of the means by which he is to execute his purpose , and the pertinacity with which he adheres to it , turn us against him ; but even at last , when disappointed of the sanguinary revenge with which he had glutted his hopes , and exposed to beggary and contempt by the letter of the law on which he had insisted with so little remorse , we pity him , and think him hardly dealt with by his judges .
Other critics even in later years insisted that the character of Shylock is that of an outsider separated from society , that the Jewish Shylock represented an older form of justice , meant to be supplanted by the Christian view , represented by Portia , who argued for the prevalence of mercy . Shylock , these critics maintained , must be removed in order to allow society to attain a Christian form of peace . Hazlitt 's view , however , has remained as a valid countervailing concept of the play , one that does not arrive at easy conclusions or take sides readily .
Hazlitt also reflects on several other characters . Portia , for example , was no favourite of his , and " has a certain degree of affectation and pedantry about her " . Gratiano he finds " a very admirable subordinate character " .
Once again , as John Kinnaird observed , Hazlitt is here far more than a " character critic " , showing serious interest in the structure of the play as a whole . " The whole of the trial @-@ scene " , he remarks in this essay , " is a master @-@ piece of dramatic skill . The legal acuteness , the passionate declamations , the sound maxims of jurisprudence , the wit and irony interspersed in it , the fluctuations of hope and fear in the different persons , and the completeness and suddenness of the catastrophe , cannot be surpassed " . He points to some beautiful poetic passages , and concludes that " the graceful winding up of this play [ ... ] is one of the happiest instances of Shakespear 's knowledge of the principles of the drama " .
= = = Othello = = =
While Hazlitt 's discussion of Othello includes observations about the characters , his consideration of this play , as with all of the four major tragedies , is combined with ideas about the purpose and value of tragedy and even of poetry in general . Expanding upon Aristotle 's idea in the Poetics that " tragedy purifies the affections by terror and pity , " he asserts that tragedy " makes us thoughtful spectators in the lists of life . It is the refiner of the species ; a discipline of humanity . "
Furthermore , Othello , more than the other tragedies , has for the average viewer or reader a " close [ ... ] application " to the experiences of everyday life . Hazlitt brings out this point by comparing Othello to Macbeth , where " there is a violent struggle between opposite feelings , between ambition and the stings of conscience , almost from first to last : in Othello , the doubtful conflict between contrary passions , though dreadful , continues only for a short time , and the chief interest is excited by the alternate ascendancy of different passions , by the entire and unforeseen change from the fondest love and most unbounded confidence to the tortures of jealousy and the madness of hatred . "
Hazlitt 's discussion of the particular characters incorporates observations about the way Shakespeare creates them , showing that , rather than being broad types , characters even superficially similar differ in finely discriminated ways . Desdemona and Emilia , for example , are " to outward appearance , characters of common life , not more distinguished than women generally are , by difference of rank and situation . " As the dialogue unfolds , " the difference of their thoughts and sentiments is however laid open , their minds are separated from each other by signs as plain and as little to be mistaken as the complexions of their husbands . "
With all his frequently noted attention to character and characters — Hazlitt 's partly psychological approach to character necessarily referred to observed real @-@ life behavior — he also frequently emphasises the art by which Shakespeare created dramatic " character " . Particularly in tragedy , a " sense of power " , he believed , is the essential medium by which a poet of genius operates on the minds of his audience . When the author instills in the reader or viewer 's imagination the sense of power that he must have had in grasping and conveying intertwined passions , he makes us identify with a character such as Othello , and feel in ourselves the way Iago plays upon his mind so that , ironically , his weakness is made to undermine his strength .
Hazlitt often focuses , as well , on specific traits by comparing the characters not to those of real life but to characters in Shakespeare 's other plays , comparing , for example , Iago with Edmund in King Lear . His interest in the art of drama emerges even more obviously when he compares Iago with the villainous character Zanga in Edward Young 's The Revenge ( 1721 ) , still a popular play in Hazlitt 's day .
For Hazlitt , Othello is especially notable for the interplay between the characters , and the way Shakespeare communicates the slow and gradual " movement of passion [ ... ] the alternate ascendancy of different passions , [ ... ] the entire and unforeseen change from the fondest love and most unbounded confidence to the tortures of jealousy and the madness of hatred . " He finds especially remarkable the gradual alteration of Othello 's feelings about Desdemona as his mind is played upon by Iago . Othello is not naturally a violent person in everyday life : " The nature of the Moor is noble , confiding , tender and generous ; but his blood is of the most inflammable kind ; and being once roused by a sense of his wrongs , he is stopped by no considerations of remorse or pity till he has given a loose to all the dictates of his rage and despair . [ ... ] The third act of Othello is [ Shakespeare 's ] finest display , not of knowledge and passion separately , but of the two combined . " Hazlitt continues :
It is in working [ Othello 's ] noble nature up to this extremity through rapid but gradual transitions , in raising passion to its height from the smallest beginnings and in spite of all obstacles , in painting the expiring conflict between love and hatred , tenderness and resentment , jealousy and remorse , in unfolding the strength and the weakness of our nature , in uniting sublimity of thought with the anguish of the keenest woe , in putting in motion the various impulses that agitate this our mortal being , and at last blending them in that noble tide of deep and sustained passion , impetuous but majestic [ ... ] that Shakespear has shewn the mastery of his genius and of his power over the human heart .
Desdemona 's character is shown in her attachment to her husband . " Her beauty and external graces are only indirectly glanced at . " Her attachment to Othello begins in a manner " a little fantastical and headstrong . " But after that her " whole character consists in having no will of her own , no prompter but her obedience . " Even " the extravagance of her resolutions , the pertinacity of her affections , may be said to arise out of the gentleness of her nature . "
Three years earlier , in the review " Mr. Kean 's Iago " in The Examiner ( 7 August 1814 ) , Hazlitt had ventured to speculate that Iago 's suggestions of lasciviousness in Desdemona may have had some basis in truth , as " purity and grossness sometimes ' nearly are allied , / And thin partitions do their bounds divide . ' " Although he omitted this thought from Characters of Shakespear 's Plays , that did not stop an anonymous reviewer in Blackwood 's Magazine from accusing him of calling Desdemona a " lewd " character . In " A Reply to ' Z ' " , written in 1818 but never published , Hazlitt answers his accuser : " It is not true that I have insinuated that Desdemona was a lewd woman , any more than Shakespear has insinuated it , but I have dared to say that he alone could have given additional elegance and even delicacy to a female character from the very disadvantageous circumstances in which Desdemona is placed . "
Hazlitt 's treatment of the character of Iago is written in part as a response to those who " thought this whole character unnatural , because his villainy is without a sufficient motive . " Hazlitt responds with a psychological analysis that exerted great influence and sparked considerable discussion : Shakespeare " knew that the love of power , which is another name for the love of mischief , is natural to man . [ ... ] He would know this [ ... ] merely from seeing children paddle in the dirt or kill flies for sport . Iago in fact belongs to a class of character , common to Shakespear and at the same time peculiar to him ; whose heads are as acute and active as their hearts are hard and callous . Iago is [ ... ] an extreme instance of the kind : that is to say , of diseased intellectual activity , with the most perfect indifference to moral good or evil , or rather with a decided preference of the latter , because it falls more readily in with this favourite propensity , gives greater zest to his thoughts and scope to his actions . " This interpretation was later admired and built upon by Shakespearean critic A.C. Bradley .
John Kinnaird later commented on Hazlitt 's words terming Iago " an amateur of tragedy in real life " , pointing out that Bradley and others after him developed the idea that Hazlitt saw Iago as an artist in his own right , " a dramatic artist manqué " . " But the form Iago 's will to ' mischief ' takes is not primarily aesthetic or creative but practical and critical . Soldier that he is , he has a ' craving after action of the most difficult and dangerous kind , ' and he has none of the artist 's sympathy with pleasure ; his ' licentious ' bent is always ' saturnine , ' and stems from ' a desire of finding out the worst side of every thing , and of proving himself an over @-@ match for appearances ' [ ... ] " . David Bromwich later warned against carrying too far the idea that Iago is an artist figure within the play , a representation of Shakespeare himself , as Iago 's " genius is [ ... ] the opposite of Shakespeare 's . It presents all things in a distorting medium [ ... ] . Iago 's peculiar genius is " as Hazlitt represented it , " the exuberance of one part of Shakespeare 's mind — not an allegorical representation of the whole of it . "
= = = The Tempest = = =
The Tempest , Hazlitt claims , is one of Shakespeare 's " most original and perfect " plays , similar in some ways to A Midsummer Night 's Dream but finer as a play , if not as rich in poetic passages . The Tempest demonstrates the author to be a master of both comedy and tragedy , with a full command over " all the resources of passion , of wit , of thought , of observation " . Yet again , Hazlitt here devotes considerable space to not just the characters in the play , but the character of the play as a whole . The world of the play seems to be created out of nothing ; yet , though dream @-@ like , in large part a product of the imagination , its setting resembles that of a painting we may have seen — " Prospero 's enchanted island [ with its ] airy music , the tempest @-@ tost vessel , the turbulent waves , all have the effect of the landscape background of some fine picture " — its poetry having a music that conjures up meaning in the listener 's mind — " the songs [ ... ] without conveying any distinct images , seem to recall all the feelings connected with them , like snatches of half @-@ forgotten music heard indistinctly and at intervals " — and its characters , many of whom , like Ariel , we know could not really exist , are drawn so as to seem " as true and natural as [ Shakespeare 's ] real characters " . All is so artfully unified that " that part which is only the fantastic creation of his mind , has the same palpable texture , and coheres ' semblably ' with the rest . "
Hazlitt provides brief appreciative sketches of many of the characters and their relationships . For example :
The courtship between Ferdinand and Miranda is one of the chief beauties of this play . It is the very purity of love . The pretended interference of Prospero with it heightens its interest , and is in character with the magician , whose sense of preternatural power makes him arbitrary , tetchy , and impatient of opposition .
In quoting the speech of the old counselor Gonzalo on the ideal commonwealth he would rule , Hazlitt observes that here " Shakespear has anticipated nearly all the arguments on the Utopian schemes of modern philosophy " .
He scrutinises with special interest the characters of Caliban and Ariel , pointing out that , as they arise within the structure of the play , neither could exist without the other , and neither alone illuminates the sum of our nature better than both together . Caliban is gross , of the earth , whereas " Ariel is imaginary power , the swiftness of thought personified . "
Shakespear has , as it were by design , drawn off from Caliban the elements of whatever is ethereal and refined , to compound them in the unearthly mould of Ariel . Nothing was ever more finely conceived than this contrast between the material and the spiritual , the gross and delicate .
Hazlitt was particularly interested in Caliban , in part because others thought the character vulgar or evil . Though he is a " savage " , " half brute , half demon " , and " the essence of grossness " , Caliban is not in the least " vulgar " . " The character grows out of the soil where it is rooted , uncontrouled , uncouth and wild , uncramped by any of the meannesses of custom [ .... ] Vulgarity is not natural coarseness , but conventional coarseness , learnt from others , contrary to , or without an entire conformity of natural power and disposition ; as fashion is the common @-@ place affectation of what is elegant and refined without any feeling of the essence of it . " Stephano and Trinculo are vulgar by comparison , and " in conducting [ them ] to Prospero 's cell " , by understanding the " nature " by which it is surrounded , " Caliban shews the superiority of natural capacity over greater knowledge and greater folly . "
Casting a retrospective light on his interest in Caliban in Characters of Shakespear 's Plays , the following year Hazlitt , in a review of " Mr. Coleridge 's Lectures " , responded indignantly to Coleridge 's calling Caliban a " villain " , as well as a " Jacobin " , who wanted only to spread anarchy . Though speaking somewhat tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek , Hazlitt rises to Caliban 's defence : " Caliban is so far from being a prototype of modern Jacobinism , that he is strictly the legitimate sovereign of the isle " . Hazlitt did not necessarily believe that Caliban deserved to supplant Prospero as ruler , but he shows that Caliban 's very existence raises questions about the fundamental nature of sovereignty , justice , and society itself . As noted by David Bromwich , Coleridge found reasons to apologise for society as it was . Hazlitt , on the other hand , refused to take sides , leaving as open questions the issues that emerged in the play . " It was left to Hazlitt to interpret Caliban 's coarseness and the justice of his protests as both alike irreducible . "
= = = Twelfth Night ; Or , What You Will = = =
Hazlitt 's commentary on Twelfth Night uses Shakespeare 's play to illustrate some of his general ideas about comedy , thoughts that he explored at greater length in later works , such as his Lectures on the English Comic Writers ( 1819 ) .
Nobody , according to Hazlitt ( voicing his disagreement with Dr. Johnson ) , excelled Shakespeare in tragedy ; although his comedies could be first rate , other writers , such as Molière , Cervantes , and Rabelais , excelled him in some types of comedy . It was in the comedy of " Nature " that Shakespeare was supreme . This is not comedy that satirises the " ridiculous " but is rather the comedy of " convivial laughter " , which gently mocks human foibles and invites us to share in innocent pleasures . Of this kind of comedy , Twelfth Night is " one of the most delightful " . Unlike the " comedy of artificial life , of wit , of satire , " Shakespeare 's more gentle comedy " makes us laugh at the follies of mankind , not despise them [ ... ] . Shakespear 's comic genius resembles the bee rather in its power of extracting sweets from weeds or poisons , than in leaving a sting behind it . "
Besides his further general remarks , Hazlitt lingers appreciatively over a number of amusing scenes and poetic passages , including the songs , all showing how " Shakespear 's comedy is of a pastoral and poetical cast . Folly is indigenous to the soil [ .... ] Absurdity has every encouragement afforded it ; and nonsense has room to flourish in . " Characters of vastly different types are all welcome and fit into his scheme : " the same house is big enough to hold Malvolio , the Countess , Maria , Sir Toby , and Sir Andrew Ague @-@ cheek . " He particularly admires the character of Viola , whom Shakespeare gives many speeches of " impassioned sweetness " . Characterising the play as a whole by quoting the author 's own words in it — " Shakespear alone could describe the effect of his own poetry . " — he reflects that the play 's poetry comes " ' o 'er the ear like the sweet south / That breathes upon a bank of violets , / Stealing and giving odour . ' "
Here Hazlitt steps back to observe his own character , musing that if he himself were less " saturnine " , he might well like the comedies as much as the tragedies , or at least that is how he feels , " after reading [ ... ] parts of this play " .
= = = As You Like It = = =
Although Hazlitt had seen As You Like It on stage , he remembered it most fondly from having read it so frequently that he practically had it memorised . In Characters of Shakespear 's Plays , he makes no mention at all of any stage performances , treating the play as one primarily meant to be read . What strikes him as most notable about it is its character of a " pastoral drama " , one that presents an " ideal " world — that is , a world of thought and imagination , not action . And though it is a comedy , its interest derives not so much from in our being made to laugh at any particular human follies , but rather , " more out of the sentiments and characters than out of the actions or situations . It is not what is done , but what is said , that claims our attention . "
" The very air of the place " , wrote Hazlitt about the Forest of Arden , " seems to breathe a spirit of philosophical poetry ; to stir the thoughts , to touch the heart with pity , as the drowsy forest rustles to the sighing gale " , and the character who most embodies the philosophical spirit of the place is Jacques , who " is the only purely contemplative character in Shakespear . " Among the lovers , Hazlitt particularly likes the character of Rosalind , " made up of sportive gaiety and natural tenderness " . And the couples , Touchstone and Audrey , and Silvius and Phebe , have their different places in the picture . The other characters , including Orlando and the Duke , also come in for their share of commentary . All in all , Hazlitt finds this to be one of the most quotable and quoted of Shakespear 's plays : " There is hardly any of Shakespear 's plays that contains a greater number of passages that have been quoted in books of extracts , or a greater number of phrases that have become in a manner proverbial . "
Hazlitt 's concept of the play as one in which the interest is intended to arise not out of the action or situation but rather its contemplative nature has remained a vital one , reaching into the twentieth century , and now the twenty @-@ first .
= = = Measure for Measure = = =
Measure for Measure has frequently been considered a " problem play " . It was a problem for Hazlitt in that it contains almost no character with whom one can feel complete sympathy . " [ T ] here is in general a want of passion ; the affections are at a stand ; our sympathies are reflected and defeated in all directions . " Angelo , the Deputy ruler of Vienna , is forgiven by the Duke but draws only Hazlitt 's hatred , as " he seems to have a much greater passion for hypocrisy than for his mistress . " " Neither are we enamoured of Isabella 's rigid chastity , though she could not act otherwise than she did . " Isabella 's brother Claudio " is the only person who feels naturally " , yet even he does not show well in his pleading for life at the sacrifice of his sister 's virginity . There is no easy solution for his plight , and " he is placed in circumstances of distress which almost preclude the wish for his deliverance . " Over a century later , commentator R.W. Chambers placed Hazlitt as the first of a long line of notable Shakespearean critics who felt the same way , and he quoted Characters of Shakespear 's Plays in establishing his contention ( as a basis for arguing his own different view of the play ) that Hazlitt was among the first of dozens of distinguished critics who could not comprehend how Mariana could love and plead for someone like Angelo , and in general showed a distaste for much in Measure for Measure .
Yet , unlike Coleridge , and despite his own reservations , Hazlitt found much to admire in Measure for Measure , a " play as full of genius as it is of wisdom . " He quotes at length passages of " dramatic beauty " , and also finds occasion to use this play as an example supporting his characterisation of the general nature of Shakespeare 's genius , and the relation between morality and poetry . " Shakespear was in one sense the least moral of all writers ; for morality ( commonly so called ) is made up of antipathies [ ... ] " . Yet " in another [ sense ] he was the greatest of all moralists . He was a moralist in the same sense in which nature is one . He taught what he had learnt from her . He shewed the greatest knowledge of humanity with the greatest fellow @-@ feeling for it . "
Although Hazlitt had reviewed a performance of Measure for Measure for The Examiner on 11 February 1816 , and incorporated a few passages , with modifications , into this chapter , including some of his general philosophical reflections and a mention of some of Schlegel 's opinions , yet he says nothing in Characters of Shakespear 's Plays about any stage performances of this play .
= = = Others = = =
= = = = Tragedies = = = =
Hazlitt believed that because tragedy engages our emotions most profoundly , it is the greatest kind of drama . Of the tragedies based on Greek and Roman history , he ranked Julius Caesar beneath the other Roman tragedies , Coriolanus and Antony and Cleopatra . But , as elsewhere , he expresses admiration for the fine discrimination of character , the depiction of " the manners of the common people , and the jealousies and heart @-@ burnings of the different factions " in Julius Caesar .
In Antony and Cleopatra , " Shakespear 's genius has spread over the whole play a richness like the overflowing of the Nile " . Overall , this play " presents a fine picture of Roman pride and Eastern magnificence : and in the struggle between the two , the empire of the world seems suspended , ' like the swan 's down feather , / That stands upon the swell at full of tide , / And neither way inclines . ' "
Timon of Athens , to Hazlitt " as much a satire as a play " , seemed to him " to be written with as intense a feeling of his subject as any one play of Shakespear " and " is the only play of our author in which spleen is the predominant feeling of the mind . "
A focal point of Hazlitt 's account of Troilus and Cressida is a comparison of the characterisation in this play and that in Chaucer 's poem Troilus and Criseyde ( one of Shakespeare 's sources ) . Chaucer 's characters are full and well developed ; but Chaucer unfolded each character in itself , one at a time . Shakespeare displayed characters as they see themselves as well as how others see them , and showed the effects each has on the others . Shakespeare 's characters were so distinctive that it is as if each were expressed by a distinct " faculty " of his mind ; and , in effect , these faculties could be considered as showing " excessive sociability " , notable for " how they gossiped and compared notes together . " Twentieth @-@ century critic Arthur Eastman thought that , although these remarks did insufficient justice to Chaucer , they were particularly original in revealing " the sophisticated genius of Shakespeare . "
For Hazlitt , the essence of Romeo and Juliet is Shakespeare 's portrayal of the love that comes with " the ripening of the youthful blood " ; and with that love the imagination of the youthful lovers is stirred to dwell not so much on present pleasure but " on all the pleasures they had not experienced . All that was to come of life was theirs . [ ... ] Their hopes were of air , their desires of fire . " In many beautiful poetic passages , " the feelings of youth and of the spring are [ ... ] blended together like the breath of opening flowers . " Assessing the character of the play as a whole , he states : " This play presents a beautiful coup @-@ d 'oeil of the progress of human life . In thought it occupies years , and embraces the circle of the affections from childhood to old age . "
= = = = Histories = = = =
In Hazlitt 's commentary on King John , his last on any of the history plays , he offers his view of history plays in general : " If we are to indulge our imaginations , we had rather do it upon an imaginary theme ; if we are to find subjects for the exercise of our pity and terror , we prefer seeking them in fictitious danger and fictitious distress . "
Still , he finds much to appreciate in the history plays : here , it is the weak , vacillating , sometimes contemptible character of King John ; the " comic " but forthright , noble character of Philip the Bastard ; the desperation and excess of maternal tenderness in Constance ; and many beautiful and affecting passages . Hazlitt also offers some reflections on Shakespeare 's versification . There was some controversy over whether this play was genuinely Shakespeare 's . He concludes that the verse shows that it certainly was , a judgement borne out by later critics .
Hazlitt remarks that Richard II , less well known than Richard III , is the finer play . Worth noting is the exchange of places between the King and Bolingbroke , the usurping king — " The steps by which Bolingbroke mounts the throne are those by which Richard sinks into the grave " — and he compares the manner and politics of the age with those of his own . Among various poetical passages , he finds the speech of John of Gaunt in praise of England , " one of the most eloquent that ever was penned . "
Henry V Hazlitt thought only second @-@ rate among Shakespeare 's plays , yet filled with much fine poetry . Regarding the King himself , he considered the character of this " pageant " play entertaining enough , until one compares King Henry with the historical Henry V , who was as barbarous as any of the historical absolute monarchs .
Henry VI , the three parts considered together in one chapter , is not , for Hazlitt , on a level with the other history plays , but , in a long comparison of King Henry VI with King Richard II , he finds occasion to reinforce his major theme of the fine discrimination of superficially similar characters .
Richard III for Hazlitt is preeminently made for acting , " properly a stage play ; it belongs to the theatre , rather than to the closet . " It is dominated by the character of King Richard , whom Shakespeare portrays as
towering and lofty ; equally impetuous and commanding ; haughty , violent , and subtle ; bold and treacherous ; confident in his strength as well as in his cunning ; raised high by his birth , and higher by his talents and his crimes ; a royal usurper , a princely hypocrite , a tyrant , and a murderer of the house of Plantagenet .
Hazlitt comments on the efforts of several actors in playing the role , particularly Kean . Portions of his review of Kean 's first performance as Richard , written for The Morning Chronicle of 15 February 1814 , were incorporated into this chapter .
Differing with Dr. Johnson , who found nothing of genius in Henry VIII but the depiction of the " ' meek sorrows and virtuous distress ' " of Queen Katherine , Hazlitt finds in this play , though not one of Shakespeare 's greatest , " considerable interest of a more mild and thoughtful cast , and some of the most striking passages in the author 's works . " In addition to the portrayal of Katherine , Hazlitt likes that of Cardinal Wolsey and of King Henry himself , which , though " drawn with great truth and spirit [ is ] like a very disagreeable portrait , sketched by the hand of a master . " And " the scene of [ the Duke of ] Buckingham led to execution is one of the most affecting and natural in Shakespear , and one to which there is hardly an approach in any other author . "
= = = = Comedies = = = =
Reflecting on Twelfth Night , Hazlitt considered that his own preference for tragedy could be in part due to his own " saturnine " temperament , and asserted that , regardless of individual preferences , Shakespeare was as skilled in comedy as in tragedy . With this acknowledgement , he had quite a few appreciative comments to make about the comedies .
Hazlitt found sheer delight in A Midsummer Night 's Dream , especially relishing its playfully inventive poetry and quoting at length several of his favourite passages . He also considers how it exhibits the fine discrimination of character to be found everywhere in Shakespeare . As elsewhere , he crosses the boundaries of plays and enumerates subtle differences between even the fairy characters , in this case in an extensive comparison of Puck in this play and Ariel in The Tempest .
This is one play that Hazlitt felt cannot be properly represented on stage . Its beauties are primarily those of poetry : " Poetry and the stage do not agree well together . The ideal can have no place upon the stage , which is a picture without perspective . [ ... ] Where all is left to the imagination ( as is the case in reading ) every circumstance [ ... ] has an equal chance of being kept in mind , and tells according to the mixed impression of all that has been suggested . "
Although the early play The Two Gentlemen of Verona seemed to Hazlitt like " little more than the first outlines of a comedy loosely sketched in " , he also found in it " passages of high poetical spirit , and of inimitable quaintness of humour " .
Hazlitt proclaims The Winter 's Tale as " one of the best @-@ acting of our author 's plays " , and recalls with delight some of his favourite actors who played the parts , including Sarah Siddons and John Kemble . He notes the incisive psychology of the unfolding of King Leontes 's madness , the appealing roguery of Autolycus , and the charm of Perdita 's and Florizel 's speeches , after wondering how it could be that Pope doubted the authenticity of the play as Shakespeare 's .
Hazlitt thought All 's Well that Ends Well to be a particularly " pleasing " play , though less as a comedy than as a serious dramatisation of an original tale by Boccaccio . Helena is a noble example of womanhood , and , in the comic part of the play , Hazlitt is especially amused by the character of Parolles , the " parasite and hanger on of [ Count ] Bertram 's whose " folly , boasting , and cowardice [ ... and ] false pretensions to bravery and honour " are unmasked in " a very amusing episode . " The source of Shakespeare 's play leads Hazlitt to digress at length on the writing of Boccaccio , who had never had " justice [ ... ] done him by the world . "
Love 's Labour 's Lost , thought Hazlitt , " transports us quite as much to the manners of the court , and the quirks of the courts of law , as to the scenes of nature or the fairy @-@ land of [ Shakespeare 's ] own imagination . Shakespear has set himself to imitate the tone of polite conversation then prevailing among the fair , the witty , and the learned " . " If we were to part with any of the author 's comedies " , he writes , " it should be this . " Yet he also mentions many amusing characters , dramatic scenes , and noble lines of poetry he would not willingly part with , quoting at length long passages spoken by both Biron and by Rosaline .
Much Ado About Nothing Hazlitt found to be an " admirable comedy " , neatly balancing the comic against more serious matter . He reflects , " Perhaps that middle point of comedy was never more nicely hit in which the ludicrous blends with the tender , and our follies , turning round against themselves in support of our affections , retain nothing but their humanity . "
The Taming of the Shrew Hazlitt sums up very simply as " almost the only one of Shakespear 's comedies that has a regular plot , and downright moral [ .... ] It shows admirably how self @-@ will is only to be got the better of by stronger will , and how one degree of ridiculous perversity is only to be driven out by another still greater . "
While The Comedy of Errors has a few passages " which bear the decided stamp of [ Shakespeare 's ] genius " , Hazlitt for the most part characterises it as " taken very much from the Menaechmi of Plautus , and is not an improvement on it . "
Hazlitt ends his detailed account of the plays with a chapter on " Doubtful Plays of Shakespear " , the greater part of which consists of direct quotations from Schlegel , whose remarks Hazlitt finds worth considering , if he does not always agree with them . Most of the plays now accepted as Shakespeare 's , or at least partly by Shakespeare , were also accepted as his by Hazlitt . The two notable exceptions were Titus Andronicus and Pericles , Prince of Tyre . Of the former , Hazlitt nevertheless respected Schlegel 's defence of it enough to quote the latter at length . And he allows that some parts of Pericles could have been by Shakespeare but more likely were " imitations " of Shakespeare " by some contemporary poet . "
Hazlitt felt compelled to add to his commentary on the plays some words on Shakespeare 's nondramatic poetry , in the chapter " Poems and Sonnets " . While he liked a few of the sonnets , for the most part Hazlitt found Shakespeare 's nondramatic poetry to be artificial , mechanical , and , overall , " laboured , uphill work . " On the whole , wrote Hazlitt , " Our idolatry of Shakespear [ ... ] ceases with his plays . "
= = Themes = =
Characters of Shakespear 's Plays argues against a century and a half of criticism that saw Shakespeare as a " child of nature " , deficient in art and full of faults . To anchor his position , Hazlitt makes an observation by the poet Alexander Pope — despite Pope 's being one of those very critics — his unifying theme : " every single character in Shakespear , is as much an individual , as those in life itself " , and he explores the Shakespearean art that , as much as observation of nature , brought those characters to life .
Much of the book synthesises Hazlitt 's own views with those of his predecessors in Shakespearean criticism . The greatest of these critics was August Wilhelm Schlegel , the contemporary German literary scholar and critic who also heavily influenced Coleridge and who Hazlitt believed appreciated Shakespeare better than any English critic . " Certainly no writer among ourselves " , wrote Hazlitt , " has shown either the same admiration of his genius , or the same philosophical acuteness in pointing out his characteristic excellences . "
Hazlitt also merges with his presentation , in a general way , the approach of his immediate British predecessors , the " character critics " , like Maurice Morgann , who had begun to take a psychological approach , focusing on how the characters in the plays behave and think like people we know in real life .
In this vein , each of Hazlitt 's essays incorporates numerous often very personal commentaries on the characters . For example , in the account of Cymbeline , he announces , " We have almost as great an affection for Imogen as she had for Posthumus ; and she deserves it better . " And comparing Falstaff with Prince Hal , he proclaims , " Falstaff is the better man of the two . " Commenting on " the character of Hamlet " , he in effect joins a discussion among his contemporaries , adding to the mix of similar assessments by Goethe , Schlegel , and Coleridge his observation that Hamlet " is not a character marked by strength of will or even of passion , but by refinement of thought and sentiment . "
Although Hazlitt 's attention to " characters " in this manner was not original , and was later criticised , he built upon the approach , adding his own conceptions of how Shakespeare presented human nature and experience .
One idea , elaborating on his originally stated theme , to which Hazlitt returns several times — in Macbeth , A Midsummer Night 's Dream , Henry IV , and elsewhere — is that Shakespeare does not only create highly individual characters . More than any other dramatist , he creates characters that are of similar general types , and yet , as in real life , differ in subtle ways :
Shakespear was scarcely more remarkable for the force and marked contrasts of his characters than for the truth and subtlety with which he has distinguished those which approached the nearest to each other . For instance , the soul of Othello is hardly more distinct from that of Iago than that of Desdemona is shewn to be from AEmilia 's ; the ambition of Macbeth is as distinct from the ambition of Richard III. as it is from the meekness of Duncan ; the real madness of Lear is as different from the feigned madness of Edgar as from the babbling of the fool [ ... ] .
In the classical view , through at least Dr. Johnson , poetry " holds a mirror up to nature " . The Romantics began to shift the focus to the role of the imagination . In common with his Romantic contemporaries , Hazlitt focuses on how , to communicate the meaning of the play , Shakespeare 's imagination , by the medium of poetry , stimulates the reader 's or audience 's imagination . Several times , Hazlitt observes how Shakespeare by this imaginative construction seemed to become each character in turn . For example , in " Antony and Cleopatra " he stops to observe , " The characters breathe , move , and live . Shakespear [ ... ] becomes them , and speaks and acts for them . " And in " Henry IV " : " He appears to have been all the characters , and in all the situations he describes . "
We as readers or audience appreciate the characters by the force of our imagination 's seeming to participate in the scene , as if we were present during such an event in real life . Commenting on the scene in Julius Caesar where Caesar confides to Marc Antony his apprehensions about Cassius , Hazlitt writes : " We know hardly any passage more expressive of the genius of Shakespeare than this . It is as if he had been actually present , had known the different characters and what they thought of one another , and had taken down what he heard and saw , their looks , words , and gestures , just as they happened . " In " Hamlet " , he observes that " the characters think and speak and act just as they might do , if left entirely to themselves . [ ... ] The whole play is an exact transcript of what might be supposed to have taken place at the court of Denmark [ ... ] . "
In " Troilus and Cressida " , by a comparison with Chaucer 's method of depicting character , he explains in detail how Shakespeare 's idea of " character " is not fixed , and Shakespeare shows the characters not only by their own behaviour but as they view and react to one another . Likewise , Shakespeare 's attention was not merely to habitual outward behaviour , but to the most transitory , fleeting inward impressions . " Shakespear exhibited [ ... ] not only what things are in themselves , but whatever they might seem to be , their different reflections , their endless combinations . "
At times , Shakespeare 's illumination of his characters ' inner life was so strong that Hazlitt believed no stage presentation could do justice to Shakespeare 's conception . In " Lear " he approvingly quotes his friend Charles Lamb 's argument that , in general , Shakespeare 's plays are unsuited for the stage . The thought crops up repeatedly that " [ t ] he stage is not in general the best place to study our author 's characters in . " And elsewhere , " Poetry and the stage do not agree well together . " In such statements , he approached the position of Lamb ( to whom he dedicated Characters of Shakespear 's Plays ) , who felt that no stage presentation could do justice to Shakespearean drama , that the artifice of the stage interposes a barrier between the author 's conception and the audience 's imagination . As critic John Mahoney put it , to both Lamb and Hazlitt , " the performance of Shakespeare in a theatre must always be disappointing to an extent because the slightest departure from the vision conjured by the imagination is so immediately detected and so quickly a source of aesthetic displeasure . "
Certain plays in particular fall into the category of those unfitted for the stage , for example , A Midsummer Night 's Dream and Hamlet . Particularly in the greatest tragedies , this inner focus is so strong that Hazlitt again advances beyond the idea of individual character to that of the " logic of passion " — powerful emotions experienced interactively , illuminating our common human nature . This idea is developed in Hazlitt 's accounts of King Lear , Othello , and Macbeth .
At least partly explaining why both Lamb and Hazlitt felt the inadequacy of Shakespearean stage performances was that the theatres themselves were huge and gaudy , audiences were noisy and unmannerly , and dramatic presentations in the early nineteenth century were sensationalistic , laden with artificial and showy props . In addition , unless one sat down in the pit , one could easily miss the subtleties of the actors ' facial and vocal expressions .
For all his insistence that justice could not be done to Shakespeare 's plays on stage , Hazlitt frequently made exceptions . A devoted playgoer from an early age , and now a drama critic , he relished many of the stage performances he had witnessed . In some cases , as with Edmund Kean ( to whom he refers frequently in this book , usually with admiration ) and Sarah Siddons ( he could " conceive of nothing grander " than her performance as Lady Macbeth ) , their interpretations of roles in Shakespearean drama left indelible impressions , extending his ideas of the potential of the characters represented . For example , in " Romeo and Juliet " he proclaims , " Perhaps one of the finest pieces of acting that ever was witnessed on the stage , is Mr. Kean 's manner of doing this scene [ when Romeo is banished ] [ ... ] He treads close indeed upon the genius of his author . "
Hazlitt throughout his book seems to waver between these two opinions — that frequently the actors offer the best interpretations of Shakespeare , and that no view of Shakespeare on stage can match the rich experience of reading the plays — without acknowledging the apparent contradiction .
Some plays he considered to be especially suitable for the stage , such as The Winter 's Tale , which he declares to be " one of the best @-@ acting of our author 's plays " . Here he recalls some acting triumphs he had witnessed long ago : " Mrs. Siddons played Hermione , and in the last scene acted the painted statue to the life — with true monumental dignity and noble passion ; Mr. Kemble , in Leontes , worked himself up into a very fine classical phrensy ; and Bannister , as Autolycus , roared as loud for pity as a sturdy beggar could do who felt none of the pain he counterfeited , and was sound of wind and limb . "
Richard III for Hazlitt was another that was " properly a stage @-@ play " , and in that chapter " criticise [ s ] it chiefly with a reference to the manner in which we have seen it performed " , and then compares various actors ' interpretations of the character of King Richard : " If Mr. Kean does not entirely succeed in concentrating all the lines of the character , as drawn by Shakespear [ ... ] [ h ] e is more refined than Cooke ; more bold , varied , and original than Kemble in the same character . "
Hazlitt also objects to the way Richard III was frequently edited for the stage at that time . " To make room for [ ... ] worse than needless additions " from other plays , often not by Shakespeare , " many of the most striking passages in the real play have been omitted by the foppery and ignorance of the prompt @-@ book critics . " Viewing it as the stage presentation of a story , he finds this play is damaged by these manipulations , as , in Shakespeare 's original , the " arrangement and developement of the story , and the mutual contrast and combination of the dramatis personae , are in general as finely managed as the developement of the characters or the expression of the passions . " He remarks on another kind of editing — what would soon become known as " Bowdlerisation " — in the treatment of a passage in Romeo and Juliet in which the frank speech of Juliet alarmed the prudes of his day . He quotes the passage , commenting that " we have no doubt that it has been expunged from the Family Shakespear . "
Story development and " the business of the plot " are scrutinised in several chapters . " Shakespear excelled in the openings of his plays : that of Macbeth is the most striking of any . " Commenting on the " developement of the catastrophe " in Cymbeline , he takes occasion to note that the contention of Dr. Johnson that " Shakespear was generally inattentive to the winding @-@ up of his plots " , is so far from being true that in King Lear , Romeo and Juliet , Macbeth , Othello , and Hamlet , among " other plays of less moment [ ... ] the last act is crowded with decisive events brought about by natural and striking means . " Hazlitt will frequently offer a brief sketch of the story and stop to note particular excellences of Shakespeare 's technique . He thus finds the " whole of the trial scene " in The Merchant of Venice to be " a master @-@ piece of dramatic skill . "
Occasionally Hazlitt also discusses the plays from yet other perspectives . Shakespeare 's reliance on earlier source material comes into consideration in " Coriolanus " and " All 's Well that Ends Well " in particular . Repeatedly , Hazlitt focuses on scenes as they were staged . In the words of Arthur Eastman , he " reads the plays like a director , quick to detect cues as to motion , gesture , costume . " Remarking on Hazlitt 's " theatrical sense " , Eastman says that " it 's not simply the physical that Hazlitt has in mind — it 's the whole interrelationship of one person with another , one mind with other minds — presences both physical and psychological upon a stage . "
In line with Schlegel , more than with any previous English @-@ language critic ( except Coleridge , who also followed Schlegel ) , Hazlitt found " unity " in Shakespeare 's plays not in their observing the traditional classical unities of time , place , and action , but in their unity of theme . His most complete elaboration of this idea is in his chapter on Antony and Cleopatra :
The jealous attention which has been paid to the unities both of time and place has taken away the principle of perspective in the drama , and all the interest which objects derive from distance , from contrast , from privation , from change of fortune , from long @-@ cherished passion ; and contrasts our view of life from a strange and romantic dream , long , obscure , and infinite , into a smartly contested , three hours ' inaugural disputation on its merits by the different candidates for theatrical applause .
In the discussion of Macbeth , it is Macbeth 's unity of character that is significant . In many chapters , he emphasises the dominant mood , a unifying theme , the " character " of the play as a whole . In , again , Macbeth , the entire play " is done upon a stronger and more systematic principle of contrast than any other of Shakespear 's plays . " He notes that " a certain tender gloom overspreads the whole " of Cymbeline . Romeo and Juliet shows " the whole progress of human life " in which " one generation pushes another off the stage . " Reading A Midsummer Night 's Dream " is like wandering in a grove by moonlight : the descriptions breathe a sweetness like odours thrown from beds of flowers . "
Another earlier criticism of Shakespeare , that his writing was not " moral " , was still alive in Hazlitt 's day . Coleridge frequently emphasised the immorality of characters like Falstaff . To Hazlitt , this was entirely the wrong approach to take to morality in the medium of dramatic poetry , and he stops from time to time to comment on Shakespeare 's morality . In considering Hamlet , for example , he declares that the character of Hamlet should not be judged by ordinary moral rules . " The ethical delineations of " Shakespeare " do not exhibit the drab @-@ coloured quakerism of morality . " In " Measure for Measure " he remarks that Shakespeare 's morality is to be judged as that of nature itself : " He taught what he had learnt from her . He shewed the greatest knowledge of humanity with the greatest fellow @-@ feeling for it . " Shakespeare 's " talent consisted in sympathy with human nature , in all its shapes , degrees , depressions , and elevations " , and this attitude could be considered immoral only if one considers morality to be " made up of antipathies " .
Scattered throughout the chapters are more general critical discussions , such as that on tragedy in the essay " Othello " , comedy in " Twelfth Night " , and the value for human life of poetry in general , in " Lear " , among many others . Along the way , Hazlitt intersperses lengthy quotations from the plays , sharing with the reader poetic passages he thought particularly excellent . This practice resembled the by then common practice of collecting long extracts from the plays as the " beauties " of Shakespeare . Hazlitt , however , also adds critical commentary ( though often far less extensive than would become the practice in later years ) , with the quotations illustrating particular points about the plays as well as sharing with his readers what he thought worthy of attention . All this , done as no one had before , made Characters of Shakespear 's Plays the first handbook for the study and appreciation of all of Shakespeare 's plays .
= = Critical response = =
= = = 1817 – 1830 : Contemporary reception = = =
Characters of Shakespear 's Plays was Hazlitt 's most successful book . As he had circulated advance copies before publication , it was noticed favourably before it formally appeared on 9 July 1817 . Leigh Hunt proclaimed enthusiastically that " it is the least of all its praises to say that it must inevitably supersede the dogmatical and half @-@ informed criticisms of Johnson . "
After publication , not all of the reaction was this positive . The Tory British Critic sniped that the book was " stuffed with dull , common @-@ place , Jacobin declamation " , and the Quarterly Review , with the same political bias , rebuked Hazlitt for his uncomplimentary portrayal of King Henry VIII . But for the most part , the praise continued . Hunt , in a fuller review in The Examiner , applauded not only the author 's enthusiasm " but the very striking susceptibility
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originally featured the vocals of American recording artist Mary J. Blige , whose version of the song leaked online in July 2011 .
" Titanium " is a ballad which draws from the genres of house , pop and urban @-@ dance . The song 's lyrics are about inner strength . Sia 's vocals on " Titanium " received comparisons to those by Fergie and the song was also musically compared to Coldplay 's work . Critics were positive towards the song and noted it as one of the standout tracks from Nothing but the Beat . " Titanium " attained top 10 positions in several major music markets , including Australia , Austria , Denmark , Finland , France , Germany , Hungary , Ireland , Italy , The Netherlands , New Zealand , Norway , Spain , Sweden , Switzerland and the United States . In the United Kingdom , it peaked at number one , becoming Guetta 's fifth number @-@ one single on the chart and Sia 's first .
The song 's accompanying music video premiered on December 21 , 2011 but does not feature appearances by Guetta or Sia . Instead , the video focuses on a young boy , played by actor Ryan Lee , with supernatural powers . Along with other songs , " Titanium " was pulled from radio stations in the US after the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting .
= = Background = =
" Titanium " was written by Sia , David Guetta , Giorgio Tuinfort and Afrojack . Production was also handled by Guetta , Tuinfort and Afrojack . After discovering Sia 's music online , Guetta picked her to appear on his fifth studio album , Nothing but the Beat . Guetta told an insider from Los Angeles , " I was totally amazed by Sia ... This has made me more curious to study her music more because I was really impressed . I have the biggest people on the album and she has a different profile , more like an indie kind of artist and it makes her song even more special , it makes it stand out I think . "
The song originally featured vocals from American recording artist Mary J. Blige , whose version of the song leaked online in July 2011 . In an interview with News.com.au , Guetta spoke about its leak , saying , " You shouldn 't even know about that ... I 'd rather not speak about it . That was annoying . It wasn 't supposed to be out there . " Sia recorded a demo of the song , which was then sent to Blige and other artists . Eventually , Guetta decided to stay with her version . He explained , " The first time I heard what Sia did , because she was not in the studio with me , I fell in love with it ... I didn 't even want to give it to anyone else ; it was perfect the way it was . It 's not only about how big you are in America , it 's about the song and the voice . " American pop singer Katy Perry was the first person to be offered the track but turned it down because she felt its message was too similar to that of her song " Firework " . An insider told Take 40 Australia , " So that ' Titanium ' song , Sia wrote it for Katy , but [ Katy ] didn 't want to do a song with Guetta ... " According to Sia 's manager , Jonathan Daniel of Crush Management , Sia wrote the song for American R & B singer Alicia Keys . Guetta considered approaching other female singers to record on the song , however Perry advised him to keep Sia on the track . Guetta ultimately followed this suggestion . Sia revealed that Guetta put her vocals on the song without asking for permission :
" And then Mary J. Blige sang it . And then he took her vocal off it , and put my vocal back on , my demo vocal , without asking and released it . And I never even knew it was gonna happen , and I was really upset . Because I had just retired , I was trying to be a pop songwriter , not an artist . "
" Titanium " was released for digital download on August 8 , 2011 , as the first of four promotional singles from the album , as part of the iTunes Store 's countdown to the album 's release .
= = Composition = =
" Titanium " has been described as " an emotional near @-@ ballad " that draws from the genres of house , pop and urban @-@ dance . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , the song is set in common time with a tempo of 126 beats per minute . The verses are in the key of E @-@ flat major , with a chord progression of Eb – Bb – Cm . The chorus and breakdown are set in the key of C minor , with a chord progression of Ab – Bb – Gm – Cm . Sia 's vocal range span from the note of G3 to the note of Eb5
According to Andrew Gregory of The Daily Telegraph , the song 's intro features " a hint of 80 's flavour " . Trent Fitzgerald of PopCrush noted that the song " has the headache @-@ inducing club beat , whining synths [ and ] atmospheric sound effects . " Ben Norman of About.com noted that it " incorporate [ s ] a strumming guitar ... before a staggering beat filters in , Sia 's trademark pipes positively ooze with emotional inflection . " The strumming guitar sounds were compared to those of " Every Breath You Take " .
" Titanium " has lyrics about inner strength , such as : " I 'm bulletproof , nothin ' to lose / Fire away , fire away / Ricochet , you take your aim / Fire away , fire away / You shoot me down , but I won 't fall / I am titanium . " Al Fox of BBC Music wrote that on the song , Sia has " ghostly mandolin @-@ esque vocals " . Cameron Adams of Herald Sun called them " square @-@ peg " , while Melinda Newman of HitFix compared her vocals to those by Fergie . Genevieve Koski of The A.V. Club wrote that on the song , Sia " manage [ s ] to keep [ her ] head above the waves of synths ... by amping up [ her ] vocals to match the outsized beats . " David Jeffries of Allmusic compared the song to the music of Coldplay .
= = Critical reception = =
" Titanium " garnered critical acclaim from music critics . David Byrne and Tony Peregrin of Windy City Times described " Titanium " as " epic and " energizing " , writing , " it is Sia who steals the show " on Nothing but the Beat . Robert Copsey of Digital Spy agreed , calling the song one of " the record 's standouts " . A writer for Samesame.com.au called it the " best cut " on the album , and wrote that it is " a track you will quickly be running on repeat . " Tom Ewing of The Guardian wrote , " Sia , on ' Titanium ' , handles the album 's best hook well . " Rich Lopez of Dallas Voice wrote that the " collaborative lyrics elevate this song to a higher level than any previous track " from the album , and called it " clever writing " from Sia . Ben Norman of About.com wrote that the song " basically blows the rest of his album out of the water . Teaming up with Sia was probably the smartest move he [ Guetta ] has done in recent memory when it comes to actual musical quality . " David Griffiths off 4Music called it " The most intriguing hook @-@ up " on the album , writing that " ' Titanium ' sees Guetta giving the Australian songstress some long overdue commercial appeal , while Sia 's vocals bring a quirky twist . " Kerri Mason of Billboard magazine described the song as " Guetta 's quirkiest and most epic track to date ( in itself an unusual combination ) . " Jamie Horne of The Border Mail called it a " strong " track . Joe Copplestone of PopMatters noted that songs on the album such as " Titanium " and " Night of Your Life " , " recall the power " of Guetta 's previous collaborations with Kelly Rowland on " When Love Takes Over " ( 2009 ) and " Commander " ( 2010 ) . " Titanium " was nominated for Dance Work of the Year at the 2012 APRA Music Awards , but lost to " From the Music " by The Potbelleez .
After the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting in December 2012 , " Titanium " was pulled from radio stations in the United States due to the use of gun @-@ related lyrics in the song . " Titanium " is part of a group of songs that have been taken off the air , including Kesha 's " Die Young " , and " Pumped Up Kicks " by Foster the People .
= = Chart performance = =
On the French Singles Chart , " Titanium " debuted at number nine on August 13 , 2011 . After weeks of ascending and descending the chart , the song peaked at number three on January 7 , 2012 , giving Guetta his thirteenth top 10 hit in France . In Australia , the song debuted at number 31 on the ARIA Singles Chart on August 15 , 2011 , and peaked at number five on September 5 , 2011 . It was certified five times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting sales of 350 @,@ 000 copies . " Titanium " became Sia 's second highest charting single as a solo artist in the country as well as Guetta 's ninth top 10 hit there . On the New Zealand Singles Chart , it debuted at number 18 on August 15 , 2011 . The following week , the song fell to number 39 and eventually fell out of the top 40 . Upon its release as a single in December 2011 , " Titanium " re @-@ entered the chart at number 12 on December 5 , 2011 , and peaked at number three on January 30 , 2012 . It was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) , denoting sales of 45 @,@ 000 copies . In Austria , " Titanium " debuted and peaked at number three on August 19 , 2011 , and remained in the top 10 for ten consecutive weeks . The song was certified platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) , denoting sales of 30 @,@ 000 copies .
" Titanium " also reached the top 10 in the charts of Belgium , Canada , Denmark , Finland , Germany , Ireland , Italy , The Netherlands , Norway , Spain , Sweden and Switzerland . On the UK Singles Chart , " Titanium " debuted at number 16 on August 20 , 2011 , and fell to number 31 the following week . The song descended the UK Singles Chart for three consecutive weeks and eventually fell out of the top 100 . Upon its release as a single in December 2011 , " Titanium " re @-@ entered the UK Singles Chart at number 61 on January 14 , 2012 , and climbed to number eight the following week . On February 11 , 2012 , it peaked at number one , and became Guetta 's fifth number @-@ one single on the chart and Sia 's first . The song also reached number one on the UK Dance Chart . " Titanium " was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , denoting shipments of 600 @,@ 000 copies . " Titanium " was the fourth best @-@ selling single of 2012 in the UK , and it has sold over one million copies there as of February 2013 .
In the United States , the song debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 66 on the issue dated August 27 , 2011 . After it was released to US radio in April 2012 , " Titanium " reached a new peak of number seven on the issue dated July 21 , 2012 , and became Guetta 's fourth top @-@ ten single on the Hot 100 . It also peaked at number three on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart , and number three on the Mainstream Top 40 chart . " Titanium " was certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . As of March 2014 , the song has sold 3 @,@ 852 @,@ 000 copies in the U.S.
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and reception = = =
The music video for " Titanium " was directed by David Wilson . It was filmed in December 2011 in Sainte @-@ Marthe @-@ sur @-@ le @-@ Lac and at Dorval High School , in the province of Quebec , Canada . A 14 @-@ second preview of the video was uploaded to Guetta 's official YouTube account on December 16 , 2011 . The preview showed a young boy ( played by actor Ryan Lee ) in the smoky woods running away from a SWAT team of men . The video then closes with the caption , " The Music Video Coming Soon " . The full video premiered online on December 21 , 2011 . Neither Guetta nor Sia appear in the video . Jason Lipshutz of Billboard magazine noted that " the supernatural scene and suburban setting " in the video recall the science fiction film Super 8 ( 2011 ) , in which Lee stars . Becky Bain of Idolator wrote that , " The video is beautifully shot , and is courageous enough not to answer all its mysteries . " A writer for Capital FM called it a " very cinematic video " .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video opens in a deserted , destroyed school hallway with Lee 's character shown sitting on the ground . As the first verse begins , he slowly begins to stand up and makes his way through the hallway . The boy then sees a female teacher in a classroom who 's stricken with fear and closes the door , realizing that the boy is the cause of the damage . As the boy makes his way outside the school building , a police car arrives and the teacher rushes outside to tell the policeman about the boy , who then quickly rides a bicycle home to pack his things . While at home , he sees a news report about the incident , causing him to quickly gather his things to flee . Several policemen then appear outside the front door of the boy 's house , while he tries to escape through the back door . The boy realizes that the door is locked so he uses his telekinetic powers to grab the keys from the kitchen bench . The policemen then enter the house to find that the boy has escaped , but find a teddy bear and a plush frog floating in the air . The final scene shows the boy running away from a SWAT team in the woods . The boy is caught by one of the men who pushes him to the ground . The video ends with the boy using his supernatural powers once again to push the men away in a burst of power ; this references how the boy destroyed the school in the first place , as he 's in the same position he was in at the beginning of the video . The aftermath of the outburst in the end , however , remains unknown .
= = Usage in media and live performances = =
" Titanium " was used in the fifth season of the American television show Gossip Girl episode " I Am Number Nine " , which aired on November 7 , 2011 . It also appears on the soundtrack of the 2014 film Wild Tales . Scottish recording artist Emeli Sandé performed " Titanium " with Guetta at the NRJ Music Awards , held in France on January 29 , 2012 . On April 21 , 2012 , Sia made a surprise appearance during Guetta 's set for the second weekend of Coachella in Indio , California , where they performed " Titanium " . The song also appears in the 2016 dance video game Just Dance 2017 .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes for Nothing but the Beat .
Afrojack – songwriting , production , mixing
Sia Furler – songwriting , lead vocals
David Guetta – songwriting , production , mixing
Giorgio Tuinfort – songwriting , production
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= = Cover versions = =
In May 2012 , " Titanium " was covered by British recording artist Tulisa Contostavlos on BBC Radio 1 's Live Lounge . An a cappella version of the song was sung by Anna Kendrick and Brittany Snow during a shower scene in the film Pitch Perfect ( 2012 ) . On October 22 , 2012 , former Lady Gaga backup singer Chevonne and 16 @-@ year @-@ old Avery Wilson performed " Titanium " as a duet during the October battle rounds of the third season of The Voice US . Dutch symphonic rock band Within Temptation covered the song during their special program Within Temptation Friday on the Belgian radio station Q Music , where the band choose songs to cover not related to their style of music . Their version was then included on their cover album The Q @-@ Music Sessions , released in April 2013 . On April 23 , 2013 , Michelle Chamuel and Chelea M. performed " Titanium " as a duet during the battle rounds of the fourth season of The Voice US . On May 10 , 2013 , Demi Lovato covered the song during a concert in San Diego , California . On May 16 , 2013 , Adam Lambert and Angie Miller performed a duet of the song on the finale of the twelfth season of American Idol , where Miller was a finalist . Madilyn Bailey 's version of " Titanium " reached number 13 on the French singles chart in 2015 and spent 34 weeks there . It also appeared on the Belgian French Wallonia Ultratop chart , peaking at number 23 .
= = = The X Factor performances = = =
On October 31 , 2011 , Andrew Wishart covered " Titanium " in the third series of The X Factor Australia . " Titanium " was also covered by Martin Madeja on the second season of X Factor Germany on November 8 , 2011 . On February 10 , 2012 , Morten Benjamin performed the song on the fifth season of X Factor Denmark . On October 11 , 2012 , 13 @-@ year @-@ old Beatrice Miller performed " Titanium " during the judges ' houses round of the second season of The X Factor USA . The song was also performed by Jahméne Douglas during the judges ' houses round and Lucy Spraggan during the third live show of the ninth series of The X Factor UK on October 20 , 2012 . On November 7 , 2013 , Ellona Santiago performed " Titanium " during Week 2 on Night 2 of the third season of The X Factor USA , where all the contestants had to sing their Save Me song due to graphic issues .
= = = Jahméne Douglas version = = =
British pop and soul singer Jahméne Douglas released a cover version of " Titanium " on July 22 , 2013 as the lead single from his debut studio album , Love Never Fails ( 2013 ) . Douglas ' version peaked at number 94 on the UK Singles Chart . Talking to Digital Spy , Douglas said : " It 's very hard to sing . I was scared to do it because it 's a big chart song and I 'm quite old school . For me , the song is about strength and the music video is based around domestic violence and how a woman gets out of it . The lyrics are so powerful for that interpretation . Hopefully if someone is in that situation and watches it , they 'll think , I can get out . " A music video to accompany the release of " Titanium " was first released onto YouTube on June 12 , 2013 at a total length of three minutes and fifty @-@ four seconds . The music video shows Douglas next to a piano , while a story of domestic abuse plays out .
= No. 2 Operational Conversion Unit RAAF =
No. 2 Operational Conversion Unit ( No. 2 OCU ) is a fighter training unit of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . Located at RAAF Base Williamtown , New South Wales , the unit trains pilots to operate the McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet , conducts refresher courses for pilots returning to the type , and trains future Hornet instructors . Pilots new to the Hornet enter No. 2 OCU after first qualifying to fly fast jets at No. 79 Squadron and undertaking initial fighter combat instruction at No. 76 Squadron . Once qualified on the F / A @-@ 18 , they are posted to one of No. 81 Wing 's operational Hornet units , No. 3 Squadron , No. 75 Squadron or No. 77 Squadron .
The unit was established as No. 2 ( Fighter ) Operational Training Unit ( No. 2 OTU ) in April 1942 at Port Pirie , South Australia , and relocated to RAAF Station Mildura , Victoria , the following month . During World War II , it provided training on a wide range of aircraft , including P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks , Vultee Vengeances , Avro Ansons , CAC Boomerangs , Supermarine Spitfires and Airspeed Oxfords . Disbanded in March 1947 , No. 2 OTU was re @-@ formed at Williamtown in March 1952 in response to the demand for more highly trained pilots to serve in the Korean War . It was renamed No. 2 ( Fighter ) Operational Conversion Unit in September 1958 , and since then has conducted training with the CAC Sabre , Dassault Mirage III , and Macchi MB @-@ 326 , prior to taking delivery of the Hornet .
= = Role and equipment = =
The role of No. 2 Operational Conversion Unit ( No. 2 OCU ) is to " support the preparation for and the conduct of effective airspace control , counter air strike and combat air support operations through the provision of trained personnel " . Located at RAAF Base Williamtown , New South Wales , it comes under the control of No. 81 Wing , part of Air Combat Group .
No. 2 OCU is primarily responsible for conducting operational conversion courses on the RAAF 's McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet multi @-@ role fighter , which entered service in 1985 . The unit takes students who have converted to fast jets with No. 79 Squadron , located at RAAF Base Pearce , Western Australia , and undergone lead @-@ in fighter training at No. 76 Squadron , based at Williamtown . Most are new to operational flying , but some are " retreads " ( experienced pilots converting from another aircraft type ) . As No. 2 OCU 's instructors are among the RAAF 's most experienced Hornet pilots , they often play a significant role developing new tactics , in cooperation with fighter combat instructors at other No. 81 Wing units .
No. 2 OCU operates both single @-@ seat F / A @-@ 18A Hornets and two @-@ seat F / A @-@ 18Bs . The F / A @-@ 18B is largely identical to the A model aside from its dual cockpit , which reduces internal fuel capacity by about six per cent . Aircraft livery includes a yellow @-@ and @-@ black tail fin flash , the base featuring a yellow tiger 's head outlined in black , with a red mouth , white fangs and white eyes . The unit crest shows a winged kangaroo carrying a joey in its pouch , symbolising " ' Mother Australia ' flying with her young " . The motto is Juventus Non Sine Pinnis ( " The Young Shall Have Wings " ) .
Hornet conversion courses run for six months , after which graduates are posted to one of the RAAF 's front @-@ line fighter units , No. 3 Squadron or No. 77 Squadron at Williamtown , or No. 75 Squadron at RAAF Base Tindal , Northern Territory . Students must first gain their instrument rating on the Hornet , and are then taught basic fighter manoeuvres , air combat techniques , air @-@ to @-@ air gunnery , and air @-@ to @-@ ground tactics . The course culminates with Exercise High Sierra , a biannual event that was first run at Townsville , Queensland , in 1986 . The exercise lasts for two weeks and involves day and night flights , including precision strike sorties with practice and live bombs .
As well as operational conversion , No. 2 OCU conducts refresher courses and fighter combat instructor courses on the Hornet . Pilots who have not flown Hornets for more than nine months undertake the two @-@ week refresher course . Fighter combat instructor courses run for five months and are given every two years . Students are chosen from among the most experienced Hornet squadron pilots and undergo instruction in how to train others , as well as how to deal with complex operational scenarios . This is tested in simulated combat with other types of US or RAAF aircraft , as available , including F @-@ 15 Eagles , F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcons , and F / A @-@ 18 Super Hornets . Graduates become qualified F / A @-@ 18 instructors and initially remain with No. 2 OCU for the next two @-@ year cycle . After this time , they are posted to one of the front @-@ line squadrons or No. 81 Wing 's headquarters as Hornet weapons @-@ and @-@ tactics specialists . Along with training pilots , No. 2 OCU may be called upon to conduct operational tasks in " particular circumstances " .
= = History = =
= = = Operational training : 1942 – 47 = = =
During World War II , the RAAF established several operational training units ( OTUs ) to convert recently graduated pilots from advanced trainers to combat aircraft , and to add fighting techniques to the flying skills they had already learned . No. 2 ( Fighter ) Operational Training Unit ( No. 2 OTU ) was formed on 2 April 1942 at Port Pirie , South Australia . Its inaugural commanding officer was Wing Commander Peter Jeffrey , a fighter ace who had led No. 3 Squadron in North Africa . Jeffrey had recently brought on line Nos. 75 and 76 Squadrons , two of the first three fighter units raised to help defend northern Australia as the Japanese advanced toward New Guinea . His team of instructors at No. 2 OTU included fellow aces from the North African campaign , Clive Caldwell and Wilf Arthur . Originally equipped with CAC Wirraways and Fairey Battles , the unit 's complement was augmented by P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks , Vultee Vengeances , Avro Ansons , CAC Boomerangs , Supermarine Spitfires and Airspeed Oxfords after it relocated to RAAF Station Mildura , Victoria , in May . By September 1942 , its fleet of aircraft included nine of the 106 Kittyhawks the RAAF had on hand at the time . During November , No. 2 OTU conducted comparative trials that pitted a Spitfire Mk V against a P @-@ 40E ; the final report of these trials judged that although the Spitfire had superior performance according to most criteria , the P @-@ 40E was also a useful design .
No. 2 OTU 's Spitfire section was transferred to RAAF Station Williamtown , New South Wales , in March 1943 , under the command of ace John Waddy . Jeffrey handed over command of No. 2 OTU at Mildura in August 1943 ; the same month , the unit logged over 5 @,@ 000 flying hours , its highest level during the war . For the remainder of the conflict it maintained an average strength of more than 100 aircraft . North African campaign aces and former No. 3 Squadron commanders Bobby Gibbes and Nicky Barr served successively as chief flying instructor from March 1944 until the end of the Pacific War . Group Captain Arthur led the unit from July to November 1944 , when Group Captain Jeffrey resumed command . During 1945 , the Spitfires and Kittyhawks were replaced by 32 North American P @-@ 51 Mustangs . Training concluded that October , following the cessation of hostilities , and No. 2 OTU was reduced to a care @-@ and @-@ maintenance unit . During the war , it had graduated 1 @,@ 247 pilots , losing 45 students in fatal accidents . Jeffrey completed his appointment in June 1946 , and the unit was disbanded on 25 March 1947 .
= = = Operational training : 1952 – 58 = = =
Post @-@ war demobilisation saw the disbandment of all the RAAF 's OTUs . Operational conversion of new pilots then became the responsibility of front @-@ line squadrons . This practice disrupted the squadrons ' normal duties , and the advent of the Korean War and the introduction of jet aircraft further necessitated a more formal system of operational training . According to Dick Cresswell , commanding officer of No. 77 Squadron in Korea from September 1950 to August 1951 :
It is hard to believe that I actually sent 11 pilots home to Australia as they were not capable of doing the job properly . I don 't blame the pilots , but I do blame the Air Force system . We had no operational training units , no operational training system and , as a result , the pilots came to Korea poorly trained and without instrument ratings . They just couldn 't operate in the area .
The RAAF moved to rectify the situation by re @-@ forming No. 2 OTU on 1 March 1952 to convert RAAF pilots to jet aircraft and train them for fighter operations . Headquartered at RAAF Base Williamtown , it was equipped with Wirraways , Mustangs , and de Havilland Vampire jets . Cresswell took command of No. 2 OTU on 21 May 1953 . The unit ceased flying Mustangs that October , retaining its Wirraways and Vampires . In April 1954 , it began conducting fighter combat instructor courses , as well as refresher courses on jets . Cresswell delivered the first Australian @-@ built CAC Sabre jet fighter to No. 2 OTU in November , and the same month established the unit 's Sabre Trials Flight . The flight was responsible for performance testing and developing combat flying techniques , in concert with the Aircraft Research and Development Unit ( ARDU ) . On 3 December 1954 , Creswell led a formation of twelve No. 2 OTU Vampires in the shape of two sevens over Sydney to greet No. 77 Squadron upon its arrival from service in Korea aboard the aircraft carrier HMAS Vengeance . Training courses on the Sabre began on 1 January 1955 . Once the Sabre entered operational service in March 1956 , the Sabre Trials Flight was dissolved and its responsibilities passed to No. 3 Squadron . Pilots underwent their introduction to jets and fighter combat at No. 2 OTU , but finished their conversion to Sabres at a front @-@ line squadron .
= = = Operational conversion : 1958 – current = = =
In May 1958 , No. 1 Applied Flying Training School began equipping with Vampire jet trainers at RAAF Base Pearce , Western Australia . As RAAF pilots were now gaining their first exposure to jets elsewhere , No. 2 OTU took over from the fighter squadrons the responsibility of converting trained jet pilots to Sabres . Reflecting its new primary role , it was renamed No. 2 ( Fighter ) Operational Conversion Unit ( No. 2 OCU ) in September 1958 , and ceased Vampire courses the same month . Wing Commander Neville McNamara , later Chief of the Air Staff ( CAS ) and Chief of the Defence Force Staff , served as commanding officer from August 1959 until January 1961 . During his tenure , the unit undertook exercises with No. 75 Squadron at RAAF Bases Amberley , Townsville and Darwin . Two Sabre pilots from No. 2 OCU and one from No. 75 Squadron died in separate incidents early in 1960 ; each had attempted to eject at low level and suffered fatal head injuries from colliding with the aircraft 's canopy during the ejection sequence . All RAAF Sabres were grounded until ARDU developed a modification to shatter the canopy immediately before the pilot ejected .
Along with Nos. 75 and 76 Squadrons , also based at Williamtown , No. 2 OCU was under the control of No. 81 Wing from 1961 until the wing was disbanded in 1966 . By late 1963 , personnel were busy developing training material for the pending Sabre replacement , the Dassault Mirage III , a task that required them to translate the manufacturer 's technical documentation from the original French . No. 2 OCU received its first Mirages in February and March 1964 . It commenced conversion courses on the type that October , and fighter combat instructor courses in August 1968 . The RAAF eventually took delivery of 100 Mirage IIIO single @-@ seat fighters and 16 Mirage IIID two @-@ seat trainers ; No. 2 OCU operated both models . Squadron Leader John Newham , later to serve as CAS , held temporary command of the unit from July 1965 to April 1966 . A Sabre @-@ equipped aerobatic display team named the " Marksmen " was formed within No. 2 OCU during 1966 and 1967 . Between 1967 and 1984 , six of the unit 's Mirages suffered major accidents , resulting in three fatalities . Experience in the Vietnam War led the RAAF to begin training forward air controllers in 1968 . The task initially fell to No. 2 OCU before a specialised unit , No. 4 Forward Air Control Flight , was formed in 1970 . In October 1969 , the OCU began operating the Macchi MB @-@ 326 jet for lead @-@ in fighter training , as well as the Mirage . No. 5 Operational Training Unit , based at Williamtown , took over responsibility for Macchi courses from April 1970 until its disbandment in July the following year ; the Macchis were then transferred back to No. 2 OCU .
In preparation for the introduction of the F / A @-@ 18 Hornet , No. 2 OCU temporarily ceased flying operations on 1 January 1985 and transferred Macchi and Mirage training to No. 77 Squadron , which assumed responsibility for fighter combat instructor , introductory fighter , and Mirage conversion courses . Beginning on 17 May , the first fourteen Australian Hornets — seven single @-@ seat F / A @-@ 18As and seven two @-@ seat F / A @-@ 18Bs — and a Hornet simulator were delivered to No. 2 OCU . Conversion courses on the type commenced on 19 August with four F / A @-@ 18Bs and three students . No. 2 OCU has remained the prime user of the two @-@ seat Hornet , though some are operated by the fighter squadrons , Nos. 3 , 75 and 77 . The first year of Hornet service saw No. 2 OCU , as the then @-@ only RAAF operator , undertake demonstration flights around the country to unveil the new fighter to the Australian public . All of the Hornet units came under the control of a newly re @-@ formed No. 81 Wing on 2 February 1987 . An intense training program that year resulted in 21 pilots converting to the type . In June 1987 , Macchi training courses again became the responsibility of No. 2 OCU ; this role was taken over by No. 76 Squadron in January 1989 . No. 2 OCU suffered its only Hornet loss to date when an F / A @-@ 18B crashed at Great Palm Island , Queensland , during a night @-@ time training flight on 18 November 1987 , killing the pilot . Two Hornets collided during an air @-@ to @-@ air combat training exercise the previous year , but both managed to return to base . The unit temporarily relocated to RAAF Base Richmond , New South Wales , in July 1990 , while Williamtown 's runway was resurfaced .
The RAAF began modifying four of its Boeing 707 jet transports to enable air @-@ to @-@ air refuelling of the Hornets in December 1988 ; No. 2 OCU staff commenced training for airborne tanker operations in July 1991 , subsequently adding this capability to the Hornet conversion course . By the mid @-@ 1990s , the unit had 12 instructors and a complement of 18 Hornets , including 13 two @-@ seaters . It was running two conversion courses per year , with eight students per course , and had an average failure rate of 10 per cent . Several of its instructors were US and Canadian pilots on exchange with the RAAF . In 2000 , No. 2 OCU joined Nos. 76 and 79 Squadrons as part of No. 78 Wing , which had been re @-@ established as an operational training formation . As of 2005 , the unit had a strength of between 12 and 14 instructors and ran three Hornet conversion courses and one fighter combat instructor course over two @-@ year cycles . About six new Hornet pilots took part in each of the conversion courses , and the unit generally graduated 15 new Hornet pilots over each cycle . By 2007 , No. 2 OCU had returned to the aegis of No. 81 Wing , under Air Combat Group . Although the duration of the conversion courses has remained unchanged since the Hornets were introduced into service , the content covered has been altered over time to reflect upgrades to the Hornets , the replacement of the Macchis with BAE Hawk 127 trainers in the early 2000s , and experience gained from using Hornets in combat during the Iraq War . No. 2 OCU conducted its 32nd fighter combat instructor course in 2013 . The graduation exercise , Aces North , was the first to involve RAAF F / A @-@ 18 Super Hornets , Airbus KC @-@ 30 tankers , and Boeing E @-@ 7 Wedgetail early warning aircraft , as well as the ' Classic ' Hornets .
= One Breath ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" One Breath " is the eighth episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on November 11 , 1994 . It was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong , directed by R. W. Goodwin , and featured guest appearances by Melinda McGraw , Sheila Larken and Don S. Davis . The episode helped to explore the series ' overarching mythology . " One Breath " earned a Nielsen household rating of 9 @.@ 5 , being watched by 9 @.@ 1 million households in its initial broadcast . The episode received mostly positive reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In the episode , Scully is found comatose in hospital after her abduction in the earlier episode " Ascension " . Mulder attempts to investigate what has happened to her , but finds himself hindered by a man he had believed to be an ally .
Anderson returned to the series only days after having given birth , missing the previous episode due to her pregnancy . Morgan and Wong attempted to create a version of the earlier episode " Beyond the Sea " , this time centered on Duchovny 's character Mulder . The episode also introduced the character of Melissa Scully , an attempt to provide a romantic lead for Mulder which was later dropped .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
FBI special agent Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) is currently missing , having disappeared after being kidnapped by a deranged multiple @-@ abductee in the two @-@ part episodes " Duane Barry " and " Ascension " . Her partner Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) has continued his work without her , but is still investigating her disappearance , believing her to have been abducted by aliens . His investigations into similar abductions in the past have been aided by The Lone Gunmen , a trio of conspiracy theorists made up of John Byers ( Bruce Harwood ) , Melvin Frohike ( Tom Braidwood ) and Richard Langly ( Dean Haglund ) .
= = = Events = = =
Scully 's mother , Margaret , ( Sheila Larken ) tells Mulder a story about Dana shooting a snake with her brothers as a child and regretting what she did afterwards . She indicates she is ready to let go of Dana , and shows Mulder Scully 's gravestone . Mulder , however , refuses to give up .
Scully then turns up mysteriously at a hospital in a coma . An out of control Mulder demands to know how she got there , and is escorted out by security but later calms down and meets with Dr. Daly ( Jay Brazeau ) , who reveals that no one can figure out how she got there or what 's wrong with her . He tells Mulder and Mrs. Scully that she has a living will that dictates she be taken off of life support when her condition falls to specific criteria . At Scully 's bedside , Mulder meets her older sister Melissa ( Melinda McGraw ) . Scully has a vision of sitting in a boat , attached by rope to a dock where Mulder and Melissa stand , and nurse Owens behind them . Frohike visits Scully and sneaks out her medical chart , which the Lone Gunmen later investigate . Byers finds that Scully 's blood contains branched DNA that may have been used for identification but now is inactive and nothing more than a poisonous waste product in her system .
The mysterious Nurse Owens visits Scully at her bedside , trying to reach her in her coma . Later Mulder visits Scully while another nurse takes her blood . When distracted , a mysterious man steals Scully 's blood sample and runs . Mulder chases him down to the parking lot where he is confronted by X , who demands that he stop pursuing what happened to Scully and let her die . He then executes the man who stole her blood . When Assistant Director Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) calls Mulder to his office regarding the incident , Mulder denies any involvement and claims that the Cigarette Smoking Man is responsible for what happened to Scully . Mulder demands to know where he is but Skinner refuses to tell him .
In another vision Scully lies on a table and is visited by her deceased father . Mulder , sitting with Melissa in the hospital cafeteria , is asked by a woman for change for the cigarette machine . When she says that a pack of Morleys is already there and leaves , Mulder opens it and finds the Cigarette Smoking Man 's address inside . Mulder bursts into the Cigarette Smoking Man 's home and holds him at gunpoint , demanding to know why Scully was taken instead of him . The Cigarette Smoking Man claims he likes the both of them , which is why she was returned ; he reveals that he told Skinner it was Mulder who shot the man in the parking lot , although he didn 't believe this to be true , incidentally revealing himself as unaware of who did shoot the man , namely X. He tells Mulder that he 'll never know the truth if he kills him , and Mulder decides not to .
Mulder returns to FBI headquarters and types out a resignation letter that he hands into Skinner . Skinner visits his office as Mulder is packing his things , and relates an out @-@ of @-@ body experience he had in Vietnam . Skinner refuses to accept Mulder 's resignation and Mulder realizes that he was the one who provided him with the Cigarette Smoking Man 's location . Heading to the parking garage , Mulder is met by X , telling him that he 'll have a chance for revenge that night when men , believing him to have information on Scully , will search his apartment at a specific time . Mulder is waiting with his gun at his apartment when Melissa arrives . Although he initially refuses to leave , Melissa is able to convince Mulder to see Scully , where he holds Scully 's hand and talks to her . Returning home to find his apartment trashed , Mulder sits on the floor and cries .
The next day , Scully awakens . Mulder is called to the hospital and sees her , returning her cross necklace , where she indicates she heard his voice while in her coma . Scully tells him she doesn 't remember anything after being kidnapped by Duane Barry . Later Scully asks one of the nurses if she can see Nurse Owens , as she wants to thank her , but the nurse tells Scully that no nurse named Owens works at the hospital .
= = Production = =
Gillian Anderson , who had just given birth to her daughter Piper days before this episode spent the majority of the episode in a hospital bed .
The episode title , " One Breath " comes from a line from Scully 's father when he talks to her during the episode . The character ' The Thinker ' , who later appears in person in the episode " Anasazi " was named after online X @-@ Files fan ' DuhThinker ' . The episode introduces Melinda McGraw as Scully 's sister Melissa . McGraw had previously worked with writers Glen Morgan and James Wong , who specifically wrote the part with her in mind . Thoughts were given to having a romantic interest between Mulder and Melissa , but the concept never came to pass .
Writer Glen Morgan said of the episode , " Duchovny challenged us to do a " Beyond the Sea " for him . The show had been so dark and bleak , and Jim and I feel that there is a side to the paranormal that 's very hopeful . We wanted to do that side of it . I thought it would be a great opportunity for Duchovny , but then the situation came up with Gillian 's pregnancy . We needed to get her off her feet anyway . There 's a line in there where Scully 's sister says ' Just because the belief is positive and good doesn 't make it silly or trite ' . It was the whole theme of the show . "
Chris Carter described the opening scene — in which Scully discovers the truth about death , sadness , and sorrow — as " a way he would never imagined an X @-@ Files episode to begin with " , and that the related scene with Scully 's tombstone was " a soft but beautiful opening " that " sets up the episode in a frightening way " . The image of Scully in the boat was meant to symbolize " being tethered to something very tenuously , and that there was a chance for you to be cut adrift and slip into the unknown " . Skinner facing the Smoking Man placed the character as " both an antagonistic and institutional figure " that tries to be both an FBI agent and an ally of Mulder and Scully — his refusal to allow the Smoking Man to smoke in his office " speaks of [ Skinner 's ] alliances and allegiances to Agent Scully and his hatred of this man he cannot vanquish , he cannot get rid of , but he has to tolerate " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" One Breath " premiered on the Fox network on November 11 , 1994 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on October 16 , 1995 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 9 @.@ 5 with a 16 share , meaning that roughly 9 @.@ 5 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 16 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 9 @.@ 1 million households watched this episode during its original airing .
= = = Reviews = = =
" One Breath " received mostly positive reviews from critics . The Munchkyn Zone reviewer Sarah Stegall gave the episode a glowing review and rated it 6 sunflower seeds out of 5 . Stegall stated the episode " works on several levels " and called it the " best yet " . John Keegan , writing for Critical Myth , gave the episode a favorable review and rated it a 10 out of 10 . Keegan stated " this is easily one of the best episodes of the series , if not the best " and concluded it is " truly a masterpiece " . Nina Sordi , writing for Den of Geek , ranked the episode as the eighth best in the series ' run , calling it " just too unforgettable " . Sordi added that " verbal sparring matches between Mulder and Scully 's equally feisty sister , Melissa , created an interesting dynamic in the absence of Scully 's perspective " . Nick De Semlyen and James White of Empire named it the fifteenth " greatest " episode of the series , considering it a " testament to the X @-@ Files writing staff 's ability to turn the temporary loss of one of the stars into a compelling , suspenseful and worthwhile piece of the overall mythology " . In a retrospective of the second season in Entertainment Weekly , the episode was rated a B. Its " absurd symbolism and the introduction of Scully 's dopey New Age sister " were criticized , but it was felt that these elements did not prevent " One Breath " from being a " richly layered installment " . It was also felt that the episode featured " arguably Duchovny 's best performance " . Reviewer Zack Handlen of The A.V. Club hailed " One Breath " as an essential episode of the show . He felt that there was a " sloppiness to the mythology " and that " the resolution of the whole coma situation is weak " . However , the " incredibly moving moments " and highlights such as Mulder attacking the Smoking Man and Skinner 's speech about Vietnam turned it into an episode " more about the moments than the big picture " .
In 1996 , Chris Carter declared " One Breath " to be one of the series ' most popular episodes . Co @-@ writer James Wong also enjoyed the episode , saying " I really love that show " . Director R. W. Goodwin said of the episode , " What 's so unusual about " One Breath " is that it had very little to do with our usual X @-@ File stuff . It was more about human emotions , drama , relationships " .
= = = Awards = = =
" One Breath " earned a nomination for an Emmy Award by the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences for Outstanding Cinematography - Series .
= Universal City Studios , Inc. v. Nintendo Co . , Ltd . =
Universal City Studios , Inc. v. Nintendo Co . , Ltd. was a case heard by the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York by Judge Robert W. Sweet . In their complaint , Universal Studios alleged that Nintendo 's video game Donkey Kong was a trademark infringement of King Kong , the plot and characters of which Universal claimed as their own . Nintendo argued that Universal had themselves proved that King Kong 's plot and characters were in the public domain in Universal City Studios , Inc. v. RKO General , Inc .
Sweet ruled that Universal had acted in bad faith by threatening Nintendo 's licensees and that it had no right over the name King Kong or the characters and story . He further held that there was no possibility for consumers to confuse Nintendo 's game and characters with the King Kong films and their characters . Universal appealed the case , but the verdict was upheld .
The case was a victory for Nintendo , which was still a newcomer to the U.S. market . The case established Nintendo as a major player in the industry and arguably gave the company the confidence that it could compete with the giants of American media . The case was selected as number 20 on GameSpy 's list of the " 25 Dumbest Moments in Gaming " .
= = Background = =
In 1982 , Sid Sheinberg , the president of MCA and Universal City Studios and a seasoned attorney , was trying to find a way to get his company into the booming video game market . In April , he learned of the success of Nintendo 's Donkey Kong video game and sent Robert Hadl , vice president of legislative matters , to investigate . Hadl 's analysis was that Donkey Kong 's storyline was based on that of King Kong and was thus an infringement of Universal 's rights to that film 's characters and scenario .
Sheinberg also learned of a licensing agreement between Nintendo and Coleco , a producer of home video game consoles . Sheinberg scheduled a meeting with Coleco president Arnold Greenberg on April 27 , 1982 , ostensibly to discuss possible investment in Coleco . Instead , Universal admonished Greenberg for copyright infringement and threatened to sue if the ColecoVision shipped with Donkey Kong as planned . The next day , Universal telexed Coleco and Nintendo giving them 48 hours to cease marketing Donkey Kong , to dispose of all Donkey Kong inventory , and to hand over all records of profits made from the game . On May 5 , Greenberg agreed to pay Universal royalties of 3 % of Donkey Kong 's net sale price , amounting to six million units and worth about $ 4 @.@ 6 million . A week later , he signed an agreement that stated that Universal would not sue Coleco as long as Coleco paid royalties .
Meanwhile , Hadl learned that Tiger Electronics had licensed King Kong for a handheld game . He decided that Universal 's earnings from it were too low and that the license 's granting of exclusive rights to Tiger would impede the agreement with Coleco . On May 4 , Sheinberg sent Tiger a mailgram demanding that they send their game in for further approval . Universal reviewed it and decided that King Kong was too similar to Donkey Kong . On May 8 , Steinberg revoked Tiger 's license , but Tiger president O. R. Rissman refused to give in and challenged Universal 's claim that it owned the King Kong name .
Nintendo 's attorney ( and future board member ) Howard Lincoln was at first inclined to settle for $ 5 – 7 million . Eventually , however , he decided to fight , reassuring the head of the company 's U.S. division , Minoru Arakawa , that this was a sign that Nintendo had made it big . On May 6 , Arakawa and Lincoln met with Coleco and Universal in Los Angeles . Hadl reiterated his stance that Donkey Kong infringed Universal 's rights to King Kong . Lincoln countered that Nintendo had discovered many unlicensed uses of King Kong 's name and characters and that Universal 's trademark on these was less than 10 years old . In private , Greenberg tried to persuade Nintendo to sign a licensing agreement ; he had not told them that he had already done so . By the end of the meeting , Hadl agreed to send a chain of title to Nintendo regarding Universal 's ownership of the King Kong name . When this failed to materialize in the next few weeks , Lincoln prodded Universal again . They responded with more demands for royalties .
Lincoln researched the merits of Universal 's claims to King Kong and deemed them untenable . Nintendo called for another meeting , which was set up for May 21 . Believing that Nintendo was finally caving , Sheinberg intimated that Nintendo might expect future business from Universal if they agreed to settle the matter . Lincoln only repeated Nintendo 's position that Universal had no legal basis to make any threats . He recalled later ,
Mr. Arakawa and I decided that we would go down and simply tell him [ Sheinberg ] that we 've come to tell you to your face that we would pay you if we thought we were liable , but we had done our homework and we were not prepared to pay anything because we hadn 't done anything wrong . We just wanted to essentially look him in the face and tell him that . It seemed the honorable thing to do . As it turned out , maybe Hadl had led him to believe that we had come down to reach some sort of monetary settlement with him . And it was really funny because it was not what he was expecting and his reaction was shock .
Knowing that a court battle lay ahead , Hadl contacted Rissman , the errant Tiger licensee , to compromise on the handheld King Kong game . Hadl wanted to remove the exclusivity provision of the license and to distinguish the handheld game from Donkey Kong so as to weaken any potential counterclaims that one of Universal 's licensees had violated Nintendo 's intellectual property rights . Rissman complied , giving the hero a fireman hat , replacing barrel graphics with bombs , and making the game platforms straight instead of crooked . This design was approved in early June .
= = District court = =
On June 29 , 1982 , Universal officially sued Nintendo . The company also announced that it had agreed to license the rights to King Kong to Coleco . On January 3 , 1983 , Universal then sent cease @-@ and @-@ desist letters to Nintendo 's licensees offering three options : stop using Donkey Kong characters , obtain a license from Universal , or be sued . Six licensees caved , but Milton Bradley refused to do so . When Ralston Purina 's offer of $ 5 @,@ 000 for the use of Donkey Kong characters on breakfast cereal was turned down , they also refused to settle .
Lincoln hired John Kirby to represent Nintendo in court . Kirby had won other big cases for the likes of PepsiCo . , General Foods , and Warner @-@ Lambert . Kirby researched the game 's development , taking depositions from designer Shigeru Miyamoto and Nintendo president Hiroshi Yamauchi in Japan . Miyamoto claimed that he had in fact called his ape character King Kong at first , as that was a generic term in Japan for any large ape .
Universal City Studios , Inc. v. Nintendo , Co . , Ltd. was heard at the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York by Judge Robert W. Sweet . The trial lasted seven days , during which Universal , represented by the New York firm Townley & Updike , argued that the name Donkey Kong could be confused with King Kong and that the plot of the game was an infringement on that of the film . Kirby showed key differences between Donkey Kong and King Kong . He also alleged that Universal had no rights to the King Kong characters and that they had in fact successfully sued RKO Pictures in 1975 in Universal City Studios , Inc. v. RKO General , Inc . , wherein they proved that the plot of King Kong was in the public domain and thus opened the way for Dino De Laurentiis 's remake .
Judge Sweet ruled against Universal and chastised the company :
Throughout this litigation , Universal knew , as a result of the RKO litigation , that it had no rights to any visual image of King Kong from the classic movie or its remake . Nonetheless , Universal , when it seemed beneficial , made sweeping assertions of rights , attempting to extract license agreements from companies incapable of or unwilling to confront Universal 's " profit center . "
He ruled that Universal did not own King Kong , but even if King Kong was Universal 's property , the possibility that anyone would confuse Donkey Kong and King Kong was unlikely . In his opinion , Donkey Kong was " comical " and the ape character " farcical , childlike and nonsexual . " The King Kong character , on the other hand , was " a ferocious gorilla in quest of a beautiful woman . " Sweet declared that " At best , Donkey Kong is a parody of King Kong . " Furthermore , Sweet said , the cease @-@ and @-@ desist letters that Universal had sent to Nintendo 's licensees gave the game company the right to seek damages . Finally , Sweet ruled that Tiger 's King Kong was an infringement of Donkey Kong :
Donkey Kong 's particular expression of a gorilla villain and a carpenter hero ( with or without a fire hat ) who must dodge various obstacles ( whether bombs or fireballs ) while climbing up ladders ( whether complete or broken ) and picking up prizes ( umbrellas or purses ) to rescue a fair @-@ haired ( whether knotted or pigtailed ) hostage from the gorilla is protractible against Universal and its licensees .
Nintendo was given the option to either take Universal 's licensing profits for their game or accept statutory damages . Nintendo opted for the former , receiving $ 56 @,@ 689 @.@ 41 . Nintendo also received damages and attorney 's fees .
= = Appeal = =
Universal appealed the verdict to the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit . Nintendo and Universal argued the appeals case on May 23 , 1984 . As evidence of consumer confusion , Universal presented the results of a telephone survey of 150 managers and owners of arcades , bowling alleys , and pizza restaurants who owned or leased Donkey Kong machines . To the question " To the best of your knowledge , was the Donkey Kong game made with the approval or under the authority of the people who produce the King Kong movies ? " , 18 % of those surveyed answered in the affirmative . However , to the question " As far as you know , who makes Donkey Kong ? " , no one named Universal . Universal argued that this was enough evidence to show that consumers were confused about the distinction between the two names .
They also provided six examples from print media of more cases of confusion between Donkey Kong and King Kong . The October 1982 issue of Videogaming Illustrated , for example , was shown to read " our Donkey Kong presentation continues as we look at other gorillas who have had a fondness for women . Prominent among them is King Kong , who has much in common with the video villain . " Another example was Craig Kubey 's 1982 The Winner 's Book of Video Games , which states that " Donkey Kong [ is ] a video version of the film classic King Kong . "
In its decision on October 4 , 1984 , the court upheld the previous verdict . They declared that " The two properties have nothing in common but a gorilla , a captive woman , a male rescuer , and a building scenario . " Further , the court ruled that " The ' Kong ' and ' King Kong ' names are widely used by the general public and are associated with apes and other objects of enormous proportions . " As for Universal 's survey , the court found it unconvincing , as Universal did not own the " image . . . of King Kong climbing the Empire State Building / World Trade Center with Fay Wray / Jessica Lange in his paw " and that by only soliciting opinions from people who already had Donkey Kong games , the survey failed to establish confusion from potential customers . Finally , the survey asked " an obvious leading question in that it suggested its own answer . "
Regarding Universal 's printed examples , the court found that
The statements cited by Universal recognize that the Donkey Kong theme loosely evokes the King Kong films . However , none of the statements remotely suggests that the authors were under the impression that Donkey Kong was connected with the company holding the King Kong trademark .
The court agreed that some consumers were confused about the two marks . " However , the fact that there may be a few confused consumers does not create a sufficiently disputed issue of fact regarding the likelihood of confusion so as to make summary judgment improper . "
= = Counterclaims and second appeal = =
When Nintendo filed its counterclaims on May 20 , 1985 , Sweet ruled that Universal would pay Nintendo $ 1 @.@ 8 million for " legal fees , photocopying expenses , costs incurred creating graphs and charts , and lost revenues . " He ruled against Nintendo 's claims to damages from Universal establishing licenses with Nintendo 's licensees in those cases where the licensees continued to pay Nintendo . Nintendo 's licensees , Coleco among them , filed their own counterclaims . Universal paid Coleco by buying stock in the company .
Universal and Nintendo both appealed the counterclaims suit . The case was argued on June 16 , 1986 .
In the decision , rendered on July 15 , the court upheld the previous verdicts . They ruled that ,
First , Universal knew that it did not have trademark rights to King Kong , yet it proceeded to broadly assert such rights anyway . This amounted to a wanton and reckless disregard of Nintendo 's rights .
Second , Universal did not stop after it asserted its rights to Nintendo . It embarked on a deliberate , systematic campaign to coerce all of Nintendo 's third party licensees to either stop marketing Donkey Kong products or pay Universal royalties .
Finally , Universal 's conduct amounted to an abuse of judicial process , and in that sense caused a longer harm to the public as a whole . Depending on the commercial results , Universal alternatively argued to the courts , first , that King Kong was a part of the public domain , and then second , that King Kong was not part of the public domain , and that Universal possessed exclusive trademark rights in it . Universal 's assertions in court were based not on any good faith belief in their truth , but on the mistaken belief that it could use the courts to turn a profit .
Nintendo thanked John Kirby with a $ 30 @,@ 000 sailboat christened the Donkey Kong along with " exclusive worldwide rights to use the name for sailboats . " The character in Nintendo 's Kirby series of video games may have been named after John Kirby , in honor of his services in the Donkey Kong case . It is rumored that a copy of the game was eventually sent to John Kirby who was humored and flattered .
= Great Comet of 1882 =
The Great Comet of 1882 formally designated C / 1882 R1 , 1882 II , and 1882b , was a comet which became very bright in September 1882 . It was a member of the Kreutz Sungrazers , a family of comets which pass within 1 R ☉ of the Sun 's photosphere at perihelion . The comet was bright enough to be visible next to the Sun in the daytime sky at its perihelion .
= = Discovery = =
The comet appeared suddenly in the morning skies of September 1882 . As it was already visible to the naked eye , it was discovered independently by many people . Reports suggest that it was first seen as early as 1 September 1882 , from the Cape of Good Hope as well as the Gulf of Guinea , and over the next few days many observers in the southern hemisphere reported the new comet .
The first astronomer to record observations of the comet was W. H. Finlay , the Chief Assistant at the Royal Observatory in Cape Town , South Africa . Finlay 's observation on 7 September at 16h GMT was also an independent discovery , and he reported that the comet had an apparent magnitude of about 3 , and a tail about a degree in length .
The comet brightened rapidly , and within days had become an exceptionally bright object . Her Majesty 's Astronomer at the Cape , David Gill , reported watching the comet rise a few minutes before the Sun on 18 September , and described it as " The nucleus was then undoubtedly single , and certainly rather under than over 4 ″ in diameter ; in fact , as I have described it , it resembled very much a star of the 1st magnitude seen by daylight . " .
= = Perihelion = =
The comet was rapidly approaching perihelion when it was discovered . At perihelion , the comet is estimated to have been only 300 @,@ 000 miles or 480 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 0032 AU ) from the Sun 's surface . Subsequent orbital studies have determined that it was a Sungrazing comet , one which passes extremely close to the surface of the Sun . For many hours on either side of its perihelion passage , the comet was easily visible in the daytime sky next to the Sun . It reached an estimated magnitude of − 17 .
Shortly after perihelion was reached on 17 September , the comet transited the Sun . At the Cape , Finlay observed the comet with the aid of a neutral density filter right up until the moment of transit , when the Sun 's limb was " boiling all about it " . Finlay noted that the comet disappeared from view very suddenly , and no trace of it could be seen against the Sun 's surface .
= = Post @-@ perihelion evolution = =
After its perihelion passage , the comet moved into dark skies , and although it faded as it receded from the Sun it remained one of the most prominent objects in the sky . On 30 September , observers , including Finlay and E. E. Barnard , began to notice that the comet 's nucleus was elongated and broken into two pronounced bright balls of light , and by 17 October it was clear that it had broken into at least five fragments . Observers reported that the relative brightness of the fragments varied from day to day .
In mid @-@ October , the comet developed a notable antitail , pointing towards the Sun . Anti @-@ tails are a fairly common cometary phenomenon , and result from orbital geometry giving the appearance of a tail pointing towards the Sun although material can only be driven away from the Sun .
The nucleus reached its maximum apparent size in December 1882 . The comet faded gradually , but despite its fragmentation it remained visible to the naked eye until February 1883 . The last definite sighting of the comet was made by B. A. Gould at Córdoba on 1 June 1883 .
= = Orbital studies = =
Studies of the orbit of the comet showed that the Great Comet of 1882 was moving on an almost identical path to previous great comets seen in C / 1843 D1 and C / 1880 C1 . These comets had also suddenly appeared in the morning sky and had passed extremely close to the Sun at perihelion . One suggestion was that all three were in fact the same comet , with an orbital period that was being drastically shortened at each perihelion passage . However , studies showed this to be untenable , as the orbital period of this comet is 772 ± 3 years and the others are 600 – 800 years .
Heinrich Kreutz studied the orbits of the three great comets , and developed the idea that the three comets were fragments of a much larger progenitor comet which had broken up at an earlier perihelion passage . The fragmentation of the Great Comet of 1882 itself demonstrated that this was plausible . It is now thought that the Great Comet of 1882 is a fragment of X / 1106 C1 , and that Comet du Toit ( C / 1945 X1 ) and Comet Ikeya – Seki ( C / 1965 S1 ) are two of its sister fragments .
It is now well established that the comets C / 1843 D1 , C / 1880 C1 , C / 1882 R1 , C / 1887 B1 , C / 1963 R1 , C / 1965 S1 , and C / 1970 K1 are all members of a family known as the Kreutz Sungrazers , which are all descended from one comet . Current models do not support the frequent supposition in the prior literature that the famous comet of 372 BC is in fact the ultimate parent of the Sungrazers . The comet of 372 BC is often associated with Aristotle who , along with others from his time , described that comet in his writings . However , Aristotle was only twelve at the time of the comet 's appearance and the historian , Callisthenes of Olynthus , who also wrote about it was born ten years after its appearance . Consequently , their reports should not be taken as eye @-@ witness accounts . Further , there is no mention of the comet in Chinese literature of the time . Instead either the comet of February 423 or of February 467 with orbital periods of around 700 years is now considered the likely progenitor of the Sungrazers . The fragments of the Great Comet of 1882 will return in several hundred years ' time , spread out over perhaps two or three centuries .
= Loving You ( 1957 film ) =
Loving You is a 1957 American Technicolor musical drama structured as Elvis Presley 's first starring film vehicle , following his debut the previous year in a supporting role in the black @-@ and @-@ white film , Love Me Tender . Directed by Hal
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and argued that he was " irresponsible " . Kovalainen defended his action arguing that it had not been safe to drive his Lotus into the pitlane . Nevertheless , Kovalainen 's fire was voted the Moment of the Year by readers of Autosport magazine in December 2010 at the Autosport Awards held in London .
Sutil was given a 20 @-@ second time penalty by the stewards as he was deemed to gain an advantage by taking the outside line at turn seven on the first lap . This demoted him from eighth to tenth , and promoted Hülkenberg from ninth to eighth and Massa from tenth to ninth . Following a protest from Force India , Hülkenberg was issued a 20 @-@ second time penalty after the stewards deemed him to have gained an advantage by corner cutting . This ruling meant Hülkenberg was demoted to tenth while Massa moved up to eighth and Sutil inherited ninth . Force India withdrew an appeal of Sutil 's penalty following the decision , and Williams technical director Sam Michael said that his team had accepted the stewards ' judgement . The stewards elected not to penalise Senna after examining a video of his collision with the stationary Kobayashi . Kobayashi admitted that he was at fault for his retirement and Senna believed the marshals were late reacting to Kobayashi 's accident and felt his own accident was unavoidable .
As a consequence of the race , Webber 's third @-@ place finish allowed him to increase his lead in the World Drivers ' Championship . Alonso 's victory allowed him to move up into second place , eleven points behind Webber . Hamilton 's retirement meant that he slipped to third place , nine points behind Alonso . Vettel 's second @-@ place finish resulted in him moving into fourth place ahead of Button . In the World Constructors ' Championship , Red Bull 's strong finish allowed them to draw further ahead of McLaren who were now twenty @-@ four points behind . Ferrari remained in third on 319 points , forty points behind McLaren . Mercedes increased their points advantage over Renault to thirty @-@ five with four races remaining in the season .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
Notes
^ – Nico Hülkenberg was given a five @-@ place grid penalty for changing his gearbox after the Italian Grand Prix .
^ – Felipe Massa failed to set a lap time after stopping on the circuit in the first part of the qualifying session .
^ – Ferrari replaced Massa 's gearbox and engine – his ninth for the season – after his stoppage in qualifying ; Massa could not be penalised because he had already qualified last after failing to set a time .
= = = Race = = =
Notes
^ – Adrian Sutil was penalised 20 seconds post @-@ race for illegally gaining an advantage at turn seven on the first lap .
^ – Following a protest by Force India , Hülkenberg was penalised 20 seconds post @-@ race for illegally gaining an advantage .
^ – Jaime Alguersuari started from the pit lane following a coolant leak before the race .
= = Championship standings after the race = =
Bold text indicates who still has a theoretical chance of becoming World Champion .
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
= Shale oil extraction =
Shale oil extraction is an industrial process for unconventional oil production . This process converts kerogen in oil shale into shale oil by pyrolysis , hydrogenation , or thermal dissolution . The resultant shale oil is used as fuel oil or upgraded to meet refinery feedstock specifications by adding hydrogen and removing sulfur and nitrogen impurities .
Shale oil extraction is usually performed above ground ( ex situ processing ) by mining the oil shale and then treating it in processing facilities . Other modern technologies perform the processing underground ( on @-@ site or in situ processing ) by applying heat and extracting the oil via oil wells .
The earliest description of the process dates to the 10th century . In 1684 , Great Britain granted the first formal extraction process patent . Extraction industries and innovations became widespread during the 19th century . The industry shrank in the mid @-@ 20th century following the discovery of large reserves of conventional oil , but high petroleum prices at the beginning of the 21st century have led to renewed interest , accompanied by the development and testing of newer technologies .
As of 2010 , major long @-@ standing extraction industries are operating in Estonia , Brazil , and China . Its economic viability usually requires a lack of locally available crude oil . National energy security issues have also played a role in its development . Critics of shale oil extraction pose questions about environmental management issues , such as waste disposal , extensive water use , waste water management , and air pollution .
= = History = =
In the 10th century , the Arabian physician Masawaih al @-@ Mardini ( Mesue the Younger ) wrote of his experiments in extracting oil from " some kind of bituminous shale " . The first shale oil extraction patent was granted by the British Crown in 1684 to three people who had " found a way to extract and make great quantities of pitch , tarr , and oyle out of a sort of stone " . Modern industrial extraction of shale oil originated in France with the implementation of a process invented by Alexander Selligue in 1838 , improved upon a decade later in Scotland using a process invented by James Young . During the late 19th century , plants were built in Australia , Brazil , Canada , and the United States . The 1894 invention of the Pumpherston retort , which was much less reliant on coal heat than its predecessors , marked the separation of the oil shale industry from the coal industry .
China ( Manchuria ) , Estonia , New Zealand , South Africa , Spain , Sweden , and Switzerland began extracting shale oil in the early 20th century . However , crude oil discoveries in Texas during the 1920s and in the Middle East in the mid 20th century brought most oil shale industries to a halt . In 1944 , the US recommenced shale oil extraction as part of its Synthetic Liquid Fuels Program . These industries continued until oil prices fell sharply in the 1980s . The last oil shale retort in the US , operated by Unocal Corporation , closed in 1991 . The US program was restarted in 2003 , followed by a commercial leasing program in 2005 permitting the extraction of oil shale and oil sands on federal lands in accordance with the Energy Policy Act of 2005 .
As of 2010 , shale oil extraction is in operation in Estonia , Brazil , and China . In 2008 , their industries produced about 930 @,@ 000 metric tonnes ( 17 @,@ 700 barrels per day ) of shale oil . Australia , the US , and Canada have tested shale oil extraction techniques via demonstration projects and are planning commercial implementation ; Morocco and Jordan have announced their intent to do the same . Only four processes are in commercial use : Kiviter , Galoter , Fushun , and Petrosix .
= = Processing principles = =
Shale oil extraction process decomposes oil shale and converts its kerogen into shale oil — a petroleum @-@ like synthetic crude oil . The process is conducted by pyrolysis , hydrogenation , or thermal dissolution . The efficiencies of extraction processes are often evaluated by comparing their yields to the results of a Fischer Assay performed on a sample of the shale .
The oldest and the most common extraction method involves pyrolysis ( also known as retorting or destructive distillation ) . In this process , oil shale is heated in the absence of oxygen until its kerogen decomposes into condensable shale oil vapors and non @-@ condensable combustible oil shale gas . Oil vapors and oil shale gas are then collected and cooled , causing the shale oil to condense . In addition , oil shale processing produces spent oil shale , which is a solid residue . Spent shale consists of inorganic compounds ( minerals ) and char — a carbonaceous residue formed from kerogen . Burning the char off the spent shale produces oil shale ash . Spent shale and shale ash can be used as ingredients in cement or brick manufacture . The composition of the oil shale may lend added value to the extraction process through the recovery of by @-@ products , including ammonia , sulfur , aromatic compounds , pitch , asphalt , and waxes .
Heating the oil shale to pyrolysis temperature and completing the endothermic kerogen decomposition reactions require a source of energy . Some technologies burn other fossil fuels such as natural gas , oil , or coal to generate this heat and experimental methods have used electricity , radio waves , microwaves , or reactive fluids for this purpose . Two strategies are used to reduce , and even eliminate , external heat energy requirements : the oil shale gas and char by @-@ products generated by pyrolysis may be burned as a source of energy , and the heat contained in hot spent oil shale and oil shale ash may be used to pre @-@ heat the raw oil shale .
For ex situ processing , oil shale is crushed into smaller pieces , increasing surface area for better extraction . The temperature at which decomposition of oil shale occurs depends on the time @-@ scale of the process . In ex situ retorting processes , it begins at 300 ° C ( 570 ° F ) and proceeds more rapidly and completely at higher temperatures . The amount of oil produced is the highest when the temperature ranges between 480 and 520 ° C ( 900 and 970 ° F ) . The ratio of oil shale gas to shale oil generally increases along with retorting temperatures . For a modern in situ process , which might take several months of heating , decomposition may be conducted at temperatures as low as 250 ° C ( 480 ° F ) . Temperatures below 600 ° C ( 1 @,@ 110 ° F ) are preferable , as this prevents the decomposition of lime stone and dolomite in the rock and thereby limits carbon dioxide emissions and energy consumption .
Hydrogenation and thermal dissolution ( reactive fluid processes ) extract the oil using hydrogen donors , solvents , or a combination of these . Thermal dissolution involves the application of solvents at elevated temperatures and pressures , increasing oil output by cracking the dissolved organic matter . Different methods produce shale oil with different properties .
= = Classification of extraction technologies = =
Industry analysts have created several classifications of the technologies used to extract shale oil from oil shale .
By process principles : Based on the treatment of raw oil shale by heat and solvents the methods are classified as pyrolysis , hydrogenation , or thermal dissolution .
By location : A frequently used distinction considers whether processing is done above or below ground , and classifies the technologies broadly as ex situ ( displaced ) or in situ ( in place ) . In ex situ processing , also known as above @-@ ground retorting , the oil shale is mined either underground or at the surface and then transported to a processing facility . In contrast , in situ processing converts the kerogen while it is still in the form of an oil shale deposit , following which it is then extracted via oil wells , where it rises in the same way as conventional crude oil . Unlike ex situ processing , it does not involve mining or spent oil shale disposal aboveground as spent oil shale stays underground .
By heating method : The method of transferring heat from combustion products to the oil shale may be classified as direct or indirect . While methods that allow combustion products to contact the oil shale within the retort are classified as direct , methods that burn materials external to the retort to heat another material that contacts the oil shale are described as indirect
By heat carrier : Based on the material used to deliver heat energy to the oil shale , processing technologies have been classified into gas heat carrier , solid heat carrier , wall conduction , reactive fluid , and volumetric heating methods . Heat carrier methods can be sub @-@ classified as direct or indirect .
The following table shows extraction technologies classified by heating method , heat carrier and location ( in situ or ex situ ) .
By raw oil shale particle size : The various ex situ processing technologies may be differentiated by the size of the oil shale particles that are fed into the retorts . As a rule , gas heat carrier technologies process oil shale lumps varying in diameter from 10 to 100 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) , while solid heat carrier and wall conduction technologies process fines which are particles less than 10 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) in diameter .
By retort orientation : " Ex @-@ situ " technologies are sometimes classified as vertical or horizontal . Vertical retorts are usually shaft kilns where a bed of shale moves from top to bottom by gravity . Horizontal retorts are usually horizontal rotating drums or screws where shale moves from one end to the other . As a general rule , vertical retorts process lumps using a gas heat carrier , while horizontal retorts process fines using solid heat carrier .
By complexity of technology : In situ technologies are usually classified either as true in situ processes or modified in situ processes . True in situ processes do not involve mining or crushing the oil shale . Modified in situ processes involve drilling and fracturing the target oil shale deposit to create voids in the deposit . The voids enable a better flow of gases and fluids through the deposit , thereby increasing the volume and quality of the shale oil produced .
= = Ex situ technologies = =
= = = Internal combustion = = =
Internal combustion technologies burn materials ( typically char and oil shale gas ) within a vertical shaft retort to supply heat for pyrolysis . Typically raw oil shale particles between 12 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) and 75 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) in size are fed into the top of the retort and are heated by the rising hot gases , which pass through the descending oil shale , thereby causing decomposition of the kerogen at about 500 ° C ( 932 ° F ) . Shale oil mist , evolved gases and cooled combustion gases are removed from the top of the retort then moved to separation equipment . Condensed shale oil is collected , while non @-@ condensable gas is recycled and used to carry heat up the retort . In the lower part of the retort , air is injected for the combustion which heats the spent oil shale and gases to between 700 ° C ( 1 @,@ 292 ° F ) and 900 ° C ( 1 @,@ 650 ° F ) . Cold recycled gas may enter the bottom of the retort to cool the shale ash . The Union A and Superior Direct processes depart from this pattern . In the Union A process , oil shale is fed through the bottom of the retort and a pump moves it upward . In the Superior Direct process , oil shale is processed in a horizontal , segmented , doughnut @-@ shaped traveling @-@ grate retort .
Internal combustion technologies such as the Paraho Direct are thermally efficient , since combustion of char on the spent shale and heat recovered from the shale ash and evolved gases can provide all the heat requirements of the retort . These technologies can achieve 80 @-@ 90 % of Fischer assay yield . Two well @-@ established shale oil industries use internal combustion technologies : Kiviter process facilities have been operated continuously in Estonia since the 1920s , and a number of Chinese companies operate Fushun process facilities .
Common drawbacks of internal combustion technologies are that the combustible oil shale gas is diluted by combustion gases and particles smaller than 10 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) can not be processed . Uneven distribution of gas across the retort can result in blockages when hot spots cause particles to fuse or disintegrate .
= = = Hot recycled solids = = =
Hot recycled solids technologies deliver heat to the oil shale by recycling hot solid particles — typically oil shale ash . These technologies usually employ rotating kiln or fluidized bed retorts , fed by fine oil shale particles generally having a diameter of less than 10 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) ; some technologies use particles even smaller than 2 @.@ 5 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 10 in ) . The recycled particles are heated in a separate chamber or vessel to about 800 ° C ( 1 @,@ 470 ° F ) and then mixed with the raw oil shale to cause the shale to decompose at about 500 ° C ( 932 ° F ) . Oil vapour and shale oil gas are separated from the solids and cooled to condense and collect the oil . Heat recovered from the combustion gases and shale ash may be used to dry and preheat the raw oil shale before it is mixed with the hot recycle solids .
In the Galoter and Enefit processes , the spent oil shale is burnt in a separate furnace and the resulting hot ash is separated from the combustion gas and mixed with oil shale particles in a rotating kiln . Combustion gases from the furnace are used to dry the oil shale in a dryer before mixing with hot ash . The TOSCO II process uses ceramic balls instead of shale ash as the hot recycled solids . The distinguishing feature of the Alberta Taciuk Process ( ATP ) is that the entire process occurs in a single rotating multi – chamber horizontal vessel .
Because the hot recycle solids are heated in a separate furnace , the oil shale gas from these technologies is not diluted with combustion exhaust gas . Another advantage is that there is no limit on the smallest particles that the retort can process , thus allowing all the crushed feed to be used . One disadvantge is that more water is used to handle the resulting finer shale ash .
= = = Conduction through a wall = = =
These technologies transfer heat to the oil shale by conducting it through the retort wall . The shale feed usually consists of fine particles . Their advantage lies in the fact that retort vapors are not combined with combustion exhaust . The Combustion Resources process uses a hydrogen – fired rotating kiln , where hot gas is circulated through an outer annulus . The Oil @-@ Tech staged electrically heated retort consists of individual inter @-@ connected heating chambers , stacked atop each other . Its principal advantage lies in its modular design , which enhances its portability and adaptability . The Red Leaf Resources EcoShale In @-@ Capsule Process combines surface mining with a lower @-@ temperature heating method similar to in situ processes by operating within the confines of an earthen structure . A hot gas circulated through parallel pipes heats the oil shale rubble . An installation within the empty space created by mining would permit rapid reclamation of the topography . A general drawback of conduction through a wall technologies is that the retorts are more costly when scaled @-@ up due to the resulting large amount of heat conducting walls made of high @-@ temperature alloys .
= = = Externally generated hot gas = = =
In general , externally generated hot gas technologies are similar to internal combustion technologies in that they also process oil shale lumps in vertical shaft kilns . Significantly , though , the heat in these technologies is delivered by gases heated outside the retort vessel , and therefore the retort vapors are not diluted with combustion exhaust . The Petrosix and Paraho Indirect employ this technology . In addition to not accepting fine particles as feed , these technologies do not utilize the potential heat of combusting the char on the spent shale and thus must burn more valuable fuels . However , due to the lack of combustion of the spent shale , the oil shale does not exceed 500 ° C ( 932 ° F ) and significant carbonate mineral decomposition and subsequent CO2 generation can be avoided for some oil shales . Also , these technologies tend to be the more stable and easier to control than internal combustion or hot solid recycle technologies .
= = = Reactive fluids = = =
Kerogen is tightly bound to the shale and resists dissolution by most solvents . Despite this constraint , extraction using especially reactive fluids has been tested , including those in a supercritical state . Reactive fluid technologies are suitable for processing oil shales with a low hydrogen content . In these technologies , hydrogen gas ( H2 ) or hydrogen donors ( chemicals that donate hydrogen during chemical reactions ) react with coke precursors ( chemical structures in the oil shale that are prone to form char during retorting but have not yet done so ) . Reactive fluid technologies include the IGT Hytort ( high @-@ pressure H2 ) process , donor solvent processes , and the Chattanooga fluidized bed reactor . In the IGT Hytort oil shale is processed in a high @-@ pressure hydrogen environment . The Chattanooga process uses a fluidized bed reactor and an associated hydrogen @-@ fired heater for oil shale thermal cracking and hydrogenation . Laboratory results indicate that these technologies can often obtain significantly higher oil yields than pyrolysis processes . Drawbacks are the additional cost and complexity of hydrogen production and high @-@ pressure retort vessels .
= = = Plasma gasification = = =
Several experimental tests have been conducted for the oil @-@ shale gasification by using plasma technologies . In these technologies , oil shale is bombarded by radicals ( ions ) . The radicals crack kerogen molecules forming synthetic gas and oil . Air , hydrogen or nitrogen are used as plasma gas and processes may operate in an arc , plasma arc , or plasma electrolysis mode . The main benefit of these technologies is processing without using water .
= = In situ technologies = =
In situ technologies heat oil shale underground by injecting hot fluids into the rock formation , or by using linear or planar heating sources followed by thermal conduction and convection to distribute heat through the target area . Shale oil is then recovered through vertical wells drilled into the formation . These technologies are potentially able to extract more shale oil from a given area of land than conventional ex situ processing technologies , as the wells can reach greater depths than surface mines . They present an opportunity to recover shale oil from low @-@ grade deposits that traditional mining techniques could not extract .
During World War II a modified in situ extraction process was implemented without significant success in Germany . One of the earliest successful in situ processes was underground gasification by electrical energy ( Ljungström method ) — a process exploited between 1940 and 1966 for shale oil extraction at Kvarntorp in Sweden . Prior to the 1980s , many variations of the in situ process were explored in the United States . The first modified in situ oil shale experiment in the United States was conducted by Occidental Petroleum in 1972 at Logan Wash , Colorado . Newer technologies are being explored that use a variety of heat sources and heat delivery systems .
= = = Wall conduction = = =
Wall conduction in situ technologies use heating elements or heating pipes placed within the oil shale formation . The Shell in situ conversion process ( Shell ICP ) uses electrical heating elements for heating the oil shale layer to between 650 and 700 ° F ( 340 and 370 ° C ) over a period of approximately four years . The processing area is isolated from surrounding groundwater by a freeze wall consisting of wells filled with a circulating super @-@ chilled fluid . Disadvantages of this process are large electrical power consumption , extensive water use , and the risk of groundwater pollution . The process was tested since the early 1980s at the Mahogany test site in the Piceance Basin . 1 @,@ 700 barrels ( 270 m3 ) of oil were extracted in 2004 at a 30 @-@ by @-@ 40 @-@ foot ( 9 @.@ 1 by 12 @.@ 2 m ) testing area .
In the CCR Process proposed by American Shale Oil , superheated steam or another heat transfer medium is circulated through a series of pipes placed below the oil shale layer to be extracted . The system combines horizontal wells , through which steam is passed , and vertical wells , which provide both vertical heat transfer through refluxing of converted shale oil and a means to collect the produced hydrocarbons . Heat is supplied by combustion of natural gas or propane in the initial phase and by oil shale gas at a later stage .
The Geothermic Fuels Cells Process ( IEP GFC ) proposed by Independent Energy Partners extracts shale oil by exploiting a high @-@ temperature stack of fuel cells . The cells , placed in the oil shale formation , are fueled by natural gas during a warm @-@ up period and afterward by oil shale gas generated by its own waste heat .
= = = Externally generated hot gas = = =
Externally generated hot gas in situ technologies use hot gases heated above @-@ ground and then injected into the oil shale formation . The Chevron CRUSH process , which was researched by Chevron Corporation in partnership with Los Alamos National Laboratory , injects heated carbon dioxide into the formation via drilled wells and to heat the formation through a series of horizontal fractures through which the gas is circulated . General Synfuels International has proposed the Omnishale process involving injection of super @-@ heated air into the oil shale formation . Mountain West Energy 's In Situ Vapor Extraction process uses similar principles of injection of high @-@ temperature gas .
= = = ExxonMobil Electrofrac = = =
ExxonMobil 's in situ technology ( ExxonMobil Electrofrac ) uses electrical heating with elements of both wall conduction and volumetric heating methods . It injects an electrically conductive material such as calcined petroleum coke into the hydraulic fractures created in the oil shale formation which then forms a heating element . Heating wells are placed in a parallel row with a second horizontal well intersecting them at their toe . This allows opposing electrical charges to be applied at either end .
= = = Volumetric heating = = =
The Illinois Institute of Technology developed the concept of oil shale volumetric heating using radio waves ( radio frequency processing ) during the late 1970s . This technology was further developed by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory . Oil shale is heated by vertical electrode arrays . Deeper volumes could be processed at slower heating rates by installations spaced at tens of meters . The concept presumes a radio frequency at which the skin depth is many tens of meters , thereby overcoming the thermal diffusion times needed for conductive heating . Its drawbacks include intensive electrical demand and the possibility that groundwater or char would absorb undue amounts of the energy . Radio frequency processing in conjunction with critical fluids is being developed by Raytheon together with CF Technologies and tested by Schlumberger .
Microwave heating technologies are based on the same principles as radio wave heating , although it is believed that radio wave heating is an improvement over microwave heating because its energy can penetrate farther into the oil shale formation . The microwave heating process was tested by Global Resource Corporation . Electro @-@ Petroleum proposes electrically enhanced oil recovery by the passage of direct current between cathodes in producing wells and anodes located either at the surface or at depth in other wells . The passage of the current through the oil shale formation results in resistive Joule heating .
= = Economics = =
The dominant question for shale oil production is under what conditions shale oil is economically viable . According to the United States Department of Energy , the capital costs of a 100 @,@ 000 barrels per day ( 16 @,@ 000 m3 / d ) ex @-@ situ processing complex are $ 3 – 10 billion . The various attempts to develop oil shale deposits have succeeded only when the shale @-@ oil production cost in a given region is lower than the price of petroleum or its other substitutes . According to a survey conducted by the RAND Corporation , the cost of producing shale oil at a hypothetical surface retorting complex in the United States ( comprising a mine , retorting plant , upgrading plant , supporting utilities , and spent oil shale reclamation ) , would be in a range of US $ 70 – 95 per barrel ( $ 440 – 600 / m3 ) , adjusted to 2005 values . Assuming a gradual increase in output after the start of commercial production , the analysis projects a gradual reduction in processing costs to $ 30 – 40 per barrel ( $ 190 – 250 / m3 ) after achieving the milestone of 1 billion barrels ( 160 × 10 ^ 6 m3 ) . The United States Department of Energy estimates that the ex @-@ situ processing would be economic at sustained average world oil prices above US $ $ 54 per barrel and in @-@ situ processing would be economic at prices above $ 35 per barrel . These estimates assume a return rate of 15 % . Royal Dutch Shell announced in 2006 that its Shell ICP technology would realize a profit when crude oil prices are higher than $ 30 per barrel ( $ 190 / m3 ) , while some technologies at full @-@ scale production assert profitability at oil prices even lower than $ 20 per barrel ( $ 130 / m3 ) .
To increase the efficiency of oil shale retorting and by this the viability of the shale oil production , researchers have proposed and tested several co @-@ pyrolysis processes , in which other materials such as biomass , peat , waste bitumen , or rubber and plastic wastes are retorted along with the oil shale . Some modified technologies propose combining a fluidized bed retort with a circulated fluidized bed furnace for burning the by @-@ products of pyrolysis ( char and oil shale gas ) and thereby improving oil yield , increasing throughput , and decreasing retorting time .
Other ways of improving the economics of shale oil extraction could be to increase the size of the operation to achieve economies of scale , use oil shale that is a by @-@ product of coal mining such as at Fushun China , produce specialty chemicals as by Viru Keemia Grupp in Estonia , co @-@ generate electricity from the waste heat and process high grade oil shale that yields more oil per shale processed .
A possible measure of the viability of oil shale as an energy source lies in the ratio of the energy in the extracted oil to the energy used in its mining and processing ( Energy Returned on Energy Invested , or EROEI ) . A 1984 study estimated the EROEI of the various known oil shale deposits as varying between 0 @.@ 7 – 13 @.@ 3 ; Some companies and newer technologies assert an EROEI between 3 and 10 . According to the World Energy Outlook 2010 , the EROEI of ex @-@ situ processing is typically 4 to 5 while of in @-@ situ processing it may be even as low as 2 .
To increase the EROEI , several combined technologies were proposed . These include the usage of process waste heat , e.g. gasification or combustion of the residual carbon ( char ) , and the usage of waste heat from other industrial processes , such as coal gasification and nuclear power generation .
The water requirements of extraction processes are an additional economic consideration in regions where water is a scarce resource .
= = Environmental considerations = =
Objections to its potential environmental impact have stalled governmental support for extraction of shale oil in some countries , such as Australia . Shale oil extraction may involve a number of different environmental impacts that vary with process technologies . Depending on the geological conditions and mining techniques , mining impacts may include acid drainage induced by the sudden rapid exposure and subsequent oxidation of formerly buried materials , the introduction of metals into surface water and groundwater , increased erosion , sulfur gas emissions , and air pollution caused by the production of particulates during processing , transport , and support activities . Surface mining for ex situ processing , as with in situ processing , requires extensive land use and ex situ thermal processing generates wastes that require disposal . Mining , processing , spent oil shale disposal , and waste treatment require land to be withdrawn from traditional uses . Depending on the processing technology , the waste material may contain pollutants including sulfates , heavy metals , and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons , some of which are toxic and carcinogenic . Experimental in situ conversion processes may reduce some of these impacts , but may instead cause other problems , such as groundwater pollution .
The production and usage of oil shale usually generates more greenhouse gas emissions , including carbon dioxide , than conventional fossil fuels . Depending on the technology and the oil shale composition , shale oil extraction processes may also emit sulfur dioxide , hydrogen sulfide , carbonyl sulfide , and nitrogen oxides . Developing carbon capture and storage technologies may reduce the processes ' carbon footprint .
Concerns have been raised over the oil shale industry 's use of water , particularly in arid regions where water consumption is a sensitive issue . Above @-@ ground retorting typically consumes between one and five barrels of water per barrel of produced shale oil , depending on technology . Water is usually used for spent oil shale cooling and oil shale ash disposal . In situ processing , according to one estimate , uses about one @-@ tenth as much water . In other areas , water must be pumped out of oil shale mines . The resulting fall in the water table may have negative effects on nearby arable land and forests .
A 2008 programmatic environmental impact statement issued by the United States Bureau of Land Management stated that surface mining and retort operations produce 2 to 10 U.S. gallons ( 7 @.@ 6 to 37 @.@ 9 l ; 1 @.@ 7 to 8 @.@ 3 imp gal ) of waste water per 1 short ton ( 0 @.@ 91 t ) of processed oil shale .
= Typhoon Gay ( 1989 ) =
Typhoon Gay , also known as the Kavali Cyclone of 1989 , was a small but powerful tropical cyclone that caused more than 800 fatalities in and around the Gulf of Thailand in November 1989 . The worst typhoon to affect the Malay Peninsula in 35 years , Gay originated from a monsoon trough over the Gulf of Thailand in early November . Owing to favorable atmospheric conditions , the storm rapidly intensified , attaining winds of more than 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) by November 3 . Later that day , Gay became the first typhoon since 1891 to make landfall in Thailand , striking Chumphon Province with winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . The small storm emerged into the Bay of Bengal and gradually reorganized over the following days as it approached southeastern India . On November 8 , Gay attained its peak intensity as a Category 5 – equivalent cyclone with winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) . The typhoon then moved ashore near Kavali , Andhra Pradesh . Rapid weakening ensued inland , and Gay dissipated over Maharashtra early on November 10 .
The typhoon 's rapid development took hundreds of vessels in the Gulf of Thailand by surprise , leading to 275 offshore fatalities . Of these , 91 occurred after an oil drilling ship , the Seacrest , capsized amid 6 – 11 m ( 20 – 36 ft ) swells . Across the Malay Peninsula , 588 people died from various storm @-@ related incidents . Several towns in coastal Chumphon were destroyed . Losses throughout Thailand totaled ฿ 11 billion ( US $ 497 million ) . Striking India as a powerful cyclone , Gay damaged or destroyed about 20 @,@ 000 homes in Andhra Pradesh , leaving 100 @,@ 000 people homeless . In that country , 69 deaths and ₹ 410 million ( US $ 25 @.@ 3 million ) in damage were attributed to Gay .
= = Meteorological history = =
In early November , a monsoon trough over the Gulf of Thailand showed signs of tropical cyclogenesis . A small , concentrated area of convection quickly developed over a low @-@ pressure area within the trough , and on November 2 it became sufficiently organized for the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) to issue a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert . Owing to its small size , the system began strengthening within the narrow gulf by taking advantage of warm waters and good outflow . Moving generally northwestward , it became a tropical depression later that day and underwent rapid intensification . As the newly named Tropical Storm Gay strengthened , it " presented a paradox to forecasters " according to Lieutenant Dianne K. Crittenden ; synoptic data from Malaysia and Thailand indicated decreasing wind speeds and increasing barometric pressures around the storm , but these observations were later interpreted as increased subsidence .
Strengthening faster than anticipated , Gay attained typhoon status early on November 3 . Later that day , the storm developed an eye before passing over the Seacrest , an oil drilling ship . On November 4 , Gay 's winds increased to 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) , equivalent to a Category 3 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale , before making landfall in Chumphon Province , Thailand , at 0600 UTC . The Japan Meteorological Agency assessed that the storm had ten @-@ minute sustained winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) and a pressure of 960 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 35 inHg ) . Crossing the Kra Isthmus , Gay weakened to minimal typhoon status as it entered the Bay of Bengal . According to the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) , Gay was the first typhoon since 1891 to form in the Gulf of Thailand and enter the Bay of Bengal . Responding to a ridge to its north , Gay maintained a west @-@ northwestward to northwestward track for the next four days . The storm gradually restrengthened as it moved through an area of low wind shear and warm waters ; however , this was limited by restrictions to the cyclone 's outflow . Early on November 6 , Gay passed near the Andaman Islands as a Category 2 @-@ equivalent cyclone .
After changing little in intensity for much of November 6 , Gay strengthened as the ridge to its north intensified and the previous restrictions to its outflow diminished . The storm moved due west through a small fetch of warmer waters , fueling the process of intensification over the next 42 hours . Based on estimates provided through the use of the Dvorak technique , the JTWC assessed Gay to have attained its peak intensity as a Category 5 @-@ equivalent cyclone with winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) early on November 8 . Around this time , the IMD estimated that the storm had three @-@ minute sustained winds of 240 km / h ( 145 mph ) , classifying Gay as a modern @-@ day Super Cyclonic Storm . Additionally , the agency estimated the cyclone 's central pressure to have decreased to 930 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 46 inHg ) . Around 1800 UTC , Gay made landfall over a sparsely populated area near Kavali , India , in Andhra Pradesh . Upon coming ashore , the storm 's eye was about 20 km ( 12 mi ) wide , with gale @-@ force winds within 95 km ( 60 mi ) of the center . Now over land , Gay no longer had access to warm waters , causing it to weaken to a tropical storm less than 12 hours after landfall . The storm continued to deteriorate while moving across India , before it completely dissipated over Maharashtra on November 10 .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
= = = Gulf of Thailand = = =
The most powerful storm to affect the Gulf of Thailand in more than 35 years , Gay produced 6 – 11 m ( 20 – 36 ft ) swells that caught many ships in the region off @-@ guard . At least 16 vessels were reported missing by November 5 , including the 106 m ( 348 ft ) Unocal Corporation oil drilling ship Seacrest . According to survivors , the vessel received no warning of the developing typhoon . Just when all crew members were about to abandon ship , the eye of Typhoon Gay passed over . Winds fluctuated violently and changed direction , preventing the ship from remaining stabilized despite being within safe operating limits . The vessel abruptly capsized with all 97 crew members on board during the overnight hours of November 3 , before any life boat could be deployed . Initial rescue attempts on November 4 were hampered by rough seas . Two days after the sinking , four rescue ships and two helicopters in the region were searching for survivors ; four people were rescued from the wreckage on November 6 . Divers from the Thai Navy were sent to search the capsized vessel for anyone trapped inside . Of the crew , only six survived ; 25 bodies were recovered , and the remaining 66 members were presumed dead . Losses from the sinking of the Seacrest totaled $ 40 million . Another 20 cargo and fishing ships sank during the storm , resulting in 140 fatalities .
= = = Thailand = = =
Striking Thailand with unprecedented strength , Typhoon Gay caused damage across many of its provinces . Areas between Chumphon and Rayong Provinces were severely affected by heavy rains , high winds and large swells . Rainfall amounts peaked at Chumphon , where 7 @.@ 64 inches ( 194 mm ) fell during the cyclone 's passage . Widespread disruption of communication and electricity occurred in most areas south of Bangkok ; many households remained without power for weeks . Damaging winds uprooted numerous trees and power poles and toppled wooden houses built on stilts . Exacerbated by deforestation , flash flooding triggered by the storm damaged or destroyed thousands of homes and caused at least 365 fatalities . Several towns and villages across Chumphon province were devastated , and one of the destroyed villages " looked like it had been bombed " according to the Bangkok Post . Entire districts were reportedly " flattened " within Chumphon and Prachuap Khiri Khan provinces . The typhoon destroyed many schools across Chumphon and Surat Thani provinces , many of which constructed from wood . All structures close to the storm 's path had their windows and doors blown out , and some multi @-@ story buildings lost their upper floors . A few schools constructed from reinforced concrete sustained little damage . Over 1 @,@ 000 roads and 194 bridges were damaged or washed away . At the height of the floods , over 250 @,@ 000 hectares ( 618 @,@ 000 acres ) of land was under water . Onshore , 558 fatalities were attributed to the storm , and another 44 took place just offshore . Throughout Thailand , approximately 47 @,@ 000 homes were damaged or destroyed , and over 200 @,@ 000 people were affected , of which about 153 @,@ 000 were left homeless . Monetary losses reached 11 billion Baht ( $ 456 @.@ 5 million USD ) , ranking Gay as one of the costliest disasters in the country 's history .
Within a week of the storm 's passage , the Government of Thailand began distributing relief goods to residents throughout the affected provinces . Despite the effort by the government , 2 @,@ 500 people from Pa Thiew and Tha Sae demonstrated for additional and more intensive aid on November 9 . These protests were soon dispersed . Following considerable criticism for downplaying the impact of the typhoon , Prime Minister Chatichai Choonhavan delayed his visit to the United States to personally oversee relief efforts . By November 15 , the United States pledged to donate $ 25 @,@ 000 for recovery operations . Telephone connection was restored from Bangkok to Prachuap Khiri Khan by this time ; however , areas further south remained disconnected . Generators were brought in to keep hospitals and government offices running since much of Chumphon province remained without electricity for more than two weeks . As the scale of damage became more apparent , a request for international aid was made by November 17 to the United Nations Disaster Relief Organization . Upon the announcement of the request , six countries pledged to provide nearly $ 510 @,@ 000 in funds collectively . Agriculture across Surat Thani Province was severely affected by the typhoon in the long @-@ term as well . In the four years following Typhoon Gay , land use for orchard , rubber and oil palm plantations decreased from 33 @.@ 32 percent to 30 @.@ 53 percent . Additionally , rice paddy coverage decreased from 22 @.@ 96 percent to 13 @.@ 03 percent .
Following post @-@ storm surveys , it was determined that most of the severely damaged schools were built improperly and the upper @-@ floors were not designed to bear typhoon @-@ force winds . According to building codes in Thailand , structures are mandated to be able to withstand up to 120 kgf / m2 of pressure from winds . In the years following the typhoon , studies by engineers were conducted in the hardest hit regions to determine how to best rebuild structures in the country . With many of the destroyed structures being constructed from wood , reinforced concrete structures were the suggested replacement . The new buildings could last up to 50 years with proper construction ; however , sub @-@ standard building would result in a need for repairs within 5 years .
= = = India = = =
After crossing the Malay Peninsula , Typhoon Gay moved through the Andaman Islands on November 6 . As a precautionary measure , all air and sea traffic were suspended to the region . Winds in excess of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) battered North Andaman Island , causing two structures to collapse . A few days before Typhoon Gay made landfall , officials in Andhra Pradesh began evacuating roughly 50 @,@ 000 residents along the coast and stockpiled relief goods . Some people were forced to leave vulnerable locations in the Visakhapatnam and Srikakulam districts . Local meteorologists warned that the storm was comparable to a cyclone in 1977 that killed more than 10 @,@ 000 people . Striking the southern coast of Andhra Pradesh , Typhoon Gay produced wind gusts estimated at 320 km / h ( 200 mph ) . Along the coast , a storm surge of 3 @.@ 5 m ( 11 ft ) inundated areas up to 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) inland , washing away numerous structures . About 20 km ( 12 mi ) outside of Kavali , a 91 m ( 299 ft ) tall , steel lattice microwave tower collapsed after experiencing winds estimated at 142 km / h ( 88 mph ) . Transportation and communication across the region was disrupted and 20 @,@ 000 homes were damaged or destroyed , leaving at least 100 @,@ 000 people homeless . Nearly every structure in Annagaripalem were severely damaged or destroyed . Offshore , 25 fishermen drowned near Machilipatnam after ignoring warnings to return to port . Throughout Andhra Pradesh , 69 fatalities and ₹ 410 million ( US $ 25 @.@ 3 million ) worth of damage was attributed to Typhoon Gay . In the months after the storm , concrete shelters were built to house displaced persons .
= Mike Gravel =
Maurice Robert " Mike " Gravel ( / ɡrəˈvɛl / ; born May 13 , 1930 ) is an American politician who is a former Democratic United States Senator from Alaska , who served two terms from 1969 to 1981 , and a candidate in the 2008 U.S. presidential election .
Born and raised in Springfield , Massachusetts , by French @-@ Canadian immigrant parents , Gravel served in the U.S. Army in West Germany , and he later graduated from the Columbia University School of General Studies . He moved to Alaska in the late 1950s , becoming a real estate developer and entering politics . He served in the Alaska House of Representatives from 1963 to 1966 and also became Speaker of the Alaska House . Gravel was elected to the U.S. Senate in 1968 .
As a Senator , Gravel became nationally known for his forceful but unsuccessful attempts to end the draft during the War in Vietnam and for putting the Pentagon Papers into the public record in 1971 at some risk to himself . He conducted an unusual campaign for the Democratic nomination in 1972 for Vice President of the United States , and then played a crucial role in getting Congressional approval for the Trans @-@ Alaska pipeline in 1973 . He was re @-@ elected to the Senate in 1974 , but gradually alienated most of his Alaskan constituencies and his bid for a third term was defeated in a primary election in 1980 .
Gravel returned to business ventures and went through difficult times , suffering corporate and personal bankruptcies amid poor health . He has been a quixotic advocate of direct democracy and the National Initiative . In 2006 , Gravel began a run for the Democratic nomination for President of the United States to promote those ideas . His campaign gained an Internet following and national attention due to forceful , humorous , and politically unorthodox debate appearances during 2007 , but he found very little support in national polls or in 2008 caucuses and primaries . In March 2008 , he announced that he was switching to the Libertarian Party to compete for its presidential nomination and the inclusion of the National Initiative into the Libertarian Platform . At the Libertarian National Convention of 2008 he failed on both counts , and he announced that his political electoral career had ended . He subsequently became an executive for a marijuana products company and continued to speak out on various political issues including Democratic Party politics .
= = Early life , military service , education = =
Gravel was born in Springfield , Massachusetts , one of five children born to French @-@ Canadian immigrant parents , Alphonse and Marie ( née Bourassa ) Gravel .
His parents were part of the Quebec diaspora , and he was raised in a working @-@ class neighborhood during the Great Depression , speaking only French until he was seven years old . Calling him " Mike " from an early age , his father valued work above all else , while his mother stressed to him the importance of education .
Gravel was educated in parochial schools as a Roman Catholic . There he struggled – due to what he later said was undiagnosed dyslexia – and was left back in third grade . He completed elementary school in 1945 and his class voted him " most charming personality " . A summer job as a soda jerk led to Gravel handing out campaign fliers for local candidates on behalf of his boss ; Gravel was immediately impressed with " the awesomeness of political office . "
Gravel then boarded at Assumption Preparatory School in Worcester , Massachusetts , where his performance was initially mediocre . Then an English teacher , the Assumptionist Edgar Bourque , gave him personal attention , improving Gravel 's language skills and instructing him in public speaking . Gravel 's grades improved measurably in his final year , and he graduated in 1949 . He has a sister , Marguerite , who became a Holy Cross nun , but Gravel himself struggled with the Catholic faith . He studied for one year at Assumption College , a Catholic school in Worcester , then transferred for his sophomore year to American International College in Springfield . Journalist I. F. Stone and philosopher Bertrand Russell strongly influenced Gravel in their willingness to challenge assumptions and oppose social convention and political authority .
Around May 1951 , Gravel saw that he was about to be drafted and instead enlisted in the U.S. Army for a three @-@ year term so that he could get into the Counterintelligence Corps . After basic training and counterintelligence school at Fort Holabird in Maryland and in South Carolina , he went to Officer Candidate School at Fort Benning , Georgia . While he expected to be sent off to the Korean War when he graduated as a second lieutenant in early 1952 , he was instead assigned to Stuttgart , West Germany , as a Special Adjutant in the Army 's Communications Intelligence Service . There he had an adventurous time moving around the country , conducting surveillance operations on civilians , and paying off spies . After about a year he transferred to Orléans , France , where his French language abilities ( if not his Quebec @-@ American accent ) allowed him to infiltrate French communist rallies . He worked as a Special Agent in the Counterintelligence Corps until 1954 , eventually becoming a first lieutenant .
Following his discharge , Gravel entered the Columbia University School of General Studies in New York City , where he studied economics and received a B.S. in 1956 . He moved to New York " flat broke " , and supported himself by working as a bar boy in a hotel , driving a taxicab , and working in the investment bond department at Bankers Trust . During this time he left the Catholic religion .
= = Move to Alaska = =
Gravel " decided to become a pioneer in a faraway place , " and moved to pre @-@ statehood Alaska in August 1956 , without funds or a job , looking for a place where someone without social or political connections could be a viable candidate for public office . Alaska 's voting age of 19 , less than most other states ' 21 , played a role in his decision , as did its newness and cooler climate . Broke when he arrived , he immediately found work in real estate sales until winter arrived . Gravel then was employed as a brakeman for the Alaska Railroad , working the snow @-@ clearing train on the Anchorage @-@ Fairbanks run . Subsequently he opened a small real estate brokerage in Anchorage ( the Territory of Alaska not requiring a license ) and saved enough so as not to have to work the railroad again . Gravel joined the Anchorage Unitarian Universalist Fellowship , and would continue a sporadic relationship with the movement throughout his life .
Gravel married Rita Jeannette Martin , who had been Anchorage 's " Miss Fur Rendezvous " of 1958 , on April 29 , 1959 . They had two children , Martin Anthony Gravel and Lynne Denise Gravel , born c . 1960 and 1962 respectively .
Meanwhile , he went to Washington , D.C. in 1957 to campaign for Alaskan statehood via the " Tennessee Plan " : dressed as Paul Revere , he rode with a petition to the steps of the U.S. Capitol . Seeing Alaska as a wide @-@ open place with no political establishment or entrenched interests , and using the slogan " Gravel , the Roadbed to Prosperity " , he ran for the territorial legislature in 1958 but lost . He went on a national speaking tour concerning tax reform in 1959 , sponsored by the Jaycees . He ran without avail for the City Council in Anchorage in 1960 . During this time , he had become a successful real estate agent ; after the 1960 election , he became a property developer in a mobile home park on the outskirts of Anchorage . A partner ran into financial difficulty , however , and the project went into Chapter 11 bankruptcy and Gravel was forced out in 1962 .
= = State legislator = =
With the support of Alaska wholesale grocer Barney Gottstein and supermarket builder Larry Carr , Gravel ran for the Alaska House of Representatives representing Anchorage in 1962 , initially assigned the 10th and then 8th districts , and won .
Gravel served in the Alaska House of Representatives from January 28 , 1963 to January 22 , 1967 , winning re @-@ election in 1964 . In his first term , he served as a minority member on two House committees : Commerce , and Labor and Management .
He coauthored and sponsored the act that created the Alaska State Commission for Human Rights . Gravel was the chief architect of the law that created a regional high school system for rural Alaska ; this allowed Alaska Natives to attend schools near where they lived , instead of having to go to schools run by the Bureau of Indian Affairs in the lower 48 states .
During the half @-@ years that the legislature was not in session , Gravel resumed his real estate work . With Gottstein and Carr 's backing , he became quite successful as a property developer on the Kenai Peninsula .
During 1965 and 1966 , he served as the Speaker of the House , surprising observers by winning that post . Gravel convinced former Speaker Warren A. Taylor to not try for the position against him by promising Taylor chairmanship of the Rules Committee , then reneged on the promise . Gravel denied later press charges that he had promised but not delivered on other committee chairmanships . As Speaker he antagonized fellow lawmakers by imposing his will on the legislature 's committees and feuded with Alaska State Senate president Robert J. McNealy .
Gravel did not run for re @-@ election in 1966 , instead choosing to run for Alaska 's seat in the U.S. House of Representatives , losing in a primary to four @-@ term incumbent Democrat Ralph Rivers by 1 @,@ 300 votes and splitting the Democratic party in the process . Rivers lost the general election that year to Republican state Senator Howard Wallace Pollock .
Following his defeat , Gravel returned to the real estate business in Anchorage .
= = U.S. Senator = =
= = = Election to Senate in 1968 = = =
In 1968 he ran against the 81 @-@ year @-@ old incumbent Democratic Senator Ernest Gruening , a popular former governor of the Alaska Territory who was considered one of the fathers of Alaska 's statehood , for his party 's nomination to the U.S. Senate . Gravel 's campaign was primarily based on his youth rather than issue differences . He hired Joseph Napolitan , the first self @-@ described political consultant , in late 1966 . They spent over a year and a half planning a short , nine @-@ day primary election campaign that featured the slogans " Alaska first " and " Let 's do something about the state we 're in " , the distribution of a collection of essays entitled Jobs and More Jobs , and the creation of a half @-@ hour , well @-@ produced , glamorized biographical film of Gravel , Man for Alaska . The film was shown twice a day on every television station in Alaska and carried by plane and shown on home projectors in hundreds of Alaska Native villages . The heavy showings quickly reversed a 2 – to – 1 Gruening lead in polls into a Gravel lead . Gravel visited many remote villages by seaplane and showed a thorough understanding of the needs of the bush country and the fishing and oil industries . Gravel also benefited by being deliberately ambiguous about his Vietnam policy . Gruening had been one of only two Senators to vote against the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution and his opposition to President Lyndon B. Johnson 's war policies was harming him among the Democratic electorate ; according to Gravel , " ... all I had to do was stand up and not deal with the subject , and people would assume that I was to the right of Ernest Gruening , when in point of fact I was to the left of him . "
Gravel beat Gruening in the primary in a tight result with a margin of about 2 @,@ 000 votes . Gruening found " the unexpected defeat hard to take " and thought that some aspects of his opponent 's biographical film had misled viewers . In the general election , Gravel faced Republican Elmer E. Rasmuson , a banker and former mayor of Anchorage . College students in the state implored Gruening to run a write @-@ in campaign as an Independent , but legal battles prevented the senator from getting approval for it until only two weeks were left . A late appearance by anti @-@ war presidential candidate Eugene McCarthy could not offset Gruening 's lack of funds and endorsements ; meanwhile , Gravel and Rasmuson both saturated local media with their filmed biographies . On November 5 , 1968 , Gravel won the general election , gaining 45 percent of the vote against 37 percent for Rasmuson and 18 percent for Gruening .
= = = Senate assignments and style = = =
When Gravel joined the Senate in January 1969 , he requested
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. " Defense Secretary Robert Gates had production halted at 187 F @-@ 22s ( at a cost of $ 67 billion ) to direct funds for ongoing irregular warfare operations in Iraq and Afghanistan . Since then , lawmakers and the Pentagon have noted that air warfare systems of Russia and China are catching up to U.S. air superiority capabilities . The bill notes that Air Combat Command has a stated requirement for 381 F @-@ 22s from initial program objectives of 749 aircraft , and would require reviewing of anticipated future air superiority capacity and capability requirements , estimated costs to restart F @-@ 22 production , and other measures . In addition to identifying the cost of building another 194 aircraft , the report must also consider the possibility of the 1998 prohibition on the export of the F @-@ 22 being repealed . Previous estimates of restarting production placed figures at around $ 2 billion , including $ 300 – 500 million in non @-@ recurring start @-@ up costs , with an estimated unit cost of $ 233 million for a production run of 75 aircraft over five years . Lockheed has proposed upgrading the 36 early training @-@ model Block 20 Raptors into combat @-@ coded Block 30 / 35 versions as a way to increase numbers available for deployment .
= = = Upgrades = = =
The first combat @-@ capable Block 3 @.@ 0 aircraft first flew in 2001 . Increment 2 , the first F @-@ 22 upgrade program , was implemented in 2005 and enables the aircraft to employ Joint Direct Attack Munitions ( JDAM ) . Increment 3 @.@ 1 provides improved ground @-@ attack capability through synthetic aperture radar mapping and radio emitter direction finding , electronic attack and the GBU @-@ 39 Small Diameter Bomb ( SDB ) ; testing began in 2009 and the first upgraded aircraft was delivered in 2012 . Increment 3 @.@ 2 is a two @-@ part upgrade process ; 3.2A focuses on electronic warfare , communications and identification , while 3.2B will allow the F @-@ 22 to fully exploit the AIM @-@ 9X and AIM @-@ 120D missiles . The subsequent Increment 3 @.@ 3 may include the adoption of an open avionics platform and air traffic control updates . Upgrades due in 2015 will allow the F @-@ 22 to employ the AIM @-@ 9X and have full Link 16 reception and transmission capability , and an upgrade scheduled in 2018 will integrate the AIM @-@ 120D into the weapons suite . The F @-@ 22 fleet is planned to have 36 Block 20 training and 149 Block 30 / 35 combat aircraft by 2016 . The Increment 3.2B upgrade planned for 2018 will include a new stores management system to show the correct symbols for the AIM @-@ 9X Sidewinder and AIM @-@ 120D AMRAAM and improved control of them .
To enable two @-@ way communication with other platforms , the F @-@ 22 can use the Battlefield Airborne Communications Node ( BACN ) as a gateway . The originally planned MADL integration was cut due to the lack of system maturity . In 2014 Lockheed Martin and Northrop Grumman were competing to connect the F @-@ 22 with other platforms while maintaining stealth . Other upgrades being developed include infra @-@ red search and track functionality for the AN / AAR @-@ 56 Missile Launch Detector ( MLD ) and integration of a helmet @-@ mounted cuing system ( HMCS ) to enable off @-@ boresight missile launches by 2020 . Until the F @-@ 22 gains a helmet mounted system it will use the AIM @-@ 9X 's helmetless high off @-@ boresight ( HHOBS ) capabilities . In March 2010 , the USAF accelerated software portions of 3 @.@ 2 to be completed in FY 2013 .
In January 2011 , the USAF opened the Raptor enhancement , development and integration ( REDI ) contract to bidders , with a $ 16 billion budget . In November 2011 , Lockheed Martin 's upgrade contract ceiling was raised to $ 7 @.@ 4 billion . Nearly $ 2 billion was allocated for structural repairs and to achieve fleet availability rate of 70 @.@ 6 % by 2015 . However , only 63 % was achieved . Some F @-@ 35 technology , such as more durable stealth coatings , have been applied to the F @-@ 22 . By 2012 , the update schedule had slipped seven years due to instability in requirements and funding . In 2014 the USAF moved to cut upgrade funding .
In 2012 the F @-@ 22 was upgraded with a backup oxygen system , software upgrades and oxygen sensors to address the frequent oxygen deprivation issues and normalize operations . In 2013 , the faulty flight vest valves were replaced and altitude restrictions lifted ; distance restrictions will be lifted once a backup oxygen system is installed . In April 2014 the USAF stated in Congressional testimony that installation of automatic backup oxygen systems on the F @-@ 22 fleet would be completed within twelve months .
The F @-@ 22 was designed for a lifespan of 30 years and 8 @,@ 000 flight hours , with a $ 100 million " structures retrofit program " . Investigations are being made for upgrades to extend their useful lives further . In the long term , the F @-@ 22 is expected to be superseded by a sixth @-@ generation jet fighter to be fielded in the 2030s .
= = Design = =
= = = Overview = = =
The F @-@ 22 Raptor is a fifth @-@ generation fighter that is considered fourth generation in stealth aircraft technology by the USAF . It is the first operational aircraft to combine supercruise , supermaneuverability , stealth , and sensor fusion in a single weapons platform . The Raptor has clipped delta wings with a reverse sweep on the rear , four empennage surfaces , and a retractable tricycle landing gear . Flight control surfaces include leading and trailing @-@ edge flaps , ailerons , rudders on the canted vertical stabilizers , and all @-@ moving horizontal tails ; these surfaces also serve as speed brakes .
The aircraft 's dual Pratt & Whitney F119 @-@ PW @-@ 100 afterburning turbofan engines are closely spaced and incorporate pitch @-@ axis thrust vectoring nozzles with a range of ± 20 degrees ; each engine has maximum thrust in the 35 @,@ 000 lbf ( 156 kN ) class . The F @-@ 22 's thrust to weight ratio in typical combat configuration is nearly at unity in maximum military power and 1 @.@ 25 in full afterburner . Maximum speed without external stores is estimated to be Mach 1 @.@ 82 during supercruise and greater than Mach 2 with afterburners .
The F @-@ 22 is among only a few aircraft that can supercruise , or sustain supersonic flight without using fuel @-@ inefficient afterburners ; it can intercept targets which subsonic aircraft would lack the speed to pursue and an afterburner @-@ dependent aircraft would lack the fuel to reach . The Raptor 's high operating altitude is also a significant tactical advantage over prior fighters . The use of internal weapons bays permits the aircraft to maintain comparatively higher performance over most other combat @-@ configured fighters due to a lack of aerodynamic drag from external stores . The F @-@ 22 's structure contains a significant amount of high @-@ strength materials to withstand stress and heat of sustained supersonic flight . Respectively , titanium alloys and composites comprise 39 % and 24 % of the aircraft 's structural weight .
The F @-@ 22 is highly maneuverable at both supersonic and subsonic speeds . Computerized flight control system and full authority digital engine control ( FADEC ) make the aircraft highly departure resistant and controllable . The Raptor 's relaxed stability and powerful thrust @-@ vectoring engines enable the aircraft to turn tightly and perform very high alpha ( angle of attack ) maneuvers such as the Herbst maneuver ( J @-@ turn ) and Pugachev 's Cobra . The aircraft is also capable of maintaining over 60 ° alpha while having some roll control .
The Raptor 's aerodynamic performance , sensor fusion , and stealth work together for increased effectiveness . Altitude , speed , and advanced active and passive sensors allow the aircraft to spot targets at considerable ranges and increase weapons range ; altitude and speed also complement stealth 's ability to increase the aircraft 's survivability against ground defenses such as surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles .
= = = Avionics = = =
Key avionics include BAE Systems EI & S AN / ALR @-@ 94 radar warning receiver ( RWR ) , Lockheed Martin AN / AAR @-@ 56 infrared and ultraviolet Missile Launch Detector ( MLD ) and Northrop Grumman AN / APG @-@ 77 active electronically scanned array ( AESA ) radar . The MLD features six sensors to provide full spherical infrared coverage . The RWR is a passive radar detector with more than 30 antennas blended into the wings and fuselage for all @-@ round coverage . Tom Burbage , former F @-@ 22 program head at Lockheed Martin , described it as " the most technically complex piece of equipment on the aircraft . " The range of the RWR ( 250 + nmi ) exceeds the radar 's , and can cue radar emissions to be confined to a narrow beam ( down to 2 ° by 2 ° in azimuth and elevation ) to increase stealth . Depending on the detected threat , the defensive systems can prompt the pilot to release countermeasures such as flares or chaff . According to Bill Sweetman , experts had said the ALR @-@ 94 can be used as a passive detection system capable of searching targets and providing enough information for a radar lock on .
The AN / APG @-@ 77 radar features a low @-@ observable , active @-@ aperture , electronically scanned array that can track multiple targets under any weather conditions . Radar emissions can also be focused to overload enemy sensors as an electronic @-@ attack capability . The radar changes frequencies more than 1 @,@ 000 times per second to lower interception probability and has an estimated range of 125 – 150 miles , though planned upgrades will allow a range of 250 miles ( 400 km ) or more in narrow beams . Radar information is processed by two Raytheon Common Integrated Processor ( CIP ) s , each capable of processing up to 10 @.@ 5 billion instructions per second . In a process known as sensor fusion , data from the radar , other sensors , and external systems is filtered and combined by the CIP into a common view , reducing pilot workload . However , upgrading the aircraft 's avionics was reportedly very challenging due to their highly integrated nature .
The F @-@ 22 's ability to operate close to the battlefield gives the aircraft threat detection and identification capability comparative with the RC @-@ 135 Rivet Joint , and the ability to function as a " mini @-@ AWACS " , though the radar is less powerful than those of dedicated platforms . The F @-@ 22 can designate targets for allies , and determine whether two friendly aircraft are targeting the same aircraft . This radar system can sometimes identify targets " many times quicker than the AWACS " . The IEEE 1394B bus developed for the F @-@ 22 was derived from the commercial IEEE 1394 " FireWire " bus system . In 2007 , the F @-@ 22 's radar was tested as a wireless data transceiver , transmitting data at 548 megabits per second and receiving at gigabit speed , far faster than the Link 16 system .
The F @-@ 22 's software has some 1 @.@ 7 million lines of code , the majority involving processing radar data . Former Secretary of the USAF Michael Wynne blamed the use of the DoD 's Ada for cost overruns and delays on many military projects , including the F @-@ 22 . Cyberattacks on subcontractors have reportedly raised doubts about the security of the F @-@ 22 's systems and combat @-@ effectiveness . In 2009 , former Navy Secretary John Lehman considered the F @-@ 22 to be safe from cyberattack , citing the age of its IBM software .
= = = Cockpit = = =
The F @-@ 22 has a glass cockpit with all @-@ digital flight instruments . The monochrome head @-@ up display offers a wide field of view and serves as a primary flight instrument ; information is also displayed upon six color liquid @-@ crystal display ( LCD ) panels . The primary flight controls are a force @-@ sensitive side @-@ stick controller and a pair of throttles . The USAF initially wanted to implement direct voice input ( DVI ) controls , but this was judged to be too technically risky and was abandoned . The canopy 's dimensions are approximately 140 inches long , 45 inches wide , and 27 inches tall ( 355 cm x 115 cm x 69 cm ) and weighs 360 pounds .
The F @-@ 22 has integrated radio functionality , the signal processing systems are virtualized rather than as a separate hardware module . There have been several reports on the F @-@ 22 's inability to communicate with other aircraft , and funding cuts have affected the integration of the Multifunction Advanced Data Link ( MADL ) . Voice communication is possible , but not data transfer .
The integrated control panel ( ICP ) is a keypad system for entering communications , navigation , and autopilot data . Two 3 in × 4 in ( 7 @.@ 6 cm × 10 @.@ 2 cm ) up @-@ front displays located around the ICP are used to display integrated caution advisory / warning data , communications , navigation and identification ( CNI ) data and also serve as the stand @-@ by flight instrumentation group and fuel quantity indicator . The stand @-@ by flight group displays an artificial horizon , for basic instrument meteorological conditions . The 8 in × 8 in ( 20 cm × 20 cm ) primary multi @-@ function display ( PMFD ) is located under the ICP , and is used for navigation and situation assessment . Three 6 @.@ 25 in × 6 @.@ 25 in ( 15 @.@ 9 cm × 15 @.@ 9 cm ) secondary multi @-@ function displays are located around the PMFD for tactical information and stores management .
The ejection seat is a version of the ACES II ( Advanced Concept Ejection Seat ) commonly used in USAF aircraft , with a center @-@ mounted ejection control . The F @-@ 22 has a complex life support system , which includes the on @-@ board oxygen generation system ( OBOGS ) , protective pilot garments , and a breathing regulator / anti @-@ g ( BRAG ) valve controlling flow and pressure to the pilot 's mask and garments . The pilot garments were developed under the Advanced Technology Anti @-@ G Suit ( ATAGS ) project and are to protect against chemical / biological hazards and cold @-@ water immersion , counter g @-@ forces and low pressure at high altitudes , and provide thermal relief . Suspicions regarding the performance of the OBOGS and life support equipment have been raised by several mishaps , including a fatal crash .
= = = Armament = = =
The Raptor has three internal weapons bays : a large bay on the bottom of the fuselage , and two smaller bays on the sides of the fuselage , aft of the engine intakes . The main bay can accommodate six LAU @-@ 142 / A launchers for beyond @-@ visual @-@ range missiles and each side bay has an LAU @-@ 141 / A launcher for short @-@ range missiles . Four of the launchers in the main bay can be replaced with two bomb racks that can each carry one 1 @,@ 000 lb ( 450 kg ) or four 250 lb ( 110 kg ) bombs . Carrying armaments internally maintains the aircraft 's stealth and minimizes additional drag . Missile launches require the bay doors to be open for less than a second , during which hydraulic arms push missiles clear of the aircraft ; this is to reduce vulnerability to detection and to deploy missiles during high speed flight .
The F @-@ 22 can also carry air @-@ to @-@ surface weapons such as bombs with Joint Direct Attack Munition ( JDAM ) guidance and the Small @-@ Diameter Bomb , but cannot self @-@ designate for laser @-@ guided weapons . Internal air @-@ to @-@ surface ordnance is limited to 2 @,@ 000 lb . An internally mounted M61A2 Vulcan 20 mm cannon is embedded in the right wing root with the muzzle covered by a retractable door to maintain stealth . The radar projection of the cannon fire 's path is displayed on the pilot 's head @-@ up display .
The F @-@ 22 's high cruise speed and altitude increase the effective ranges of its munitions , it has 50 % greater employment range for the AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM than prior platforms , and range will be further extended with the introduction of the AIM @-@ 120D . While specifics are classified , it is expected that JDAMs employed by F @-@ 22s will have twice or more the effective range of legacy platforms . In testing , an F @-@ 22 dropped a GBU @-@ 32 JDAM from 50 @,@ 000 feet ( 15 @,@ 000 m ) while cruising at Mach 1 @.@ 5 , striking a moving target 24 miles ( 39 km ) away .
While the F @-@ 22 typically carries weapons internally , the wings include four hardpoints , each rated to handle 5 @,@ 000 lb ( 2 @,@ 300 kg ) . Each hardpoint can accommodate a pylon that can carry a detachable 600 @-@ gallon ( 2 @,@ 270 L ) external fuel tank or a launcher holding two air @-@ to @-@ air missiles ; the two inboard hardpoints are " plumbed " for external fuel tanks . The use of external stores degrades the aircraft 's stealth and kinematic performance ; after releasing stores the external attachments can be jettisoned to restore those characteristics . A stealthy ordnance pod and pylon was being developed to carry additional weapons in the mid @-@ 2000s .
= = = Stealth = = =
The F @-@ 22 was designed to be highly difficult to detect and track by radar . Measures to reduce radar cross @-@ section include airframe shaping such as alignment of edges , fixed @-@ geometry serpentine inlets that prevent line @-@ of @-@ sight of the engine faces from any exterior view , use of radar @-@ absorbent material ( RAM ) , and attention to detail such as hinges and pilot helmets that could provide a radar return . The F @-@ 22 was also designed to have decreased radio emissions , infrared signature and acoustic signature as well as reduced visibility to the naked eye . The aircraft 's flat thrust vectoring nozzle reduces infrared emissions to mitigate the threat of infrared homing ( " heat seeking " ) surface @-@ to @-@ air or air @-@ to @-@ air missiles . Additional measures to reduce the infrared signature include special paint and active cooling of leading edges to manage the heat buildup from supersonic flight .
Compared to previous stealth designs like the F @-@ 117 , the F @-@ 22 is less reliant on RAM , which are maintenance @-@ intensive and susceptible to adverse weather conditions . Unlike the B @-@ 2 , which requires climate @-@ controlled hangars , the F @-@ 22 can undergo repairs on the flight line or in a normal hangar . The F @-@ 22 features a Signature Assessment System which delivers warnings when the radar signature is degraded and necessitates repair . The F @-@ 22 's exact radar cross @-@ section ( RCS ) is classified ; however , in 2009 Lockheed Martin released information indicating it has an RCS ( from certain angles ) of − 40 dBsm – equivalent to the radar reflection of a " steel marble " . Effectively maintaining the stealth features can decrease the F @-@ 22 's mission capable rate to 62 – 70 % .
The effectiveness of the stealth characteristics is difficult to gauge . The RCS value is a restrictive measurement of the aircraft 's frontal or side area from the perspective of a static radar . When an aircraft maneuvers it exposes a completely different set of angles and surface area , potentially increasing radar observability . Furthermore , the F @-@ 22 's stealth contouring and radar absorbent materials are chiefly effective against high @-@ frequency radars , usually found on other aircraft . The effects of Rayleigh scattering and resonance mean that low @-@ frequency radars such as weather radars and early @-@ warning radars are more likely to detect the F @-@ 22 due to its physical size . However , such radars are also conspicuous , susceptible to clutter , and have low precision . Additionally , while faint or fleeting radar contacts make defenders aware that a stealth aircraft is present , reliably vectoring interception to attack the aircraft is much more challenging . According to the USAF an F @-@ 22 surprised an Iranian F @-@ 4 Phantom II that was attempting to intercept an American UAV , despite Iran 's claim of having military VHF radar coverage over the Persian Gulf .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Designation and testing = = =
The YF @-@ 22 was originally given the unofficial name " Lightning II " , after the World War II Lockheed P @-@ 38 Lightning fighter , which persisted until the mid @-@ 1990s when the USAF officially named the aircraft " Raptor " . The name " Lightning II " was later given to the F @-@ 35 . The aircraft was also briefly dubbed " SuperStar " and " Rapier " . In September 2002 , USAF changed the Raptor 's designation to F / A @-@ 22 , mimicking the Navy 's McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet and intended to highlight a planned ground @-@ attack capability amid debate over the aircraft 's role and relevance . The F @-@ 22 designation was reinstated in December 2005 , when the aircraft entered service .
Flight testing of the F @-@ 22 began in 1997 with Raptor 4001 , the first EMD jet , and eight more F @-@ 22s would participate in the EMD and flight test program . Raptor 4001 was retired from flight testing in 2000 and subsequently sent to Wright @-@ Patterson Air Force Base ( AFB ) for survivability testing , including live fire testing and battle damage repair training . EMD F @-@ 22s have been used for testing upgrades , and also as maintenance trainers . The first production F @-@ 22 was delivered to Nellis AFB , Nevada , in January 2003 .
In May 2006 , a released report documented a problem with the F @-@ 22 's forward titanium boom , caused by defective heat @-@ treating . This made the boom on roughly the first 80 F @-@ 22s less ductile than specified and potentially shortened the part 's life . Modifications and inspections were implemented to the booms to restore life expectancy .
In August 2008 , an unmodified F @-@ 22 of the 411th Flight Test Squadron performed in the first ever air @-@ to @-@ air refueling of an aircraft using synthetic jet fuel as part of a wider USAF effort to qualify aircraft to use the fuel , a 50 / 50 mix of JP @-@ 8 and a Fischer – Tropsch process @-@ produced , natural gas @-@ based fuel . In 2011 , an F @-@ 22 flew supersonic on a 50 % mixture of biofuel derived from camelina .
= = = Introduction into service = = =
In December 2005 , the USAF announced that the F @-@ 22 had achieved Initial Operational Capability ( IOC ) . During Exercise Northern Edge in Alaska in June 2006 , in simulated combat exercises 12 F @-@ 22s of the 94th FS downed 108 adversaries with no losses . In the exercises , the Raptor @-@ led Blue Force amassed 241 kills against two losses in air @-@ to @-@ air combat , with neither loss being an F @-@ 22 . During Red Flag 07 @-@ 1 in February 2007 , 14 F @-@ 22s of the 94th FS supported Blue Force strikes and undertook close air support sorties . Against superior numbers of Red Force Aggressor F @-@ 15s and F @-@ 16s , 6 – 8 F @-@ 22s maintained air dominance throughout . No sorties were missed because of maintenance or other failures ; a single F @-@ 22 was judged lost against the defeated opposing force . F @-@ 22s also provided airborne electronic surveillance .
The Raptor achieved Full Operational Capability ( FOC ) in December 2007 , when General John Corley of Air Combat Command ( ACC ) officially declared the F @-@ 22s of the integrated active duty 1st Fighter Wing and Virginia Air National Guard 192d Fighter Wing fully operational . This was followed by an Operational Readiness Inspection ( ORI ) of the integrated wing in April 2008 , in which it was rated " excellent " in all categories , with a simulated kill @-@ ratio of 221 – 0 .
= = = Deployments = = =
F @-@ 22 fighter units have been frequently deployed to Kadena Air Base in Okinawa , Japan . In February 2007 , on the aircraft 's first overseas deployment to Kadena Air Base , six F @-@ 22s of 27th Fighter Squadron flying from Hickam AFB , Hawaii , experienced multiple software @-@ related system failures while crossing the International Date Line ( 180th meridian of longitude ) . The aircraft returned to Hawaii by following tanker aircraft . Within 48 hours , the error was resolved and the journey resumed . In early 2013 , F @-@ 22s were involved in U.S.-South Korean military drills .
In November 2007 , F @-@ 22s of 90th Fighter Squadron at Elmendorf AFB , Alaska , performed their first NORAD interception of two Russian Tu @-@ 95MS " Bear @-@ H " bombers . Since then , F @-@ 22s have also escorted probing Tu @-@ 160 " Blackjack " bombers . The first pair of F @-@ 22s assigned to the 49th Fighter Wing became operational at Holloman AFB , New Mexico , in June 2008 . In 2014 , Holloman F @-@ 22s and their support personnel were reassigned to the reactivated 95th Fighter Squadron at Tyndall AFB .
Secretary of Defense Gates initially refused to deploy F @-@ 22s to the Middle East in 2007 . The type made its first deployment in the region at Al Dhafra Air Base in the UAE in 2009 . In April 2012 , F @-@ 22s have been rotating into Al Dhafra Air Base , less than 200 miles from Iran ; the Iranian defense minister referred to the deployment as a security threat . In March 2013 the USAF announced that an F @-@ 22 had intercepted an Iranian F @-@ 4 Phantom II that approached within 16 miles of an MQ @-@ 1 Predator flying off the Iranian coastline .
In June 2014 , F @-@ 22s from the 199th Fighter Squadron of the Hawaii Air National Guard were deployed to Malaysia to participate in the Cope Taufan 2014 exercise conducted by the USAF Pacific Air Forces and Royal Malaysian Air Force .
On 22 September 2014 , F @-@ 22s performed the type 's first combat sorties during the American @-@ led intervention in Syria ; a number of aircraft dropped 1 @,@ 000 @-@ pound GPS @-@ guided bombs on Islamic State targets in the vicinity of Tishrin Dam . Combat operations by F @-@ 22s are planned to continue into the foreseeable future . While some missions involve striking targets , the F @-@ 22 's main role is intelligence , surveillance and reconnaissance ( ISR ) gathering . By January 2015 , the F @-@ 22 accounted for three percent of Air Force sorties during Operation Inherent Resolve . General Mike Hostage of ACC said that it performed " flawlessly " during this deployment . Between September 2014 and July 2015 , F @-@ 22s flew 204 sorties over Syria , dropping 270 bombs at some 60 locations . On 23 June 2015 , a pair of F @-@ 22s performed the aircraft 's first close air support ( CAS ) mission after receiving a short @-@ notice request for airstrikes in close proximity to friendly forces .
In late 2014 , the USAF was testing a rapid deployment concept involving four F @-@ 22s and one C @-@ 17 for support , first proposed in 2008 by two F @-@ 22 pilots . The goal was for the type to be able to set up and engage in combat within 24 hours . Four F @-@ 22s were deployed to Spangdahlem Air Base in Germany in August and Lask Air Base in Poland and Amari Air Base in Estonia in September 2015 to train with NATO allies .
= = = Maintenance and training = = =
F @-@ 22 aircraft were available for missions 62 % of the time on average in 2004 and 70 % in 2009 . The rate was at 63 % in 2015 . Early on , the F @-@ 22 required more than 30 hours of maintenance per flight hour and a total cost per flight hour of $ 44 @,@ 000 ; by 2008 it was reduced to 18 @.@ 1 , and 10 @.@ 5 by 2009 ; lower than the Pentagon 's requirement of 12 maintenance hours per flight hour . When introduced , the F @-@ 22 had a Mean Time Between Maintenance ( MTBM ) of 1 @.@ 7 hours , short of the required 3 @.@ 0 ; in 2012 this rose to 3 @.@ 2 hours . By 2013 , the cost per flight hour was $ 68 @,@ 362 , over three times as much as the F @-@ 16 . In 2014 , the F @-@ 22 fleet required 43 maintenance man @-@ hours per flight hour .
Each aircraft requires a month @-@ long packaged maintenance plan ( PMP ) every 300 flight hours . The stealth system , including its radar absorbing metallic skin , account for almost one third of maintenance . The canopy was redesigned after the original design lasted an average of 331 hours instead of the required 800 hours . F @-@ 22 depot maintenance is performed at Ogden Air Logistics Complex at Hill AFB , Utah .
In January 2007 , the F @-@ 22 reportedly maintained 97 % sortie rate , flying 102 out of 105 tasked sorties while amassing a 144 @-@ to @-@ zero kill ratio during " Northern Edge " air @-@ to @-@ air exercises in Alaska . According to Lieutenant Colonel Wade Tolliver , squadron commander of the 27th Fighter Squadron , the stealth coatings of the F @-@ 22 are more robust than those used in earlier stealth aircraft , being less sensitive to weather and wear and tear . However , rain caused " shorts and failures in sophisticated electrical components " when F @-@ 22s were posted to Guam .
To reduce operating costs and lengthen the F @-@ 22 's service life , some pilot training sorties are performed using flight simulators , while the T @-@ 38 Talon is used for adversary training . DoD budget cuts led to F @-@ 22 demonstration flights being halted in 2013 before resuming in 2014 . In 2012 , it was reported that the F @-@ 22 's maintenance demands have increased as the fleet aged , the stealth coatings being particularly demanding .
= = = = Operational problems = = = =
Operational problems have been experienced and some have caused fleet @-@ wide groundings . Critically , pilots have experienced a decreased mental status , including losing consciousness . There were reports of instances of pilots found to have a decreased level of alertness or memory loss after landing . F @-@ 22 pilots have experienced lingering respiratory problems and a chronic cough ; other symptoms include irritability , emotional lability and neurological changes . A number of possible causes were investigated , including possible exposure to noxious chemical agents from the respiratory tubing , pressure suit malfunction , side effects from oxygen delivery at greater @-@ than @-@ atmospheric concentrations , and oxygen supply disruptions . Other problems include minor mechanical problems and navigational software failures . The fleet was grounded for four months in 2011 before resuming flight , but reports of oxygen issues persisted .
In 2005 , the Raptor Aeromedical Working Group , a USAF expert panel , recommended several changes to deal with the oxygen supply issues . In October 2011 , Lockheed Martin was awarded a $ 24M contract to investigate the breathing difficulties . In July 2012 , the Pentagon concluded that a pressure valve on flight vests worn during high @-@ altitude flights and a carbon air filter were likely sources of at least some hypoxia @-@ like symptoms . Long @-@ distance flights were resumed , but were limited to lower altitudes until corrections had been made . The carbon filters were changed to a different model to reduce lung exposure to carbon particulates . The breathing regulator / anti @-@ g ( BRAG ) valve , used to inflate the pilot 's vest during high G maneuvers , was found to be defective , inflating the vest at unintended intervals and restricting the pilot 's breathing . The on @-@ board oxygen generating system ( OBOGS ) also unexpectedly reduced oxygen levels during high @-@ G maneuvers . In late 2012 , Lockheed Martin was awarded contracts to install a supplemental automatic oxygen backup system , in addition to the primary and manual backup . Changes recommended by the Raptor Aeromedical Working Group in 2005 received further consideration in 2012 ; the USAF reportedly considered installing EEG brain wave monitors on the pilot 's helmets for inflight monitoring .
New backup oxygen generators and filters have been installed on the aircraft . The coughing symptoms have been attributed to acceleration atelectasis , which may be exacerbated by the F @-@ 22 's high performance ; there is no present solution to the condition . The presence of toxins and particles in some ground crew was deemed to be unrelated . On 4 April 2013 , the distance and altitude flight restrictions were lifted after the F @-@ 22 Combined Test Force and 412th Aerospace Medicine Squadron determined that breathing restrictions on the pilot were responsible as opposed to an issue with the oxygen provided .
= = Variants = =
YF @-@ 22A – pre @-@ production technology demonstrator for ATF demonstration / validation phase ; two were built .
F @-@ 22A – single @-@ seat production version , was designated F / A @-@ 22A in early 2000s .
F @-@ 22B – planned two @-@ seat variant , but was canceled in 1996 to save development costs .
Naval F @-@ 22 variant – a carrier @-@ borne variant of the F @-@ 22 with variable @-@ sweep wings for the U.S. Navy 's Navy Advanced Tactical Fighter ( NATF ) program to replace the F @-@ 14 Tomcat . Program was canceled in 1993 . Former SoAF Donald Rice has called the possibility of the naval variant the deciding factor for his choice of the YF @-@ 22 over the YF @-@ 23 .
= = = Derivatives = = =
The FB @-@ 22 was a proposed medium @-@ range bomber for the USAF . The FB @-@ 22 was projected to carry up to 30 Small Diameter Bombs to about twice the range of the F @-@ 22A , while maintaining the F @-@ 22 's stealth and supersonic speed . However , the FB @-@ 22 in its planned form appears to have been canceled with the 2006 Quadrennial Defense Review and subsequent developments , in lieu of a larger subsonic bomber with a much greater range .
The X @-@ 44 MANTA , or multi @-@ axis , no @-@ tail aircraft , was a planned experimental aircraft based on the F @-@ 22 with enhanced thrust vectoring controls and no aerodynamic surface backup . The aircraft was to be solely controlled by thrust vectoring , without featuring any rudders , ailerons , or elevators . Funding for this program was halted in 2000 .
= = Operators = =
United States
United States Air Force
The U.S. Air Force is the only operator of the F @-@ 22 . It ordered 8 test and 187 operational production aircraft . In November 2012 , it had 184 production aircraft in inventory .
Air Combat Command
1st Fighter Wing - Langley Air Force Base , Virginia
27th Fighter Squadron – The first combat F @-@ 22 squadron . Began conversion in December 2005 .
94th Fighter Squadron
53d Wing - Tyndall Air Force Base , Florida
422d Test and Evaluation Squadron ( Nellis Air Force Base , Nevada )
57th Wing - Nellis AFB , Nevada
433d Weapons Squadron
325th Fighter Wing - Tyndall AFB , Florida
43d Fighter Squadron – First squadron to operate the F @-@ 22 and continues to serve as the Formal Training Unit .
95th Fighter Squadron
Air Force Materiel Command
412th Test Wing - Edwards Air Force Base , California
411th Flight Test Squadron
Pacific Air Forces
3d Wing - Elmendorf Air Force Base , Alaska
90th Fighter Squadron
525th Fighter Squadron
15th Wing - Hickam Air Force Base , Hawaii
19th Fighter Squadron – Active Associate squadron to the 199th Fighter Squadron ( Hawaii Air National Guard ) .
Air National Guard
192d Fighter Wing ( Associate ) - Langley AFB , Virginia
149th Fighter Squadron
154th Wing - Hickam Air Force Base , Hawaii
199th Fighter Squadron
325th Fighter Wing Associate Unit ( also known as Florida Air National Guard Headquarters Detachment 1 ) - Tyndall AFB , Florida
Associate ANG unit to 325th Fighter Wing ( Air Combat Command )
Air Force Reserve Command
44th Fighter Group ( Associate ) - Tyndall AFB , Florida
301st Fighter Squadron
477th Fighter Group ( Associate ) - Elmendorf AFB , Alaska
302d Fighter Squadron
= = Accidents = =
In April 1992 , the second YF @-@ 22 crashed while landing at Edwards AFB . The test pilot , Tom Morgenfeld , escaped without injury . The cause of the crash was found to be a flight control software error that failed to prevent a pilot @-@ induced oscillation .
The first F @-@ 22 crash occurred during takeoff at Nellis AFB on 20 December 2004 , in which the pilot ejected safely before impact . The investigation revealed that a brief interruption in power during an engine shutdown prior to flight caused a flight @-@ control system malfunction ; consequently the aircraft design was corrected to avoid the problem . Following a brief grounding , F @-@ 22 operations resumed after a review .
On 25 March 2009 , an EMD F @-@ 22 crashed 35 miles ( 56 km ) northeast of Edwards AFB during a test flight , resulting in the death of Lockheed Martin test pilot David P. Cooley . An Air Force Materiel Command investigation found that Cooley momentarily lost consciousness during a high @-@ G maneuver , then ejected when he found himself too low to recover . Cooley was killed during ejection by blunt @-@ force trauma from windblast due to the aircraft 's speed . The investigation found no design issues .
On 16 November 2010 , an F @-@ 22 from Elmendorf AFB crashed , killing the pilot , Captain Jeffrey Haney . F @-@ 22s were restricted to flying below 25 @,@ 000 feet , then grounded during the investigation . The crash was attributed to a bleed air system malfunction after an engine overheat condition was detected , shutting down the Environmental Control System ( ECS ) and OBOGS . The accident review board ruled Haney was to blame , as he did not react properly and did not engage the emergency oxygen system . Haney 's widow sued Lockheed Martin , claiming equipment defects . She later reached a settlement . After the ruling , the engagement handle of the emergency oxygen system was redesigned ; the system should engage automatically if OBOGS shuts down due to engine failure . On 11 February 2013 , the DoD 's Inspector General released a report stating that the USAF had erred in blaming Haney , and that facts did not sufficiently support conclusions ; the USAF stated that it stood by the ruling .
During a training mission , an F @-@ 22 crashed to the east of Tyndall AFB , on 15 November 2012 . The pilot ejected safely and no injuries were reported on the ground . The investigation determined that a " chafed " electrical wire ignited the fluid in a hydraulic line , causing a fire that damaged the flight controls .
= = Aircraft on display = =
EMD F @-@ 22A 91 @-@ 4003 is on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force .
= = Specifications ( F @-@ 22A ) = =
Data from USAF , F @-@ 22 Raptor Team web site , manufacturers ' data , Aviation Week , and Journal of Electronic Defense ,
General characteristics
Crew : 1
Length : 62 ft 1 in ( 18 @.@ 92 m )
Wingspan : 44 ft 6 in ( 13 @.@ 56 m )
Height : 16 ft 8 in ( 5 @.@ 08 m )
Wing area : 840 ft ² ( 78 @.@ 04 m ² )
Airfoil : NACA 64A ? 05 @.@ 92 root , NACA 64A ? 04 @.@ 29 tip
Empty weight : 43 @,@ 340 lb ( 19 @,@ 700 kg )
Loaded weight : 64 @,@ 840 lb ( 29 @,@ 410 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : 83 @,@ 500 lb ( 38 @,@ 000 kg )
Powerplant : 2 × Pratt & Whitney F119 @-@ PW @-@ 100 pitch thrust vectoring turbofans
Dry thrust : 26 @,@ 000 lb ( 116 kN ) each
Thrust with afterburner : 35 @,@ 000 + lb ( 156 + kN ) each
Fuel capacity : 18 @,@ 000 lb ( 8 @,@ 200 kg ) internally , or 26 @,@ 000 lb ( 12 @,@ 000 kg ) with two external fuel tanks
Performance
Maximum speed : At altitude : Mach 2 @.@ 25 ( 1 @,@ 500 mph , 2 @,@ 410 km / h ) [ estimated ]
Supercruise : Mach 1 @.@ 82 ( 1 @,@ 220 mph , 1 @,@ 960 km / h )
Range : > 1 @,@ 600 nmi ( 1 @,@ 840 mi , 2 @,@ 960 km ) with 2 external fuel tanks
Combat radius : 460 nmi ( with 100 nmi in supercruise clean ) ( 529 mi , 852 km )
Ferry range : 1 @,@ 740 nmi ( 2 @,@ 000 mi , 3 @,@ 220 km )
Service ceiling : > 65 @,@ 000 ft ( 20 @,@ 000 m )
Wing loading : 77 @.@ 2 lb / ft ² ( 377 kg / m ² )
Thrust / weight : 1 @.@ 08
Maximum design g @-@ load : + 9 @.@ 0 / − 3 @.@ 0 g
Armament
Guns : 1 × 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 787 in ) M61A2 Vulcan 6 @-@ barrel Gatling cannon in right wing root , 480 rounds
Air to air mission loadout :
6 × AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM
2 × AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder
Air to ground mission loadout :
2 × 1 @,@ 000 lb ( 450 kg ) JDAM or 8 × 250 lb ( 110 kg ) GBU @-@ 39 Small Diameter Bombs
2 × AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM
2 × AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder
Hardpoints : 4 × under @-@ wing pylon stations can be fitted to carry 600 U.S. gallon drop tanks or weapons , each with a capacity of 5 @,@ 000 lb ( 2 @,@ 270 kg ) .
Avionics
AN / APG @-@ 77 radar : 125 – 150 miles ( 200 – 240 km ) against 1 m2 ( 11 sq ft ) targets ( estimated range )
AN / AAR @-@ 56 Missile Launch Detector ( MLD )
AN / ALR @-@ 94 radar warning receiver ( RWR ) : 250 nmi ( 463 km ) or more detection range
MJU @-@ 39 / 40 flares for protection against IR missiles
= = Notable appearances in media = =
= The Call ( 2013 film ) =
The Call is a 2013 American crime thriller film directed by Brad Anderson and written by Richard D 'Ovidio . The film stars Abigail Breslin as Casey Welson , a teenage girl kidnapped by a serial killer and Halle Berry as Jordan Turner , a 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 operator , still suffering emotionally from a prior botched 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 call , who receives Casey 's call . Morris Chestnut , Michael Eklund , Michael Imperioli , and David Otunga also star . The story was originally envisioned as a television series , but D 'Ovidio later rewrote it as a 94 @-@ minute feature film . Filming began in July 2012 and spanned a period of 25 days , with all scenes being shot in Los Angeles , mainly Burbank and Santa Clarita .
A screening of The Call was held at the Women 's International Film Festival hosted at the Regal South Beach theater on February 26 , 2013 . TriStar Pictures released it to theatres a few weeks later on March 15 , 2013 . Considered to be high @-@ concept by many reviewers , the film proved a commercial success , grossing over $ 68 million against budget of $ 13 million . Halle Berry was nominated for Choice Movie Actress in a Drama at the Teen Choice Awards and Best Actress at the BET Awards and the film received generally mixed reviews from critics , but praised Berry 's performance and the film 's suspense .
= = Plot = =
A Los Angeles Police Department veteran 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 operator , Jordan Turner ( Berry ) , receives a call one night from a teenage girl , Leah Templeton ( Evie Thompson ) , fearing for her life as a man breaks into her home . Jordan calmly advises her to conceal herself upstairs , but when the call is disconnected , Jordan calls Leah back , a decision that later costs Leah her life , as the ringing phone gives her location away to the intruder . Jordan attempts to dissuade him from going further over the phone . He responds " It 's already done " and hangs up , leaving her distraught . The next day , Jordan sees a television report confirming that Leah has been murdered . Emotionally affected by the incident , Jordan tells her boyfriend , Officer Paul Phillips ( Morris Chestnut ) , that she can no longer handle field calls .
Six months later , she is working as a trainer for 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 operators . Simultaneously , teenager Casey Welson ( Breslin ) is kidnapped from a mall parking garage after parting with her friend , Autumn , and forced into the trunk of a car . Casey had taken Autumn 's disposable phone , and uses it to call 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 . A rookie operator ( Jenna Lamia ) receives the call but is unable to handle it , prompting Jordan to take over , though Casey 's use of a disposable phone means that her exact GPS location cannot be found . While the kidnapper drives , Jordan guides Casey through knocking out a tail light and signaling people in nearby cars . One woman who sees Casey waving her arm out of the trunk of the car calls 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 , allowing the police to narrow their search . When Casey tells Jordan that there are cans of paint in the trunk , Jordan has Casey pour the paint out of the taillight hole , attracting the attention of another motorist , Alan Denado ( Michael Imperioli ) but the kidnapper knocks him out with a shovel , assuming him to be dead and stuffs Alan in the trunk with Casey . He reawakens in the trunk and begins screaming uncontrollably , which causes the kidnapper to stab him . He stops at a gas station where Casey gets an idea to crawl out of the trunk and scream at an active worker for help . The worker attempts to bust the door open , but the kidnapper sprays him with gasoline and throws a lighter at him .
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one @-@ reel length of 1 @,@ 200 feet of film strip , featuring about 150 scenes . Florey said it featured the same number of angles as full @-@ length feature films of the time . Although the film was carefully edited to be synchronized with Rhapsody in Blue , much of the original lyrical quality has been lost in shortened and modified versions of the film .
= = Themes and interpretations = =
The film serves as a satire of the social conditions , dominant practices , and ideologies of Hollywood , as well as the film industry 's perceived mistreatment of actors . Filmmaking was becoming more expensive and requiring larger technical resources , particularly with the rise of sound production , making it increasingly difficult for amateur filmmakers to enter the profession . This deepened a divide between amateurs and Hollywood professionals , and as a result , a growing number of amateurs started lampooning Hollywood in their films , including A Hollywood Extra . The subject of the film is an extra who starts his Hollywood career with hopes and dreams , but ultimately finds himself used and discarded by the industry , and his artistic ambitions destroyed . At the start of the film , the protagonist has a name ( Mr. Jones ) and a letter of recommendation outlining his talents , but his abilities are ignored and he is reduced to a number , symbolizing his dehumanization .
The movie star served as an illustration of hero worship in American culture , and the painted masks he dons represent his performances . Actors and spectators alike are portrayed as unintelligent automatons , their mouths yapping senselessly as they respond to Hollywood films and to hand signals from film directors . One scene repeatedly loops the same shot of a man climbing a flight of stairs with the word " SUCCESS " atop it , representing the actors ' vain attempts to find fulfillment and advancement in his career . Film historians William Moritz and David E. James have compared this to a similar scene involving a washerwoman in the Dadaist post @-@ Cubist film Ballet Mécanique ( 1924 ) . Other segments in the A Hollywood Extra are also frequently repeated , like views of the city lights , and shots of " Hollywood " and " No Casting " signs . This further exemplifies the protagonist 's constant struggle to succeed in Hollywood .
The film 's abrupt cuts , artificial scenery , extreme close @-@ ups , and twisted angles all metaphorically amplify the dark and somber narrative . Shots of film producers and critics in A Hollywood Extra are shot from low angles with dark backdrops , giving the characters a powerful and foreboding ambiance . Gregg Toland would make use of similar camera techniques in his later work on Citizen Kane . Due to the lighting , close @-@ ups of the actors ' faces are often shadowed , shrouding some of their features and depriving the characters of wholeness . The all @-@ black backdrops in these close @-@ ups also derive the film of a real @-@ world presence . During a scene in which the protagonist await phone calls to learn about casting decisions , the image of a telephone is superimposed directly onto the actor 's forehead , symbolizing his growing obsession with finding work . His failure to achieve success mocks him even after his death , as the words " No Casting Today " appear next to his gravestone . His death is symbolized by a pair of scissors cutting a film strip .
While the film portrays the reality of the protagonist 's experience in an expressionistic style , the glamour of Hollywood is portrayed more objectively . In reversing these conventional expectations , however , the film invites the viewer to interpret this version of Hollywood as merely " the material of dreams " and " an unreal paradise of cruelty and failure " , according to Taves . Scenes on the streets of Hollywood are filmed with a wildly moving camera from tilted angles , and edited into rapid juxtapositions , to reflect the false and excessive nature of the Hollywood film industry . The protagonist 's ascension to heaven at the end of the film serves simultaneously as a fitting conclusion to the story , and as a satire of Hollywood 's desire for traditional happy endings . As he ascends , heaven is located in the opposite direction from Hollywood , another jab at the industry . James wrote that the vision of heaven as an escape from the film industry 's brutality " figures the avant @-@ garde 's recurrent utopian aspirations " .
The film also touches upon Hollywood 's perceived mistreatment of women . While the male actors wear masks , which symbolize their ability to act , the female Extra # 13 does not wear any and is instead expected to simply stand obediently and listen to the male filmmakers . Her only role is to be an object for men to look upon . The fact that she is able to achieve success by filling this simple role , contrasted against the protagonist 's inability to succeed despite his hard work , reveals how differently the film industry views the roles of male and female actors .
= = Release = =
Although most commonly known by its proper title , The Life and Death of 9413 : a Hollywood Extra has also been released and advertised under different titles at various times , including Hollywood Extra 9413 , and $ 97 , a reference to the film 's low budget . Other titles include The Rhapsody of Hollywood , a name suggested by comic actor and filmmaker Charlie Chaplin , and The Suicide of a Hollywood Extra , a misnomer created by the distributor , FBO Pictures Corporation . While many experimental films from the period were simply screened in the filmmakers ' homes for private audiences of families and friends , A Hollywood Extra received a wide public exhibition . Upon its release , Florey described the film this way :
Sources differ on when and where the film premiered . According to film critic Daniel Eagan , Florey premiered the film in a movie club in Los Angeles , while film writer Anthony Slide wrote that it opened at New York City 's Cameo Theatre on June 17 , 1928 . However , David E. James said the film had its true premiere at Charlie Chaplin 's villa in Beverly Hills , California . Chaplin , who by this time was disenchanted with many aspects of Hollywood filmmaking , was so impressed with the film that he watched it five times , and then screened it for guests at his home . This audience included elites from the film industry , including Douglas Fairbanks , John Considine , Harry d 'Arrast , D. W. Griffith , Jesse L. Lasky , Ernst Lubitsch , Lewis Milestone , Mary Pickford , Joseph M. Schenck , Norma Talmadge , Josef von Sternberg , and King Vidor . The screening was accompanied by a record of Rhapsody in Blue , as well as Chaplin himself playing the organ . Florey was so fearful of a negative reaction due to the film 's satire of Hollywood that he removed his name from the credits and hid in the projection room during the screening . While the audience originally expected it to be one of Chaplin 's gags , they were very impressed with the film , and Schenck arranged for it to be shown on a United Artists Theater on Broadway starting on March 21 , 1928 . A special musical score , based on Rhapsody in Blue , was prepared by Hugo Riesenfeld for the showing , which was played by a live orchestra , and made heavy use of the saxophone . With a presentation usually reserved for bigger budget films , it played twice nightly along with the Gloria Swanson film Sadie Thompson , and was billed as " the first of the impressionistic photoplays to be made in America " .
The film was heavily publicized , which many of the media reports emphasizing its low budget of $ 97 . It achieved enough fame to become picked up for distribution by FBO Pictures Corporation , which eventually became RKO Pictures through a merger . The company released the film to more than 700 theaters in North America and Europe . In North America , it was shown not only in New York and Hollywood , but also in the Philadelphia , Cleveland , Montreal , and Washington , D.C. areas . It played in Philadelphia along with Prem Sanyas ( 1925 ) , but it generated more praise than the main attraction film and earned $ 32 in a single week . A Hollywood Extra became one of the first widely @-@ seen American avant @-@ garde films , not only in the United States but also throughout the Soviet Union and Europe , including England , France , Germany , and Italy . The French rights for the film , along with Florey 's The Love of Zero ( 1928 ) , were sold for $ 390 .
Though the film was made in opposition to classical style , it was embraced by those within the Hollywood industry , and ultimately helped Florey , Vorkapić , and Toland get more prestigious assignments within the film industry . Vorapich was offered a special effects position at Paramount Pictures shortly after A Hollywood Extra was released . Paramount wanted to hire Florey for the position , but after Josef von Sternberg clarified that Vorkapić was most responsible for A Hollywood Extra 's special effects , they made the offer to him . Film production designer William Cameron Menzies was anxious to work with Florey after watching A Hollywood Extra , so the two co @-@ authored The Love of Zero , with Florey directing and Menzies designing the sets .
= = Reception = =
The film was well received by critics , both in its time period and in modern day . One reviewer said it ranked in cinema " where Gertrude Stein ranks in poetry " , while another praised Florey as " the Eugene O 'Neill of the cinema " . A 1929 edition of Movie Makers , the official publication of the Amateur Cinema League , called it a triumph of amateur experimentation and imaginative use of limited resources . In a separate Movie Makers article , Herman G. Weinberg called the scenery " a fantastically beautiful vision of a dream metropolis , done in the expressionistic manner , but done with a fine eye for the camera and the context of the piece " . C. Adolph Glassgold , contributing editor for the journal The Arts , called it " a truly tremendous picture " and said Florey could become " the eventual leader of cinematic art " . He added : " It has movement , tempo , form , intensity of feeling , highly dramatic moments ; in short , it is a real motion picture . " In a Film Mercury review , Anabel Lane predicted Florey would " one day hold a position of one of the bigger film directors " , and said of the film : " If this production had been made in Europe and heralded as a hit , it would ... have been called a masterpiece . " One reviewer from Variety even speculated as to whether A Hollywood Extra was " an unannounced foreign @-@ made short " given how similar in style it was to European art films . Film director Henry King praised the film as " way ahead of its time " and " a stroke of genius " , declaring : " It was the most original thought I ever saw " .
It has also been acclaimed by modern @-@ day film historians and critics , and has often been included in lists of the most prominent experimental films . Brian Taves called it a " landmark " of avant @-@ garde film , and said : " A Hollywood Extra was something entirely new , in both style and substance ; more than any other American film , it initiated the avant @-@ garde in this country . " Film historian William Moritz called it " a genuine little masterpiece " , and " perhaps the most famous American experimental film of the 1920s " . Hye Seung Chung , a film professor at Colorado State University , called the film an " early American avant @-@ garde masterpiece " and described Florey as " one of the most undeservingly neglected B film auteurs " . David E. James called it the " prototypical 20th @-@ century avant @-@ garde film " , and wrote that A Hollywood Extra 's successful commercial distribution indicates experimental films were acceptable among a popular audience during its time period , " rather than only an elite or mandarin audience " . Director and author Lewis Jacobs wrote : " Its style , broad and impressionistic , disclosed a remarkable sensitivity and resourcefulness in the use of props , painting , camera , and editing . "
The entirety of the original A Hollywood Extra has not survived . In 1997 , the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " . The film has been restored and released on two DVD collections : Unseen Cinema : Early American Avant Garde Film 1894 – 1941 , by Image Entertainment , and Avant @-@ Garde : Experimental Cinema of the 1920s and 1930s , by Kino International . In 1996 , the BFI commissioned composer David Sawer to write a score for the film . It and first performed by the Matrix Ensemble , conducted by Robert Ziegler . The work , called Hollywood Extra , is scored for eight musicians and was published by Universal Edition .
= = Remake = =
The Life and Death of 9413 : a Hollywood Extra was adapted into a remake called Hollywood Boulevard ( 1936 ) , which was co @-@ written and directed by Florey . Like in the original film , the remake 's central character is an actor seeking a job in Hollywood , who is subjected to the cruelties of the film industry and the whims of studio executives and film producers . Hollywood Boulevard also includes some visual similarities to the original film , such as unusual angles to reflect the disordered nature of Hollywood . However , the remake includes several subplots that lengthen the running time of the film and make it more attractive to mass audiences , which Brian Taves said " tend ( s ) to diminish the importance of the central characterization , depriving Hollywood Boulevard of the singleness of purpose that made A Hollywood Extra so unforgettable " .
= Global warming =
Global warming and climate change are terms for the observed century @-@ scale rise in the average temperature of the Earth 's climate system and its related effects . Multiple lines of scientific evidence show that the climate system is warming . Although the increase of near @-@ surface atmospheric temperature is the measure of global warming often reported in the popular press , most of the additional energy stored in the climate system since 1970 has gone into ocean warming . The remainder has melted ice and warmed the continents and atmosphere . Many of the observed changes since the 1950s are unprecedented over tens to thousands of years .
Scientific understanding of global warming is increasing . The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) reported in 2014 that scientists were more than 95 % certain that global warming is mostly being caused by human ( anthropogenic ) activities , mainly increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) . Human @-@ made carbon dioxide continues to increase above levels not seen in hundreds of thousands of years : currently , about half of the carbon dioxide released from the burning of fossil fuels is not absorbed by vegetation and the oceans and remains in the atmosphere . Climate model projections summarized in the report indicated that during the 21st century the global surface temperature is likely to rise a further 0 @.@ 3 to 1 @.@ 7 ° C ( 0 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 1 ° F ) for their lowest emissions scenario using stringent mitigation and 2 @.@ 6 to 4 @.@ 8 ° C ( 4 @.@ 7 to 8 @.@ 6 ° F ) for their highest . These findings have been recognized by the national science academies of the major industrialized nations and are not disputed by any scientific body of national or international standing .
Future climate change and associated impacts will differ from region to region around the globe . Anticipated effects include warming global temperature , rising sea levels , changing precipitation , and expansion of deserts in the subtropics . Warming is expected to be greater over land than over the oceans and greatest in the Arctic , with the continuing retreat of glaciers , permafrost and sea ice . Other likely changes include more frequent extreme weather events including heat waves , droughts , heavy rainfall with floods and heavy snowfall ; ocean acidification ; and species extinctions due to shifting temperature regimes . Effects significant to humans include the threat to food security from decreasing crop yields and the abandonment of populated areas due to rising sea levels . Because the climate system has a large " inertia " and CO2 will stay in the atmosphere for a long time , many of these effects will not only exist for decades or centuries , but will persist for tens of thousands of years .
Possible societal responses to global warming include mitigation by emissions reduction , adaptation to its effects , building systems resilient to its effects , and possible future climate engineering . Most countries are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , whose ultimate objective is to prevent dangerous anthropogenic climate change . The UNFCCC have adopted a range of policies designed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and to assist in adaptation to global warming . Parties to the UNFCCC had agreed that deep cuts in emissions are required and as first target the future global warming should be limited to below 2 @.@ 0 ° C ( 3 @.@ 6 ° F ) relative to the pre @-@ industrial level , while the Paris Agreement of 2015 stated that the parties will also " pursue efforts to " limit the temperature increase to 1 @.@ 5 ° F ( 0 @.@ 8 ° C ) .
Public reactions to global warming and general fears of its effects are also steadily on the rise , with a global 2015 Pew Research Center report showing a median of 54 % who consider it " a very serious problem " . There are , however , significant regional differences . Notably , Americans and Chinese , whose economies are responsible for the greatest annual CO2 emissions , are among the least concerned .
= = Observed temperature changes = =
The global average ( land and ocean ) surface temperature shows a warming of 0 @.@ 85 [ 0 @.@ 65 to 1 @.@ 06 ] ° C in the period 1880 to 2012 , based on multiple independently produced datasets . Earth 's average surface temperature rose by 0 @.@ 74 ± 0 @.@ 18 ° C over the period 1906 – 2005 . The rate of warming almost doubled for the last half of that period ( 0 @.@ 13 ± 0 @.@ 03 ° C per decade , versus 0 @.@ 07 ± 0 @.@ 02 ° C per decade ) .
The average temperature of the lower troposphere has increased between 0 @.@ 13 and 0 @.@ 22 ° C ( 0 @.@ 23 and 0 @.@ 40 ° F ) per decade since 1979 , according to satellite temperature measurements . Climate proxies show the temperature to have been relatively stable over the one or two thousand years before 1850 , with regionally varying fluctuations such as the Medieval Warm Period and the Little Ice Age .
The warming that is evident in the instrumental temperature record is consistent with a wide range of observations , as documented by many independent scientific groups . Examples include sea level rise , widespread melting of snow and land ice , increased heat content of the oceans , increased humidity , and the earlier timing of spring events , e.g. , the flowering of plants . The probability that these changes could have occurred by chance is virtually zero .
= = = Trends = = =
Temperature changes vary over the globe . Since 1979 , land temperatures have increased about twice as fast as ocean temperatures ( 0 @.@ 25 ° C per decade against 0 @.@ 13 ° C per decade ) . Ocean temperatures increase more slowly than land temperatures because of the larger effective heat capacity of the oceans and because the ocean loses more heat by evaporation . Since the beginning of industrialisation the temperature difference between the hemispheres has increased due to melting of sea ice and snow in the North . Average arctic temperatures have been increasing at almost twice the rate of the rest of the world in the past 100 years ; however arctic temperatures are also highly variable . Although more greenhouse gases are emitted in the Northern than Southern Hemisphere this does not contribute to the difference in warming because the major greenhouse gases persist long enough to mix between hemispheres .
The thermal inertia of the oceans and slow responses of other indirect effects mean that climate can take centuries or longer to adjust to changes in forcing . Climate commitment studies indicate that even if greenhouse gases were stabilized at year 2000 levels , a further warming of about 0 @.@ 5 ° C ( 0 @.@ 9 ° F ) would still occur .
Global temperature is subject to short @-@ term fluctuations that overlay long @-@ term trends and can temporarily mask them . The relative stability in surface temperature from 2002 to 2009 , which has been dubbed the global warming hiatus by the media and some scientists , is consistent with such an episode . 2015 updates to account for differing methods of measuring ocean surface temperature measurements show a positive trend over the recent decade .
= = = Warmest years = = =
15 of the top 16 warmest years have occurred since 2000 . While record @-@ breaking years can attract considerable public interest , individual years are less significant than the overall trend . So some climatologists have criticized the attention that the popular press gives to " warmest year " statistics ; for example , Gavin Schmidt stated " the long @-@ term trends or the expected sequence of records are far more important than whether any single year is a record or not . "
2015 was not only the warmest year on record , it broke the record by the largest margin by which the record has been broken . 2015 was the 39th consecutive year with above @-@ average temperatures . Ocean oscillations like El Niño Southern Oscillation ( ENSO ) can affect global average temperatures , for example , 1998 temperatures were significantly enhanced by strong El Niño conditions . 1998 remained the warmest year until 2005 and 2010 and the temperature of both of these years was enhanced by El Niño periods . The large margin by which 2015 is the warmest year is also attributed to another strong El Niño . However , 2014 was ENSO neutral . According to NOAA and NASA , 2015 had the warmest respective months on record for 10 out of the 12 months . The average temperature around the globe was 1 @.@ 62 ˚ F ( 0 @.@ 90 ˚ C ) or 20 % above the twentieth century average . In a first , December 2015 was also the first month to ever reach a temperature 2 degrees Fahrenheit above normal for the planet .
= = Initial causes of temperature changes ( external forcings ) = =
The climate system can warm or cool in response to changes in external forcings . These are " external " to the climate system but not necessarily external to Earth . Examples of external forcings include changes in atmospheric composition ( e.g. , increased concentrations of greenhouse gases ) , solar luminosity , volcanic eruptions , and variations in Earth 's orbit around the Sun .
= = = Greenhouse gases = = =
The greenhouse effect is the process by which absorption and emission of infrared radiation by gases in a planet 's atmosphere warm its lower atmosphere and surface . It was proposed by Joseph Fourier in 1824 , discovered in 1860 by John Tyndall , was first investigated quantitatively by Svante Arrhenius in 1896 , and was developed in the 1930s through 1960s by Guy Stewart Callendar .
On Earth , naturally occurring amounts of greenhouse gases cause air temperature near the surface to be about 33 ° C ( 59 ° F ) warmer than it would be in their absence . Without the Earth 's atmosphere , the Earth 's average temperature would be well below the freezing temperature of water . The major greenhouse gases are water vapor , which causes about 36 – 70 % of the greenhouse effect ; carbon dioxide ( CO2 ) , which causes 9 – 26 % ; methane ( CH4 ) , which causes 4 – 9 % ; and ozone ( O3 ) , which causes 3 – 7 % . Clouds also affect the radiation balance through cloud forcings similar to greenhouse gases .
Human activity since the Industrial Revolution has increased the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere , leading to increased radiative forcing from CO2 , methane , tropospheric ozone , CFCs and nitrous oxide . According to work published in 2007 , the concentrations of CO2 and methane have increased by 36 % and 148 % respectively since 1750 . These levels are much higher than at any time during the last 800 @,@ 000 years , the period for which reliable data has been extracted from ice cores . Less direct geological evidence indicates that CO2 values higher than this were last seen about 20 million years ago .
Fossil fuel burning has produced about three @-@ quarters of the increase in CO2 from human activity over the past 20 years . The rest of this increase is caused mostly by changes in land @-@ use , particularly deforestation . Another significant non @-@ fuel source of anthropogenic CO2 emissions is the calcination of limestone for clinker production , a chemical process which releases CO2 . Estimates of global CO2 emissions in 2011 from fossil fuel combustion , including cement production and gas flaring , was 34 @.@ 8 billion tonnes ( 9 @.@ 5 ± 0 @.@ 5 PgC ) , an increase of 54 % above emissions in 1990 . Coal burning was responsible for 43 % of the total emissions , oil 34 % , gas 18 % , cement 4 @.@ 9 % and gas flaring 0 @.@ 7 %
In May 2013 , it was reported that readings for CO2 taken at the world 's primary benchmark site in Mauna Loa surpassed 400 ppm . According to professor Brian Hoskins , this is likely the first time CO2 levels have been this high for about 4 @.@ 5 million years . Monthly global CO2 concentrations exceeded 400 ppm in March 2015 , probably for the first time in several million years . On 12 November 2015 , NASA scientists reported that human @-@ made carbon dioxide continues to increase above levels not seen in hundreds of thousands of years : currently , about half of the carbon dioxide released from the burning of fossil fuels is not absorbed by vegetation and the oceans and remains in the atmosphere .
Over the last three decades of the twentieth century , gross domestic product per capita and population growth were the main drivers of increases in greenhouse gas emissions . CO2 emissions are continuing to rise due to the burning of fossil fuels and land @-@ use change . Emissions can be attributed to different regions . Attributions of emissions due to land @-@ use change are subject to considerable uncertainty .
Emissions scenarios , estimates of changes in future emission levels of greenhouse gases , have been projected that depend upon uncertain economic , sociological , technological , and natural developments . In most scenarios , emissions continue to rise over the century , while in a few , emissions are reduced . Fossil fuel reserves are abundant , and will not limit carbon emissions in the 21st century . Emission scenarios , combined with modelling of the carbon cycle , have been used to produce estimates of how atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases might change in the future . Using the six IPCC SRES " marker " scenarios , models suggest that by the year 2100 , the atmospheric concentration of CO2 could range between 541 and 970 ppm . This is 90 – 250 % above the concentration in the year 1750 .
The popular media and the public often confuse global warming with ozone depletion , i.e. , the destruction of stratospheric ozone ( e.g. , the ozone layer ) by chlorofluorocarbons . Although there are a few areas of linkage , the relationship between the two is not strong . Reduced stratospheric ozone has had a slight cooling influence on surface temperatures , while increased tropospheric ozone has had a somewhat larger warming effect .
= = = Aerosols and soot = = =
Global dimming , a gradual reduction in the amount of global direct irradiance at the Earth 's surface , was observed from 1961 until at least 1990 . Solid and liquid particles known as aerosols , produced by volcanoes and human @-@ made pollutants , are thought to be the main cause of this dimming . They exert a cooling effect by increasing the reflection of incoming sunlight . The effects of the products of fossil fuel combustion – CO2 and aerosols – have partially offset one another in recent decades , so that net warming has been due to the increase in non @-@ CO2 greenhouse gases such as methane . Radiative forcing due to aerosols is temporally limited due to the processes that remove aerosols from the atmosphere . Removal by clouds and precipitation gives tropospheric aerosols an atmospheric lifetime of only about a week , while stratospheric aerosols can remain for a few years . Carbon dioxide has a lifetime of a century or more , and as such , changes in aerosols will only delay climate changes due to carbon dioxide . Black carbon is second only to carbon dioxide for its contribution to global warming .
In addition to their direct effect by scattering and absorbing solar radiation , aerosols have indirect effects on the Earth 's radiation budget . Sulfate aerosols act as cloud condensation nuclei and thus lead to clouds that have more and smaller cloud droplets . These clouds reflect solar radiation more efficiently than clouds with fewer and larger droplets , a phenomenon known as the Twomey effect . This effect also causes droplets to be of more uniform size , which reduces growth of raindrops and makes the cloud more reflective to incoming sunlight , known as the Albrecht effect . Indirect effects are most noticeable in marine stratiform clouds , and have very little radiative effect on convective clouds . Indirect effects of aerosols represent the largest uncertainty in radiative forcing .
Soot may either cool or warm Earth 's climate system , depending on whether it is airborne or deposited . Atmospheric soot directly absorbs solar radiation , which heats the atmosphere and cools the surface . In isolated areas with high soot production , such as rural India , as much as 50 % of surface warming due to greenhouse gases may be masked by atmospheric brown clouds . When deposited , especially on glaciers or on ice in arctic regions , the lower surface albedo can also directly heat the surface . The influences of atmospheric particles , including black carbon , are most pronounced in the tropics and sub @-@ tropics , particularly in Asia , while the effects of greenhouse gases are dominant in the extratropics and southern hemisphere .
= = = Solar activity = = =
Since 1978 , solar irradiance has been measured by satellites . These measurements indicate that the Sun 's radiative output has not increased since 1978 , so the warming during the past 30 years cannot be attributed to an increase in solar energy reaching the Earth .
Climate models have been used to examine the role of the Sun in recent climate change . Models are unable to reproduce the rapid warming observed in recent decades when they only take into account variations in solar output and volcanic activity . Models are , however , able to simulate the observed 20th century changes in temperature when they include all of the most important external forcings , including human influences and natural forcings .
Another line of evidence against solar variations having caused recent climate change comes from looking at how temperatures at different levels in the Earth 's atmosphere have changed . Models and observations show that greenhouse warming results in warming of the lower atmosphere ( the troposphere ) but cooling of the upper atmosphere ( the stratosphere ) . Depletion of the ozone layer by chemical refrigerants has also resulted in a strong cooling effect in the stratosphere . If solar variations were responsible for observed warming , warming of both the troposphere and stratosphere would be expected .
= = = Variations in Earth 's orbit = = =
The tilt of the Earth ’ s axis and the shape of its orbit around the Sun vary slowly over tens of thousands of years and are a natural source of climate change , by changing the seasonal and latitudinal distribution of solar insolation .
During the last few thousand years , this phenomenon contributed to a slow cooling trend at high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere during summer , a trend that was reversed by greenhouse @-@ gas @-@ induced warming during the 20th century .
Variations in orbital cycles may initiate a new glacial period in the future , though the timing of this depends on greenhouse gas concentrations as well as the orbital forcing . A new glacial period is not expected within the next 50 @,@ 000 years if atmospheric CO2 concentration remains above 300 ppm .
= = Feedback = =
The climate system includes a range of feedbacks , which alter the response of the system to changes in external forcings . Positive feedbacks increase the response of the climate system to an initial forcing , while negative feedbacks reduce it .
There are a range of feedbacks in the climate system , including water vapor , changes in ice @-@ albedo ( snow and ice cover affect how much the Earth 's surface absorbs or reflects incoming sunlight ) , clouds , and changes in the Earth 's carbon cycle ( e.g. , the release of carbon from soil ) . The main negative feedback is the energy the Earth 's surface radiates into space as infrared radiation . According to the Stefan @-@ Boltzmann law , if the absolute temperature ( as measured in kelvin ) doubles , radiated energy increases by a factor of 16 ( 2 to the 4th power ) .
Feedbacks are an important factor in determining the sensitivity of the climate system to increased atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations . Other factors being equal , a higher climate sensitivity means that more warming will occur for a given increase in greenhouse gas forcing . Uncertainty over the effect of feedbacks is a major reason why different climate models project different magnitudes of warming for a given forcing scenario . More research is needed to understand the role of clouds and carbon cycle feedbacks in climate projections .
The IPCC projections previously mentioned span the " likely " range ( greater than 66 % probability , based on expert judgement ) for the selected emissions scenarios . However , the IPCC 's projections do not reflect the full range of uncertainty . The lower end of the " likely " range appears to be better constrained than the upper end .
= = Climate models = =
A climate model is a representation of the physical , chemical and biological processes that affect the climate system . Such models are based on scientific disciplines such as fluid dynamics and thermodynamics as well as physical processes such as radiative transfer . The models may be used to predict a range of variables such as local air movement , temperature , clouds , and other atmospheric properties ; ocean temperature , salt content , and circulation ; ice cover on land and sea ; the transfer of heat and moisture from soil and vegetation to the atmosphere ; and chemical and biological processes , among others .
Although researchers attempt to include as many processes as possible , simplifications of the actual climate system are inevitable because of the constraints of available computer power and limitations in knowledge of the climate system . Results from models can also vary due to different greenhouse gas inputs and the model 's climate sensitivity . For example , the uncertainty in IPCC 's 2007 projections is caused by ( 1 ) the use of multiple models with differing sensitivity to greenhouse gas concentrations , ( 2 ) the use of differing estimates of humanity 's future greenhouse gas emissions , ( 3 ) any additional emissions from climate feedbacks that were not included in the models IPCC used to prepare its report , i.e. , greenhouse gas releases from permafrost .
The models do not assume the climate will warm due to increasing levels of greenhouse gases . Instead the models predict how greenhouse gases will interact with radiative transfer and other physical processes . Warming or cooling is thus a result , not an assumption , of the models .
Clouds and their effects are especially difficult to predict . Improving the models ' representation of clouds is therefore an important topic in current research . Another prominent research topic is expanding and improving representations of the carbon cycle .
Models are also used to help investigate the causes of recent climate change by comparing the observed changes to those that the models project from various natural and human causes . Although these models do not unambiguously attribute the warming that occurred from approximately 1910 to 1945 to either natural variation or human effects , they do indicate that the warming since 1970 is dominated by anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions .
The physical realism of models is tested by examining their ability to simulate contemporary or past climates . Climate models produce a good match to observations of global temperature changes over the last century , but do not simulate all aspects of climate . Not all effects of global warming are accurately predicted by the climate models used by the IPCC . Observed Arctic shrinkage has been faster than that predicted . Precipitation increased proportionally to atmospheric humidity , and hence significantly faster than global climate models predict . Since 1990 , sea level has also risen considerably faster than models predicted it would .
= = Observed and expected environmental effects = =
Anthropogenic forcing has likely contributed to some of the observed changes , including sea level rise , changes in climate extremes ( such as the number of warm and cold days ) , declines in Arctic sea ice extent , glacier retreat , and greening of the Sahara .
During the 21st century , glaciers and snow cover are projected to continue their widespread retreat . Projections of declines in Arctic sea ice vary . Recent projections suggest that Arctic summers could be ice @-@ free ( defined as ice extent less than 1 million square km ) as early as 2025 @-@ 2030 .
" Detection " is the process of demonstrating that climate has changed in some defined statistical sense , without providing a reason for that change . Detection does not imply attribution of the detected change to a particular cause . " Attribution " of causes of climate change is the process of establishing the most likely causes for the detected change with some defined level of confidence . Detection and attribution may also be applied to observed changes in physical , ecological and social systems .
= = = Extreme weather = = =
Changes in regional climate are expected to include greater warming over land , with most warming at high northern latitudes , and least warming over the Southern Ocean and parts of the North Atlantic Ocean .
Future changes in precipitation are expected to follow existing trends , with reduced precipitation over subtropical land areas , and increased precipitation at subpolar latitudes and some equatorial regions . Projections suggest a probable increase in the frequency and severity of some extreme weather events , such as heat waves .
A 2015 study published in Nature Climate Change , states :
Data analysis of extreme events from 1960 till 2010 suggests that droughts and heat waves appear simultaneously with increased frequency . Extremely wet or dry events within the monsoon period have increased since 1980 .
= = = Sea level rise = = =
The sea level rise since 1993 has been estimated to have been on average 2 @.@ 6 mm and 2 @.@ 9 mm per year ± 0 @.@ 4 mm . Additionally , sea level rise has accelerated from 1995 to 2015 . Over the 21st century , the IPCC projects for a high emissions scenario , that global mean sea level could rise by 52 – 98 cm . The IPCC 's projections are conservative , and may underestimate future sea level rise . Other estimates suggest that for the same period , global mean sea level could rise by 0 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 0 m ( 0 @.@ 7 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) , relative to mean sea level in 1992 .
Widespread coastal flooding would be expected if several degrees of warming is sustained for millennia . For example , sustained global warming of more than 2 ° C ( relative to pre @-@ industrial levels ) could lead to eventual sea level rise of around 1 to 4 m due to thermal expansion of sea water and the melting of glaciers and small ice caps . Melting of the Greenland ice sheet could contribute an additional 4 to 7 @.@ 5 m over many thousands of years . It has been estimated that we are already committed to a sea @-@ level rise of approximately 2 @.@ 3 meters for each degree of temperature rise within the next 2 @,@ 000 years .
Warming beyond the 2 ° C target would potentially lead to rates of sea @-@ level rise dominated by ice loss from Antarctica . Continued CO2 emissions from fossil sources could cause additional tens of meters of sea level rise , over the next millennia and eventually ultimately eliminate the entire Antarctic ice sheet , causing about 58 meters of sea level rise .
= = = Ecological systems = = =
In terrestrial ecosystems , the earlier timing of spring events , as well as poleward and upward shifts in plant and animal ranges , have been linked with high confidence to recent warming . Future climate change is expected to affect particular ecosystems , including tundra , mangroves , and coral reefs . It is expected that most ecosystems will be affected by higher atmospheric CO2 levels , combined with higher global temperatures . Overall , it is expected that climate change will result in the extinction of many species and reduced diversity of ecosystems .
Increases in atmospheric CO2 concentrations have led to an increase in ocean acidity . Dissolved CO2 increases ocean acidity , measured by lower pH values . Between 1750 and 2000 , surface @-@ ocean pH has decreased by ≈ 0 @.@ 1 , from ≈ 8 @.@ 2 to ≈ 8 @.@ 1 . Surface @-@ ocean pH has probably not been below ≈ 8 @.@ 1 during the past 2 million years . Projections suggest that surface @-@ ocean pH could decrease by an additional 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 4 units by 2100 . Future ocean acidification could threaten coral reefs , fisheries , protected species , and other natural resources of value to society .
Ocean deoxygenation is projected to increase hypoxia by 10 % , and triple suboxic waters ( oxygen concentrations 98 % less than the mean surface concentrations ) , for each 1 ° C of upper ocean warming .
= = = Long @-@ term effects = = =
On the timescale of centuries to millennia , the magnitude of global warming will be determined primarily by anthropogenic CO2 emissions . This is due to carbon dioxide 's very long lifetime in the atmosphere .
Stabilizing the global average temperature would require large reductions in CO2 emissions , as well as reductions in emissions of other greenhouse gases such as methane and nitrous oxide . Emissions of CO2 would need to be reduced by more than 80 % relative to their peak level . Even if this were achieved , global average temperatures would remain close to their highest level for many centuries .
Long @-@ term effects also include a response from the Earth 's crust , due to ice melting and deglaciation , in a process called post @-@ glacial rebound , when land masses are no longer depressed by the weight of ice . This could lead to landslides and increased seismic and volcanic activities . Tsunamis could be generated by submarine landslides caused by warmer ocean water thawing ocean @-@ floor permafrost or releasing gas hydrates . Some world regions , such as the French Alps , already show signs of an increase in landslide frequency .
= = = Large @-@ scale and abrupt impacts = = =
Climate change could result in global , large @-@ scale changes in natural and social systems . Examples include the possibility for the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation to slow- or shutdown , which in the instance of a shutdown would change weather in Europe and North America considerably , ocean acidification caused by increased atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide , and the long @-@ term melting of ice sheets , which contributes to sea level rise .
Some large @-@ scale changes could occur abruptly , i.e. , over a short time period , and might also be irreversible . Examples of abrupt climate change are the rapid release of methane and carbon dioxide from permafrost , which would lead to amplified global warming , or the shutdown of thermohaline circulation . Scientific understanding of abrupt climate change is generally poor . The probability of abrupt change for some climate related feedbacks may be low . Factors that may increase the probability of abrupt climate change include higher magnitudes of global warming , warming that occurs more rapidly , and warming that is sustained over longer time periods .
= = Observed and expected effects on social systems = =
The effects of climate change on human systems , mostly due to warming or shifts in precipitation patterns , or both , have been detected worldwide . Production of wheat and maize globally has been impacted by climate change . While crop production has increased in some mid @-@ latitude regions such as the UK and Northeast China , economic losses due to extreme weather events have increased globally . There has been a shift from cold- to heat @-@ related mortality in some regions as a result of warming . Livelihoods of indigenous peoples of the Arctic have been altered by climate change , and there is emerging evidence of climate change impacts on livelihoods of indigenous peoples in other regions . Regional impacts of climate change are now observable at more locations than before , on all continents and across ocean regions .
The future social impacts of climate change will be uneven . Many risks are expected to increase with higher magnitudes of global warming . All regions are at risk of experiencing negative impacts . Low @-@ latitude , less developed areas face the greatest risk . A study from 2015 concluded that economic growth ( gross domestic product ) of poorer countries is much more impaired with projected future climate warming , than previously thought .
A meta @-@ analysis of 56 studies concluded in 2014 that each degree of temperature rise will increase violence by up to 20 % , which includes fist fights , violent crimes , civil unrest or wars .
Examples of impacts include :
Food : Crop production will probably be negatively affected in low latitude countries , while effects at northern latitudes may be positive or negative . Global warming of around 4 @.@ 6 ° C relative to pre @-@ industrial levels could pose a large risk to global and regional food security .
Health : Generally impacts will be more negative than positive . Impacts include : the effects of extreme weather , leading to injury and loss of life ; and indirect effects , such as undernutrition brought on by crop failures .
= = = Habitat inundation = = =
In small islands and mega deltas , inundation as a result of sea level rise is expected to threaten vital infrastructure and human settlements . This could lead to issues of homelessness in countries with low @-@ lying areas such as Bangladesh , as well as statelessness for populations in countries such as the Maldives and Tuvalu .
= = = Economy = = =
Estimates based on the IPCC A1B emission scenario from additional CO2 and CH4 greenhouse gases released from permafrost , estimate associated impact damages by US $ 43 trillion .
= = = Infrastructure = = =
Continued permafrost degradation will likely result in unstable infrastructure in Arctic regions , or Alaska before 2100 . Thus , impacting roads , pipelines and buildings , as well as water distribution , and cause slope failures .
= = Possible responses to global warming = =
= = = Mitigation = = =
Mitigation of climate change are actions to reduce greenhouse gas emissions , or enhance the capacity of carbon sinks to absorb GHGs from the atmosphere . There is a large potential for future reductions in emissions by a combination of activities , including : energy conservation and increased energy efficiency ; the use of low @-@ carbon energy technologies , such as renewable energy , nuclear energy , and carbon capture and storage ; and enhancing carbon sinks through , for example , reforestation and preventing deforestation . A 2015 report by Citibank concluded that transitioning to a low carbon economy would yield positive return on investments .
Near- and long @-@ term trends in the global energy system are inconsistent with limiting global warming at below 1 @.@ 5 or 2 ° C , relative to pre @-@ industrial levels . Pledges made as part of the Cancún agreements are broadly consistent with having a likely chance ( 66 to 100 % probability ) of limiting global warming ( in the 21st century ) at below 3 ° C , relative to pre @-@ industrial levels .
In limiting warming at below 2 ° C , more stringent emission reductions in the near @-@ term would allow for less rapid reductions after 2030 . Many integrated models are unable to meet the 2 ° C target if pessimistic assumptions are made about the availability of mitigation technologies .
= = = Adaptation = = =
Other policy responses include adaptation to climate change . Adaptation to climate change may be planned , either in reaction to or anticipation of climate change , or spontaneous , i.e. , without government intervention . Planned adaptation is already occurring on a limited basis . The barriers , limits , and costs of future adaptation are not fully understood .
A concept related to adaptation is adaptive capacity , which is the ability of a system ( human , natural or managed ) to adjust to climate change ( including climate variability and extremes ) to moderate potential damages , to take advantage of opportunities , or to cope with consequences . Unmitigated climate change ( i.e. , future climate change without efforts to limit greenhouse gas emissions ) would , in the long term , be likely to exceed the capacity of natural , managed and human systems to adapt .
Environmental organizations and public figures have emphasized changes in the climate and the risks they entail , while promoting adaptation to changes in infrastructural needs and emissions reductions .
= = = Climate engineering = = =
Climate engineering ( sometimes called geoengineering or climate intervention ) is the deliberate modification of the climate . It has been investigated as a possible response to global warming , e.g. by NASA and the Royal Society . Techniques under research fall generally into the categories solar radiation management and carbon dioxide removal , although various other schemes have been suggested . A study from 2014 investigated the most common climate engineering methods and concluded they are either ineffective or have potentially severe side effects and cannot be stopped without causing rapid climate change .
= = Discourse about global warming = =
= = = Political discussion = = =
Most countries in the world are parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) . The ultimate objective of the Convention is to prevent dangerous human interference of the climate system . As stated in the Convention , this requires that GHG concentrations are stabilized in the atmosphere at a level where ecosystems can adapt naturally to climate change , food production is not threatened , and economic development can proceed in a sustainable fashion . The Framework Convention was agreed in 1992 , but since then , global emissions have risen .
During negotiations , the G77 ( a lobbying group in the United Nations representing 133 developing nations ) pushed for a mandate requiring developed countries to " [ take ] the lead " in reducing their emissions . This was justified on the basis that : the developed world 's emissions had contributed most to the cumulation of GHGs in the atmosphere ; per @-@ capita emissions ( i.e. , emissions per head of population ) were still relatively low in developing countries ; and the emissions of developing countries would grow to meet their development needs .
This mandate was sustained in the Kyoto Protocol to the Framework Convention , which entered into legal effect in 2005 . In ratifying the Kyoto Protocol , most developed countries accepted legally binding commitments to limit their emissions . These first @-@ round commitments expired in 2012 . United States President George W. Bush rejected the treaty on the basis that " it exempts 80 % of the world , including major population centers such as China and India , from compliance , and would cause serious harm to the US economy . "
At the 15th UNFCCC Conference of the Parties , held in 2009 at Copenhagen , several UNFCCC Parties produced the Copenhagen Accord . Parties associated with the Accord ( 140 countries , as of November 2010 ) aim to limit the future increase in global mean temperature to below 2 ° C. The 16th Conference of the Parties ( COP16 ) was held at Cancún in 2010 . It produced an agreement , not a binding treaty , that the Parties should take urgent action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to meet a goal of limiting global warming to 2 ° C above pre @-@ industrial temperatures . It also recognized the need to consider strengthening the goal to a global average rise of 1 @.@ 5 ° C.
= = = Scientific discussion = = =
There is continuing discussion through published peer @-@ reviewed scientific papers , which are assessed by scientists working in the relevant fields taking part in the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change . The scientific consensus as of 2013 stated in the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report is that it " is extremely likely that human influence has been the dominant cause of the observed warming since the mid @-@ 20th century " . A 2008 report by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences stated that most scientists by then agreed that observed warming in recent decades was primarily caused by human activities increasing the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere . In 2005 the Royal Society stated that while the overwhelming majority of scientists were in agreement on the main points , some individuals and organisations opposed to the consensus on urgent action needed to reduce greenhouse gas emissions have tried to undermine the science and work of the IPCC . National science academies have called on world leaders for policies to cut global emissions .
In the scientific literature , there is a strong consensus that global surface temperatures have increased in recent decades and that the trend is caused mainly by human @-@ induced emissions of greenhouse gases . No scientific body of national or international standing disagrees with this view .
= = = Discussion by the public and in popular media = = =
The global warming controversy refers to a variety of disputes , substantially more pronounced in the popular media than in the scientific literature , regarding the nature , causes , and consequences of global warming . The disputed issues include the causes of increased global average air temperature , especially since the mid @-@ 20th century , whether this warming trend is unprecedented or within normal climatic variations , whether humankind has contributed significantly to it , and whether the increase is completely or partially an artifact of poor measurements . Additional disputes concern estimates of climate sensitivity , predictions of additional warming , and what the consequences of global warming will be .
From 1990 to 1997 , right @-@ wing conservative think tanks in the United States mobilized to challenge the legitimacy of global warming as a social problem . They challenged the scientific evidence , argued that global warming will have benefits , and asserted that proposed solutions would do more harm than good . Some people dispute aspects of climate change science . Organizations such as the libertarian Competitive Enterprise Institute , conservative commentators , and some companies such as ExxonMobil have challenged IPCC climate change scenarios , funded scientists who disagree with the scientific consensus , and provided their own projections of the economic cost of stricter controls . On the other hand , some fossil fuel companies have scaled back their efforts in recent years , or even called for policies to reduce global warming . Global oil companies have begun to acknowledge climate change exists and is caused by human activities and the burning of fossil fuels .
= = = = Surveys of public opinion = = = =
The world public , or at least people in economically advanced regions , became broadly aware of the global warming problem in the late 1980s . Polling groups began to track opinions on the subject , at first mainly in the United States . The longest consistent polling , by Gallup in the US , found relatively small deviations of 10 % or so from 1998 to 2015 in opinion on the seriousness of global warming , but with increasing polarization between those concerned and those unconcerned .
The first major worldwide poll , conducted by Gallup in 2008 @-@ 2009 in 127 countries , found that some 62 % of people worldwide said they knew about global warming . In the advanced countries of North America , Europe and Japan , 90 % or more knew about it ( 97 % in the U.S. , 99 % in Japan ) ; in less developed countries , especially in Africa , fewer than a quarter knew about it , although many had noticed local weather changes . Among those who knew about global warming , there was a wide variation between nations in belief that the warming was a result of human activities .
By 2010 , with 111 countries surveyed , Gallup determined that there was a substantial decrease since 2007 – 08 in the number of Americans and Europeans who viewed global warming as a serious threat . In the US , just a little over half the population ( 53 % ) now viewed it as a serious concern for either themselves or their families ; this was 10 points below the 2008 poll ( 63 % ) . Latin America had the biggest rise in concern : 73 % said global warming is a serious threat to their families . This global poll also found that people are more likely to attribute global warming to human activities than to natural causes , except in the US where nearly half ( 47 % ) of the population attributed global warming to natural causes .
A March – May 2013 survey by Pew Research Center for the People & the Press polled 39 countries about global threats . According to 54 % of those questioned , global warming featured top of the perceived global threats . In a January 2013 survey , Pew found that 69 % of Americans say there is solid evidence that the Earth 's average temperature has got warmer over the past few decades , up six points since November 2011 and 12 points since 2009 .
A 2010 survey of 14 industrialized countries found that skepticism about the danger of global warming was highest in Australia , Norway , New Zealand and the United States , in that order , correlating positively with per capita emissions of carbon dioxide .
= = Etymology = =
In the 1950s , research suggested increasing temperatures , and a 1952 newspaper reported " climate change " . This phrase next appeared in a November 1957 report in The Hammond Times which described Roger Revelle 's research into the effects of increasing human @-@ caused CO2 emissions on the greenhouse effect , " a large scale global warming , with radical climate changes may result " . Both phrases were only used occasionally until 1975 , when Wallace Smith Broecker published a scientific paper on the topic ; " Climatic Change : Are We on the Brink of a Pronounced Global Warming ? " The phrase began to come into common use , and in 1976 Mikhail Budyko 's statement that " a global warming up has started " was widely reported . Other studies , such as a 1971 MIT report , referred to the human impact as " inadvertent climate modification " , but an influential 1979 National Academy of Sciences study headed by Jule Charney followed Broecker in using global warming for rising surface temperatures ,
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between 1955 and 1975 as the development of the capital became more concerted , and new residential land was released through the creation of new town centres in the 1960s and 1970s .
In 1949 , the territory gained its first representative in the Parliament , although at first with limited speaking and voting rights . In 1974 it gained a fully elected , but still advisory House of Assembly . In 1988 it gained the trappings of self @-@ government with a Legislative Assembly with most of the powers and responsibilities of an Australian state , although subject to a federal right of veto , similar to the arrangements adopted for the Northern Territory in 1978 . The Legislative Assembly legalised some things that were prohibited in other parts of Australia , such as prostitution and X @-@ rated pornography ; in 2006 , an attempt to allow civil unions for same @-@ sex couples was overruled by the federal government .
= = Pre @-@ European history = =
Indigenous Australian peoples have long inhabited what is now the ACT . Anthropologist Norman Tindale has suggested the principal group occupying the region were the Ngunnawal people , while the Ngarigo and Walgalu lived immediately to the south , the Wandandian to the east , the Gandangara to the north , and the Wiradjuri to the north @-@ west .
Archæological evidence from the Birrigai rock shelter in Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve indicates habitation dating back at least 21 @,@ 000 years . It is possible that the area was inhabited for considerably longer , with evidence of an Aboriginal presence in south @-@ western New South Wales dating back around 40 @,@ 000 – 62 @,@ 000 years . Another site of significance in the reserve is the Bogong Rocks shelter , which contains the oldest evidence of Aboriginal occupation at a bogong moth resting site . These insects were an important source of food for the Aboriginal peoples of the Southern Alps and would accumulate by the thousands in caves and rock crevices , where they were collected and later roasted in sand or ashes , and then eaten whole .
Numerous other culturally significant and archæologically notable sites are known across the territory , including shelters , rock art sites , stone artefact scatters , scarred trees and chert quarries . Tidbinbilla Mountain is believed to have long been used for Aboriginal initiation ceremonies .
= = 19th century exploration = =
Following European settlement , the growth of the new colony of New South Wales led to an increasing demand for arable land . Governor Lachlan Macquarie supported expeditions to open up new lands to the south of the capital Sydney , including one to find an overland route to Jervis Bay , an area which would later be incorporated into the ACT as its only coastal possession . In 1818 Charles Throsby , Hamilton Hume , James Meehan and William Kearns set out to find the route , a task accomplished that same year by Throsby and Kearns .
The 1820s saw further exploration in the Canberra area associated with the construction of a road from Sydney to the Goulburn plains , supervised by Throsby and his overseer , Joseph Wild . While working on the project , Throsby learned of a nearby lake and river from the local Aborigines , and he accordingly sent Wild to lead a small party to investigate the site . On 19 August 1820 , Wild ventured off from his two companions , and later that day arrived at the north shore of what is now known as Lake George . In October 1820 Governor Macquarie visited the site , and while he was in attendance Throsby decided to push on to reach the river that he had been informed of . Accompanied by Wild and James Vaughan , he journeyed south in search of the Murrumbidgee . The search was unsuccessful , but they did discover the Yass River , and it is surmised that they would have set foot on part of the future ACT .
A second expedition was mounted shortly thereafter , and Throsby 's nephew Charles Throsby Smith , Wild and Vaughan further explored the Molonglo ( Ngambri ) and Queanbeyan ( Jullergung ) Rivers , becoming the first Europeans to camp at the site . However , they failed to find the Murrumbidgee , and Smith declared that the river did not exist . The issue of the Murrumbidgee was solved in 1821 , when Charles Throsby mounted a third expedition and successfully reached the watercourse , on the way providing the first detailed account of the land where Canberra now resides .
The next significant expedition to the region came in 1823 , when Wild was employed by Brigade Major John Ovens and Captain Mark Currie to guide them to the Murrumbidgee . They travelled south along the river and named the area now known as Tuggeranong Isabella 's Plain , after Isabella Maria Brisbane ( 1821 – 1849 ) , the two @-@ year @-@ old daughter of Thomas Brisbane , the then Governor of New South Wales . Unable to cross the river near the current site of Tharwa , they continued on to the Monaro Plains . The last expedition in the region prior to settlement was undertaken by Allan Cunningham in 1824 . He reported that the region was suitable for grazing , and the settlement of the Limestone Plains followed immediately thereafter .
= = Early settlement = =
When the boundaries for settlement of New South Wales were determined , the Limestone Plains were opened up to settlers . The first land grant in the region was made to Joshua John Moore in 1823 , and settlement in the area began in 1824 with the construction of a homestead by his stockmen on what is now the Acton Peninsula . Moore formally purchased the site in 1826 and named the property Canberry , or Canberra , although he never visited it . His 4 km2 ( 1 @.@ 5 sq mi ) claim covered much of the future North Canberra .
Adjacent to the eastern boundary on Moore 's claim was the settlement of Duntroon , occupied by James Ainslie on behalf of Robert Campbell . John Palmer was granted land in the region , which was taken up by his son George in 1826 . He established Palmerville near Ginninderra Creek in 1829 , and the " Squire " at Gungahlin was completed in 1861 . Palmerville in the Ginninderra district was the site of first school in the region , and operated from 1844 to 1848 . The first school in the future Canberra opened on the Duntroon Estate , next door to St John 's Church in what would become the suburb of Reid in the 20th century . Canberra 's first church , St John 's , was consecrated and opened for use in 1845 .
The Tuggeranong Plains , situated 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) south of the Molonglo River , were first settled in 1827 by Peter Murdoch . The Waniassa Homestead ( also known as Tuggeranong Homestead ) was established in 1836 by Thomas McQuoid , and the first buildings of the Lanyon estate , owned by John Lanyon and James Wright , were built in 1838 . Tharwa was settled in 1834 ; the homestead in this area was Cuppacumbalong , established by James Wright in 1839 . Tharwa is the oldest official settlement in the ACT , having been proclaimed in 1862 .
Settlers moved further south into what is now the Namadgi National Park . William Herbert made a claim over part of the Orroral Valley at some point between 1826 and 1836 , while during the 1830s Garrett Cotter inhabited what would later be named the Cotter River Valley , in his honour . From the late 1830s , the Boboyan Homestead and station were established . Gudgenby was settled in the early 1840s and the Gudgenby Homestead was erected around this time . By 1848 most of the major valleys of the Namadgi area had been settled .
Convict labour was widely used in the region , and the first bushrangers in the area were runaway convicts . John Tennant , the earliest and best @-@ known bushranger of the region , lived in a hideout on what is now known as Mount Tennant , behind Tharwa . From 1827 he raided the local homesteads , stealing stock , food and possessions until his arrest in 1828 ; He was later hung in Sydney for his crimes . The lawlessness of the region led to the appointment of the first resident magistrate on 28 November 1837 – Allured Tasker Faunce , who was also known as " Ironman Faunce " since his time as a magistrate at Brisbane Water . The magistrate oversaw legal matters and issued liquor licences to several establishments , the first being the Elmsall Inn on the Duntroon estate in 1841 .
A significant influx of population and economic activity occurred around the 1850s goldrushes , particularly the Kiandra rush of 1859 – 60 . The goldrushes prompted the establishment of communication between Sydney and the region by way of the Cobb & Co coaches , which transported mail and passengers . The first post offices opened in Ginninderra in 1859 and at Lanyon the following year . Bushranger activity continued with the goldrushes : Australian @-@ born bandits Ben Hall and the Clarke brothers were active in the area , targeting mail coaches and gold transportation .
Terence Aubrey Murray was born in Ireland in 1810 and came to Sydney with his father , a retired redcoat army officer , and siblings in 1827 . In 1837 , he acquired the Yarralumla sheep station , taking up residence in Yarralumla 's Georgian @-@ style homestead , which he extended . He was elected unopposed to represent the surrounding Counties of Murray , King and Georgiana in the first partially elective Legislative Council in 1843 . With the establishment of responsible government in 1856 , Murray became a member of the first Legislative Assembly , representing the electorate of Southern Boroughs – which included nearby Queanbeyan – and in 1859 he was elected to represent Argyle – which included another of his pastoral properties , Winderradeen , in the Collector area , north of Canberra .
The Robertson Land Acts and the Closer Settlement Acts altered the mechanism for granting land tenure and precipitated the break @-@ up of large properties in New South Wales . During the 1860s , in the wake of the new government legislation , small farmers nicknamed " selectors " moved into what would become the ACT , taking up parcels of ( usually inferior ) land which existed between the estates of the wealthy , established landholders .
During colonial times , prior to the establishment of the ACT , the European communities of Ginninderra , Molonglo and Tuggeranong settled in and farmed the surrounding land , raising sheep in the main but also breeding horses and growing grain . The region was also called the Queanbeyan / Yass district , after the two largest towns in the area . The villages of Ginninderra and Tharwa developed to service the local agrarian communities . In 1882 , the first allotments in the village of Hall – named after early pastoralist Henry Hall – were sold . By 1901 , it was an established town with a hotel , coachbuilder , blacksmith , butcher , shoemaker , saddler , dairy and two stores .
In 1886 , the agronomist William Farrer , established the research farm ' Lambrigg ' on the banks of the Murrumbidgee south of present @-@ day Tuggeranong . Farrer experimented with rust and drought @-@ resistant wheat ; the varieties he bred were widely used by Australian growers , and he was later credited with establishing Australia as a major producer . Tharwa Bridge , the oldest surviving bridge in the region , was opened in 1895 and was the first crossing over the Murrumbidgee River . By 1911 , when the region came under federal control , the population had grown to 1 @,@ 714 settlers .
= = Relations with indigenous people = =
During the first 20 years of settlement , there was only limited contact between the settlers and Aborigines . Joseph Franklin purchased land in the Brindabellas in 1849 and attempted to set up a cattle farm . His livestock was slaughtered by the local Aborigines and he was driven back out of the mountains . The rush of prospectors into the Kiandra area through the Brindabellas and the mountains to the west of the ACT as a result of the Kiandra goldrush led to conflict with the Aboriginal people . By the time Franklin returned to the Brindabellas in 1863 , the indigenous population had been significantly reduced .
Over the succeeding years , the Ngunnawal and other local Indigenous people effectively ceased to exist as cohesive and independent communities adhering to their traditional ways of life . Those who had not succumbed to disease and other predations either dispersed to the local settlements or were relocated to more distant Aboriginal reserves set up by the NSW government in the latter part of the 19th century . The children of mixed European @-@ Aboriginal families were generally expected to assimilate into the settlement communities . The Ngunnawal people were subsequently often considered to be " extinct " ; however , in a situation parallel to that of the Tasmanian Aborigines , people with claims to Ngunnawal ancestry continue to identify themselves as such . However , there have been contemporary instances of dispute within the community itself over who is properly considered to be a member of the Ngunnawal people .
= = Search for a capital city location = =
The district 's change from a New South Wales rural area to the national capital began with the debates over Federation during the 19th century . Prior to 1840 Sydney was the administrative centre for the colony , and thus it could be presupposed that any potential federal government would be seated there . However , this started to change when , buoyed by the Victorian Gold Rush , Melbourne grew rapidly , and by 1860 its population had overtaken that of Sydney . The discovery of gold also helped to increase Melbourne 's financial base , to the point where at one stage " nearly 5 % of all British imperial government revenue ... passed through [ Melbourne 's ] port " . Thus Melbourne soon possessed both the size and the economic clout to rival Sydney and to command additional administrative powers .
When Federation was first being discussed , views differed about the location of the capital . Early advocate for Australian federation , John Dunmore Lang , backed Sydney , but Henry Parkes , a prominent New South Wales politician and Premier , proposed the capital be founded on " neutral ground " , nominating the town of Albury as a location . ( Albury was located in New South Wales , yet its position on the Murray River placed it on the border between New South Wales and Victoria ) .
In 1898 , a referendum on a proposed Constitution was held in four of the colonies – New South Wales , Victoria , South Australia and Tasmania . Although the referendum achieved a majority in all four colonies , the New South Wales referendum failed to gain the minimum number of votes needed for the bill to pass . Following this result , a meeting of the four Premiers in 1898 heard from George Reid , the Premier of New South Wales , who argued that locating the future capital in New South Wales would be sufficient to ensure the passage of the Bill . This was accepted by the other three Premiers , and the proposed Australian Constitution was modified so that Section 125 specified that the national capital must be " within the state of New South Wales " . However , they also added the condition that it must be situated no less than 100 mi ( 160 @.@ 9 km ) from Sydney . In addition , if the bill passed , Melbourne would be the interim seat of government ( but not referred to as the " capital " ) until a location for the new capital had been determined . The 1899 referendum on this revised bill was successful , passing with sufficient numbers .
Nevertheless , this left open the question of where to locate the capital . Initially the Bombala district in the far south of NSW was proposed , to which southern Monaro , ( which incorporated Bombala ) , Orange and Yass were soon added . The NSW Premier , John See , offered to provide any of the three recommended sites as a future capital territory . Edmund Barton , the first Prime Minister of the new Federal Government , added another four sites to this list : Albury , Tamworth , Armidale and Tumut , and members of the new government toured the various sites in 1902 . The tour proved inconclusive , and upon their return the members decided to refer the problem to a Royal Commission , with the Minister for Home Affairs , William Lyne , pushing for Tumut or Albury as he preferred a site in his electorate . Subsequently , the Commission presented its report to Parliament in 1903 , recommending the sites of Albury , Tumut and Orange , in that order . However , there continued to be problems , as the House of Representatives backed the Tumut option , while the Senate preferred the town of Bombala . As a result of this disagreement the bill lapsed , and it was left to the second Parliament to choose a location for the capital .
The new Parliament met in 1904 and reached a compromise , choosing Dalgety , which , like Bombala , was located in the Monaro region . Thus , with the passage of the Seat of Government Act 1904 , it appeared that the matter had been settled . However , while the Federal Parliament supported Dalgety , the New South Wales government did not , and they proved unwilling to cede the amount of territory the Federal Government demanded .
Finally , in 1906 , New South Wales agreed to cede sufficient land , but on the condition that it was in the Yass @-@ Canberra region , this site being closer to Sydney . Following a tour of the region by several Senators and Members of the Commonwealth Parliament , in 1908 a new ballot was called in the Federal Parliament with eleven sites nominated . Initially , Dalgety remained at the forefront , but by the eighth round Yass @-@ Canberra had emerged as a new leader , and the site was confirmed in the ninth round of voting . Thus was passed the new Seat of Government Act 1908 , which repealed the 1904 Act and specified a capital in the Yass @-@ Canberra region .
Government Surveyor Charles Scrivener was deployed to the region in the same year in order to map out a specific site and , after an extensive search , settled upon the present location , about 300 km ( 186 @.@ 4 mi ) south @-@ west of Sydney in the foothills of the Australian Alps .
= = Establishment of the Territory in law ( 1910 ) = =
In 1909 , New South Wales transferred the land for the creation of the Federal Capital Territory to federal control through two pieces of legislation , the Seat of Government Acceptance Act 1909 and the Seat of Government Surrender Act 1909 . The Act transferred Crown land in the counties of Murray and Cowley to the Commonwealth , which amounted to an area about 2 @,@ 330 square kilometres ( 900 sq mi ) and eight parcels of land near Jervis Bay . All private land in the surrendered area had to be bought by the Commonwealth . The Seat of Government Acceptance Act also gave the Commonwealth rights to use and control the waters of the Queanbeyan and Molonglo Rivers .
In 1910 , the Seat of Government ( Administration ) Act 1910 created the legal framework for the Territory . The act specified that laws in the Territory could be made by the Commonwealth and that Ordinances could be made by the Governor @-@ General , and placed the ACT under the jurisdiction of the New South Wales Supreme Court . When the Act came into force on 1 January 1911 , control of the Territory was officially assumed by the Commonwealth . This Act remained the constitutional basis for law @-@ making in the ACT until the granting of self @-@ government in 1989 .
The Minister for Home Affairs , King O 'Malley , who was responsible for the legislation creating the ACT , also introduced a bill in 1910 making the ACT an alcohol @-@ free area ; this bill was passed by the Federal parliament and the law was not repealed until 1928 . Until that time local residents travelled to Queanbeyan , just across the New South Wales border , to drink on Saturday . In 1938 the Territory was formally renamed the Australian Capital Territory .
The Jervis Bay Territory Acceptance Act 1915 and the New South Wales Seat of Government Surrender Act 1915 created a Territory of Jervis Bay , which was administered as part of the Federal Capital Territory and with all laws of the Territory applicable .
= = = Resumption and disenfranchisement = = =
Prior to the final decision on the location of the new capital territory , the local landowners and residents of Queanbeyan looked favourably on the possibility of having the territory located nearby . Such a result , it was hoped , would bring improvements to local infrastructure , increase the demand for local goods and services , and raise land values . It was assumed that the existing freehold arrangements would remain , and that those whose land was not required for the city itself would be in a position to capitalise on the new circumstances .
Such was not the case . Legislation restricted land holdings in the new territory to leasehold , rather than freehold . This was intended to avoid land speculation and give the national government , as the lessor , greater control over development . Landowners were concerned that the legislation had a number of shortcomings : land valuations were fixed to the date when the Act passed ( 8 October 1908 ) , there was no compensation for improvements made to the land , and owners were not given first right of refusal when their old land was offered for lease .
Along with the loss of their land , local residents discovered that they had been disenfranchised . Now a part of the ACT , they had lost their vote in the New South Wales government , and their numbers were too small to warrant a seat in the new federal parliament . As a result , they had no representation in parliament through which to argue against the provisions of the legislation .
In response the residents formed the Vigilance Association with the intent of protecting their interests during the establishment of the new capital territory . Legal challenges to the resumption of the land were unsuccessful , but the Vigilance Association did win some concessions : the government agreed to pay for the improvements to the land , and did so at the value when the land was acquired ; and the landowners gained the right of first refusal on their old properties when they were put up for lease . As of 2010 all residential land in the ACT is held on a 99 @-@ year crown lease .
= = 20th century development of Canberra = =
One of the first federal facilities established in the Territory was the Royal Military College , established on the Campbells ' property Duntroon , which opened in 1911 . Prior to this , Australia 's military lacked formally trained officers , who were needed due to changes to the Australian military model that had emerged after Federation .
In the same year , an international competition to design the future capital was held , which was won by the Chicago architect Walter Burley Griffin in 1912 . Griffin 's proposal , rendered by his architect wife Marion Mahony Griffin , had an abundance of geometric patterns , incorporated concentric hexagonal and octagonal streets emanating from several centres . It had as its centrepiece an elaborate lake composed of smaller bodies of water , with extensive natural vegetation around it . Griffin 's proposal was " the grandest scheme submitted , yet it had an appealing simplicity and clarity " . The lakes and geometry were deliberately designed so that their orientation was related to various natural topographical landmarks . It was further intended that buildings of national significance and natural landmarks would align with these geometric axes . Later , Scrivener , as part of a government committee , was responsible for modifying Griffin 's winning design . He recommended a less elaborate and geometric shape , which Griffin opposed , saying that geometry was " one of the raison d 'etre of the ornamental waters " , but he was overruled . The new design was widely criticised as being ugly .
The official naming of Canberra occurred on 12 March 1913 , and construction began immediately . After official indecision over the plan , revisions and their implementation , Griffin was invited to Canberra to discuss the matter . He arrived in August 1913 and was appointed Federal Capital Director of Design and Construction for three years . Bureaucratic wrangling delayed Griffin 's work ; a Royal Commission in 1916 ruled his authority for executing the plan had been usurped by certain officials . Griffin had a strained working relationship with the Australian authorities , and a lack of federal government funding meant that by the time he left in 1920 , little significant work had been done on the city . Prime Minister Billy Hughes removed Griffin from his position . At the time of his removal , Griffin had revised his plan , overseen the earthworks of the major avenues , and established the Glenloch Cork Plantation .
After Griffin 's departure , the Federal Capital Advisory Committee was established to advise the government of the construction efforts . The Committee had limited success meeting its goals ; however , the chairman , John Sulman , was instrumental in applying the ideas of the garden city movement to Griffin 's plan . The Committee was replaced in 1925 by the Federal Capital Commission . The role of the FCC was to prepare Canberra for the transfer of the Commonwealth Parliament and the public service from Melbourne to Canberra . The Federal Government officially relocated to the ACT from Melbourne on the formal opening of the Provisional Parliament House on 9 May 1927 . Among the new Parliament 's first acts was the repeal of the prohibition laws . At first the public service remained based in Melbourne , the various departments ' headquarters only gradually moving to Canberra over the space of several years . From 1938 to 1957 the National Capital Planning and Development Committee continued to plan the further expansion of Canberra ; however , the NCPDC did not have executive power , and decisions were made on the development of Canberra without the Committee 's consultation . A few major buildings were constructed during this period of NCPDC responsibility , such as the Australian War Memorial , which opened in 1941 . With the onset of the Great Depression , followed by World War II , development of the new capital was slow , and in the decade after the end of the war , Canberra was criticised for resembling a village , and its disorganised collection of buildings was deemed ugly . Canberra was often derisively described as " several suburbs in search of a city " . The Prime Minister , Robert Menzies , regarded the state of the national capital as an embarrassment . Over time his attitude changed from one of contempt to that of championing its development . He fired two ministers charged with the development of the city , feeling that their performance lacked intensity . Menzies ruled for over a decade and in that time the development of the capital sped up rapidly .
After World War II there was a shortage of housing and office space in Canberra , so a Senate Select Committee hearing was held in 1954 to address its development requirements . This Committee recommended the creation of a single planning body with executive power . Consequently , the NCPDC was replaced by the National Capital Development Commission in 1957 . The NCDC ended four decades of disputes over the shape and design of Lake Burley Griffin , and construction was completed in 1964 after four years of work . The completion of the centrepiece of Griffin 's design finally the laid the platform for the development of Griffin 's Parliamentary Triangle . In the four decades since the initial construction of the lake , various buildings of national importance were constructed on the lakefront . According to the policy plan of the government , " The lake is not only one of the centrepieces of Canberra 's plan in its own right , but forms the immediate foreground of the National Parliamentary Area . " The newly built Australian National University , on the northern shores of the lake was expanded , and sculptures and monuments were built .
The completion of the central basin placed a waterway between Parliament House and the War Memorial and a landscaped boulevard was built along the land axis . A new National Library was constructed within the Parliamentary Triangle , followed by the High Court of Australia , the National Gallery and finally a new Parliament House in 1988 . In 2001 , the National Museum was built on the former lakeside site of the Royal Canberra Hospital .
On average , the population of Canberra increased by more than 50 % every five years between 1955 and 1975 as the development of the capital became more concerted . To accommodate the influx of residents , the NCDC oversaw the release of new residential land though the creation of new town centres : Woden opened in 1964 , followed by Belconnen in 1966 , Weston Creek in 1969 and Tuggeranong in 1973 . The NCDC was disbanded in 1988 , its planning authority transferred to the newly created ACT government and the new National Capital Authority , which was established to oversee Commonwealth interests in development of the national capital . Canberra has continued to grow with the further release of residential land in Gungahlin in the 1990s .
= = 20th century development outside of Canberra = =
A significant priority for the establishment of Canberra was the construction of water storage facilities . Cotter Dam was the first dam built on the Cotter River ; construction on this 18 @.@ 5 m ( 60 @.@ 7 ft ) concrete gravity dam started in 1912 and finished in 1915 . Its height was raised to 31 m ( 101 @.@ 7 ft ) in 1951 . Chlorination of Canberra 's water began at Cotter Dam in 1955 ; operations were moved to the Mount Stromlo Water Treatment Plant in June 1967 .
Two additional dams were built on the Cotter : the Bendora Dam , a double @-@ curvature , concrete @-@ arch structure , was completed in 1961 ; and the Corin Dam , an earth and rock @-@ fill embankment dam , was built in 1968 . In 1979 Googong Dam was built on the Queanbeyan River in New South Wales .
Transport into and out of the ACT was an early development priority . In 1931 the Federal Highway linking the ACT to Goulburn was completed , and in 1936 an airfield was constructed at Duntroon . On 13 August 1940 Australia 's chief military officer and three senior ministers in the Menzies Government , James Fairbairn , Geoffrey Street and Henry Somer Gullett , were killed when their plane crashed on the southern approach to Canberra .
A 6 @.@ 5 km ( 4 @.@ 0 mi ) branch from the Bombala railway line was built from Queanbeyan to Canberra station in 1914 and extended to Civic in June 1921 , but the bridge over the Molonglo River was washed away in 1922 and never rebuilt . Plans to build a railway to Yass were abandoned . A 1067 mm gauge construction railway was built in 1923 between the Yarralumla brickworks and the provisional Parliament House . It was later extended to Civic , but the whole line was closed in May 1927 . A railway connecting Canberra to Jervis Bay was planned , but never constructed . Several facilities were built in Jervis Bay including the Royal Australian Naval College ( HMAS Creswell ) erected in 1913 , the Jervis Bay Air Base Range , and a Botanic Gardens .
The native forest of the ACT was composed almost wholly of eucalypt species and provided a resource for fuel and domestic purposes , especially during the economic boom following World War II . By the early 1960s , logging had depleted the eucalypt , and concern about water quality in the Cotter River catchment led to the forests being closed . Interest in forestry had begun in 1915 , when T. C. G. Weston had commenced trials of a number of species including Pinus radiata on the slopes of Mount Stromlo . Plantation forestry began in earnest in 1926 with 2 km2 ( 0 @.@ 8 sq mi ) planted annually around Uriarra and Pierce 's Creek .
By 1938 the area planted yearly was 4 km2 ( 1 @.@ 5 sq mi ) , with the favourable benefit of reducing erosion in the Cotter catchment . In 1967 the Australian Government approved a plan for a total 160 km2 ( 61 @.@ 8 sq mi ) of plantation in the ACT , which was achieved in 1970 . The ease of access to the plantations has made them popular recreation areas for Canberrans . Throughout the 20th century , significant areas of plantation forest were periodically lost to bushfires , with major fires occurring in 1939 , 1952 , 1979 , 1983 , 2001 and 2003 .
In 1936 about 8 @.@ 1 km2 ( 3 @.@ 1 sq mi ) of forest was set aside to create the Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve , and in 1939 a koala enclose was built by the Institute of Anatomy . The government acquired land to establish a national park and fauna reserve in 1962 , expanding it to 36 @.@ 3 km2 ( 14 @.@ 0 sq mi ) and later , to its current size of 54 @.@ 5 km2 ( 21 @.@ 0 sq mi ) . In 1969 the first wildlife displays were created , and the park was officially gazetted in 1971 . In 1984 the Namadgi National Park was declared . It is 1 @,@ 061 km2 ( 409 @.@ 7 sq mi ) and takes up approximately 46 % of the ACT 's land .
In 1911 , Mount Stromlo was assessed as a possible site for a Commonwealth Solar Observatory , and it became the location of the facility in 1924 . It was operated as a Commonwealth government facility until 1957 , when it was transferred to the Australian National University ( ANU ) . From 1944 to 1968 it was also the site of the national time @-@ keeping service . By the early 1980s , Mount Stromlo , together with the ANU 's Siding Spring observatory , was producing Australia 's greatest astronomical research output .
The Australian Government signed an agreement with the United States in 1960 for the establishment of satellite @-@ tracking stations in the ACT . As a result of the agreement , three tracking stations were built in the ACT by NASA . The Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex was officially opened on 19 March 1965 by Prime Minister Menzies , and is the only station still in operation in the ACT , communicating with interplanetary spacecraft .
The Orroral Valley Tracking Station , which was for orbiting satellite support , opened in May 1965 in what is now part of Namadgi National Park , was closed down in 1985 . Honeysuckle Creek Tracking Station , completed in December 1966 , was a communications relay station for Project Apollo , Skylab and interplanetary spacecraft from 1967 until 1981 , when its 26 m ( 85 @.@ 3 ft ) antenna was moved to the Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex . It was closed in July 2009 and is now being dismantled .
= = Government and the ACT = =
The Australian Capital Territory Police was created in 1927 , the same year the federal government moved to the ACT , with eleven officers . The size of the force grew over subsequent decades with the development of Canberra , and oversaw law and order in the territory until 1979 . In that year , the ACT Police merged with the Commonwealth Police and the Federal Narcotics Bureau to form the Australian Federal Police ( AFP ) , which then took responsibility for law and order in Canberra . Since self @-@ government was granted in 1988 , the AFP has performed this under contract to the ACT government .
The ACT was given its first federal representation in 1949 , when it gained a seat in the House of Representatives , the Division of Australian Capital Territory , under the 1948 Representation Act which increased the size of the House of Representatives . The ACT member could only vote on matters directly affecting the Territory . In 1974 , the ACT and the Northern Territory were each allocated two Senate seats . In 1974 , the House of Representatives seat was divided into two , the Division of Canberra and Division of Fraser . A third , the Division of Namadgi , was created in 1996 , but was abolished in 1998 after an updated assessment of changes to the regional demographic distribution . Both House of Representatives seats have mostly been held by the Australian Labor Party , while ALP and the Liberal Party of Australia have always each held one Senate seat .
In 1930 , the ACT Advisory Council was established to advise the Minister for Territories on the community 's concerns and from 1934 the territory had its own Supreme Court . In 1974 the Council became a fully elected Legislative Assembly , advising the Minister of the Capital Territory , and in 1979 this renamed the House of Assembly .
= = = Movements towards self @-@ governance = = =
Although there was a push by residents of the ACT for a greater say in the management of the territory , this did not necessarily equate to a desire for self @-@ governance . John Overall , who served as the head of the NCDC from 1957 to 1972 , summarised the distinction in " Canberra : Yesterday , Today and Tomorrow " :
Canberra residents may have been demanding a greater say in their destiny , but they rejected attempts by the Federal Government to have them take control of their own affairs through self @-@ government . They appeared reluctant to accept the responsibility of governing themselves , or perhaps , the increased costs which they feared would inevitably follow the handover of power from the Federal Government to a local body . ... [ M ] ost realised that the end of direct control by the Federal Government would inevitably lead to higher taxes or a cut in services , as indeed was the case when self @-@ government finally occurred in the late 1980s .
Nevertheless , there were many residents in Canberra who wanted self @-@ government , and there were a number of forces pushing the territory in that direction .
The formation of the Legislative Assembly in 1974 was intended as the significant step towards self @-@ government , but the Whitlam Government , under whose auspices the Assembly was formed , tended to " override or ignore its wishes . " Similarly , the subsequent 1975 Fraser Government seemed uninterested in the Assembly . However , in February 1975 , Tony Staley accepted the post of Minister for the Capital Territory . Staley had been a supporter of self @-@ government for the ACT , and he proposed a model whereby Canberrans would rapidly gain control of much of the territory 's administration . The model found opposition , though , in part because it failed to adequately address the funding arrangements .
Although Staley 's plan did not eventuate , the next person to run the Ministry , Robert Ellicott , chose to hold a referendum on the issue . The 1978 referendum provided the residents of the territory with three options :
That self @-@ government be granted to the Territory by delegating functions to a locally elected legislative body .
That a locally elected legislative body be established in the Territory with local government @-@ type legislative and executive functions .
That the present arrangements for governing the Territory should continue for the time being .
A clear majority voted for continuing with the status quo – 63 @.@ 75 % , as opposed to 5 @.@ 72 % in favour of the local government model and 30 @.@ 54 % supporting the " state style " self @-@ government approach .
Overall identified a number of reasons why residents opposed self @-@ government . Along with the previously mentioned fear of increases in taxation or decreases in services , he argued that those living in the ACT would have felt that they already had a voice in the governance of the territory , through federal electoral representation . Canberra also had a high proportion of public servants who felt that they were already a part of the government , and knew how to work with the system .
In spite of the result , the referendum failed to end the debate . There were a number of pressures that continued to push the ACT towards self @-@ government , including :
National consistency of governance . In 1978 the Northern Territory achieved self @-@ government . The ACT was the only other mainland territory , with a population greater than that of the Northern Territory that was growing faster , so it was suggested that if self @-@ government was appropriate for the Northern Territory , then it must also be appropriate for the ACT .
The re @-@ enfranchisement of the community . Two inquiries had recommended that the ACT needed to provide the community with " the same sort of representative institutions that have been established in other parts of Australia " .
Financial pressures . The ACT had enjoyed high quality services through Federal Government funding , to the extent that the Federal Grants Commission report that Australia was subsiding the residents " to the tune of over $ 200 for every man , woman and child in the Territory . " Self @-@ government would allow the ACT to be placed on the same financial footing as that of the other states and the Northern Territory . This was identified by Bill Harris , the head of the ACT Administration just prior to self @-@ government , as the " fundamental reason " for the eventual realisation of self @-@ government in the Territory .
In 1988 , the new minister for the ACT , Gary Punch , received a report recommending the abolition of the NCDC and the formation of a locally elected government . Punch recommended that the Hawke government accept the report 's recommendations , and subsequently Clyde Holding introduced legislation to grant self @-@ government to the Territory in October 1988 .
= = = Self @-@ government = = =
The enactment on 6 December 1988 of the Australian Capital Territory ( Self @-@ Government ) Act 1988 @.@ established the framework for ACT Self @-@ government . The first election for the 17 @-@ member Australian Capital Territory Legislative Assembly was held on 4 March 1989 . The provisions of the Act establishing the ACT as a self @-@ governing territory within the Commonwealth of Australia commenced operation on 11 May 1989 , coinciding with the first sitting of the Legislative Assembly at 1 Constitution Avenue , Civic . The Australian Labor Party formed the ACT 's first government , led by Chief Minister Rosemary Follett , who made history as Australia 's first female head of government . Although since the commencement of self @-@ government , ACT law has continued to apply in general to the Jervis Bay Territory under section 4A of the Jervis Bay Territory Acceptance Act 1915 , the ACT as defined under the Self @-@ Government Act 1988 does not include Jervis Bay , which continues to be administered by the Commonwealth . Since 1992 , members of the Assembly have been elected by the Hare @-@ Clark proportional representation system from three multi @-@ member electorates , which replaced the modified D 'Hondt method used in the inaugural election , in which the 17 representatives were elected from a territory @-@ wide electorate .
Whereas the ACT 's federal electorates have been mainly held by Labor , the Liberal Party has been able to gain some footing in the ACT Assembly , and were in government for just over eight of the Assembly 's 21 @-@ year history . Most of this was during a period of six and half years from 1995 and 2001 , which ended when Labor gained a 14 @.@ 1 % swing at the polls . In contrast to the state elections , Labor has polled at least seven percentage points more than the Liberals at every federal election since 1990 , and their average lead since then has been 15 percentage points .
The initial years of self @-@ government were difficult and unstable . A majority of ACT residents had opposed self @-@ government and had it imposed upon them by the federal parliament , and at the first election , 4 of the 17 seats were won by anti @-@ self @-@ government single @-@ issue parties due to a protest vote by disgruntled territorians , and a total of 8 were won by minor parties and independents . Follett and Labor won only four seats and had to form a minority government , as seven groups were represented in total . Some of the anti @-@ self @-@ government representatives sought to disrupt the territory 's legislature from the inside , and a no @-@ confidence motion toppled Labor after only seven months . Trevor Kaine and the Liberals ruled for 18 months before being deposed , and Follett 's Labor returned , the third government in 25 months . In 1992 , Labor won eight seats , and the minor parties and independents won only three . Stability increased , and in 1995 , Kate Carnell became the first elected Liberal chief minister . In 1998 Carnell became the first chief minister to be re @-@ elected . She was regarded as a proactive leader but resigned in 2000 after two independents who had supported her minority government withdrew their support . At the time , she had been embroiled in controversy over the funding of the Canberra Stadium and an accidental fatality caused by the Royal Canberra Hospital implosion . Labor have won the three elections since 2001 , and in 2004 formed the first majority government in the territory , but after the 2008 election were forced into minority government with the Greens .
In 2006 , the majority Labor government made sweeping changes to the education system , shutting down 23 schools across the territory . These were made in the face of sustained public opposition , and since then , there have been campaigns from opposition parties and the community to re @-@ open some of them . This included the 2008 election , where it was a major topic .
Since the 1993 creation of the National Native Title Tribunal , there have been four separate claims to Native Title lodged over alienated lands in the ACT by representatives of the Ngunnawal communities , in 1996 , 1997 , 1998 and 2002 . The first two of these were discontinued after reaching a Federal Court hearing , and the third was rejected as not meeting applicable provisions . The fourth claim was dismissed .
In 2001 , the ACT government entered into a cooperative agreement with the Aboriginal community over the management of Namadgi National Park . The deal no longer exists .
In the 1990s , a number of activities which are or were illegal in other Australian states were legalised in the ACT . These include the sale of X @-@ rated pornographic materials ( 1989 ) and prostitution in brothels ( 1992 ) , although brothels are only permitted to operate in the suburbs of Hume , Mitchell and Fyshwick . The personal use of cannabis was decriminalised in 1992 and abortion was decriminalised in 2002 . In 2006 , the ACT Government attempted to introduce a law recognising civil unions , but it was overturned by the federal government .
= = 2000s = =
The first years of the 21st century saw a period of extended drought in the ACT region , accompanied by several bushfires that caused widespread devastation . Over the 2001 Christmas period , five separate bushfires burnt over 16 km2 ( 6 @.@ 2 sq mi ) of forest in the ACT , including millions of dollars ' worth of plantation pine forest .
The drought conditions continued during the following years , and in 2003 the ACT burned again . The 2003 bushfires damaged around 70 % of the ACT 's area , including 99 % of the Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve and significant areas of government @-@ owned pine plantation . Four people were killed and 67 rural houses were destroyed , including 16 houses at Uriarra , 12 at Pierces Creek ; 414 houses in the outer suburbs of Canberra were razed .
More than 200 other houses were damaged , and numerous buildings of historical significance were lost , including the Mount Franklin Chalet , which was built in 1937 – 38 for the Canberra Alpine Club and was the first club @-@ built ski lodge in mainland Australia , and many others in the Namadgi National Park . Nil Desperandum and Rock Valley Homestead , the two historic houses at Tidbinbilla , were destroyed . Most buildings of the Mount Stromlo Observatory , operated by the Australian National University , were destroyed , including the observatory 's Oddie telescope and its dome , which had been built in 1911 and was the first federal building in the ACT .
On 7 December 2013 , the ACT same @-@ sex marriage act came into effect , making the ACT the first legislature in Australia to allow same @-@ sex marriages . On 12 December 2013 , the High Court of Australia unanimously held this law to be invalid for inconsistency with the federal Marriage Act 1961 . However , all parties to the case had agreed and the Court accepted that the federal parliament 's power to make laws with respect to " marriage " , Constitution s 51 ( 21 ) , extends to same @-@ sex marriage . There can now be uniform federal law for marriages of any kind .
= = = Cited references = = =
= Mary Young Pickersgill =
Mary Pickersgill ( born Mary Young ; February 12 , 1776 – October 4 , 1857 ) , was the maker of the Star Spangled Banner Flag hoisted over Fort McHenry during the Battle of Baltimore in the War of 1812 . The daughter of another noted flag maker , Rebecca Young , Pickersgill learned her craft from her mother , and , in 1813 , was commissioned by Major George Armistead to make a flag for Baltimore 's Fort McHenry that was so large that the British would have no difficulty seeing it from a great distance . The flag was installed in August 1813 , and , a year later , during the Battle of Baltimore , Francis Scott Key could see the flag while negotiating a prisoner exchange aboard a British vessel , and was inspired to pen the words that became the United States National Anthem .
Pickersgill , widowed at the age of 29 , became successful enough in her flag making business , that , in 1820 , she was able to buy the house that she had been renting in Baltimore , and later became active in addressing social issues , such as housing and employment for disadvantaged women . From 1828 to 1851 , she was president of the Impartial Female Humane Society which had been founded in 1802 , incorporated in 1811 , and helped impoverished families with school vouchers for children and employment for women . Under Pickersgill 's leadership , this organization built a home for aged women and later added an Aged Men 's Home which was built adjacent to it . These , more than a century later , evolved into the Pickersgill Retirement Community of Towson , Maryland which opened in 1959 .
Pickersgill died in 1857 and was buried in the Loudon Park Cemetery in southwest Baltimore , where her daughter erected a monument for her , and where some civic @-@ minded organizations later erected a bronze plaque . The house where Pickersgill lived for 50 years , at the northwest corner of Albemarle and East Pratt Streets in downtown Baltimore , became known as the Star @-@ Spangled Banner Flag House in 1927 . The house was saved through the efforts of many preservation @-@ minded citizens who were motivated by the Centennial Celebrations of 1914 .
= = Early life = =
Born in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania on February 12 , 1776 , Mary Young was the youngest of six children born to William Young and Rebecca Flower . Her mother , who became widowed when Mary was two years old , had a flag shop on Walnut Street in Philadelphia where she made ensigns , garrison flags and " Continental Colors " for the Continental Army . Her 1781 advertisement in the " Pennsylvania Packet " read , " All kinds of colours , for the Army and Navy , made and sold on the most reasonable Terms , By Rebecca Young . " Young moved her family to Baltimore , Maryland when Mary was a child , and it was from her mother that Mary learned the craft of flag making .
On October 2 , 1795 , at the age of 19 , Mary married John Pickersgill , a merchant , and moved back to Philadelphia with her husband . Of Mary 's four children , only one survived childhood , a daughter named Caroline . Mary 's husband traveled to London to work for the United States Government in the British Claims Office , but died in London on June 14 , 1805 , leaving Mary widowed at the age of 29 . In 1807 Mary then moved back to Baltimore with her daughter Caroline and her 67 @-@ year @-@ old mother Rebecca .
The small family rented a house at 44 Queen Street ( later 844 East Pratt Street , which became the Star Spangled Banner Flag House and 1812 Museum ) , where Pickersgill took in boarders and opened a flag @-@ making business , selling " silk standards , cavalry and division colours of every description . " Her customers included the United States Army , United States Navy , and visiting merchant ships .
= = The Fort McHenry flag = =
In 1813 the United States was at war with Great Britain , and Baltimore was preparing for an eventual attack as the fleet of the British Royal Navy had complete maritime control of the Chesapeake Bay . Major George Armistead , the U.S. Army commander of the Infantry and Artillery units that defended Fort McHenry in Baltimore , felt that the fort was prepared for an attack , except it lacked a flag . In a letter to the head of the Maryland Militia and military commander for Baltimore , Major General Samuel Smith , he wrote , " We , sir , are ready at Fort McHenry to defend Baltimore against invading by the enemy . That is to say , we are ready except that we have no suitable ensign to display over the Star Fort and it is my desire to have a flag so large that the British will have no difficulty seeing it from a distance . " A delegation consisting of Armistead , Smith , Brig. General John Stricker , and Commodore Joshua Barney , Pickersgill 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , visited with Pickersgill , and discussed the particulars of the desired flag . They commissioned Pickersgill to make two flags , " one American ensign , 30 X 42 feet , first quality bunting " and another flag 17 by 25 feet . " A task as large as the making of these flags was beyond the capability of one person to complete , and Pickersgill not only drew on members of her own household for help , but also contracted labor from the immediate neighborhood . In early summer 1813 , she began the job with the assistance of her daughter , Caroline , her two nieces , Eliza Young and Margaret Young , a free African American apprentice , Grace Wisher , and likely her elderly mother , Rebecca Young . An additional unnamed African American who boarded in the house is also listed as helping in some sources , as were additional local seamstresses who were hired during the summer . Often working late into the evening , until midnight at times , Pickersgill 's team was able to complete the job in six weeks . Pickersgill 's daughter , in an 1876 letter to Georgiana Armistead Appleton , the daughter of Major Armistead ( later breveted a lieutenant colonel ) , wrote these particulars about the flag :
The flag being so very large , mother was obliged to obtain permission from the proprietors of Claggetts [ sic ] brewery which was in our neighborhood , to spread it out in their malt house ; and I remember seeing my mother down on the floor , placing the stars : after the completion of the flag , she superintended the topping of it , having it fastened in the most secure manner to prevent its being torn away by ( cannon ) balls : the wisdom of her precaution was shown during the engagement : many shots piercing it , but it still remained firm to the staff . Your father ( Col. Armistead ) declared that no one but the maker of the flag should mend it , and requested that the rents should merely be bound around .
The large flag contained over 400 yards ( 366 meters ) of fabric , and included 15 stripes and 15 stars , one for each of the 15 states of the union . The stars were made of cotton and the stripes and blue canton were of English wool bunting . Each stripe was two feet ( 60 cm ) wide and each of the stars measured 24 inches ( 60 cm ) across from tip to tip . The women did much of the work in the evening after the brewery closed , sometimes working until midnight , and Pickersgill delivered the flags to Fort McHenry on August 19 , 1813 , a full year before the Battle of Baltimore .
The main flag weighed about 50 pounds ( 23 kg ) , and it took 11 men to raise it onto a 90 @-@ foot ( 27 @-@ meter ) flagpole . The result was an enormous American flag that could be seen for several miles from the Fort . On October 27 , 1813 a receipt was given to Pickersgill and her niece Eliza Young in the amount of $ 405 @.@ 90 for the larger flag , and $ 168 @.@ 54 for the smaller one ( which was also used at Fort McHenry as a storm flag ) . The small flag may have been flying when the British initially attacked Fort McHenry during the Battle of Baltimore on September 13 , because of the inclement weather that night with the driving rainstorm ( which would have made the woolen bunting material soggy and too heavy to blow out in any breeze ) . However , it was Pickersgill 's large flag that was flying over the fort at daybreak on September 14 , 1814 , after the British had ceased firing on the fort . A diary entry from a British sub @-@ altern on board ship and recently returned from the North Point battlefield , George Glebe , described that sunny morning when the Americans at the distant fort " fired their ( " wake @-@ up " ) morning gun salute and raised a splendid ensign " over the battlements . While negotiating a prisoner exchange aboard a British ship , Francis Scott Key saw the flag , and this inspired him to pen the words to the poem " The Defence of Fort McHenry " that later became the National Anthem of the United States in 1931 .
After the 1814 battle , George Armistead took possession of the large flag , and after his death in 1818 his widow , Louisa Hughes Armistead , kept it . During her four decades of ownership , she allowed it to be displayed on a few occasions , and also removed pieces of it to be given as gifts , a common practice of the day . Following her death in 1861 the flag went to her daughter , Georgiana Armistead Appleton , and then later to her grandson , Eben Appleton . The flag was moved to various locations over a 40 @-@ year period until 1907 when Eben Appleton loaned it to the Smithsonian . In 1912 the loan became permanent , and the flag underwent a variety of restorations . Beginning in December 1998 , the flag began an $ 18 million conservation treatment ( not a restoration ) and now this flag that was hand crafted by Pickersgill and her helpers in 1813 is one of the most important artifacts , and the centerpiece of the redesigned National Museum of American History .
= = Later life = =
By 1820 Pickersgill had become sufficiently successful in her business to purchase the house she had been renting , and lived there for the remainder of her life . Her business success allowed her to become active in addressing social issues such as housing , job placement , and financial aid for disadvantaged women , decades before these issues became prominent concerns in society . The Impartial Female Humane Society had been established to help needy Baltimore families with educating their children , and to help destitute women find employment . Pickers
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2 , 2014 , Gaga appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman along with guest Bill Murray . After the interview , the singer invited the whole audience to come and watch the show with her ; the performances of " G.U.Y. " and " Dope " was broadcast in the show . MTV and Logo TV collaborated to air various aspects of the preparation for the Roseland shows on April 4 . The behind @-@ the @-@ scenes program would air throughout the day on both channels , including the regular programming on partner channels like MTV Hits . Sway Calloway , an interviewer working with MTV News , had access to the background logistics of the show including rehearsals . They also visited Gaga 's old apartment , and looked at some of the art collection sent to the singer by her fans . The programs were streamed on MTV 's website as well as Gaga 's artist page , and the various social media channels owned by Logo . The final performance at Roseland on April 7 , 2014 , was live streamed for those not able to see the show . Verizon Communications had announced that the event would be streamed from 9 pm EST at the website GetMoreGaga.com. Gaga herself announced the news in a video posted on her Twitter account .
= = Set list = =
The following set list is representative of the show 's opening night on March 28 , 2014 .
" Born This Way " ( Piano Version )
" Black Jesus + Amen Fashion "
" Monster "
" Bad Romance "
" Sexxx Dreams "
" Dope "
" You and I "
" Just Dance "
" Poker Face " ( Piano Version )
" Artpop " ( Interlude )
" Applause "
" G.U.Y. "
= = Shows = =
= Campbell 's Soup Cans =
Campbell 's Soup Cans , which is sometimes referred to as 32 Campbell 's Soup Cans , is a work of art produced in 1962 by Andy Warhol . It consists of thirty @-@ two canvases , each measuring 20 inches ( 51 cm ) in height × 16 inches ( 41 cm ) in width and each consisting of a painting of a Campbell 's Soup can — one of each of the canned soup varieties the company offered at the time . The individual paintings were produced by a printmaking method — the semi @-@ mechanized screen printing process , using a non @-@ painterly style . Campbell 's Soup Cans ' reliance on themes from popular culture helped to usher in pop art as a major art movement in the United States .
Warhol , a commercial illustrator who became a successful author , publisher , painter , and film director , showed the work on July 9 , 1962 , in his first one @-@ man gallery exhibition as a fine artist in the Ferus Gallery of Los Angeles , California . The exhibition marked the West Coast debut of pop art . The combination of the semi @-@ mechanized process , the non @-@ painterly style , and the commercial subject initially caused offense , as the work 's blatantly mundane commercialism represented a direct affront to the technique and philosophy of abstract expressionism . In the United States the abstract expressionism art movement was dominant during the post @-@ war period , and it held not only to " fine art " values and aesthetics but also to a mystical inclination . This controversy led to a great deal of debate about the merits and ethics of such work . Warhol 's motives as an artist were questioned , and they continue to be topical to this day . The large public commotion helped transform Warhol from being an accomplished 1950s commercial illustrator to a notable fine artist , and it helped distinguish him from other rising pop artists . Although commercial demand for his paintings was not immediate , Warhol 's association with the subject led to his name becoming synonymous with the Campbell 's Soup Can paintings .
Warhol subsequently produced a wide variety of art works depicting Campbell 's Soup cans during three distinct phases of his career , and he produced other works using a variety of images from the world of commerce and mass media . Today , the Campbell 's Soup cans theme is generally used in reference to the original set of paintings as well as the later Warhol drawings and paintings depicting Campbell 's Soup cans . Because of the eventual popularity of the entire series of similarly themed works , Warhol 's reputation grew to the point where he was not only the most @-@ renowned American pop art artist , but also the highest @-@ priced living American artist .
= = Early career = =
= = = New York art scene = = =
Warhol arrived in New York City in 1949 , directly from the School of Fine Arts at Carnegie Institute of Technology . He quickly achieved success as a commercial illustrator , and his first published drawing appeared in the Summer 1949 issue of Glamour Magazine . In 1952 , he had his first art gallery show at the Bodley Gallery with a display of Truman Capote @-@ inspired works . By 1955 , he was tracing photographs borrowed from the New York Public Library 's photo collection with the hired assistance of Nathan Gluck , and reproducing them with a process he had developed earlier as a collegian at Carnegie Tech . His process , which foreshadowed his later work , involved pressing wet ink illustrations against adjoining paper . During the 1950s , he had regular showings of his drawings , and exhibited at the Museum of Modern Art ( Recent Drawings , 1956 ) .
= = = Pop art = = =
In 1960 , Warhol began producing his first canvases , which he based on comic strip subjects . In late 1961 , he learned the process of silkscreening from Floriano Vecchi , who had run the Tiber Press since 1953 . Though the process generally begins with a stencil drawing , it often evolves from a blown up photograph which is then transferred with glue onto silk . In either case , one needs to produce a glue @-@ based version of a positive two @-@ dimensional image ( positive means that open spaces are left where the paint will appear ) . Usually , the ink is rolled across the medium so that it passes through the silk and not the glue . Campbell 's Soup cans were among Warhol 's first silkscreen productions ; the first were U.S. dollar bills . The pieces were made from stencils ; one for each color . Warhol did not begin to convert photographs to silkscreens until after the original series of Campbell 's Soup cans had been produced .
Although Warhol had produced silkscreens of comic strips and of other pop art subjects , he supposedly relegated himself to soup cans as a subject at the time to avoid competing with the more finished style of comics by Roy Lichtenstein . He once said " I 've got to do something that really will have a lot of impact that will be different enough from Lichtenstein and James Rosenquist , that will be very personal , that won 't look like I 'm doing exactly what they 're doing . " In February 1962 , Lichtenstein displayed at a sold @-@ out exhibition of cartoon pictures at Leo Castelli 's eponymous Leo Castelli Gallery , ending the possibility of Warhol exhibiting his own cartoon paintings . Castelli had visited Warhol 's gallery in 1961 and said that the work he saw there was too similar to Lichtenstein 's , although Warhol 's and Lichtenstein 's comic artwork differed in subject and techniques ( e.g. , Warhol 's comic @-@ strip figures were humorous pop culture caricatures such as Popeye , while Lichtenstein 's were generally of stereotypical hero and heroines , inspired by comic strips devoted to adventure and romance ) . Castelli chose not to represent both artists at that time , but he would , in 1964 , exhibit Warhol works such as reproductions of Campbell 's Tomato Juice Box , 1964 ( pictured above , left ) , and Brillo Soap Boxes . He would again exhibit Warhol 's work in 1966 . Lichtenstein 's 1962 show was quickly followed by Wayne Thiebaud 's April 17 , 1962 one @-@ man show at the Allan Stone Gallery featuring all @-@ American foods , which agitated Warhol as he felt it jeopardized his own food @-@ related soup can works . Warhol was considering returning to the Bodley gallery , but the Bodley 's director did not like his pop art works . In 1961 , Warhol was offered a three @-@ man show by Allan Stone at the latter 's 18 East 82nd Street Gallery with Rosenquist and Robert Indiana , but all three were insulted by this proposition .
Irving Blum was the first dealer to show Warhol 's soup can paintings . Blum happened to be visiting Warhol in May 1962 , at a time when Warhol was being featured in a May 11 , 1962 Time magazine article " The Slice @-@ of @-@ Cake School " ( that included a portion of Warhol 's silkscreened 200 One Dollar Bills ) , along with Lichtenstein , Rosenquist , and Wayne Thiebaud . Warhol was the only artist whose photograph actually appeared in the article , which is indicative of his knack for manipulating the mass media . Blum saw dozens of Campbell 's Soup can variations , including a grid of One @-@ Hundred Soup Cans that day . Blum was shocked that Warhol had no gallery arrangement and offered him a July show at the Ferus Gallery in Los Angeles . This would be Warhol 's first one @-@ man show of his pop art . Warhol was assured by Blum that the newly founded Artforum magazine , which had an office above the gallery , would cover the show . Not only was the show Warhol 's first solo gallery exhibit , but it was considered to be the West Coast premiere of pop art . Andy Warhol 's first New York solo Pop exhibit was hosted at Eleanor Ward 's Stable Gallery November 6 – 24 , 1962 . The exhibit included the works Marilyn Diptych , Green Coca @-@ Cola Bottles , and Campbell 's Soup Cans .
= = The premiere = =
Warhol sent Blum thirty @-@ two 20 @-@ by @-@ 16 @-@ inch ( 510 mm × 410 mm ) canvases of Campbell 's Soup can portraits , each representing a particular variety of the Campbell 's Soup flavors available at the time . The thirty @-@ two canvases are very similar : each is a realistic depiction of the iconic , mostly red and white Campbell 's Soup can silkscreened onto a white background . The canvases have minor variation in the lettering of the variety names . Most of the letterings are painted in red letters . Four varieties have black lettering : Clam Chowder has parenthetical black lettering below the variety name that said ( Manhattan Style ) , which means that the soup is tomato- and broth @-@ based instead of the cream @-@ based New England style ; Beef has parenthetical black lettering below the variety name that says ( With Vegetables and Barley ) ; Scotch Broth has parenthetical black lettering below the variety name that said ( A Hearty Soup ) ; and Minestrone had black parenthetical lettering saying ( Italian @-@ Style Vegetable Soup ) . There are two varieties with red lettered parenthetical labels : Beef Broth ( Bouillon ) and Consommé ( Beef ) . The font sizes only vary slightly in the variety names . However , there are a few notable stylistic font differences . Old @-@ fashioned Tomato Rice is the only variety with lower case script . This lower case script appears to be from a slightly different font than the other variety name letters . There are other stylistic differences . Old @-@ fashioned Tomato Rice has the word Soup depicted lower on the can , in place of a portion of ornamental starlike symbols at the bottom that the other 31 varieties have . Also , Cheddar Cheese has two banner @-@ like addenda . In the middle @-@ left , a small golden banner says New ! , and a middle center golden banner says Great As A Sauce Too ! .
The exhibition opened on July 9 , 1962 , with Warhol absent . The thirty @-@ two single soup can canvases were placed in a single line , much like products on shelves , each displayed on narrow individual ledges . The contemporary impact was uneventful , but the historical impact is considered today to have been a watershed . The gallery audience was unsure what to make of the exhibit . A John Coplans Artform article , which was in part spurred on by the responding display of dozens of soup cans by a nearby gallery with a display advertising them at three for 60 cents , encouraged people to take a stand on Warhol . Few actually saw the paintings at the Los Angeles exhibit or at Warhol 's studio , but word spread in the form of controversy and scandal due to the work 's seeming attempt to replicate the appearance of manufactured objects . Extended debate on the merits and ethics of focusing one 's efforts on such a mundane commercial inanimate model kept Warhol 's work in art world conversations . The pundits could not believe an artist would reduce the art form to the equivalent of a trip to the local grocery store . Talk did not translate into monetary success for Warhol . Dennis Hopper was the first of only a half dozen to pay $ 100 for a canvas . Blum decided to try to keep the thirty @-@ two canvases as an intact set and bought back the few sales . This pleased Warhol who had conceived of them as a set , and he agreed to sell the set for ten monthly $ 100 installments to Blum . Warhol had passed the milestone of his first serious art show . While this exhibition was on view in Los Angeles , Martha Jackson canceled another planned December 1962 New York exhibition .
The Ferus show closed on August 4 , 1962 , the day before Marilyn Monroe 's death . Warhol went on to purchase a Monroe publicity still from the film Niagara , which he later cropped and used to create one of his most well @-@ known works : his painting of Marilyn . Although Warhol continued painting other pop art , including Martinson 's coffee cans , Coca @-@ Cola bottles , S & H Green Stamps , and Campbell 's Soup cans , he soon became known to many as the artist who painted celebrities . He returned to Blum 's gallery to exhibit Elvis and Liz in October 1963 . His fans Dennis Hopper and Brooke Hayward ( Hopper 's wife at the time ) held a welcoming party for the event .
Since Warhol gave no indication of a definitive ordering of the collection , the sequence chosen by MoMA ( in the picture at the upper right of this article ) in the display from their permanent collection reflects the chronological order in which the varieties were introduced by the Campbell Soup Company , beginning with Tomato in the upper left , which debuted in 1897 . By April 2011 , the curators at the MoMA had reordered the varieties , moving Clam Chowder to the upper left and tomato to the bottom of the four rows .
= = Motivation = =
Several anecdotal stories supposedly explain why Warhol chose Campbell 's Soup cans as the focal point of his pop art . One reason is that he needed a new subject after he abandoned comic strips , a move taken in part due to his respect for the refined work of Roy Lichtenstein . According to Ted Carey — one of Warhol 's commercial art assistants in the late 1950s — it was Muriel Latow who suggested the idea for both the soup cans and Warhol 's early U.S. dollar paintings .
Muriel Latow was then an aspiring interior decorator , and owner of the Latow Art Gallery in the East 60s in Manhattan . She told Warhol that he should paint " Something you see every day and something that everybody would recognize . Something like a can of Campbell 's Soup . " Ted Carey , who was there at the time , said that Warhol responded by exclaiming : " Oh that sounds fabulous . " According to Carey , Warhol went to a supermarket the following day and bought a case of " all the soups " , which Carey said he saw when he stopped by Warhol 's apartment the next day . When the art critic G. R. Swenson asked Warhol in 1963 why he painted soup cans , the artist replied , " I used to drink it , I used to have the same lunch every day , for twenty years . "
Another account of Latow 's influence on Warhol holds that she asked him what he loved most , and because he replied " money " she suggested that he paint U.S. dollar bills . According to this story , Latow later advised that in addition to painting money he should paint something else very simple , such as Campbell 's Soup cans .
In an interview for London 's The Face in 1985 , David Yarritu asked Warhol about flowers that Warhol 's mother made from tin cans . In his response , Warhol mentioned them as one of the reasons behind his first tin can paintings :
David Yarritu : I heard that your mother used to make these little tin flowers and sell them to help support you in the early days .
Andy Warhol : Oh God , yes , it 's true , the tin flowers were made out of those fruit cans , that 's the reason why I did my first tin @-@ can paintings ... You take a tin @-@ can , the bigger the tin @-@ can the better , like the family size ones that peach halves come in , and I think you cut them with scissors . It 's very easy and you just make flowers out of them . My mother always had lots of cans around , including the soup cans .
Several stories mention that Warhol 's choice of soup cans reflected his own avid devotion to Campbell 's soup as a consumer . Robert Indiana once said : " I knew Andy very well . The reason he painted soup cans is that he liked soup . " He was thought to have focused on them because they composed a daily dietary staple . Others observed that Warhol merely painted things he held close at heart . He enjoyed eating Campbell 's soup , had a taste for Coca @-@ Cola , loved money , and admired movie stars . Thus , they all became subjects of his work . Yet another account says that his daily lunches in his studio consisted of Campbell 's Soup and Coca @-@ Cola , and thus , his inspiration came from seeing the empty cans and bottles accumulate on his desk .
Warhol did not choose the cans because of business relationships with the Campbell Soup Company . Even though the company at the time sold four out of every five cans of prepared soup in the United States , Warhol preferred that the company not be involved " because the whole point would be lost with any kind of commercial tie @-@ in . " However , by 1965 , the company knew him well enough that he was able to coax actual can labels from them to use as invitations for an exhibit . They even commissioned a canvas .
= = Message = =
Warhol had a positive view of ordinary culture and felt the abstract expressionists had taken great pains to ignore the splendor of modernity . The Campbell 's Soup Can series , along with his other series , provided him with a chance to express his positive view of modern culture . However , his deadpan manner endeavored to be devoid of emotional and social commentary . The work was intended to be without personality or individual expression . Warhol 's view is encapsulated in the Time magazine description of the ' Slice of Cake School , ' that " ... a group of painters have come to the common conclusion that the most banal and even vulgar trappings of modern civilization can , when transposed to canvas , become Art . "
His pop art work differed from serial works by artists such as Monet , who used series to represent discriminating perception and show that a painter could recreate shifts in time , light , season , and weather with hand and eye . Warhol is now understood to represent the modern era of commercialization and indiscriminate " sameness . " When Warhol eventually showed variation it was not " realistic . " His later variations in color were almost a mockery of discriminating perception . His adoption of the pseudo @-@ industrial silkscreen process spoke against the use of a series to demonstrate subtlety . Warhol sought to reject invention and nuance by creating the appearance that his work had been printed , and he systematically recreated imperfections . His series work helped him escape Lichtenstein 's lengthening shadow . Although his soup cans were not as shocking and vulgar as some of his other early pop art , they still offended the art world 's sensibilities that had developed so as to partake in the intimate emotions of artistic expression .
Contrasting against Caravaggio 's sensual baskets of fruit , Chardin 's plush peaches , or Cézanne 's vibrant arrangements of apples , the mundane Campbell 's Soup Cans gave the art world a chill . Furthermore , the idea of isolating eminently recognizable pop culture items was ridiculous enough to the art world that both the merits and ethics of the work were perfectly reasonable debate topics for those who had not even seen the piece . Warhol 's pop art can be seen as a relation to Minimal art in the sense that it attempts to portray objects in their most simple , immediately recognizable form . Pop art eliminates overtones and undertones that would otherwise be associated with representations .
Warhol clearly changed the concept of art appreciation . Instead of harmonious three @-@ dimensional arrangements of objects , he chose mechanical derivatives of commercial illustration with an emphasis on the packaging . His variations of multiple soup cans , for example , made the process of repetition an appreciated technique : " If you take a Campbell 's Soup can and repeat it fifty times , you are not interested in the retinal image . According to Marcel Duchamp , what interests you is the concept that wants to put fifty Campbell 's Soup cans on a canvas . " The regimented multiple can depictions almost become an abstraction whose details are less important than the panorama . In a sense , the representation was more important than that which was represented . Warhol 's interest in machinelike creation during his early pop art days was misunderstood by those in the art world , whose value system was threatened by mechanization .
In Europe , audiences had a very different take on his work . Many perceived it as a subversive and Marxist satire on American capitalism . If not subversive , it was at least considered a Marxist critique of pop culture . Given Warhol 's apolitical outlook in general this is not likely the true message . It is likely that his pop art was nothing more than an attempt to attract attention to his work .
In an effort to complement the message of his art , Warhol developed a pop persona after the mass media took note of his pop art . He began to manifest a teenage @-@ like image , immersing himself in pop culture such as Rock & Roll shows and fan magazines . Whereas previous artists used repetition to demonstrate their skill at depicting variation , Warhol coupled " repetition " with " monotony " as he professed his love of artwork themes .
= = Variations = =
Warhol followed the success of his original series with several related works incorporating the same theme of Campbell 's Soup cans subjects . These subsequent works along with the original are collectively referred to as the Campbell 's Soup cans series and often simply as the Campbell 's Soup cans . The subsequent Campbell 's Soup can works were very diverse . The heights ranged from 20 inches ( 510 mm ) to 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) . Generally , the cans were portrayed as if they were freshly produced cans without flaws . Occasionally , he chose to depict cans with torn labels , peeling labels , crushed bodies , or opened lids like those in the images in this section . Sometimes he added related items like a bowl of soup or a can opener , such as the one in the image on the right . Sometimes he produced images of related items without any soup cans such as Campbell 's Tomato Juice Box ( above right ) , which are not strictly a part of the series although a part of the theme . Many of these works were produced at his famous studio " The Factory . "
Irving Blum made the original thirty @-@ two canvases available to the public through an arrangement with the National Gallery of Art in Washington , DC by placing them on permanent loan two days before Warhol 's death . However , the original Campbell 's Soup Cans is now a part of the Museum of Modern Art permanent collection . A print called Campbell 's Soup Cans II is part of the permanent collection of the Museum of Contemporary Art in Chicago . 200 Campbell 's Soup Cans , 1962 ( Acrylic on canvas , 72 inches x 100 inches ) , in the private collection of John and Kimiko Powers is the largest single canvas of the Campbell 's Soup can paintings . It is composed of ten rows and twenty columns of numerous flavors of soups . Experts point to it as one of the most significant works of pop art both as a pop representation and as conjunction with immediate predecessors such as Jasper Johns and the successors movements of Minimal and Conceptual art . The very similar 100 Cans from the Albright @-@ Knox Art Gallery collection is shown above on the left . The earliest soup can painting seems to be Campbell 's Soup Can ( Tomato Rice ) , a 1960 ink , tempera , crayon , and oil canvas .
In many of the works , including the original series , Warhol drastically simplified the gold medallion that appears on Campbell 's Soup cans by replacing the paired allegorical figures with a flat yellow disk . In most variations , the only hint of three @-@ dimensionality came from the shading on the tin lid . Otherwise the image was flat . The works with torn labels are perceived as metaphors of life in the sense that even packaged food must meet its end . They are often described as expressionistic .
By 1970 , Warhol established the record auction price for a painting by a living American artist with a $ 60 @,@ 000 sale of Big Campbell 's Soup Can with Torn Label ( Vegetable Beef ) ( 1962 ) in a sale at Parke @-@ Bernet , the preeminent American auction house of the day ( later acquired by Sotheby 's ) . This record was broken a few months later by his rival for the artworld 's attention and approval , Lichtenstein , who sold a depiction of a giant brush stroke , Big Painting No. 6 ( 1965 ) for $ 75 @,@ 000 .
In May 2006 , Warhol 's Small Torn Campbell Soup Can ( Pepper Pot ) ( 1962 ) sold for $ 11 @,@ 776 @,@ 000 and set the current auction world record for a painting from the Campbell Soup can series . The painting was purchased for the collection of Eli Broad , a man who once set the record for the largest credit card transaction when he purchased Lichtenstein 's " I ... I 'm Sorry " for $ 2 @.@ 5 million with an American Express card . The $ 11 @.@ 8 million Warhol sale was part of the Christie 's Sales of Impressionist , Modern , Post @-@ War and Contemporary Art for the Spring Season of 2006 that totaled $ 438 @,@ 768 @,@ 924 .
The broad variety of work produced using a semi @-@ mechanized process with many collaborators , Warhol 's popularity , the value of his works , and the diversity of works across various media and genre have created a need for the Andy Warhol Art Authentication Board to certify the authenticity of works by Warhol .
On April 7 , 2016 , seven Campbell 's Soup Cans prints were stolen from the Springfield Art Museum . The FBI announced a $ 25 @,@ 000 reward for information about the stolen art pieces .
= = Conclusion = =
Warhol 's production of Campbell 's Soup can works underwent three distinct phases . The first took place in 1962 , during which he created realistic images , and produced numerous pencil drawings of the subject . In 1965 , Warhol revisited the theme while arbitrarily replacing the original red and white colors with a wider variety of hues . In the late 1970s , he again returned to the soup cans while inverting and reversing the images . Some in the art world consider Warhol 's work completed after his 1968 shooting — which occurred the day before the Bobby Kennedy assassination — to be less significant than that done before it .
Today , the most well @-@ remembered Warhol Campbell 's Soup can works are from the first phase . Warhol is further regarded for his iconic serial celebrity silkscreens of such people as Elvis Presley , Marilyn Monroe and Liz Taylor , produced during his 1962 – 1964 silkscreening phase . His most commonly repeated painting subjects are Taylor , Monroe , Presley , Jackie Kennedy and similar celebrities . In addition to being a notable fine artist , Warhol was a renowned cinematographer , author , and commercial illustrator . Posthumously , he became the subject of the largest single @-@ artist art museum in the United States in 1994 . Many Warhol art exhibits include footage of his cinematic directorial efforts ( e.g. , The Museum of Contemporary Art 's ANDY WARHOL / SUPERNOVA : Stars , Deaths , Disasters , 1962 – 1964 that ran from March 18 , 2006 – June 18 , 2006 ) . Some say his contributions as an artist pale in comparison to his contributions as a film @-@ maker . Others make it clear that he was not the most conventionally skilled artist of his day . Nonetheless , his techniques were emulated by other highly respected artists and his works continue to command high prices .
= Jeannette Piccard =
Jeannette Ridlon Piccard ( January 5 , 1895 – May 17 , 1981 ) was an American high @-@ altitude balloonist , and in later life an Episcopal priest . She held the women 's altitude record for nearly three decades , and according to several contemporaneous accounts was regarded as the first woman in space .
Piccard was the first licensed female balloon pilot in the U.S. , and the first woman to fly to the stratosphere . Accompanied by her husband , Jean — a member of the Piccard family of balloonists and the twin brother of Auguste Piccard — she reached a height of 10 @.@ 9 miles ( 17 @.@ 5 km ) during a record @-@ breaking flight over Lake Erie on October 23 , 1934 , retaining control of the balloon for the entire flight . After her husband 's death in 1963 , she worked as a consultant to the director of NASA 's Johnson Space Center for several years , talking to the public about NASA 's work , and was posthumously inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame in 1998 .
From the late 1960s onwards , Piccard returned to her childhood interest in religion . She was ordained a deacon of the Episcopal Church in 1971 , and on July 29 , 1974 , became one of the Philadelphia Eleven , the first women to be ordained priests — though the ordinations were regarded as irregular , performed by bishops who had retired or resigned . Piccard was the first of the women to be ordained that day , because at 79 she was the oldest , and because she was fulfilling an ambition she had had since she was 11 years old . When asked by Bishop John Allin , the head of the church , not to proceed with the ceremony , she is said to have told him , " Sonny , I 'm old enough to have changed your nappies . " In September 1976 , the church voted to allow women into the priesthood , and Piccard served as a priest in Saint Paul , Minnesota , until she died at the age of 86 . One of her granddaughters , the Rev. Kathryn Piccard , also an Episcopal priest , said of her : " She wanted to expand the idea of what a respectable lady could do . She had the image of the street @-@ wise old lady . "
= = Family and education = =
Born in Chicago , Illinois , Piccard was one of nine children born to Emily Ridlon and John Ridlon , who was president of the American Orthopaedic Association . She had a lifelong interest in science and religion . When she was 11 , her mother asked her what she wanted to be when she grew up . Piccard 's reply — " a priest " — sent her mother running out of the room in tears .
Piccard studied philosophy and psychology at Bryn Mawr College , where in 1916 she wrote an essay titled " Should Women Be Admitted to the Priesthood of the Anglican Church ? " She received her bachelor 's degree in 1918 , and went on to study organic chemistry at the University of Chicago , receiving her master 's degree in 1919 . That same year she met and married Jean Felix Piccard , who was teaching at the university .
Piccard was the mother of a house full of boys . Robert R. Gilruth , one of her students and collaborators , said later in his oral history that he remembered a breakfast he had with the Piccards in a St. Cloud , Minnesota hotel before a balloon launching , " I don 't know how many there were . It seems like there was a dozen .... I remember the youngest one took the corn flake box and dumped it on his father 's head . Of course , Piccard just brushed it off his head and said , ' No , no . ' " " He was very gentle . He loved his boys , and he thought boys would be boys , I guess . " The Piccards had three sons of their own , John , Paul , and Donald ( who would become a famous balloonist and ballooning innovator in his own right ) , as well as foster children . The Piccard family archive in the Library of Congress mentions correspondence from foster children whom the Piccards took in , although nothing else seems to be known about them .
The Piccards taught at the University of Lausanne from 1919 – 26 . In 1926 they returned to the United States , where Jean Piccard taught organic chemistry at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . The couple lived in Massachusetts , New Jersey , Delaware , and Pennsylvania before settling in Minneapolis in 1936 when Jean Piccard joined the faculty of the University of Minnesota . She received a doctorate in education from the University of Minnesota in 1942 , and a certificate of study from the General Theological Seminary in 1973 .
Gilruth made a point of describing Piccard in his oral history . He said , " She was very bright , had her own doctor 's degree , and was at least half of the brains of that family , technical as well as otherwise . … She was always in the room when he was lecturing or otherwise , almost always . She was something . She was good . " David DeVorkin , curator of the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum , wrote a history of manned scientific ballooning . In DeVorkin 's view , the Piccards " entrepreneurship and subsequent success " in ballooning was due to " their enormous persistence … and considerable confidence , pluck , and luck " .
= = Stratosphere flight = =
= = = Auguste and Jean Piccard = = =
When he visited the United States for a lecture tour , Auguste Piccard was already a Belgian national celebrity for his 1931 and 1932 stratosphere flights that set off what a United Press correspondent called a " race for supremacy in the stratosphere " , and he became a celebrity in America . He entertained the idea of flying in the U.S. until at least mid @-@ February 1933 , but he received generous funding for a flight in Belgium , and instead turned the project and his power of attorney over to his twin brother Jean . DeVorkin wrote that Jean Piccard lived his whole life in the shadow of his brother , whose success in ballooning he wanted to emulate . Jean had lost his job developing explosives at the Hercules Powder Company , and had no prospects for employment — let alone during the Great Depression — so he was happy to take on the project .
= = = Balloon and Thomas Settle flights = = =
The Century of Progress hydrogen gas balloon was the largest in the world , conceived for the 1933 Century of Progress International Exposition , a world 's fair held in Chicago to celebrate the city 's centennial . The fair 's organizers planned a balloon flight to the stratosphere and hoped to lure Auguste as pilot — the Piccard name certainly had high publicity value . Dow Chemical constructed the magnesium @-@ alloy gondola . Goodyear @-@ Zeppelin built the balloon of rubberized cloth . Union Carbide provided the hydrogen for lifting and liquid oxygen for pressurizing the gondola 's interior . The National Broadcasting Company and the Chicago Daily News were sponsors , and newspapers publicized the event . At 105 feet ( 32 m ) wide and 600 @,@ 000 cubic feet ( 17 @,@ 000 m3 ) , the balloon 's envelope took 700 hydrogen cylinders to fill .
Jean Piccard , however , became an annoyance . When he tried independently to find funding from DuPont , he told them the conditions for the balloon 's takeoff in Chicago could be dangerous , and was turned down . When he tried to go over the flight organizers heads by contacting the president of the fair ( who was a friend of Jeannette Piccard 's father ) over what he considered a slight , the president refused to see him . He battled with an associate of the fair 's director of concessions who wanted Jean out of the picture and then wanted Auguste to return to the U.S. to fly . Eventually , Jean was demoted from inflight science observer to not flying at all .
During the negotiations , the organizers agreed to give Jean and Jeannette the balloon and gondola after its initial flight , in exchange for Jean remaining on the ground . Goodyear and Arthur Compton , who served as the flight 's director of science , decided to use a U.S. Navy pilot , although Jean , who had served as a balloonist during World War I in the Swiss Army but did not have a U.S. license , thought he would be co @-@ pilot until two months before flight day . The Piccard name ( which bore considerable publicity value ) was kept prominently when the flight was named " The Piccard @-@ Compton Stratosphere Ascension from Soldier Field " .
Gradually , the idea of a Navy pilot won , and Jean signed a memorandum of understanding with the organizers that said he would remain on the ground , " permitting Commander Settle to go alone . The reduction in weight thereby produced will most assuredly enable Commander Settle to reach a higher altitude " . On the night of August 4 , 1933 , in front of forty thousand spectators in Soldier Field , as the balloon was being inflated , the fair 's general manager said :
The sportsmanship and unselfishness displayed by Dr. Jean Piccard in surrendering his place in the balloon so that a greater altitude may be achieved through the lessened weight of himself and his equipment — is a note of sacrifice that will not be forgotten .
Lt. Cmdr. Thomas ( Tex ) G. W. Settle of the U.S. Navy made the first flight solo in the balloon at 3 : 00 a.m. on August 5 , but his ascent was aborted shortly after takeoff because a gas release valve malfunctioned . The balloon then belonged to the Piccards but the armed forces again decided to use it ( Jean , who at the time disliked the military , wrote to Auguste in December 1933 , " The Navy and the Army are very stupid … " ) . Jean wrote to the gondola manufacturer in September 1933 :
Mrs. Piccard and I cannot see that our lives are so very valuable .... Without a job , without a laboratory on the ground we are not in a position to render any service to humanity
On November 20 , 1933 , with only a few hundred onlookers this time , Settle and Maj. Chester L. Fordney of the U.S. Marine Corps flew the Century of Progress balloon from Akron , Ohio , reaching 61 @,@ 237 feet ( 18 @,@ 665 m ) , a new Fédération Aéronautique Internationale ( FAI ) altitude record . It was the first successful flight from U.S. soil to the stratosphere , and Settle and Fordney became the first Americans to reach the stratosphere . They landed in a marsh near Bridgeton , New Jersey , only a few miles from the Piccards ' home .
= = = Planning and pilot 's license = = =
After Settle 's record flight , the balloon was again returned to the Piccards , who decided to fly it to the stratosphere on their own . Jean would concentrate on the science , while Jeannette would pilot the balloon . DeVorkin wrote that , " Energetic and forceful , she seemed to have a better chance of obtaining a pilot 's license than Jean , who was preoccupied with restoring the gondola and balloon and convincing scientists to provide instruments to fly " . She studied at Ford Airport in Dearborn , Michigan under Edward J. Hill , a balloonist and Gordon Bennett Cup winner , who agreed to serve as flight director for the Piccards ' planned stratospheric flight . Henry Ford offered the use of his hangar and brought Orville Wright ( with his brother Wilbur , inventor of the airplane and first human to fly a heavier @-@ than @-@ air powered aircraft ) to observe a flight of Jeannette 's in 1933 . Her son Don was a crew member that day and shook hands with Wright , " I was a little kid and he [ paid ] attention to me . " On June 16 , 1934 , Jeannette flew her first solo flight . Later that year , the National Aeronautic Association made her the first woman licensed balloon pilot in the U.S. Auguste wrote to Jean in June 1934 , " Hopefully you will make your flight ahead of other competitors . It would be nice , if the name of Piccard through Jeannette , would once more be placed on the record list of the F.A.I. "
When she was interviewed near the end of her life , and asked why she hadn 't hired a pilot and why she had decided to become a pilot herself , Jeannette replied , " How much loyalty can you count on from someone you hire ? " When she was asked if she had parachute training , Jeannette said , " No … if , on the first time you jump , you don 't succeed , there 's no use trying again . "
= = = Search for funding = = =
High altitude ballooning was a dangerous undertaking , partly because human lungs cannot function unaided over 40 @,@ 000 – 50 @,@ 000 feet ( 12 @,@ 000 – 15 @,@ 000 m ) , and partly because the lifting gas used , hydrogen , is flammable . Jeannette said later that , " The National Geographic Society would have nothing to do with sending a woman — a mother — in a balloon into danger " . Longtime Piccard family backer Goodyear were reluctant to support their flight . Dow Chemical asked that their trade names and logo be removed from publicity and from the Century of Progress balloon .
Gilruth said , " I remember that Piccard was very , very hurt by the National Geographic that would not give them a dime .... Both he and Jeanette said that they were discriminated against by the National Geographic . That 's not a good word . They were not aided in any way by the National Geographic , and they felt it was not really warranted . They felt they should have gotten some help from them .... [ He ] didn 't say why , but they certainly didn 't feel they 'd been handled fairly . " The Piccards struggled to gain financial support until the Grigsby @-@ Grunow Radio Company advanced them several thousand dollars . The Detroit Aero Club and People 's Outfitting Company also backed them . To supplement their sponsorship , Jeannette designed and sold commemorative stamps and souvenir programs and folders . She also raised a good deal of money by selling their story in press releases to the North American Newspaper Alliance .
= = = Flight = = =
Forty @-@ five thousand spectators came to see the Piccards off on October 23 , 1934 , at 6 : 51 am , about two hours behind schedule . Jeannette piloted the reconditioned Century of Progress , and the couple took along their pet turtle , Fleur de Lys . After a brief pre @-@ launch ceremony , during which the Piccards received a bouquet from their sons and a small band played The Star @-@ Spangled Banner , they lifted off from Ford Airport , assisted by airmen on the ground who pushed the gondola . Jean changed the flight path and shortened the flight time because of cloudy skies , which reduced the amount of scientific work they were able to do . Jeannette made " unplanned and impulsive maneuvres " and the Piccards failed to make complete records of their actions during the flight . The newspaper alliance had offered to pay them US $ 1 @,@ 000 if they broke the altitude record , so they jettisoned all of their sandbags , attempting to go higher . They reached 57 @,@ 579 feet ( 17 @,@ 550 m ) or about 10 @.@ 9 miles ( 17 @.@ 5 km ) up , travelled for eight hours on a journey over Lake Erie , and landed about 300 miles ( 480 km ) away from Dearborn , near Cadiz , Ohio . She had to choose a landing on elm trees , realizing that meant the Century of Progress would never fly again . The balloon separated from the gondola and was ripped . Jean sustained small fractures to his ribs , left foot , and ankle . According to Jeannette 's description in Time magazine : " What a mess ! I wanted to land on the White House lawn . "
= = = Legacy = = =
Her flight set the women 's altitude record , and held it for 29 years , until Valentina Tereshkova in 1963 became the first woman in space , orbiting the Earth 48 times solo in the Soviet Union 's Vostok 6 . According to the editors of Flying magazine , in their book Sport Flying , published by Ziff @-@ Davis in 1976 , Jeannette was " the first woman in space , a claim allowed even by Valentina Tereshkova . " She was also the first woman to pilot a flight to the stratosphere , and according to her obituary in The New York Times , the first person to do so through a layer of clouds . Jean created the liquid oxygen converter and frost @-@ resistant window which he thought was later used in Boeing 's B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress , and used blasting caps and TNT for releasing the balloon at launch and for remote release of external ballast from inside the sealed cabin . This was the first use of pyrotechnics for remote @-@ controlled actuating
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devices in aircraft , a revolutionary and unpopular idea at the time . Later , Gilruth – who became the director of the NASA Manned Spacecraft Center – approved and used them in spacecraft . Also aboard the balloon , where every pound counts , were two instruments for studying cosmic radiation – one designed by Jean 's friend and mentor William Francis Gray Swann , and Robert Millikan 's 540 lb ( 240 kg ) ionization chamber . Neither Swann nor Millikan were satisfied with the flight 's scientific results , a lesson for manned flights that repeated for decades .
= = Later life , death of Jean Piccard = =
Jean and Jeannette felt they had succeeded by reaching the stratosphere , and they became popular lecturers . They prepared brochures and souvenirs to attract attention to the flight , one titled " Who Said We Couldn 't Do It . " But they had developed perhaps unreasonable expectations that lucrative university positions would come to them . Both wrote to dozens of colleges and universities , aiming high — even at college presidencies , trying to secure positions , but they received only rejections . In December 1934 , Jeannette wrote to Swann to ask if Jean might become a member of the chemistry staff of Bartol Research at the Franklin Institute , and also offered her services , but was turned down . Luckily , they met a new advocate while on lecture tour to Minneapolis . Thanks to John Akerman of the department of aeronautical engineering at the University of Minnesota , Jean became an untenured professor in Minnesota by 1936 , teaching and doing aeronautical studies until 1946 when he received tenure . During 1943 , Jeannette was briefly an executive secretary at the housing section of the Minnesota Office of Civil Defense .
In 1946 until mid @-@ 1947 , the Piccards were consultants to General Mills ( the cereal company and dominant industry in Minneapolis ) working under Otto Winzen , who Jean had met through the university . Winzen and Jean proposed a stratosphere flight with 100 cluster balloons and secured a government contract with the Navy . Featured in Navy press releases , Jean was named a project scientist responsible for gondola design and for testing the balloon film materials . But he balked , both at making weekly status reports that made him feel like a lower @-@ level employee , and at the prospect of General Mills owning the patents to his ideas . Working as a consultant , Jeannette threatened to break off ties with the Navy and General Mills unless she was allowed to fly with Jean . Unfortunately this began a rift between General Mills and the Piccards . They were both were fired in 1947 , for they were too critical of Winzen and General Mills staff .
Jean retired from the University of Minnesota when he was 68 , never giving up his dream of returning to the stratosphere . DeVorkin quoted a newspaper in 1952 , " to Adventurer Piccard , no gondola probing the unexplored purple twilight of the stratosphere would be complete without him and his wife in it " . Jean died in 1963 .
Gilruth asked Jeannette to work as a consultant at NASA . She accepted and lived in a house in Houston she shared with another woman . Jeannette spoke to the scientific community and to the public at NASA about the space program from 1964 to 1970 , when Project Apollo was created and Apollo 11 made the first manned Moon landing in 1969 . Gilruth then noticed a shift in her interests , away from space and towards religion .
= = Episcopal priest = =
= = = Ordination = = =
In 1971 , one year after the Episcopal Church admitted female deacons , Piccard was ordained a deacon and , on July 29 , 1974 at age 79 , under controversial circumstances , she was ordained a priest . In Philadelphia , at the Church of the Advocate , three retired bishops – Daniel Corrigan , former church head of domestic missions , Robert L. De Witt of the diocese of Pennsylvania , and Edward Randolph Welles II of the diocese of West Missouri – ordained eleven women priests , cheered by a large congregation . A fourth bishop , José Antonio Ramos of Costa Rica , was there but was out of his jurisdiction . All eleven women risked suspension as deacons , and the four bishops " could be suspended or deposed by a church trial court " for ignoring a church canon prohibiting retired bishops from performing " episcopal acts " unless asked by a local bishop . Five Episcopal priests objected at the point in the service when Corrigan asked if there was " any impediment " to the ordinations , one calling the ordinations a " perversion " and another calling them " unlawful and schismatical " .
Piccard was the first of the eleven women ordained because she was the oldest and she was fulfilling a lifelong dream . Carter Heyward – another of the group who were known as " irregulars " and sometimes called the " Philadelphia Eleven " – became the 1974 Ms. magazine Woman of the Year . Suzanne Hiatt later said " In retrospect , to have been ordained ' irregularly ' is the only way for women to have done it . " Alison Cheek , Heyward , and Piccard joined in the consecration , and Piccard gave the absolution , in a celebration of the Eucharist at Riverside Church in Manhattan in November 1974 . Philip McNairy of the Diocese of Minnesota , who wanted women in the priesthood , was concerned that the eleven were hurting the cause of the other women deacons , who numbered over one hundred at the time .
= = = Fallout , women recognized = = =
A proposal to recognize women priests had been narrowly defeated at the triennial general convention of 1973 held in Louisville , Kentucky . John M. Allin of Mississippi , the new ( as of June ) presiding bishop of the Episcopal Church , which had 3 @.@ 1 million members at the time , called an emergency meeting of the House of Bishops in Chicago in August 1974 . Jeannette told Allin , " Sonny , I 'm old enough to have changed your nappies . "
Harold B. Robinson , a bishop in the diocese of Western New York , and two colleagues set in motion charges accusing the three bishops of breaking their vows and violating church laws . They withdrew charges when the House of Bishops , in a carefully worded resolution that passed 129 to 9 with 8 abstensions , challenged the ordinations and decried the bishops ' actions , calling them understandable but " wrong " . But the church was moving in this direction already , and the general convention of 1976 held in Minneapolis voted to open the priesthood to women .
= = = Life as a priest = = =
Jeannette served as a deacon or irregular at St. Philip 's Episcopal Church in Saint Paul , Minnesota from 1975 – 1977 . In 1977 the Episcopal Church recognized her ordination . Kathryn Piccard , her granddaughter , who also became an Episcopal priest , was later quoted in The New York Times as saying , " She wanted to expand the idea of what a respectable lady could do . She had the image of the street @-@ wise old lady . " Jeannette became a volunteer chaplain at St. Luke 's Hospital , now United Hospital , and assistant pastor to Denzil Carty at Episcopal Church on Maccubin , both in Saint Paul . From 1968 until 1981 she was an honorary member of the Seabury @-@ Western Theological Seminary board of trustees .
Jeannette died of cancer on May 17 , 1981 at the Masonic Memorial Hospital in Minneapolis , Minnesota , aged 86 .
= = Honors = =
Jeannette received the Harmon Trophy in 1934 . The National Aeronautic Association gave her a Certificate of Reward & Performance in 1935 . In 1965 she received the first William Randolph Lovelace II Award from the American Astronautical Society ( AAS ) . The University of Minnesota Alumni Association gave her an Outstanding Achievement Award in 1968 and engraved her name on their wall of honor . Graduate Women in Science , also known as Sigma Delta Epsilon , made her an honorary member " For Excellence In Scientific Research " in 1971 . Hobart and William Smith Colleges gave her an honorary doctorate . She received the Robert R. Gilruth Award in 1970 from the North Galveston County Chamber of Commerce .
She was posthumously inducted into the International Space Hall of Fame in 1998 , and she and her husband were nominated to the FAI Ballooning Commission Hall of Fame . The Balloon Federation of America renamed its award the Piccard Memorial Trophy . Pat Donohue wrote Solo Flight , a one @-@ woman play about Jeannette 's life . The Bryn Mawr College Library has the Jeanette Ridlon Piccard Book Fund , which provides funds for the purchase of books on the history of religion .
= City Lights =
City Lights is a 1931 American pre @-@ Code silent romantic comedy film written , directed by , and starring Charlie Chaplin . The story follows the misadventures of Chaplin 's Tramp as he falls in love with a blind girl ( Virginia Cherrill ) and develops a turbulent friendship with an alcoholic millionaire ( Harry Myers ) .
Although sound films were on the rise when Chaplin started developing the script in 1928 , he decided to continue working with silent productions . Filming started in December 1928 , and ended in September 1930 . City Lights marked the first time Chaplin composed the film score to one of his productions and it was written in six weeks with Arthur Johnston . The main theme used as a leitmotif for the blind flower girl is the song " La Violetera " ( " Who ’ ll Buy my Violets " ) from Spanish composer José Padilla . Chaplin lost a lawsuit to Padilla for not crediting him .
City Lights was immediately successful upon release on January 30 , 1931 with positive reviews and box office receipts of $ 5 million . Today , critics consider it not only the highest accomplishment of Chaplin 's career , but one of the greatest films ever made . In 1991 , the Library of Congress selected City Lights for preservation in the United States National Film Registry as being " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " . In 2007 , the American Film Institute 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ranked City Lights as the 11th greatest American film of all time . In 1949 , the critic James Agee referred to the final scene in the film as the " greatest single piece of acting ever committed to celluloid " .
= = Plot = =
The officials of a city unveil a new statue , only to find The Tramp sleeping on it . They shoo him away and he wanders the streets , destitute and homeless , and is soon tormented by two newsboys . He happens upon a beautiful Flower Girl ( Virginia Cherrill ) , not realizing at first that she is blind , and buys a flower . Just when she is about to give him his change , a man gets into a nearby luxury car and is driven away , making her think that the Tramp has departed . The Tramp tiptoes away .
That evening , the Tramp runs into a drunken millionaire ( Harry Myers ) who is attempting suicide on the waterfront . ( It is later mentioned that his wife has sent for her bags . ) The Tramp eventually convinces The Millionaire he should live . He takes the Tramp back to his mansion and gives him a change of clothes . They go out for a night on the town , where the Tramp inadvertently causes much havoc . Early the next morning , they return to the mansion and encounter the Flower Girl en route to her vending spot . The Tramp asks The Millionaire for some money , which he uses to buy all the girl 's flowers and then drives her home in the Millionaire 's Rolls @-@ Royce .
After he leaves , the Flower Girl tells her grandmother ( Florence Lee ) about her wealthy acquaintance . When the Tramp returns to the mansion , the Millionaire has sobered @-@ up and does not remember him , so he has the butler order him out . Later that day , the Millionaire meets the Tramp again while intoxicated and invites him home for a lavish party . The next morning , having sobered again and planning to leave for a cruise , the Millionaire again has the Tramp tossed out .
Returning to the Flower Girl 's apartment , the Tramp spies her being attended by a doctor . Deciding to take a job to earn money for her , he becomes a street sweeper . Meanwhile , the grandmother receives a notice that she and the girl will be evicted if they cannot pay their back rent by the next day , but she hides it . The Tramp visits the girl on his lunch break and sees a newspaper story about a Viennese doctor who has devised an operation that cures blindness . He then finds the eviction notice and reads it aloud at the girl 's request . He reassures her that he will pay the rent . But he returns to work late and is fired .
As he is walking away , a boxer persuades him to stage a fake fight , promising to split the $ 50 prize money . Just before the bout , however , the man receives a telegram warning him that the police are after him . He flees , leaving the Tramp a no @-@ nonsense replacement opponent . Despite a valiant effort , the Tramp is knocked out .
Some time later , he meets the drunken millionaire who has just returned from Europe . The Millionaire takes him to the mansion , and after he hears the girl 's plight , he gives the Tramp $ 1 @,@ 000 to give to the girl for her operation . Unbeknownst to the Millionaire and the Tramp , two burglars were hiding in the house when they entered . Upon hearing about the cash , they knock out the millionaire and take the rest of his money . The Tramp telephones for the police , but the robbers flee before they arrive , and the butler assumes he stole the money . The Millionaire cannot remember the Tramp or giving him the $ 1 @,@ 000 . The Tramp narrowly escapes and gives the money to the girl , saying he will be going away for a while . Later , he is arrested in front of the newsboys who taunted him earlier , and he is then jailed .
Months later , the Tramp is released . Searching for the girl , he returns to her customary street corner but does not find her . With her sight restored , the girl has opened up a flourishing flower shop with her grandmother . When a rich customer comes into the shop , the girl briefly wonders if he is her mysterious benefactor . But when he leaves with no acknowledgement , she realizes again she is wrong . While retrieving a flower from the gutter outside the shop , the Tramp is again tormented by the two newsboys . As he turns to leave , he finds himself staring at the girl through the window . His despair turns to elation and he forgets about the flower . Seeing that he has crushed the flower he retrieved , the girl kindly offers him a fresh one and a coin . Embarrassed , the Tramp tries to shuffle away , but the girl stops him and hands him the flower , which he shyly takes . When the girl takes hold of his hand to place the coin in it , she recognizes the touch of his hand and realizes he is no stranger . " You ? " she says , and he nods , asking , " You can see now ? " She tearfully replies , " Yes , I can see now " , and holds the Tramp 's hand close to her chest . Tearful and elated , the Tramp smiles at the girl shyly as the film fades to black .
= = Cast = =
Virginia Cherrill as A Blind Girl
Florence Lee as Her Grandmother
Harry Myers as An Eccentric Millionaire
Al Ernest Garcia as His Butler ( credited as Allan Garcia )
Hank Mann as A Prizefighter
Charlie Chaplin as A Tramp
Uncredited :
Robert Parrish as Newsboy
Henry Bergman as Mayor and Blind Girl 's Downstairs Neighbor
Albert Austin as Street Sweeper / Burglar
Jean Harlow Extra , nightclub scene ( cut from film )
= = Production = =
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
Chaplin 's feature The Circus , released in 1928 , was his last film before the motion picture industry embraced sound recording and brought the silent movie era to a close . As his own producer and distributor ( part owner of United Artists ) , Chaplin could still conceive City Lights as a silent film . Technically the film was a crossover , as its soundtrack had synchronized music , sound effects , and some unintelligible sounds that copied speech pattern films . The dialogue was presented on intertitles . Chaplin was first contacted by inventor Eugene Augustin Lauste in 1918 about making a sound film , but he never ended up meeting with Lauste . Chaplin was dismissive about " talkies " and told a reporter that he would " give the talkies three years , that 's all . " He was also concerned about how to adjust the Little Tramp to sound films .
In early 1928 , Chaplin began writing the script with Harry Carr . The plot gradually grew from an initial concept Chaplin had considered after the success of The Circus , where a circus clown goes blind and has to conceal his handicap from his young daughter by pretending that his inability to see are pratfalls . This inspired the Blind Girl . The first scenes Chaplin thought up were of the ending , where the newly cured blind girl sees the Little Tramp for the first time . A highly detailed description of the scene was written , as Chaplin considered it to be the center of the entire film .
For a subplot , Chaplin first considered a character even lower on the social scale , a black newsboy . Eventually he opted for a drunken millionaire , a character previously used in the 1921 short The Idle Class . The millionaire plot was based on an old idea Chaplin had for a short in which two millionaires pick up the Little Tramp from the city dump and show him a good time in expensive clubs before dropping him back off at the dump , so when he woke up , the Tramp would not know if it was real or a dream . This was rewritten into a millionaire who is a friend of the Tramp when drunk but does not recognize him when sober .
Chaplin officially began pre @-@ production of the film in May 1928 and hired Australian art director Henry Clive to design the sets that summer . Chaplin eventually cast Clive in the role of the millionaire . Although the film was originally set in Paris , the art direction is inspired by a mix of several cities . Robert Sherwood said that " it is a weird city , with confusing resemblances to London , Los Angeles , Naples , Paris , Tangiers and Council Bluffs . It is no city on earth and it is all cities . "
On August 28 , 1928 , Chaplin 's mother Hannah Chaplin died at the age of 63 . Chaplin was distraught for several weeks and pre @-@ production did not resume until mid fall of 1928 . Psychologist Stephen Weissman has hypothesized that City Lights is highly autobiographical , with the blind girl representing Chaplin 's mother , while the drunken millionaire represents Chaplin 's father . Weissman also compared many of the film 's sets with locations from Chaplin 's real childhood , such as the statue in the opening scene resembling St. Mark 's Church on Kennington Park Road and Chaplin referring to the waterfront set as the Thames Embankment .
Chaplin had interviewed several actresses to play the blind flower girl but was unimpressed with them all . While seeing a film shoot with bathing women in a Santa Monica beach , he found a casual acquaintance , Virginia Cherrill . Cherrill waved and asked if she would ever get the chance to work with him . After a series of poor auditions from other actresses , Chaplin eventually invited her to do a screen test . She was the first actress to subtly and convincingly act blind on camera due to her near @-@ sightedness , and Cherrill signed a contract on November 1 , 1928 .
= = = Principal photography = = =
Filming for City Lights officially began on December 27 , 1928 , after Chaplin and Carr had worked on the script for almost an entire year . As a filmmaker , Chaplin was known for being a perfectionist ; he was noted for doing many more " takes " than other directors at the time . Production began with the first scene at the flower stand where the Little Tramp first meets the Blind Flower Girl . The scene took weeks to shoot , and Chaplin first began to have second thoughts about casting Cherrill . Years later , Cherrill said , " I never liked Charlie and he never liked me . " In his autobiography , Chaplin took responsibility for his on @-@ set tensions with Cherrill , blaming the stress of making the film for the conflict . Filming the scene continued until February 1929 and again for ten days in early April before Chaplin put the scene aside to be filmed later . He then shot the opening scene of the Little Tramp waking up in a newly unveiled public statue . This scene involved up to 380 extras and was especially stressful for Chaplin to shoot . During this part of shooting , construction was being done at Chaplin Studios because the city of Los Angeles had decided to widen La Brea Avenue and Chaplin was forced to move several buildings away from the road .
Chaplin then shot the sequence where the Little Tramp first meets the millionaire and prevents him from committing suicide . During filming , Henry Clive suddenly decided that he did not want to jump into the tank of cold water in the scene , causing Chaplin to storm off the set and fire Clive . He was quickly replaced by Harry Myers , who Chaplin had known while under contract at Keystone Studios . Chaplin finished shooting the sequence on July 29 , 1929 with exteriors at Pasadena Bridge . Chaplin then shot a sequence that was eventually cut from the film involving the Little Tramp attempting to retrieve a stick that was stuck in a wall . The scene included a young Charles Lederer ; Chaplin later praised the scene , but insisted that it needed to be cut . He then continued filming the scenes with the millionaire until September 29 , 1929 .
In November , Chaplin began working with Cherrill again in some of the Flower Girl 's less dramatic scenes . While waiting for her scenes for several months , Cherrill had become bored and openly complained to Chaplin . During the filming of one scene , Cherrill asked Chaplin if she could leave early so that she could go to a hair appointment . Chaplin fired Virginia Cherrill and replaced her with Georgia Hale , Chaplin 's co @-@ star in The Gold Rush . However , Hale 's screen tests proved that she was unsuitable for the role . Chaplin also briefly considered sixteen @-@ year @-@ old actress Violet Krauth , but he was talked out of this idea by his collaborators . Chaplin finally re @-@ hired Cherrill to finish City Lights . She demanded and got a raise to $ 75 per week . Approximately seven minutes of test footage of Hale survives and is included on the DVD release ; excerpts were first seen in the documentary Unknown Chaplin along with an unused opening sequence .
Chaplin then cast Florence D. Lee as the Blind Girl 's grandmother and shot scenes with Cherrill and Lee for five weeks . In late 1929 , Chaplin re @-@ shot the first Flower Shop scene with Cherrill . This time , the scene was completed in six days and Chaplin was happy with Cherrill 's performance . Chaplin had been shooting the film for a year and was only a little more than half way finished . From March to April 1930 , Chaplin shot the scenes inside of the millionaire 's house at the Town House on Wilshire Boulevard . He hired Joe Van Meter and Albert Austin , whom he had known since his days working for Fred Karno , as the burglars . In the late spring of 1930 , Chaplin shot the last major comedy sequence : the boxing match . Chaplin hired Keystone actor Hank Mann to play the Tramp 's opponent . The scene required 100 extras and Chaplin took four days to rehearse and six to shoot the scene and was shot between June 23 and 30 . Chaplin was initially nervous over the attendance for this scene so he invited his friends to be extras . Over 100 extras were present . Chaplin ’ s performance in the scene was so humorous that more people arrived daily to be an extra .
In July and August , Chaplin finished up six weeks of smaller scenes , including the two scenes of the Tramp being harassed by newsboys , one of whom was played by a young Robert Parrish .
In September 1930 , Chaplin finished the shooting of the final scene which took six days . Chaplin said that he was happy with Cherrill 's performance in the scene , and that she had eventually understood the role . When talking about his directing style on set , Chaplin stated that " everything I do is a dance . I think in terms of dance . I think more so in City Lights . "
From October to December 1930 , Chaplin edited the film and created the title cards . When he completed the film , silent films had become generally unpopular . But City Lights was one of the great financial and artistic successes of Chaplin 's career , and it was his personal favorite of his films . Especially fond of the final scene , he said , " [ I ] n City Lights just the last scene ... I ’ m not acting .... Almost apologetic , standing outside myself and looking ... It ’ s a beautiful scene , beautiful , and because it isn ’ t over @-@ acted . "
The amount of film used for the picture was uncharacteristic for the time and was a sign of the long production process . Chaplin shot 314 @,@ 256 feet of film , and the completed film ran 8 @,@ 093 feet . This made a shooting ratio of over 38 feet of film for each foot of film that made it in the final version .
= = = Music = = =
City Lights marked the first time Chaplin composed the film score to one of his productions . While Chaplin preferred his films to have live sound by the 1930s most theaters had gotten rid of their orchestras . Many of his critics claimed he was doing it to grab more credit . Chaplin , whose parents and many members of the Chaplin family were both musicians , was struggling with the professional musicians he hired and took it upon himself to compose the score himself . It was written in six weeks with Arthur Johnston and included over one hundred musical cues . Chaplin told a reporter that " I really didn 't write it down . I la @-@ laed and Arthur Johnson wrote it down , and I wish you would give him credit because he did a very good job . It is all simple music , you know , in keeping with my character . " The intention was to have a score that would translate the characters ' emotions through its melodies . The score was recorded in five days with musical arranger Alfred Newman .
The main theme used as a leitmotif for the blind flower girl is the song " La Violetera " ( " Who ’ ll Buy my Violets " ) from Spanish composer José Padilla . Chaplin was unable to secure the original song performer , Raquel Meller , in the lead role , but used her song anyway as a major theme . Chaplin lost a lawsuit to Padilla ( which took place in Paris , where Padilla lived ) for not crediting him . Some modern editions released for video include a new recording by Carl Davis .
= = Release , reception , and legacy = =
Two weeks prior to the premiere , Chaplin decided to have an unpublicized preview at Los Angeles ' Tower Theatre . It went poorly , attracting a small and unenthusiastic crowd . Better results were seen at the gala premiere on January 30 , 1931 at the Los Angeles Theater . Albert Einstein and his wife were the guests of honor , and the film received a standing ovation . It next premiered at the George M. Cohan Theater in New York where Chaplin closely supervised the release , spending the day doing interviews , and previously spending $ 60 @,@ 000 on the advertising , as he was frustrated with what UA 's publicists had come up with . Chaplin demanded half of the total gross , and considering audiences would be more attracted by the film itself than its technology , he demanded higher ticket prices compared to talkies .
Chaplin was nervous about the film 's reception because , by this time , silent films were becoming obsolete , and the preview had undermined his confidence . Nevertheless , City Lights became one of Chaplin 's most financially successful and critically acclaimed works . Following the good reception by American audiences , with earnings of $ 2 million , a quarter of which came from its 12 @-@ week run at the Cohan , Chaplin went on a sixteen @-@ date world tour between February and March 1932 , starting with a premiere at London 's Dominion Theatre on February 27 . The film was enthusiastically received by Depression @-@ era audiences , earning $ 5 million during its initial release .
Reviews were mostly positive . A film critic for the Los Angeles Examiner said that " not since I reviewed the first Chaplin comedies way back in the two @-@ reel days has Charlie given us such an orgy of laughs . " The New York Times reviewer Mordaunt Hall considered it " a film worked out with admirable artistry " . Variety declared it was " not Chaplin 's best picture " but that certain sequences were " hilarious . " The New Yorker wrote that it was " on the order of his other [ films ] , perhaps a little better than any of them " and that it gave an impression " not often - oh , very seldom - found in the movies ; an indefinable impression perhaps best described as a quality of charm . " On the other hand , Alexander Bakshy of The Nation was highly critical of City Lights , objecting to the silent format and over @-@ sentimentality and describing it as " Chaplin 's feeblest " .
The popularity of City Lights endured , with the film 's re @-@ release in 1950 again positively received by audiences and critics . In 1949 , the critic James Agee wrote in Life magazine , that the final scene was the " greatest single piece of acting ever committed to celluloid . " Richard Meryman called the final scene one of the greatest moments in film history . Charles Silver , Curator of Film at the Museum of Modern Art , stated that the film is so highly regarded because it brought forth a new level of lyrical romanticism that had not appeared in Chaplin 's earlier works . He adds that like all romanticism , it is based in the denial of the real world around it . When the film premiered , Chaplin was much older , he was in the midst of another round of legal battles with former spouse Lita Grey , and the economic and political climate of the world had changed . Chaplin uses the Girl 's blindness to remind the Tramp of the precarious nature of romanticism in the real world , as she unknowingly assaults him multiple times . Film.com critic Eric D. Snider said that by 1931 , most Hollywood filmmakers either embraced talking pictures , resigned themselves to their inevitability , or just gave up making movies , yet Chaplin held firm with his vision in this project . He also noted that few in Hollywood had the clout to make a silent film at that late date , let alone do it well . One reason was that Chaplin knew the Tramp could not be adapted to talking movies and still work .
Several well @-@ known directors have praised City Lights . Orson Welles said it was his favorite film . In a 1963 interview in the American magazine Cinema , Stanley Kubrick rated City Lights as fifth among his top ten films . In 1972 , the renowned Russian director Andrei Tarkovsky placed City Lights as fifth among his top ten and said of Chaplin , " He is the only person to have gone down into cinematic history without any shadow of a doubt . The films he left behind can never grow old . " George Bernard Shaw called Chaplin " the only genius to come out of the movie industry " . Celebrated Italian director Federico Fellini often praised this film , and his Nights of Cabiria refers to it . In the 2003 documentary Charlie : The Life and Art of Charles Chaplin , Woody Allen said it was Chaplin 's best picture . Allen is said to have based the final scene of his 1979 film Manhattan on its final scene . Chaplin biographer Jeffrey Vance has summarized all the best criticism and all the notable filmmakers who have singled out City Lights as their favorite Chaplin film throughout the decades in the Criterion Collection audio commentary track for the film . Vance has written that among all the praise afforded the film can be added that " City Lights also holds the distinction of being Chaplin 's own favorite of all his films . "
French experimental musician and film critic Michel Chion has written an analysis of City Lights , published as Les Lumières de la ville . Slavoj Žižek used the film as a primary example in his essay " Why Does a Letter Always Arrive at Its Destination ? " . Chaplin 's original " Tramp " suit from the film was donated by him to the Museum of Natural History of Los Angeles County .
City Lights was released as a dual format Blu @-@ ray and DVD by the Criterion Collection in 2013 with an audio commentary track by Chaplin biographer and scholar Jeffrey Vance
= = = Accolades = = =
In 1952 , Sight and Sound magazine revealed the results of its first poll for " The Best Films of All Time " ; City Lights was voted # 2 , after Vittorio DeSica 's Bicycle Thieves . In 2002 , City Lights ranked 45th on the critics ' list . That same year , directors were polled separately and ranked the film as 19th overall . In 1992 , the Library of Congress selected City Lights for preservation in the United States National Film Registry as being " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant . " In 2007 , the American Film Institute 's tenth anniversary edition of 100 Years ... 100 Movies ranked City Lights as the 11th greatest American film of all time , an improvement over the 76th position on the original list . AFI also chose the film as the best romantic comedy of American cinema in 2008 's " 10 Top 10 " . The Tramp was number 38 on AFI 's list of the 50 Best Heroes , and the film ranked at 38th among the funniest films , 10th among the greatest love stories , and 33rd on the most inspiring films .
= 2000 UEFA Cup Final riots =
The 2000 UEFA Cup Final Riots , also known as the Battle of Copenhagen , were a series of riots in City Hall Square in Copenhagen , Denmark , between fans of English football team Arsenal and Turkish side Galatasaray around the 2000 UEFA Cup Final on 17 May 2000 . The scuffles , in which four people were stabbed , also involved fans from other clubs and were viewed by the media as part of a retaliation for the killing of two Leeds United fans by Galatasaray supporters the month before .
The events of the day started early in the morning when skirmishes broke out in a bar , which led to an Arsenal fan being stabbed . Later in the day , Galatasaray fans occupied City Hall Square before heading towards Arsenal fans in bars nearby . The Galatasaray fans were later attacked from behind by members of British hooligan firms seeking revenge for the Istanbul stabbings . Despite deploying 2 @,@ 000 officers to the area and having prior warning of potential trouble , the police were unable to control the riot until they fired tear gas at the rioters . This led to 19 injuries , including 4 stabbings , and 60 arrests with similar events occurring in England and Turkey in the aftermath of the riots .
The riots were condemned by football authorities with threats of expulsion of national football teams from European competition being given out if similar events happened again . The Danish police also were criticized for their handling of the riots .
= = History = =
Arsenal qualified for the final by defeating French club Lens in their semi @-@ final . Galatasaray beat English team Leeds United but their matches were marred by violence : two Leeds United fans were stabbed to death before their semi @-@ final first leg at Galatasaray 's Ali Sami Yen Stadium in Istanbul on 6 April 2000 . The events happened at 22 : 00 in Istanbul 's Taksim Square during a fight between Leeds fans and Galatasaray fans . Leeds fans had been drinking in bars reportedly taunting local people and Turkish police intervened to stop fights breaking out . There were reports that a Galatasaray fan had run to a telephone to call for support when he saw Leeds fans arriving . Galatasaray fans entered the area shortly afterwards which precipitated a fight between the two sets of supporters . This led to the two Leeds fans being stabbed .
It was not clear how the fight started , with reports of it either being started by Leeds fans throwing beer glasses and insulting the Turkish flag , or being started by Galatasaray fans throwing chairs . Police arrested Ali Umit Demir and three other men for the stabbings . Demir was later found guilty of murder and was sentenced to 15 years imprisonment . As a result of the stabbings , Leeds United banned Galatasaray fans from attending the second leg at Elland Road , claiming that the safety of fans could not be guaranteed . The ban was supported by UEFA and only 80 tickets were issued to Galatasaray for officials and representatives of the Turkish government .
The stabbings caused anger throughout the United Kingdom , and subsequently members of Arsenal 's hooligan firms The Herd and The Gooners , wanted to avenge the deaths of the Leeds fans , and telephoned other British hooligan firms , inviting them to join them in Copenhagen to attack Galatasaray fans . It was reported that members of Leeds United 's Leeds United Service Crew and Chelsea 's Chelsea Headhunters , along with hooligans supporting Rangers , Cardiff City and Swansea City all travelled to Denmark to join Arsenal fans in attacks on Galatasaray fans . This led to the final being considered " high risk " ; 2 @,@ 000 members of the Danish police were assigned to the game , with assistance from members of British and Turkish police forces .
= = Events = =
On the Wednesday at 1 : 00 , Galatasaray fans attacked a bar in Strøget in Copenhagen , where some Arsenal fans were located . The Arsenal fans left the club to confront the Galatasaray fans , which led to a fight lasting for an hour before riot police managed to control it and arrested 4 Britons and 4 Turks . In the fight , Paul Dineen , an Arsenal fan , was stabbed , leading to Arsenal offering fans refunds if they did not want to fly to the game . Dineen was released from hospital later in the day and attended the match as a guest of the Arsenal directors .
Throughout the day large numbers of fans , both English and Turkish , were seen throughout the city and at the airport . Later , large numbers of Galatasaray fans congregated in Copenhagen 's City Hall Square , raising the Turkish flag in the square . Arsenal fans congregated in nearby bars . Galatasaray fans attempted to provoke the Arsenal fans in the bars , and the two sides began chanting at each other until bottles were thrown from both sides around 16 : 00 . The Danish police then moved in to separate the fans , and moved the Galatasaray fans back towards the square .
Then , in a calculated attack , approximately 500 Arsenal fans attacked from the main road behind the Galatasaray fans . This caused a severe riot in the city square , with several restaurant facilities used by fans to fight each other , with iron bars and knives also being used . This lasted 20 minutes before the Danish police attempted to break up the melee with dogs and tear gas . The violence , which included fans from other English clubs and Turks living in Denmark , lasted for 45 minutes . There were further clashes at the airport the day after the game .
At Parken Stadium , where the final was to be played , the police erected iron fencing outside to separate the Arsenal and Galatasaray fans as a precaution . UEFA also requested that fences be put up around the perimeter of the pitch . The riots did not spread to the stadium , although there was an attempt to pull down the fences by fans heading towards the Arsenal area of the stadium before police stopped them .
After the match , which Galatasaray won 4 – 1 on penalties , approximately 300 Arsenal fans in the Finsbury Park area of Islington in London attacked Turkish restaurants and businesses , with bottles being used to break windows . They then broke into an apartment building to threaten Kosovan refugees with a knife , mistakenly believing them to be Turkish . Six people were arrested and three Metropolitan Police officers were injured . In Turkey , nine people were accidentally shot and injured by Galatasaray fans firing guns in celebration despite police warning them not to .
= = Injuries and arrests = =
In all , four people were stabbed during the riots : two English , one Turkish and one Dutch fan . A Danish police officer and a Turkish cameraman were also injured in the riots . In total , nineteen people were injured and sixty people were arrested , with 15 of the arrested being subsequently banned from attending Euro 2000 . Nineteen of the arrested were British , thirty @-@ six were Turkish and the rest of the arrested included people from Sweden , Germany and the Netherlands . The British fans were later released without charge but were forbidden from returning to Denmark . The rest were fined an equivalent of $ 500 and banned from Denmark for a year .
= = Aftermath = =
The day after the riots , the executive director of the Football Association , David Davies , issued an apology for the violence . The Copenhagen riots followed a long line of similar events involving English football fans , and in June , UEFA 's executive committee listed the Heysel Stadium disaster , disorders in Charleroi and Brussels , the killing of the two Leeds fans in Istanbul , and the Copenhagen riots and warned the British government that if there was any more rioting then England would be expelled from Euro 2000 . In response , Prime Minister Tony Blair stated , " Hopefully this threat will bring to their senses anyone tempted to continue the mindless thuggery that had brought such shame to the country . " The Prime Minister of Turkey , Bulent Ecevit also made a call for fans to avoid violence after the riots , stating " Sports should be an initiative for friendship , not for fighting " . In August 2000 , Arsenal banned thirty @-@ seven people involved in the Copenhagen riot from Arsenal 's Highbury stadium . Leeds United also banned three of their fans from Elland Road after they had been identified in pictures of the riots .
In the United Kingdom , Arsenal fans were originally blamed for the violence as the police had fixed blame on them . In Turkey , the media portrayed Galatasaray fans as acting in self @-@ defence , with criticism directed at the British fans for allegedly attacking members of the press . However , there were conflicting reports , with claims that some Galatasaray fans were instigating some of the violence . Later on , British media blame also transferred towards Galatasaray fans .
The Danish police were also criticised for their handling of the riots . Their policing of City Hall Square in the days running up to the final was described as " non @-@ existent " by Dineen . It was noted by Turkish newspaper , Radikal that cannabis was being freely traded in the city square during the time before the riots , and the police did nothing about it . Arsenal fans also criticised the police , claiming that they had been slow to intervene and were " too soft " on the hooligans . It was claimed that the police failed to control the riots , and that they had been undermanned and outmanoeuvered , to which Mogens Laurisden , the police chief in Copenhagen admitted that the police had been " under @-@ prepared " . This came after Arsenal had warned the police before the final that there could be hooligans travelling to Copenhagen .
In the United Kingdom , the Daily Mirror newspaper printed pictures of Arsenal fans alleged to have been part of the violence . It later arose that the majority of the people in the photos were either not involved or had been acting in self @-@ defence . The photos led to some postmen working for Royal Mail losing their jobs because they had been seen in the photos and in television coverage , even though they had not been arrested . Michael Doherty , the chairman of the Communication Workers Union , and his brother Tom took Royal Mail to an Employment Tribunal for unfair dismissal claiming they had been acting in self @-@ defence . In 2001 , the tribunal ruled in their favour , and ordered Royal Mail to reinstate them . In 2012 , the editor of the Daily Mirror at the time , Piers Morgan apologised for printing the pictures .
In 2013 , Arsenal invited Galatasaray to compete at their annual Emirates Cup tournament . Some Arsenal fans reacted negatively to the news , claiming that there was still bad blood between the two sets of supporters and were concerned that there would be a resumption of hostilities between them .
= Hypopituitarism =
Hypopituitarism is the decreased ( hypo ) secretion of one or more of the eight hormones normally produced by the pituitary gland at the base of the brain . If there is decreased secretion of most pituitary hormones , the term panhypopituitarism ( pan meaning " all " ) is used .
The signs and symptoms of hypopituitarism vary , depending on which hormones are undersecreted and on the underlying cause of the abnormality . The diagnosis of hypopituitarism is made by blood tests , but often specific scans and other investigations are needed to find the underlying cause , such as tumors of the pituitary , and the ideal treatment . Most hormones controlled by the secretions of the pituitary can be replaced by tablets or injections . Hypopituitarism is a rare disease , but may be significantly underdiagnosed in people with previous traumatic brain injury . The first description of the condition was made in 1914 by the German physician Dr Morris Simmonds .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
The hormones of the pituitary have different actions in the body , and the symptoms of hypopituitarism therefore depend on which hormone is deficient . The symptoms may be subtle and are often initially attributed to other causes . In most of the cases , three or more hormones are deficient . The most common problem is insufficiency of follicle @-@ stimulating hormone ( FSH ) and / or luteinizing hormone ( LH ) leading to sex hormone abnormalities . Growth hormone deficiency is more common in people with an underlying tumor than those with other causes .
Sometimes , there are additional symptoms that arise from the underlying cause ; for instance , if the hypopituitarism is due to a growth hormone @-@ producing tumor , there may be symptoms of acromegaly ( enlargement of the hands and feet , coarse facial features ) , and if the tumor extends to the optic nerve or optic chiasm , there may be visual field defects . Headaches may also accompany pituitary tumors , as well as pituitary apoplexy ( infarction or hemorrhage of a pituitary tumor ) and lymphocytic hypophysitis ( autoimmune inflammation of the pituitary ) . Apoplexy , in addition to sudden headaches and rapidly worsening visual loss , may also be associated with double vision that results from compression of the nerves in the adjacent cavernous sinus that control the eye muscles .
Pituitary failure results in many changes in the skin , hair and nails as a result of the absence of pituitary hormone action on these sites .
= = = Anterior pituitary = = =
Deficiency of all anterior pituitary hormones is more common than individual hormone deficiency .
Deficiency of luteinizing hormone ( LH ) and follicle @-@ stimulating hormone ( FSH ) , together referred to as the gonadotropins , leads to different symptoms in men and women . Women experience oligo- or amenorrhea ( infrequent / light or absent menstrual periods respectively ) and infertility . Men lose facial , scrotal and trunk hair , as well as suffering decreased muscle mass and anemia . Both sexes may experience a decrease in libido and loss of sexual function , and have an increased risk of osteoporosis ( bone fragility ) . Lack of LH / FSH in children is associated with delayed puberty .
Growth hormone ( GH ) deficiency leads to a decrease in muscle mass , central obesity ( increase in body fat around the waist ) and impaired attention and memory . Children experience growth retardation and short stature .
Adrenocorticotropic hormone ( ACTH ) deficiency leads to adrenal insufficiency , a lack of production of glucocorticoids such as cortisol by the adrenal gland . If the problem is chronic , symptoms consist of fatigue , weight loss , failure to thrive ( in children ) , delayed puberty ( in adolescents ) , hypoglycemia ( low blood sugar levels ) , anemia and hyponatremia ( low sodium levels ) . If the onset is abrupt , collapse , shock and vomiting may occur . ACTH deficiency is highly similar to primary Addison 's disease , which is cortisol deficiency as the result of direct damage to the adrenal glands ; the latter form , however , often leads to hyperpigmentation of the skin , which does not occur in ACTH deficiency .
Thyroid @-@ stimulating hormone ( TSH ) deficiency leads to hypothyroidism ( lack of production of thyroxine ( T4 ) and triiodothyronine ( T3 ) in the thyroid ) . Typical symptoms are tiredness , intolerance to cold , constipation , weight gain , hair loss and slowed thinking , as well as a slowed heart rate and low blood pressure . In children , hypothyroidism leads to delayed growth and in extreme inborn forms to a syndrome called cretinism .
Prolactin ( PRL ) plays a role in breastfeeding , and inability to breastfeed may point at abnormally low prolactin levels .
= = = Posterior pituitary = = =
Antidiuretic hormone ( ADH ) deficiency leads to the syndrome of diabetes insipidus ( unrelated to diabetes mellitus ) : inability to concentrate the urine , leading to polyuria ( production of large amounts of clear urine ) that is low in solutes , dehydration and — in compensation — extreme thirst and constant need to drink ( polydipsia ) , as well as hypernatremia ( high sodium levels in the blood ) . ADH deficiency may be masked if there is ACTH deficiency , with symptoms only appearing when cortisol has been replaced .
Oxytocin ( OXT ) deficiency generally causes few symptoms , as it is only required at the time of childbirth and breastfeeding .
= = Causes = =
= = Pathophysiology = =
The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain , and intimately connected with the hypothalamus . It consists of two lobes : the posterior pituitary , which consists of nervous tissue branching out of the hypothalamus , and the anterior pituitary , which consists of hormone @-@ producing epithelium . The posterior pituitary secretes antidiuretic hormone , which regulates osmolarity of the blood , and oxytocin , which causes contractions of the uterus in childbirth and participates in breastfeeding .
The pituitary develops in the third week of embryogenesis from interactions between the diencephalon part of the brain and the nasal cavity . The brain cells secrete FGF @-@ 8 , Wnt5a and BMP @-@ 4 , and the oral cavity BMP @-@ 2 . Together , these cellular signals stimulate a group of cells from the oral cavity to form Rathke 's pouch , which becomes independent of the nasal cavity and develops into the anterior pituitary ; this process includes the suppression of production of a protein called Sonic hedgehog by the cells of Rathke 's pouch . The cells then differentiate further into the various hormone @-@ producing cells of the pituitary . This requires particular transcription factors that induce the expression of particular genes . Some of these transcription factors have been found to be deficient in some forms of rare combined pituitary hormone deficiencies ( CPHD ) in childhood . These are HESX1 , PROP1 , POU1F1 , LHX3 , LHX4 , TBX19 , SOX2 and SOX3 . Each transcription factor acts in particular groups of cells . Therefore , various genetic mutations are associated with specific hormone deficiencies . For instance , POU1F1 ( also known as Pit @-@ 1 ) mutations cause specific deficiencies in growth hormone , prolactin and TSH . In addition to the pituitary , some of the transcription factors are also required for the development of other organs ; some of these mutations are therefore also associated with specific birth defects .
Most of the hormones in the anterior pituitary are each part of an axis that is regulated by the hypothalamus . The hypothalamus secretes a number of releasing hormones , often according to a circadian rhythm , into blood vessels that supply the anterior pituitary ; most of these are stimulatory ( thyrotropin @-@ releasing hormone , corticotropin @-@ releasing hormone , gonadotropin @-@ releasing hormone and growth hormone @-@ releasing hormone ) , apart from dopamine , which suppresses prolactin production . In response to the releasing hormone rate , the anterior pituitary produces its hormones ( TSH , ACTH , LH , FSH , GH ) which in turn stimulate effector hormone glands in the body , while prolactin ( PRL ) acts directly on the breast gland . Once the effector glands produce sufficient hormones ( thyroxine , cortisol , estradiol or testosterone and IGF @-@ 1 ) , both the hypothalamus and the pituitary cells sense their abundance and reduce their secretion of stimulating hormones . The hormones of the posterior pituitary are produced in the hypothalamus and are carried by nerve endings to the posterior lobe ; their feedback system is therefore located in the hypothalamus , but damage to the nerve endings would still lead to a deficiency in hormone release .
Unless the pituitary damage is being caused by a tumor that overproduces a particular hormone , it is the lack of pituitary hormones that leads to the symptoms described above , and an excess of a particular hormone would indicate the presence of a tumor . The exception to this rule is prolactin : if a tumor compresses the pituitary stalk , a decreased blood supply means that the lactotrope cells , which produce prolactin , are not receiving dopamine and therefore produce excess prolactin . Hence , mild elevations in prolactin are attributed to stalk compression . Very high prolactin levels , though , point more strongly towards a prolactinoma ( prolactin @-@ secreting tumor ) .
= = Diagnosis = =
The diagnosis of hypopituitarism is made on blood tests . Two types of blood tests are used to confirm the presence of a hormone deficiency : basal levels , where blood samples are taken – usually in the morning – without any form of stimulation , and dynamic tests , where blood tests are taken after the injection of a stimulating substance . Measurement of ACTH and growth hormone usually requires dynamic testing , whereas the other hormones ( LH / FSH , prolactin , TSH ) can typically be tested with basal levels . There is no adequate direct test for ADH levels , but ADH deficiency can be confirmed indirectly ; oxytocin levels are not routinely measured .
Generally , the finding of a combination of a low pituitary hormone together with a low hormone from the effector gland is indicative of hypopituitarism . Occasionally , the pituitary hormone may be normal but the effector gland hormone decreased ; in this case , the pituitary is not responding appropriately to effector hormone changes , and the combination of findings is still suggestive of hypopituitarism .
= = = Basal tests = = =
Levels of LH / FSH may be suppressed by a raised prolactin level , and are therefore not interpretable unless prolactin is low or normal . In men , the combination of low LH and FSH in combination with a low testosterone confirms LH / FSH deficiency ; a high testosterone would indicate a source elsewhere in the body ( such as a testosterone @-@ secreting tumor ) . In women , the diagnosis of LH / FSH deficiency depends on whether the woman has been through the menopause . Before the menopause , abnormal menstrual periods together with low estradiol and LH / FSH levels confirm a pituitary problem ; after the menopause ( when LH / FSH levels are normally elevated and the ovaries produce less estradiol ) , inappropriately low LH / FSH alone is sufficient . Stimulation tests with GnRH are possible , but their use is not encouraged .
For TSH , basal measurements are usually sufficient , as well as measurements of thyroxine to ensure that the pituitary is not simply suppressing TSH production in response to hyperthyroidism ( an overactive thyroid gland ) . A stimulation test with thyrotropin @-@ releasing hormone ( TRH ) is not regarded as useful . Prolactin can be measured by basal level , and is required for the interpretation of LH and FSH results in addition to the confirmation of hypopituitarism or diagnosis of a prolactin @-@ secreting tumor .
= = = Stimulation tests = = =
Growth hormone deficiency is almost certain if all other pituitary tests are also abnormal , and insulin @-@ like growth factor 1 ( IGF @-@ 1 ) levels are decreased . If this is not the case , IGF @-@ 1 levels are poorly predictive of the presence of GH deficiency ; stimulation testing with the insulin tolerance test is then required . This is performed by administering insulin to lower the blood sugar to a level below 2 @.@ 2 mmol / l . Once this occurs , growth hormone levels are measured . If they are low despite the stimulatory effect of the low blood sugars , growth hormone deficiency is confirmed . The test is not without risks , especially in those prone to seizures or are known to have heart disease , and causes the unpleasant symptoms of hypoglycemia . Alternative tests ( such as the growth hormone releasing hormone stimulation test ) are less useful , although a stimulation test with arginine may be used for diagnosis , especially in situations where an insulin tolerance test is thought to be too dangerous . If GH deficiency is suspected , and all other pituitary hormones are normal , two different stimulation tests are needed for confirmation .
If morning cortisol levels are over 500 nmol / l , ACTH deficiency is unlikely , whereas a level less than 100 is indicative . Levels between 100 @-@ 500 require a stimulation test . This , too , is done with the insulin tolerance test . A cortisol level above 500 after achieving a low blood sugar rules out ACTH deficiency , while lower levels confirm the diagnosis . A similar stimulation test using corticotropin @-@ releasing hormone ( CRH ) is not sensitive enough for the purposes of the investigation . If the insulin tolerance test yields an abnormal result , a further test measuring the response of the adrenal glands to synthetic ACTH ( the ACTH stimulation test ) can be performed to confirm the diagnosis . Stimulation testing with metyrapone is an alternative . Some suggest that an ACTH stimulation test is sufficient as first @-@ line investigation , and that an insulin tolerance test is only needed if the ACTH test is equivocal . The insulin tolerance test is discouraged in children . None of the tests for ACTH deficiency are perfect , and further tests after a period of time may be needed if initial results are not conclusive .
Symptoms of diabetes insipidus should prompt a formal fluid deprivation test to assess the body 's response to dehydration , which normally causes concentration of the urine and increasing osmolarity of the blood . If these parameters are unchanged , desmopressin ( an ADH analogue ) is administered . If the urine then becomes concentrated and the blood osmolarity falls , there is a lack of ADH due to lack of pituitary function ( " cranial diabetes insipidus " ) . In contrast , there is no change if the kidneys are unresponsive to ADH due to a different problem ( " nephrogenic diabetes insipidus " ) .
= = = Further investigations = = =
If one of these tests shows a deficiency of hormones produced by the pituitary , magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) scan of the pituitary is the first step in identifying an underlying cause . MRI may show various tumors and may assist in delineating other causes . Tumors smaller than 1 cm are referred to as microadenomas , and larger lesions are called macroadenomas . Computed tomography with radiocontrast may be used if MRI is not available . Formal visual field testing by perimetry is recommended , as this would show evidence of optic nerve compression by a tumor .
Other tests that may assist in the diagnosis of hypopituitarism , especially if no tumor is found on the MRI scan , are ferritin ( elevated in hemochromatosis ) , angiotensin converting enzyme ( ACE ) levels ( often elevated in sarcoidosis ) , and human chorionic gonadotropin ( often elevated in tumor of germ cell origin ) . If a genetic cause is suspected , genetic testing may be performed .
= = Treatment = =
Treatment of hypopituitarism is threefold : removing the underlying cause , treating the hormone deficiencies , and addressing any other repercussions that arise from the hormone deficiencies .
= = = Underlying cause = = =
Pituitary tumors require treatment when they are causing specific symptoms , such as headaches , visual field defects or excessive hormone secretion . Transsphenoidal surgery ( removal of the tumor by an operation through the nose and the sphenoidal sinuses ) may , apart from addressing symptoms related to the tumor , also improve pituitary function , although the gland is sometimes damaged further as a result of the surgery . When the tumor is removed by craniotomy ( opening the skull ) , recovery is less likely – but sometimes this is the only suitable way to approach the tumor . After surgery , it may take some time for hormone levels to change significantly . Retesting the pituitary hormone levels is therefore performed 2 to 3 months later .
Prolactinomas may respond to dopamine agonist treatment – medication that mimics the action of dopamine on the lactrotrope cells , usually bromocriptine or cabergoline . This approach may improve pituitary hormone secretion in more than half the cases , and make supplementary treatment unnecessary .
Other specific underlying causes are treated as normally . For example , hemochromatosis is treated by venesection , the regular removal of a fixed amount of blood . Eventually , this decreases the iron levels in the body and improves the function of the organs in which iron has accumulated .
= = = Hormone replacement = = =
Most pituitary hormones can be replaced indirectly by administering the products of the effector glands : hydrocortisone ( cortisol ) for adrenal insufficiency , levothyroxine for hypothyroidism , testosterone for male hypogonadism , and estradiol for female hypogonadism ( usually with a progestogen to inhibit unwanted effects on the uterus ) . Growth hormone is available in synthetic form , but needs to be administered parenterally ( by injection ) . Antidiuretic hormone can be replaced by desmopressin ( DDAVP ) tablets or nose spray . Generally , the lowest dose of the replacement medication is used to restore wellbeing and correct the deranged results , as excessive doses would cause side @-@ effects or complications . Those requiring hydrocortisone are usually instructed to increase their dose in physically stressful events such as injury , hospitalization and dental work as these are times when the normal supplementary dose may be inadequate , putting the patient at risk of adrenal crisis .
Long @-@ term follow up by specialists in endocrinology is generally needed for people with known hypopituitarism . Apart from ensuring the right treatment is being used and at the right doses , this also provides an opportunity to deal with new symptoms and to address complications of treatment .
Difficult situations arise in deficiencies of the hypothalamus @-@ pituitary @-@ gonadal axis in people ( both men and women ) who experience infertility ; infertility in hypopituitarism may be treated with subcutaneous infusions of FSH , human chorionic gonadotropin – which mimics the action of LH – and occasionally GnRH .
= = = Complications = = =
Several hormone deficiencies associated with hypopituitarism may lead to secondary diseases . For instance , growth hormone deficiency is associated with obesity , raised cholesterol and the metabolic syndrome , and estradiol deficiency may lead to osteoporosis . While effective treatment of the underlying hormone deficiencies may improve these risks , it is often necessary to treat them directly .
= = Prognosis = =
Several studies have shown that hypopituitarism is associated with an increased risk of cardiovascular disease and some also an increased risk of death of about 50 % to 150 % the normal population . It has been difficult to establish which hormone deficiency is responsible for this risk , as almost all patients studied had growth hormone deficiency . The studies also do not answer the question as to whether the hypopituitarism itself causes the increased mortality , or whether some of the risk is to be attributed to the treatments , some of which ( such as sex hormone supplementation ) have a recognized adverse effect on cardiovascular risk .
The largest study to date followed over a thousand people for eight years ; it showed an 87 % increased risk of death compared to the normal population . Predictors of higher risk were : female sex , absence of treatment for sex hormone deficiency , younger age at the time of diagnosis , and a diagnosis of craniopharyngioma . Apart from cardiovascular disease , this study also showed an increased risk of death from lung disease .
Quality of life may be significantly reduced , even in those people on optimum medical therapy . Many report both physical and psychological problems . It is likely that the commonly used replacement therapies still do not completely mimic the natural hormone levels in the body . Health costs remain about double those of the normal population .
Hypopituitarism is usually permanent . It requires lifelong treatment with one or more medicines . But you can expect a normal life span .
= = Epidemiology = =
There is only one study that has measured the prevalence ( total number of cases in a population ) and incidence ( annual number of new cases ) of hypopituitarism . This study was conducted in Northern Spain and used hospital records in a well @-@ defined population . The study showed that 45 @.@ 5 people out of 100 @,@ 000 had been diagnosed with hypopituitarism , with 4 @.@ 2 new cases per year . 61 % were due to tumors of the pituitary gland , 9 % due to other types of lesions , and 19 % due to other causes ; in 11 % no cause could be identified .
Recent studies have shown that people with a previous traumatic brain injury , spontaneous subarachnoid hemorrhage ( a type of stroke ) or radiation therapy involving the head have a higher risk of hypopituitarism . After traumatic brain injury , as much as a quarter have persistent pituitary hormone deficiencies . Many of these people may have subtle or non @-@ specific symptoms that are not linked to pituitary problems but attributed to their previous condition . It is therefore possible that many cases of hypopituitarism remain undiagnosed , and that the annual incidence would rise to 31 per 100 @,@ 000 annually if people from these risk groups were to be tested .
= = History = =
The pituitary was known to the ancients , such as Galen , and various theories were proposed about its role in the body , but major clues as to the actual function of the gland were not advanced until the late 19th century , when acromegaly due to pituitary tumors was described . The first known report of hypopituitarism was made by the German physician and pathologist Dr Morris Simmonds . He described the condition on autopsy in a 46 @-@ year @-@ old woman who had suffered severe puerperal fever eleven years earlier , and subsequently suffered amenorrhea , weakness , signs of rapid aging and anemia . The pituitary gland was very small and there were few remnants of both the anterior and the posterior pituitary . The eponym Simmonds ' syndrome is used infrequently for acquired hypopituitarism , especially when cachexia ( general ill health and malnutrition ) predominates . Most of the classic causes of hypopituitarism were described in the 20th century ; the early 21st century saw the recognition of how common hypopituitarism could be in previous head injury victims .
Until the 1950s , the diagnosis of pituitary disease remained based on clinical features and visual field examination , sometimes aided by pneumoencephalography and X @-@ ray tomography . Nevertheless , the field of pituitary surgery developed during this time . The major breakthrough in diagnosis came with the discovery of the radioimmunoassay by Rosalyn Yalow and Solomon Berson in the late 1950s . This allowed the direct measurement of the hormones of the pituitary , which as a result of their low concentrations in blood had previously been hard to measure . Stimulation tests were developed in the 1960s , and in 1973 the triple bolus test was introduced , a test that combined stimulation testing with insulin , GnRH and TRH . Imaging of the pituitary , and therefore identification of tumors and other structural causes , improved radically with the introduction of computed tomography in the late 1970s and magnetic resonance imaging in the 1980s .
= 2012 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 2012 Atlantic hurricane season was extremely active , tied with 1887 , 1995 , 2010 , and 2011 for having the third @-@ most named storms on record . The season officially began on June 1 and ended on November 30 , dates that conventionally delimit the period during each year in which most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic Ocean . However , Alberto , the first system of the year , developed on May 19 – the earliest date of formation since Tropical Storm Ana in 2003 . A second tropical cyclone , Beryl , developed later that month . This was the first occurrence of two pre @-@ season named storms in the Atlantic basin since 1951 . It moved ashore in North Florida on May 29 with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) , making it the strongest pre @-@ season storm to make landfall in the Atlantic basin . This season marked the first time since 2009 where no tropical cyclones formed in July . Another record was set by Hurricane Nadine later in the season ; the system became the fourth @-@ longest @-@ lived tropical cyclone ever recorded in the Atlantic , with a total duration of 22 @.@ 25 days . The final storm to form , Tony , dissipated on October 25 – however , Hurricane Sandy , which formed before Tony , became extratropical on October 29 .
Pre @-@ season forecasts by the Colorado State University ( CSU ) called for a below average season , with 10 named storms , 4 hurricanes , and 2 major hurricanes . The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) issued its first outlook on May 24 , predicting a total of 9 – 15 named storms , 4 – 8 hurricanes , and 1 – 3 major hurricanes ; both agencies noted the possibility of an El Niño , which limits tropical cyclone activity . Following two pre @-@ season storms , the CSU updated their forecast to 13 named storms , 5 hurricanes , and 2 major hurricanes , while the NOAA upped their forecast numbers to 12 – 17 named storms , 5 – 8 hurricanes , and 2 – 3 major hurricanes on August 9 . Despite this , activity far surpassed the predictions .
Impact during the 2012 season was widespread and significant . In mid @-@ May , Beryl moved ashore the coastline of Florida , causing 3 deaths . In late June and early August , Tropical Storm Debby and Hurricane Ernesto caused 10 and 13 deaths after striking Florida and the Yucatán , respectively . In mid @-@ August , the remnants of Tropical Storm Helene killed two people after making landfall in Mexico . At least 41 deaths and $ 2 @.@ 39 billion were attributed to Hurricane Isaac , which struck Louisiana on two separate occasions in late August . However , by far the costliest and deadliest cyclone of the season was Hurricane Sandy , which formed on October 22 . After striking Cuba at Category 3 intensity on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale , the hurricane moved ashore the southern coastline of New Jersey . Sandy left 286 dead and $ 75 billion worth of damage in its wake , making it the second @-@ costliest Atlantic hurricane on record , behind only Hurricane Katrina in 2005 . Collectively , the season 's storms caused at least 355 fatalities and about $ 79 @.@ 2 billion in damage , making 2012 the deadliest season since 2008 and the costliest since 2005 .
= = Seasonal forecasts = =
In advance of , and during , each hurricane season , several forecasts of hurricane activity are issued by national meteorological services , scientific agencies , and noted hurricane experts . These include forecasters from the United States NOAA 's National Hurricane and Climate Prediction Center 's , Philip J. Klotzbach
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also original and its newel posts resemble those found in the Isaac and Harriet Ellwood House , another Haish designed home , and the Gurler House , whose architect is unknown though it was quite possibly Haish , both in DeKalb .
On the house 's east side are three rooms , whose original presence is open to debate . The three rooms are interconnected , another common French colonial element . The room adjacent the porch was used as the Glidden 's dining room and is where the large brick fireplace , which replaced the marble one in 1909 , is located . The 1909 fireplace is of the American Craftsman style . At the end of the hall , near the kitchen , there is a full bathroom .
The western part of the first floor is dominated by a large formal living room . The room has two entrances , one at the front of the hall , near the front door and the other at the back end of the hall . This was the room in which Elva Glidden married in the late 19th century . After 1941 the rear part of the living room , or " west " room , was walled off and a second kitchen added . When Jessie Glidden , the last Glidden to occupy the old homestead , moved in 1998 , the west room was restored to its original size and the second kitchen removed .
The basement , and for part of the home 's history , the main living area , is accessed via a staircase at the back of the first @-@ floor hall . The steep stairs still show years of wear . One of the rooms off the main basement is the kitchen where Glidden is said to have experimented with the coffee grinder and his wife 's hair pins , eventually leading to his brand of barbed wire .
The second @-@ floor served as the main sleeping quarters . It consists of a few simple bedrooms , all historically without closets . The upstairs hall contains a door which once accessed a staircase to the widow 's walk , what remains of the space has been used as a closet for over a century .
= = Outbuildings = =
The property has two remaining outbuildings . The barn is where Glidden invented his famous improvement on barbed wire . Dubbed " The Winner , " his barbed wire became the most popular version of the invention . Barbed wire is considered to be one of the most important factors in American progress and settlement .
The other outbuilding on the property along historic Lincoln Highway are the remnants of a once dominating windmill . Though only the foundation remains , it gives a glimpse of how impressive the structure must have once been .
= = = Barn = = =
The Glidden Barn , located to the rear and east of the home , was thought to have been added to the National Register of Historic Places when the original nomination for the house was approved in 1973 . However , in the late 1990s , the Illinois Historic Preservation Agency revealed that the nomination included only the house . The Glidden Historical Center initiated the process of adding the barn to the Register . Those moves were approved by the Illinois Historic Sites Advisory Council in 2002 and the barn officially became part of the National Register .
The barn was built sometime around 1871 , possibly even before , and is constructed of the same soft brick that makes up the exterior of the home . Tradition in the Glidden family holds that the barn , like the house itself , was designed and built by prominent local carpenter Jacob Haish . The famous barn , one of DeKalb County 's oldest remaining , stands a full two @-@ stories high , measuring around 50 feet ( 15 m ) tall , with a width of 30 feet ( 9 m ) .
In February 2007 the Glidden Homestead and Historical Center kicked off a fundraising drive . The drive is aimed at raising US $ 2 million to expand the Joseph F. Glidden House site to include museum space and a media center . Some of the funds will be used to help restore the barn and expand historical center museum space into the building .
= = = = Architecture = = = =
The Glidden barn is of pole and beam construction . The second @-@ floor interior is dominated by two large transverse wooden beams . It is of the three @-@ bay , English tradition , the west bay containing a space for a stairwell leading to a hayloft and seven stalls . It is constructed of red brick and stands on a foundation of limestone . Glidden 's barn took full advantage of the term vernacular ; the brick was locally manufactured and the limestone locally quarried .
The east bay of the barn contains an animal stall in its northeast corner and a fully enclosed office in its opposite corner . The second @-@ floor hayloft is supported by the two massive transverse beams . The full @-@ sized loft is accessible via an enclosed staircase against the south wall . The building 's exterior roof is fully supported by the brick walls . The result is a loft which is an entirely open space save for some pole and beam construction supporting the laminated beams , which act as tie rods at the base of the roof . The barn roof is a common gable roof pitched at a 45 degree angle , it was originally covered with wooden shingles , those have been replaced over the years with asphalt .
The barn features extensive windows , somewhat unique outside of dairy barns , with a total of 14 eight @-@ paned , double @-@ hung windows dispersed over three sides of the rectangular structure , north , south and east . On the west side , facing the house , are seven smaller single @-@ pane windows . The double @-@ hung windows are topped with segmented arches constructed from a double row of bricks ; the north and south main entrances are also topped with segmented brick arches , each of three rows of bricks .
= = = Windmill building = = =
Only the foundation remains of the property 's windmill . What is left , ten rows of stone above the ground , is completely invisible when the home is viewed by passers @-@ by on Lincoln Highway . The windmill started to fall into disrepair around the 1930s or 40s . The original , specific use of the windmill is unknown .
= Judas ( Lady Gaga song ) =
" Judas " is a song by American recording artist Lady Gaga , from her second studio album , Born This Way ( 2011 ) . It was released four days ahead of schedule by Interscope Records on April 15 , 2011 . Written and produced by Lady Gaga and RedOne , " Judas " is a dance and electro house song about a woman in love with a man who betrayed her . It embodies the incidents that have haunted Gaga in the past , and its core meaning refers to the negative parts of her life that she cannot escape . Gaga has further explained that the song was also about honoring one 's inner darkness in order to bring oneself into the light . The artwork for the single was designed by Gaga in Microsoft Word . In spite of a polarizing impact on several religious groups , the song was generally well received by critics , who likened the song to " Bad Romance " with some noting it should have been the album 's lead single .
" Judas " received generally positive reviews from most music critics . The song has a similar sound to Gaga 's previous RedOne @-@ produced tracks , including " Poker Face " , " LoveGame " , " Bad Romance " , and " Alejandro " . It contains three distinct hooks and a house @-@ influenced break down . Gaga explained that the lines spoken during the breakdown talk about her as beyond redemption , regarding the traditional views of what a woman should be . " Judas " initially had a strong sales opening , but was less successful commercially in comparison to Gaga 's previous singles . The song reached the top ten of the charts in most major music markets , and also reached the top of the charts in South Korea .
A music video for the song was filmed in April 2011 , co @-@ directed by Gaga and Laurieann Gibson and co @-@ starring Norman Reedus . It has a Biblical storyline where Reedus played Judas Iscariot and Gaga played Mary Magdalene . The video portrays them as modern day missionaries going to Jerusalem . It included the Biblical story of Judas betraying Jesus , and ended with Gaga as Magdalene getting stoned to death . Before its release , the Catholic League condemned Gaga for the use of religious imagery and her role in the video . However , the video was generally praised by critics and nominated for two awards at the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards . Gaga has performed " Judas " on a number of television shows , including The Graham Norton Show , Saturday Night Live , Good Morning America 's " Summer Concert Series " , the French X Factor as well as on The Ellen DeGeneres Show .
= = Background = =
" Judas " was revealed as the name of the second single in Gaga 's interview for Vogue . Gaga confirmed the release of " Judas " as the second single , on Ryan Seacrest 's radio show on February 14 , 2011 , and also revealed RedOne as the co @-@ producer of the song . At the 53rd Grammy Awards , he told MTV News that if the previous single from Born This Way , the title track , polarized people , " Judas " was expected to shock them more . On the talk show Last Call with Carson Daly , Gaga explained to the host that " Judas " was about always falling in love with the wrong man over and over again . " ' Judas ' is a very , very dark song . It 's rad " , she added . With MSN Canada , Gaga revealed the metaphors and the meaning behind the song :
'Judas ' is a metaphor and an analogy about forgiveness and betrayal and things that haunt you in your life and how I believe that it 's the darkness in your life that ultimately shines and illuminates the greater light that you have upon you . Someone once said to me , ' If you have no shadows then you 're not standing in the light . ' So the song is about washing the feet of both good and evil and understanding and forgiving the demons from your past in order to move into the greatness of your future . I just like really aggressive metaphors — harder , thicker , darker — and my fans do as well . So it is a very challenging and aggressive metaphor , but it is a metaphor .
Gaga further elaborated on the inspiration behind the song as walking towards the light force in her life and peering towards the devil in the back , while clutching onto the source of the light . " I sing about what a holy fool I am , and that although moments in my life are so cruel and relationships can be so cruel I ’ m still in love with Judas . I still go back again to those evil things , " she said . During her interview with Google , Gaga added to the song 's meaning as honoring one 's inner darkness in order to bring themselves into the light . One has to learn to forgive themselves in order to move on with their life . With Popjustice she clarified that she has a lot of things that have haunted her from her past , including her choices , men , drug abuse , being afraid to go back to New York , confronting old romances . Hence " Judas " represented something that was not good for her , something she could not escape . Gaga said : " I keep going back and forth between the darkness and the light in order to understand who I am . "
= = Composition = =
Garibay said that " Judas " sounded similar to many of Gaga 's previous singles , like " Poker Face " , " LoveGame " , " Bad Romance " , and " Alejandro " . According to Jocelyn Vena of MTV , " Judas " finds Gaga in a similar territory music @-@ wise but vocally she is in completely new territory ; according to Popjustice , in the verses and pre @-@ chorus , Gaga hurls herself into a decadent half @-@ sung , half @-@ rapped Jamaican Patois style . " Jason Gregory of Gigwise called the song a " heavy slice of electro @-@ house of the highest order " . The song contains three hooks , and begins with Gaga singing the line " Oh @-@ oh @-@ oh @-@ oh @-@ oh , I 'm in love with Judas " , accompanied by building synths . This is followed by a thumping electronic beat , as Gaga sings , " Judahhh / Juda @-@ a @-@ ah / Gaga " . The utterance of these words are reminiscent of the opening verse in " Bad Romance " . Gaga 's vocals are partially spoken , and at times have a Caribbean accent . The first verse follows as : " When he comes to me I am ready / I 'll wash his feet with my hair if he needs / Forgive him when his tongue lies through his brain / Even after three times , he betrays me / I 'll bring him down , a king with no crown . " The tone lightens up on the song 's chorus , which is influenced by ' 80s pop in its melody , as the beat picks up a bit and Gaga sings , " I 'm just a holy fool / Oh , baby , it 's so cruel / But I 'm still in love with Judas , baby . "
After the second verse and chorus , the song features a break down influenced by house music . Gaga chants the lines in the same way she does in the middle of " Born This Way " . Then she sings , " I wanna love you / But something 's pulling me away from you / Jesus is my virtue , Judas is the demon I cling to , I cling to . " In this section , Gaga 's vocals drew comparison to that of Rihanna 's by Matthew Perpetua of Rolling Stone . He also added that her voice sounded less dark and dramatic and was full of " bubbly sweetness " . Popjustice wrote that the breakdown sounded like tribal @-@ techno , and the whole song was " a turbo @-@ charged electrogothic wrongness anthem " . Dan Martin from NME wrote that the breakdown was in the dubstep genre with the chorus being " pure @-@ pop " . There were some similarities and influences of " Bad Romance " in the song , which Gaga said was deliberate . She explained that while sometimes it is important for her to push herself in new directions , she did want her characteristic sound to be imbibed in her records . " I wanted [ ' Judas ' ] to be an evolution from where I ’ ve been before but in terms of the formula I wanted there to be something about ' Judas ' that reminded people of what I ’ ve done in the past , " she added . According to the sheet music published on Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , the song is written in the time signature of common time , and is composed in the key of C minor with a tempo of 131 beats per minute . Gaga 's voice ranges from the tonal nodes of B ♭ 3 to E ♭ 5 and the song follows a basic sequence of A ♭ – Fm7 – Cm – B ♭ – Cm as its chord progression .
Gaga had posted some of the lyrics of the song in February 2011 , and next month she revealed more lyrics for " Judas " in the Google interview . Gaga also confirmed that the song was influenced by the Biblical Judas Iscariot . According to Popjustice , lyrically on the surface " Judas " is a song about being double @-@ crossed and contemplating revenge , but being repeatedly drawn to awfulness . The middle eight of the song , with the lyrics " But in the cultural sense I just speak in future tense . Judas kiss me if offenced , or wear an ear condom next time " , talks about Gaga being beyond the ability to redeem herself , in terms of the traditional views of what a woman is supposed to be . " But I don 't want to redeem myself , because in the cultural sense I believe that I 'm just before my time . And if you don 't like it , wear an ear condom , " she explained . The main portion of the song is about Gaga in private and the middle eight is about Gaga in public , two themes that are explored elsewhere on the parent album too .
= = Artwork and release = =
In the 42nd episode of Gaga 's web video series , called Transmission Gagavision , it was revealed that the single 's accompanying cover artwork was designed by Gaga in Microsoft Word and featured a black background with the word " Judas " written in red capital letters in Impact font . Below it was a red Christian cross with a heart in the middle . Gaga photographed the design on her computer screen using her cellular telephone " for texture , " which resulted in visible pixels on the letters and cross , as well as a faint reflection of her face and hands holding the phone , to appear on the cover . The episode showed Gaga sitting in a meeting with her creative team Haus of Gaga , discussing the specifics of her album release . Scattered around Gaga were a number of photographs , which were speculated by MTV as something " Judas " -related . On one photo the word " Judas " was printed with a cross on it . Jocelyn Vena from MTV felt that the artwork could have easily appeared in director Baz Luhrmann 's version of Romeo and Juliet ( 1996 ) .
On the 41st episode of Transmission Gagavision , Gaga announced that the song was going to be released soon . She added the abstract message along with the announcement : " Let the cultural baptism begin . If they were not who you were taught they would be , would you still believe ? " " Judas " was scheduled to be sent to mainstream airplay on April 19 , 2011 , and digital retailers on the same day , but after the track was leaked to the internet , its release was brought forward to April 15 , 2011 . This was done to counteract the pre @-@ release leaks . Before the release , Gaga tweeted about the single , saying : " # PawsUpForJudas ! I 've learned love is like a brick , you can build a house or sink a dead body . " On April 15 , 2011 , hours before the song was played on radio she again tweeted : " Even After Three Times He Betrays Me , " she wrote , harking back to the song 's lyrics about love and betrayal . In the United Kingdom , the song premiered on The Capital FM Network on April 15 , 2011 , during their program Home Run . Gaga addressed the leak in the 43rd episode of Transmission Gagavision , likening it to a disembodiment , saying , " A slow death ! Just put me out of my f---ing misery , just put that sh-- out . They were tearing [ the song ] limb for limb . First it was the arm of the song , then the liver .... "
= = Critical reception = =
" Judas " was generally well received by most music critics . Jonathan Van Meter from Vogue gave the song a positive review , saying the song sounded like it was written for The Ronettes , but was set to a " sledgehammering " dance beat . MTV 's James Dinh noted that the song was very similar in its composition to " Bad Romance " . Popjustice also compared it to " Bad Romance " describing it as " a highly evolved , Titanium @-@ plated ' Bad Romance ' from the year 2511 travelling half a millennium back in time to save music from a tidal wave of ' in the club ' -obsessed pop drivel , and that 's ' Judas ' . " Kevin O 'Donnel from Spin felt that the song sounded like a rowdy , industrial @-@ disco banger , and described Gaga 's performance as " insanely over the top : She alternates between rapping , a robotic monotone , and a crow @-@ like squawk — before gliding into a more conventional chorus that hews closer to ' Bad Romance ' . " He complimented the primal energy of the music of " Judas , " and felt that the breakdown was one of the weirdest moments to hit the pop music scene in 2011 . Slant Magazine 's Eric Henderson noted that the disconnection and deviation from Gaga 's previous single " Born This Way " was more pronounced with " Judas " . Musically he felt that " Judas " had the same " glitter @-@ jackhammer level as ' Born This Way ' , though the big anthemic chords are almost inverted — not unlike Inner City 's Big Fun vs. Good Life . It 's a good twin , evil twin thing . " Henderson continued that the song conjured the imagery of a disturbed vision of hell , and in a warped sense the song seemed more forward @-@ thinking to him and less of a message , " than the ' gay = great ' equation at the heart of ' Born This Way ' . "
Amos Barshad from New York declared that the song reminded him of being drunk and dancing in a remote discothèque in Berlin . NME 's Dan Martin was of the opinion that " Judas " was the song that Gaga should have come back with . But he understood why she did not choose it as the lead single from Born This Way , given the fact that the song was characteristic of Gaga 's music . Pointing the same thing , Matthew Perpetua from Rolling Stone wrote that the song played to Gaga 's established musical sensibilities . He added that although " Judas " certainly had its own charms and " at least three insanely catchy hooks it leans hard on Gaga 's signature moves . " Maura Johnston of The Village Voice summarized the song as a twin of " Bad Romance " describing its " instantly memorable wordless vocalizing , a pummeling beat , lyrics about a romance that is , well , bad . " Digital Spy 's Robert Copsey gave the song five out of five stars , commending the " blasphemously camp " chorus and comparing it to be worthy of Eurovision – " a Scooch @-@ meets @-@ Lordi affair that , unsurprisingly , takes a few listens to get your head around . " Mark Lepage from The Gazette praised the song and understood that as Gaga 's music has progressed , so has her themes and inspirations , indicated by the conflicted relationship she has with the character Judas in the song . Rick Fulton , while writing in the Daily Record , compared it to " ' Like a Prayer ' on steroids " and gave it three out of five points . NME called the song " Gaga 's worst single so far " .
= = Plagiarism allegations = =
On August 4 , 2011 , Rebecca Francescatti , a Chicago @-@ based songwriter , filed a lawsuit against Gaga and Interscope for allegedly ripping off the song " Juda " from her album , It 's All About You . According to NBC Chicago , the bassist that worked on the song with Gaga , Brian Gaynor , also plays for Francescatti . A copy of the lawsuit revealed Francescatti seeks a cut from the profits " Judas " has earned , on a song that " copied and incorporated substantial , original portions " of the work .
In June 2014 , the lawsuit was dismissed without trial by a Federal Judge in an act of Summary Judgment in Chicago , stating , in part , " The differences [ between the songs " Juda " and " Judas " ] so outweigh the purported similarities between the melodies that they cannot be said to be even remotely similar ” “ We agree with Defendants that the songs do not have common lyrics , the themes are different , and they do not sound at all alike musically . ” “ Thus , we find the similarity of expression to be , quite clearly , ‘ totally lacking . ’ The ( two songs ) are so utterly dissimilar that reasonable minds could not differ as to a lack of substantial similarity between them . ”
= = Chart performance = =
After its release to the digital outlets and radio , Billboard theorized that " Judas " would need to sell between 350 @,@ 000 and 400 @,@ 000 copies in two and a half days , and make a large number of radio listener impressions through the end of the airplay tracking period on April 19 , 2011 , in order to debut at number one on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . The song debuted at number 30 on the Billboard Pop Songs chart with 1 @,@ 405 detections on 118 of the Pop Songs panel 's 132 reporting stations , translating to an opening audience of 13 @.@ 6 million . For the issue dated April 30 , 2011 , " Judas " debuted at number four on Hot Digital Songs chart with 162 @,@ 000 copies sold . It debuted at its peak position of number ten on the Hot 100 — Gaga 's third debut in the top 10 — and started at number 48 on the Radio Songs chart with 26 million audience . The next week " Judas " dropped two places on the Hot 100 , while selling 156 @,@ 000 downloads ( down 4 % ) in its first full week at retail . However , on Radio Songs , " Judas " jumped from number 48 to number 36 ( 34 million impressions , up 29 % ) , while also moving up to number 19 on the Pop Songs chart , reaching a peak of number 15 to date . " Judas " also debuted on the Hot Dance Club Songs Chart at number 38 , and on Adult Pop Songs at number 40 , for the issue dated May 14 , 2011 . It has since reached the top of the Hot Dance Club Songs chart . According to Nielsen SoundScan , " Judas " has sold 984 @,@ 000 copies of digital downloads in the US as of April 2016 . " Judas " , " Marry the Night " and " G.U.Y. " have been her only singles to not sell over one million copies .
In Canada , " Judas " debuted at number nine on the Canadian Hot 100 with three days of sales , entering the Digital Songs chart of Canada at number five with 16 @,@ 000 copies sold . The next week it moved up one position to its peak of number eight , while becoming the greatest gainer on the chart in terms of airplay . The song moved from number 66 to number 23 on the Canadian Hot 100 Airplay chart , with a 161 % increase in audience . In the United Kingdom , " Judas " debuted at number 14 on the UK Singles Chart on April 17 , 2011 , with 20 @,@ 729 copies . The next week it moved to number nine . The song debuted at number nine on the French Singles Chart with 5 @,@ 719 copies of the single , and has since reached a peak of seven . In New Zealand , " Judas " debuted at number 13 on the New Zealand Singles Chart on April 18 , 2011 , and also debuted at number six on the ARIA Singles Chart of Australia , which became its peak there . " Judas " was certified platinum in Australia by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , for shipment of 70 @,@ 000 copies of the single . In Ireland and Finland , " Judas " achieved a top @-@ five debut at positions four and three respectively . Other top @-@ ten debuts happened at Belgium ( Wallonia ) , Norway and Spain . In Japan " Judas " debuted at number seven on the Billboard Japan Hot 100 chart . The song debuted and peaked at number 23 in the German Singles Chart , ending her consecutive top @-@ ten placings in that charts since her debut " Just Dance " .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development = = =
The music video for " Judas " was filmed on April 2 – 3 , 2011 , and was directed by Gaga and her choreographer , Laurieann Gibson . The following Sunday , Gaga had tweeted , " Directing Judas video with my sister @ boomkack is the most exciting artistic moment of my career . It 's the greatest work we 've done . Day 2 . " Her stylist Thierry Mugler and creative director Nicola Formichetti announced on the coming Monday that the shooting for the video was over . With MTV , Gibson explained the idea behind the video :
" I will tell you now , first off , I 'm Christian , and my career is evidence of God in my life , and I think that most people are already thinking that Gaga and the blasphemy and they 're premeditating the approach and I think they 'll be very shocked to find out how huge and really groundbreaking the message is and how freeing the message is for all the right reasons . And it 's really going to shock the world . "
The cast included Norman Reedus as Judas , while Gaga played the part of Mary Magdalene . Gibson and Gaga wanted to make sure the video 's direction was perfect — so they directed it themselves . Gibson explained that while working with Nick Knight on the music video for " Born This Way " , they had felt that the ideas presented did not execute in a way they wanted . But with the music video of " Judas " , the whole idea and the inspiration was clear enough . They had initially approached a director , but the dates did not work out with him , so Gaga 's manager asked her and Gibson to direct the video instead .
Gibson said she took a moment before agreeing , as she had just wrapped up work on Gaga 's Monster Ball HBO special but she could not resist in the end . " It 's a phenomenal video : really powerful , really impactful . She 's such a strong , committed artist . Her loyalty to me is something I will be forever grateful for . We 're spiritually connected . We need each other ... and ' Judas ' is ultimately a representation of our true bond , " she added . With The Hollywood Reporter , Gibson explained that within the video they created a new Jerusalem . The shock value in the video was purposefully added , but ultimately the story was about oppression ; and about following one 's heart and the glory of being free . With NME magazine Gaga revealed that the video involved motorbikes and a death sequence . She also described the portrayal of her character as being " beyond repentance " , which evolved from the continuous media accusations towards her that " [ she 's ] trashy. or pretentious or this and that . [ The video ] is my way of saying ' I 've crossed the line , I won 't even try to repent . Nor should I ' . " Forgiveness and destiny also played a part in the video , and Gaga wanted to portray a Federico Fellini @-@ esque story with apostles being revolutionaries in a modern @-@ day Jerusalem . They are led to Jesus , by Gaga as Magdalene . Although initially reported to be premiered during an episode of the tenth season of American Idol , the music video premiered on May 5 , 2011 , on E ! News at 7 pm .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video opens with a motorcycle gang cruising down a freeway , wearing studded leather jackets . The motorcycle gang are the Twelve Apostles who followed Jesus , including Judas . Gaga as Mary Magdalene clutches onto a Jesus @-@ like figure ( Rick Gonzalez ) who wears a golden crown of thorns . Among the riders is Judas ( Norman Reedus ) , who crosses Gaga 's bike as she looks meaningfully towards him . The gang passes under a flyover , when the song starts . They reach their rustic hideout called " Electric Chapel " where Gaga dances wearing a red sarong and a bikini top with crosses covering her nipples . Gaga 's character watches curiously as the wily Judas enters the biker club and immediately gets involved in a brawl . While trying to protect Jesus from the fights she attempts to warn him about his apostle 's impending betrayal , but becomes hypnotized by Judas ' allure . The storyline is interspersed with choreographed dance sequences and close @-@ ups of Gaga with stark imagery , including artistic eye make @-@ up , which was compared to the Egyptian Eye of Horus . Her flowing blonde hair is accented by a red bandana , blue leather top and puffy white dress in different parts of the clip . The blue top worn by Gaga displays the " Sacred Heart " , a depiction of what Jesus is said to have revealed as a symbol of his love for humanity . During the second verses , Gaga points towards Peter during the line " Build a house " , and towards herself during " Or sink a dead body " .
After the second chorus , in a climatic sequence , the singer holds a gun up to Judas ' mouth , and a stick of red lipstick bursts out and smears his lips . The scene portrays Gaga 's choice to refuse to shoot Judas through the heart . As the breakdown ends , the music stops and Gaga is seen in a bathtub with Jesus and Judas , washing their feet and cleaning it with her hair . The sequence is interspersed with Gaga standing lonely on a rock as waves engulf her , the scene being reminiscent of artist Sandro Botticelli 's The Birth of Venus and Jesus marching towards his fatal destiny . The music restarts and Judas is shown pouring beer in the bathtub . Next Jesus is shown standing on a stage , surrounded by his supporters , the setting being inspired by scaffoldings present around newly constructed buildings in New York . Gaga kneels in front of Jesus and tries to explain something to him , but he places his palm on her head as Judas looks on . After Judas delivers the fateful kiss upon Jesus ' cheeks , marking him for his death , Gaga falls on the ground with a silent , anguished cry . The video ends with the death of neither Judas nor Jesus , but of Gaga as she 's stoned to death by the crowd .
= = = Reception = = =
Before its release , the Catholic League 's president William Anthony Donohue criticized the music video for its portrayal of Gaga as Mary Magdalene . He spoke exclusively to HollywoodLife.com about Gaga 's focus on Judas and Mary Magdalene , calling her " increasingly irrelevant " compared to people with " real talent " , and attacked her for seemingly purposefully debuting the song and video close to Holy Week and Easter . Gaga noted in an interview with E ! that the video was not meant to cause controversy in any way , jokingly adding " the only controversial thing about this video is that I 'm wearing Christian Lacroix and Chanel in the same frame . This video is not meant to be an attack on religion . I respect and love everyone 's beliefs . I 'm a religious and spiritual person who 's obsessed with religious art . I 'm obsessed with it . " After its release , the Catholic League released a further statement stating :
" In her ' Judas ' video , Lady Gaga plays fast and loose with Catholic iconography , and generates several untoward statements , but she typically dances on the line without going over it . The faux @-@ baptismal scene is a curious inclusion , as is her apparent fondness for the Jesus character . But if anyone thinks the Catholic League is going to go ballistic over Lady Gaga 's latest contribution , they haven 't a clue about what really constitutes anti @-@ Catholicism . The video is a mess , incoherent , it leaves the viewer more perplexed than moved . "
Jason Lipshutz from Billboard described it as a " motorcycle mayhem meets biblical betrayal . " MTV News ' James Montogomery called the video as a pure pop clip , " albeit one that looks great and is sure to earn the ire of a few folks on the religious right . " He added that " Judas " is , at its sacred heart , an artistic explosion contained within the confines of a traditional pop clip . Christian Blauvelt from Entertainment Weekly did not like the video at first , calling it her weakest effort to date and attributing it to Gibson 's choreography and the literal storyline . However , he admitted that after watching the video a few times , he became fond of it . Tris McCall from The Star @-@ Ledger felt that there was neither anything blasphemous about the video , nor anything too daring about it . McCall explained that the dancing in the video is a " pleasure to watch " , but would have been better if the camera work was more professional . According to him , the only eye @-@ catching prop in the video was the gun that turned into a lipstick . Matthew Perpetua from Rolling Stone was certain that the video would offend some Christians for its irreverent and highly sexualized take on Jesus Christ ; he also said that Gaga interpreted the Biblical story in her own style . Oscar Moralde from Slant Magazine complimented the production of the video by calling it " visually stunning " , while adding that " ' Judas ' is the work of a repertory , not a revolutionary . It takes familiar swatches from Gaga 's palette ( the leather @-@ and @-@ chain aesthetic of " Telephone " ; the plaintive , tear @-@ stained camera stare of " Bad Romance " ) and puts them all together for a competently executed work . " Phil Fox Rose , while reviewing the video for The Washington Post , gave it a positive review stating that he found it " moving , both artistically and spiritually . " He then went on to explain how the religion related accusations against Gaga were completely biased . VH1 found that the video was inspired by Madonna 's " Like a Prayer " , the films Our Lady of the Assassins , The Wild Angels and Romeo + Juliet , and the American television series Lost . NME named ' Judas ' the fourth worst music video ever , describing it as " an attempt to jump on the Madonna / Catholicism bandwagon that so incredibly misjudged it 's quite comical . " .
Laurieann Gibson 's choreography to the song that was used in the music video was received positively . The video was nominated for Best Choreography at the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards . Gaga 's fan bases hailed the choreography with many videos of them interpreting the choreography on YouTube . One notable video is of two Australian boys Jesse and Jermaine D 'Vauz dancing to the choreography in their bedroom , which was posted by Gaga on her Twitter page in May 2011 . Gaga tweeted : " JUDAS choreography by two sexy boys ! Swoon ! This is why I love my fans , you don 't skip a beat . "
At the 2011 MuchMusic Video Awards , Gaga won the Best International Artist Video award for " Judas " . The song 's music video also received two nominations at the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards , in the categories of Best Choreography and Best Art Direction ; however , the video won neither at the award show , losing to Beyoncé Knowles ' " Run The World ( Girls ) " in Best Choreography , and Adele 's " Rolling in the Deep " in Best Art Direction .
= = Live performances = =
On April 17 , 2011 , Gaga performed " Judas " at a nightclub called Kennedy Lounge , in Tampa , Florida , after her Monster Ball show in the city 's St. Pete Times Forum . Gaga performed " Judas " live on television for the first time on Ellen on April 28 , 2011 . She was accompanied by a string of male dancers , wearing black monk @-@ like garments , by her side . The song was performed as a dance @-@ filled number , with Gaga singing the lines while wearing a blue latex ensemble . According to James Dinh from MTV , the " choreography [ of the performance ] seemingly more difficult than in her usual performances , the singer showcased her best high @-@ energy moves . " As the music came to a close , she struck a pose before planting a kiss on the cheek of DeGeneres , who playfully replicated her stance . At the 2011 Cannes Film Festival , Gaga sang the song for French television show Le Grand Journal . Wearing a gold @-@ embellished ensemble , a red hood and a black @-@ and @-@ white hairstyle , Gaga performed an energetic version of the song accompanied by her male dancers , on a stage in front of the Mediterranean Sea . She explained to host Michel Denisot that the inspiration behind her look was the religious imagery and fashion portrayed in the " Judas " music video . " I 've been wearing very romantic , very biblical arrangements , and I always throw in some punk rock for good measure , " Gaga added .
" Judas " was performed by Gaga on The Graham Norton Show on May 13 , 2011 , and two days later on Radio 1 's Big Weekend in Carlisle , Cumbria . " Judas " was the final song of the setlist , and she finished her performance by taking a bow with her dancers and musicians , as confetti rained on the crowd . Gaga sang " Judas " on the season finale of Saturday Night Live on May 21 , 2011 , after performing the piano version of " The Edge of Glory " . She was dressed in a black shiny top and knee high boots , with a metallic headgear . On May 27 , 2011 , Gaga also performed the song on Good Morning America as a part of their " Summer Concert Series " . She wore a black sheer dress with a gold bejewelled jacket , and gold @-@ studded bikini top and bottom . The stage was filled with steam billowing out of controlled machines . Gaga performed " Judas " on the X Factor in Paris on June 14 , 2011 , as a medley with " The Edge of Glory " . The performance started with Gaga playing a keytar for " The Edge of Glory " , wearing a fringed coat as well as a teal wig . She then removed the keytar and fringed coat , revealing a lingerie outfit which included a thong , and transitioned into " Judas " . A medley of " Judas " and " Born This Way " was the closing performance on the Paul O 'Grady Live show . Ryan Love of Digital Spy had a preview of the show 's recording , and felt that this was the best performance of the two songs by Gaga . The song was performed on The Born This Way Ball . She performed the song after a speech about betrayal and loyalty . The song was performed atop of one of the turrets of the castle . A shortened version was performed , cutting out the second verse and chorus . The song contained elements of the DJ White Shadow Remix .
On the Born This Way Ball tour 's venue in Manila , Philippines , Lady Gaga faced threats of incarceration and lawsuits from nearly 200 Christians from the Biblemode Youth Philippines organization . The group marched to protest about her " blasphemous " music , taking particular offense to the song " Judas " , which they assert demeans Jesus Christ . Responding to the protests , Gaga said in an official statement , " I ’ m not a creature of your government , Manila , " and performed " Judas " anyway . Following the controversy , Roman Catholic legal authorities greenlighted the concerts for Monday , May 21 , 2012 and the following Tuesday , restricting nudity and acts deemed vulgar from the performance . Gaga was also injured while performing " Judas " in Auckland . She was struck accidentally on stage with a metal pole by one of her back @-@ up dancers , giving her a concussion .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Gang Studios ( Paris , France )
Mixed at Henson Studios ( Los Angeles , California )
Mastered at Oasis Mastering ( Burbank , California )
Personnel
Lady Gaga – vocals , songwriter , producer , background vocals
RedOne – songwriter , producer , vocal editing , vocal arrangement , background vocals , audio engineering , instrumentation , programming , recording
Trevor Muzzy – recording , vocal editing , audio engineering , instrumentation , programming , audio mixing
Dave Russell – additional recording
Gene Grimaldi – audio mastering
Credits adapted from Born This Way album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Jumping Flash ! 2 =
Jumping Flash ! 2 ( Japanese : ジャンピングフラッシュ ! , Hepburn : Janpingu Furasshu ! 2 ) is a first @-@ person shooter platform video game developed by Exact and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation in 1996 . It is the direct sequel to Jumping Flash ! , which was released the previous year . It was later ported for the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable via the PlayStation Network in 2009 .
The game revolves around the robotic rabbit protagonist Robbit as he searches for lost Muu Muus , which are scattered throughout different levels in the game by the game 's new antagonist , Captain Kabuki . Rob
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bit must explore each expansive new world to recapture all the lost Muu Muus . As with its predecessor , the game is presented in a first @-@ person perspective . Much of the interface was transferred from the first Jumping Flash ! to the second in order to save time during development . New features include a much longer draw distance , updated enemy AI and a meter displaying whether or not Robbit can triple @-@ jump .
Similar to its predecessor , Jumping Flash ! 2 was well received by critics , who praised the game for its updated interface , advanced graphics and gameplay that " really [ excelled ] beyond the competition " . However , also like its predecessor , it was criticised for its short length , lack of challenging gameplay and close similarities to the first game . Despite this , Jumping Flash ! 2 gained enough popularity to spawn a final sequel , Robbit Mon Dieu .
= = Plot = =
The game is set after an undisclosed amount of time after the first instalment in the series , Jumping Flash ! . After Robbit denounces Baron Aloha 's plans to take over Crater Planet ( events from the first game ) , Aloha flees for his life and returns to his home planet , Little Muu .
While planning his revenge , however , Aloha 's turn to face the fear of having his planet attacked comes . A hostile alien invader known as Captain Kabuki ( voiced by Lorelei King ) descends upon Little Muu and starts taking it apart , piece by piece , contrasting on what Aloha himself had once tried to do to Crater Planet in the first game . Aloha flees the onslaught in his space pod , and lands on an asteroid far away from Little Muu , where he calls for help from his sworn enemy , Universal City Hall . Once again , Robbit is dispatched to help , and manages to free the parts of Little Muu which Kabuki has taken , and ultimately faces Kabuki one @-@ on @-@ one in mortal combat . Robbit defeats Kabuki , resulting in the latter escaping .
Still carrying a grudge against Robbit , Aloha seeks Kabuki and convinces him to form an alliance so that they can destroy Robbit together . In exchange , Aloha will pay Kabuki a large amount of money , and Kabuki , also desiring revenge against Robbit , agrees . Aloha and Kabuki attack Little Muu together , prompting Robbit to take action again . Eventually , Robbit and Kabuki battle each other one last time , and Robbit manages to destroy Kabuki once and for all while Aloha flees for his life once again . At the end of the game , Aloha returns to Little Muu , but is disowned by all the Muu Muus , who now resent him for teaming with Kabuki ( who had tried to destroy them all ) and trying to destroy Robbit , who had saved their lives . They throw him out of the bar and tell him to never come back .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay of Jumping Flash ! 2 is virtually identical to its predecessor ; the game is presented in a first @-@ person perspective , and the player can move freely in three @-@ dimensional world and rotate the camera in any direction . The user interface resembles much of the characteristics of its predecessor ; the top part of the screen shows the time remaining , the player 's score , and one of four of Robbit 's AI sidekicks who offers the player warnings , reminders and hints .
Despite its similarities however , the gameplay offered many new changes . Instead of collecting four Jet Pods , the player @-@ character must rescue four MuuMuus in each level before exiting . Another new addition is the new interface , which displays one of Robbit 's travelling AI companions , a health bar , a timer and a jump @-@ meter that displays whether or not the player is eligible for a triple jump . Other new additions include the power orbs as an added power @-@ up and the ability to obtain Performance Medals . A certain Performance Medal may be awarded depending on how the player completes a level . For example , playing through a single level without firing any weapons will reward the player with the Flower Child medal . There are a total of twelve medals to collect .
Identical to its predecessor however , the core of the gameplay is centred on the player 's ability to make Robbit jump and shoot projectiles at enemies . Robbit can jump up to three times ( as indicated by the new interface ) , allowing him to reach extreme heights in the game . As with the first instalment , Jumping Flash ! 2 introduced new in @-@ game power ups and weapons such as a powerful laser beam , missiles and trip mines . In addition to the new weapons , the player can find and use the older weapons in form of fireworks to deal massive damage to enemies . Other weapons include cherry bombs , rockets and Roman candles . The player still has the ability to shoot low @-@ powered projectiles where a target reticle is centred in the middle of the screen .
= = Development and release = =
As with the first instalment , Jumping Flash ! 2 was developed by Japanese developer Exact Co . , Ltd however Ultra Co . , Ltd was not involved in development . The game engine and most of the interface were transferred from its predecessor to Jumping Flash ! 2 in order to save time during the development . Despite the initial similarities the developers decided to give Jumping Flash ! 2 a much larger draw distance , higher quality textures , and updated enemy AI in order to give the game a more memorable first @-@ person 3D perspective . Jumping Flash ! 2 was not designed to be a technology demonstrator , unlike its predecessor .
The music for both the first game and Jumping Flash ! 2 was composed by Japanese video games and anime music composer Takeo Miratsu . Many of the tracks were included with tracks from the previous game ( which Miratsu also composed the music for ) on the Jumping Flash ! 2 Original Soundtrack . The soundtrack was published by Antinos Records in Japan in 1996 . Jumping Flash ! 2 was re @-@ released as a downloadable game for the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable via the PlayStation Network in 2009 , with the same controls and interface as the 1996 release .
= = Reception = =
Upon release , Jumping Flash ! 2 was received mostly positive review scores ( similar to its predecessor ) from critics and magazines alike . Many critics praised the new innovation the game offered ; IGN staff was impressed by the game 's newly expanded worlds and the inclusion of bonus worlds which were not included in the first game , however noted that despite not significantly different from the first , the game " still delivers " . Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu awarded the game as among the top 120 games reviewed by the publication in 2000 . Matthew House of GamePro also criticised the game on its difficulty and length ; stating that " while some games are extremely frustrating , this sequel is astonishingly easy the lack of the game 's challenging gameplay " . House however praised its playability and its improved graphic engine , respectively giving the game a score of three and a half stars out of five stars .
Shawn Sackenheim of GamePro also found the main downfall of the game too short and too easy , however he noted the new Time Attack mode and the expansion of the storyline to be an interesting new feature that extended playability . Sackenheim established that despite the minor add @-@ ons and overhauled textures , Jumping Flash ! 2 was essentially a technical update of the 1995 original . Other criticisms conclude that the game was too short despite Game Revolution citing that the game offered a total of 32 levels if including the " repetitive " epilogue . Game Revolution also noted that Jumping Flash ! 2 was a " very worthy sequel with better graphics , higher jumps , and lots more levels " , and that upon release the game the gameplay " really [ excelled ] beyond the competition " .
= Burkhan Khaldun =
The Burkhan Khaldun ( Cyrillic : Бурхан Халдун ) is one of the Khentii Mountains in the Khentii Province of northeastern Mongolia . The mountain or its locality is believed to be the birthplace of Genghis Khan as well as the location of his tomb . It is also the birthplace of one of his most successful generals , Subutai . The mountain is part of the 12 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 4 @,@ 600 sq mi ) Khan Khentii Strictly Protected Area established in 1992 . It had strong religious significance before Genghis Khan made it a powerful landmark , but is considered the most sacred mountain in Mongolia since it was designated as sacred by Genghis Khan . It was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site on 4 July 2015 under the title " Great Burkhan Khaldun Mountain and its surrounding sacred landscape . " Under a Presidential Decree of 1955 the worship of this mountain has been formalised and the mountain declared a national monument . Its ecosystem is complex with unique biodiversity with flora of the Central Asian steppe . It has 50 species of fauna and 253 species of birds .
= = Location = =
Burkhan Khaldun is situated in the north @-@ east of Mongolia in the middle of the Khentii mountain range . The mountain is integral to the Khan Khentii Strictly Protected Area established in 1992 and which extends over an area of 12 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 4 @,@ 600 sq mi ) .
= = Geography = =
Burkhan Khaldun means the " God Mountain " ( in Cyrillic ) and is also called Khentii Khan ( The King of the Khentii Mountain range ) . It is one of the Khentii Mountains in the Khentii Province of northeastern Mongolia . It is the highest mountain of the region , rising to an elevation of 2 @,@ 362 metres ( 7 @,@ 749 ft ) , and is crescent @-@ shaped . It is the source of several rivers : the Onon and Kherlen rivers flow into the Amur , which has its outfall in the Pacific Ocean ; and the rivers Tuul , Kharaa and Yeruu flow northwards to join the Selenge , which empties into the Arctic Ocean . It is in a complex ecosystem with unique biodiversity which is defined as a " transition zone from Siberian permafrost land forms to great steppe " .
= = History = =
Genghis Khan ( also known as Chinggis Khan ) lost his battle against the Merkit ( one of the major tribal confederations ( khanlig ) of the Mongols ) and escaped death by seeking protection in the sacred precincts of the Burkhan Khaldun mountains . An old woman saved him and a few others . As mark of great reverence to the mountain , which in Mongolia is considered a highly sacred mountain of spiritual significance , and to the sun above , he offered his respects to the spirits of the mountain around him , sprayed milk into the air and sprinkled it on the earth . He removed his girdle strap , unwinding it from his outfit , and then put it around his neck . Symbolically by this act he surrendered his Mongolian man 's pride and expressed his submission to the gods . He also took off his hat , crossed his hand across his chest and knelt in obeisance nine times offering worship to the sun and the mountain . He spent three days in the mountain offering prayers and thus established a strong bond of spirituality with the mountain and derived special strength from it . In the Secret History of the Mongols , Genghis Khan , who later became the " World Conqueror " believing in his own destiny , had said :
Genghis Khan then started his campaign to unify the land and people of Mongolia as a strong force . He gave the Burkhan Khaldun the status of a royal sacred mountain . The history is chronicled in the “ Secret History of the Mongols ” , which UNESCO recognised in 1990 as a " literary creation of outstanding universal significance " . In this document Burkhan Khaldun is described in detail and finds mention 27 times , which signifies the unique position of the mountain in Mongolia ‘ s heritage . This document establishes the authenticity of the site , stating :
A Presidential Decree of 1955 formalised the worship of the Burkhan Khaldun Mountain as a national monument . Special worship is offered to the mountain according to a prescribed procedure at the Main " Ovoo of the Heaven " ; it is reserved for a few officials of the state and local administration , shamans and a few Buddhist lamas ( monks ) .
= = World heritage status = =
Burkhan Khaldun was inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site at the 39th session of the World Heritage Committee on 4 July 2015 under the title " Great Burkhan Khaldun Mountain and its surrounding sacred landscape " , covering an area of 443 @,@ 739 hectares ( 1 @,@ 096 @,@ 500 acres ) and an additional buffer zone of 271 @,@ 651 hectares ( 671 @,@ 260 acres ) , categorised under Criterion ( iv ) for its unique cultural tradition of mountain worship and nature worship of past several millennium , and ( vi ) for its universally known historical and literary epic of immense importance .
= = Religious significance = =
This mountain has a spiritual significance unmatched by any other mountain in Mongolia , and is given the symbolic status of the “ cradle ” of Mongolia 's nationhood fully representing the " heritage and traditional ways of life of nomadic people of Mongolia " . The ( unconfirmed ) Mongolian belief that Genghis Khan was born here and is buried somewhere in this mountain has added to the sanctity of the mountain , particularly since Khan offered worship here and declared the mountain as the most sacred in the country . It has given authenticity to the spiritual nature of the mountain , and as a result regular pilgrimage is under taken by the people to the three sacred major ovoos or stone cairns fixed at the sacred sites along a specified route where Mongolian shamanic worship is offered . The specified route is unique and covers : Main Ovoo of Heaven at the pinnacle of the mountain via Gurvan Khoriud ( " Three Forbidden Precincts " ) ; the Uud Mod ( " Two Trees of Entrance " ) ; the Bosgo Tengeriin Davaa ( " Threshold Pass of Heaven " ) ; the catchment of the Kherlen River and the Sacred Bogd Rivers ; and finally to the Beliin ( " Lowest " ) Ovoo .
= = Flora = =
The flora found in the mountain belongs to the Central Asian steppe and consists of coniferous forests of the taiga . The plant species reported are 28 listed in the Mongolian Red Book , 15 very rare species , and 28 species listed as rare species . The species listed in the IUCN Red List are also found here and these are : 2 critically endangered species , 4 endangered species and 8 vulnerable species .
= = Fauna = =
In the faunal geographical province of the Burkhan Khaldun Mountain in the Khentii district the fauna reported are more than " 50 species of 27 genera of six orders including five species of mammals / insectivores , 4 species of hymenoptera , four species of lagomorpha , 19 species of rodents , 13 species of predators , five species of ungulate , one species of reptile , and 253 species of birds . According to the Mongolian Red Data Book : the very rare mammal species are musk deer ( Moshus moshiferus ) and moose ( Alces alces ) ; the very rare bird species are the Siberian white crane ( Grus luecogeranus ) , Greater spotted eagle ( Aquila clanga ) , Pallas ’ s fish eagle ( Haliaeetus leucoryphus ) , white @-@ naped crane ( Grus vipio ) and hooded crane ( Grus monacha ) ; the fish species is the Amur sturgeon ( Acipenser schrenckii ) .
= USS Milwaukee ( CL @-@ 5 ) =
USS Milwaukee ( CL @-@ 5 ) was an Omaha @-@ class light cruiser built for the United States Navy during the 1920s . The ship spent most of her early career assigned to the Asiatic and Battle Fleets . In 1941 she was assigned to the Neutrality Patrol until she was refitted in New York in late 1941 . She escorted a troop convoy to the Pacific in early 1942 before returning to the South Atlantic where she patrolled for German commerce raiders and blockade runners . In November , she intercepted one of the latter , but it scuttled itself before it could be captured . In 1944 she was temporarily transferred to the Soviet Navy and commissioned as Murmansk . The ship was returned by the Soviets in 1949 and sold for scrap in December .
= = Description = =
Milwaukee was 550 feet ( 170 m ) long at the waterline and 555 feet 6 inches ( 169 @.@ 3 m ) long overall , with a beam of 55 feet 4 inches ( 16 @.@ 9 m ) and a mean draft of 13 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 1 m ) . Her standard displacement was 7 @,@ 050 long tons ( 7 @,@ 160 t ) and 9 @,@ 150 long tons ( 9 @,@ 300 t ) at full load . Her crew consisted of 29 officers and 429 enlisted men . The ship was fitted with a powerful echo sounder .
The ship was powered by four Westinghouse geared steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam generated by 12 Yarrow boilers . The engines were rated at 90 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 67 @,@ 000 kW ) and designed to reach a top speed of 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) . At deep load she carried 1 @,@ 852 long tons ( 1 @,@ 882 t ) of fuel oil that provided her a range of 6 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 000 km ; 7 @,@ 500 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Milwaukee mounted a dozen 53 @-@ caliber six @-@ inch guns ; four in two twin gun turrets and eight in tiered casemates fore and aft . Her secondary armament initially consisted of two 50 @-@ caliber three @-@ inch anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns in single mounts , but this was doubled to four guns during construction . Milwaukee was initially built with the capacity to carry 224 mines , but these were removed early in her career to make more space for crew accommodations . The ship carried above @-@ water two triple and two twin torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . The triple mounts were fitted on the upper deck , aft of the aircraft catapults , and the twin mounts were one deck lower , covered by hatches in the side of the hull . These lower mounts proved to be very wet and were removed , and the openings plated over , before the start of World War II . Another change made before the war was to increase the 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) guns to four , all mounted in the ship 's waist .
The ship lacked a full @-@ length waterline armor belt . The sides of her boiler and engine rooms and steering gear were protected by 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of armor . The transverse bulkheads at the end of her machinery rooms were 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) thick forward and three inches thick aft . The deck over the machinery spaces and steering gear had a thickness of 1 @.@ 5 inches . The gun turrets were only protected against muzzle blast and the conning tower had 1 @.@ 5 inches of armor . Milwaukee carried two floatplanes aboard that were stored on the two catapults . Initially these were probably Vought VE @-@ 9s , but the ship operated Curtiss SOC Seagulls from 1935 and Vought OS2U Kingfishers after 1940 .
= = = Wartime changes = = =
After 1940 the lower aft six @-@ inch guns were removed and the casemates plated over . The ship 's anti @-@ aircraft armament was augmented by two quadruple 1 @.@ 1 @-@ inch gun mounts by early 1942 , although these were replaced by twin Bofors 40 mm gun mounts later in the war . At about the same time , Milwaukee received eight Oerlikon 20 mm cannon .
= = Service history = =
= = = Inter @-@ war period = = =
The contract for Milwaukee , the third ship named for the city of Milwaukee , Wisconsin , was signed on 27 August 1917 and the ship was laid down by Todd Dry Dock & Construction Co . , at their Tacoma , Washington shipyard on 13 December 1918 . She was launched on 24 March 1921 and was commissioned on 20 June 1923 . During the ship 's shakedown cruise , she visited Sydney , Australia during the Pan @-@ Pacific Scientific Congress which opened on 23 August . With her new depth – finding equipment , Milwaukee surveyed the floor of the Pacific en route . " The Milwaukee Seamounts in the Northern Pacific are named after a set of soundings taken by Milwaukee in 1929 . "
During Fleet Problem VI , she collided with her sister ship Detroit in Guantanamo Bay , Cuba , on 1 February 1926 , although neither ship was seriously damaged . Milwaukee and the destroyer Goff assisted victims of a fierce hurricane which had devastated the Isle of Pines in October 1926 . She was assigned to Cruiser Division 2 of the Asiatic Fleet in 1928 . During an engagement with " enemy " cruisers during Fleet Problem IX on 16 April 1930 , the ship was ruled to have been knocked out by the exercise 's umpires . Three years later , during Fleet Problem XIV , Milwaukee was spotted by fighters from the aircraft carrier Saratoga and sunk by some of the opposing cruisers . In 1933 , the ship was assigned to Cruiser Division 3 of the Battle Fleet . After the Panay Incident in December 1937 , Milwaukee made a cruise through the Western Pacific from January to April 1938 .
While steaming north of Hispaniola and Puerto Rico on 14 February 1939 , Milwaukee discovered the deepest place in the Atlantic Ocean . The spot — which has a depth of 28 @,@ 680 feet ( 8 @,@ 740 m ) — is now known as the " Milwaukee Deep " . By January 1941 , the ship had returned to Cruiser Division 2 which was now assigned to the Caribbean Patrol , commanded by Rear Admiral Jonas H. Ingram , part of the Neutrality Patrol established after the war began . Cruiser Division 2 was ordered to patrol the Atlantic between Trinidad , the Cape Verde Islands and the eastern bulge of Brazil in April , although Milwaukee was not immediately available . The ship , escorted by the destroyers Somers and Jouett , began her first patrol in May , making a port visit to Recife , Brazil on 1 June , before returning to San Juan , Puerto Rico . These patrols continued in the same manner for most of the rest of the year .
= = = World War II = = =
= = = = South Atlantic = = = =
Milwaukee , commanded by Captain Forrest B. Royal , was being overhauled in the Brooklyn Navy Yard when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on 7 December . The ship escorted a convoy to the Caribbean from New York on 31 December and then escorted eight troop transports from the Panama Canal to the Society Islands . She rejoined the South Atlantic Patrol Force upon her return and spend the next two years making patrols between Brazil and the African coast . On 19 May she received an SOS from the Brazilian cargo ship SS Commandante Lyra , which had been torpedoed by the Italian submarine Barbarigo off the coast of Brazil . Milwaukee found the freighter abandoned , burning , and listing to port . She rescued 25 survivors from their lifeboats , including the ship 's master . Reinforced by her sister Omaha and the destroyer McDougal , the fires were brought under control , cargo was jettisoned to lighten the ship , and Commandante Lyra was towed to Fortaleza , Brazil .
Rear Admiral O. M. Read assumed command of Cruiser Division 2 in October and hoisted his flag aboard Milwaukee . On 21 November , Milwaukee , her sister Cincinnati and the destroyer Somers intercepted the German blockade runner Anneliese Essberger . When Somers had closed to 4 miles ( 3 @.@ 5 nmi ; 6 @.@ 4 km ) , the German ship scuttled herself to prevent capture . Milwaukee rescued 62 of the ship 's crew . On 2 May 1943 , while the ship was under repair at Recife , her crew helped to fight a fire on the oil tanker SS Livingston Roe . Milwaukee and Omaha collided on 31 May off the coast of Brazil , although the extent of the damage is not known . The ship sailed for the Brooklyn Navy Yard on 8 February 1944 , preparatory to her temporary transfer to the Soviet Union in lieu of Italian ships allotted after the Italian surrender that could not be delivered . She escorted a convoy to Belfast , Northern Ireland on 8 March before forming part of the escort of Convoy JW 58 during her voyage to Murmansk beginning on 29 March .
= = = Soviet service = = =
On 20 April , the ship was transferred on loan to the Soviet Northern Fleet in Murmansk . She was commissioned in the Soviet Navy as Murmansk and performed convoy and patrol duty in the Arctic Ocean for the remainder of the war . Afterward , she became a training ship and participated in the 1948 fleet maneuvers . On 16 March 1949 , Milwaukee was transferred back to the United States . She was the first of 15 American warships returned by Russia . She entered the Philadelphia Naval Shipyard on 18 March 1949 , and was sold for scrapping on 10 December to the American Shipbreakers , Inc. of Wilmington , Delaware .
= Les Holden =
Leslie Hubert ( Les ) Holden , MC , AFC ( 6 March 1895 – 18 September 1932 ) was an Australian fighter ace of World War I and later a commercial aviator . A South Australian , he joined the Light Horse in May 1915 , serving in Egypt and France . In December 1916 , he volunteered for the Australian Flying Corps and qualified as a pilot . As a member of No. 2 Squadron on the Western Front , he gained the sobriquets " Lucky Les " and " the homing pigeon " after a series of incidents that saw him limping back to base in bullet @-@ riddled aircraft . He was awarded the Military Cross , and went on to achieve five aerial victories flying Airco DH.5s and Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5s.
Promoted to captain , Holden finished the war as an instructor with No. 6 ( Training ) Squadron in England , where his work earned him the Air Force Cross . After leaving the Australian Flying Corps in 1919 , he became a manager at the family firm of Holden 's Motor Body Builders and joined the part @-@ time Citizen Air Force , before setting up as a commercial pilot and establishing his own air service . In 1929 , he located Charles Kingsford Smith and Charles Ulm in the north @-@ west Australian desert after the pair was reported missing on a flight to England in the Southern Cross . Holden began transport operations in New Guinea in 1931 . He was killed the following year in a passenger plane crash in Australia .
= = Family and early life = =
Leslie Hubert Holden was born on 6 March 1895 in East Adelaide , South Australia , to travelling businessman Hubert William Holden and his wife Annie Maria . Les was the nephew of Henry Holden , who later founded the Adelaide @-@ based firm Holden 's Motor Body Builders with his son Edward . Hubert Holden landed a partnership with Nestlé in 1905 , and the family moved to Turramurra , New South Wales . Les completed his education at Sydney Church of England Grammar School , and joined Nestlé in 1911 as a salesman . By the time Australia entered World War I in August 1914 , he was an assistant manager .
= = World War I = =
Holden enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force on 26 May 1915 , and was posted to the 4th Light Horse Brigade as a private . He departed for Egypt aboard the transport A29 Suevic on 13 June . Serving as a driver first in the Middle East and then on the Western Front , his mechanical ability and sense of adventure led him to volunteer for the Australian Flying Corps ( AFC ) in December 1916 . After qualifying as a pilot in England , he was commissioned a lieutenant and posted to No. 2 Squadron . Commanded by Major Oswald Watt , No. 2 Squadron 's personnel included many former Lighthorsemen , as well as mechanics from the AFC 's first combat formation , the Mesopotamian Half Flight . The force trained extensively in England commencing in January 1917 , before deploying to the Western Front that September . Holden was involved in the AFC 's first day of combat in France ; just after noon on 2 October , in the vicinity of Saint @-@ Quentin , he and his wingman engaged a German two @-@ seater that managed to escape .
Because its Airco DH.5s were handicapped as fighters by engine problems and low speed , No. 2 Squadron was employed mainly in ground support duties . During the fog @-@ shrouded opening day of the Battle of Cambrai on 20 November , Holden bombed and machine @-@ gunned a German communications trench from altitudes as low as 20 or 30 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 or 9 @.@ 1 metres ) . He returned to a forward airfield near Havrincourt Wood with his plane " a flying wreck " , in the words of the official history of Australia in the war . " Every part of it was shot full of holes , including petrol @-@ tank , tail @-@ plane , both longerons , and part of the undercarriage , while the elevator control was shot clean away . " Two days later he repeated the exercise with similar consequences for his aircraft — " clear evidence of the dangers of the work and of his own good luck " , as the official history put it . This brace of close calls gained him the nicknames " Lucky Les " and " the homing pigeon " . He was recommended for the Military Cross on 3 December for his actions of 20 November . The award was promulgated in the London Gazette on 4 February 1918 , and the citation appeared on 5 July :
Lt. Leslie Hubert Holden , F.C.
For conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty . Whilst on a special mission he dropped a bomb direct on a support trench full of the enemy , causing them to scatter , and another bomb upon a strong point which was holding up our advance . He also bombed a large group of enemy infantry , and turned his machine gun on them from a height of 100 feet . He rendered very valuable service throughout the operations .
Holden claimed his first aerial victory while No. 2 Squadron was still flying DH.5s , before it began converting to Royal Aircraft Factory S.E.5s in December 1917 . On 18 February 1918 , he shared in one of the unit 's first two victories in the S.E.5 , helping send an Albatros down in a spin . He claimed another three aircraft shot down over the following month , giving him a total of five victories . At least one of these took place during the Spring Offensive , on 22 March , when all available Allied aircraft were thrown into battle to stem the German advance .
Royal Air Force policy required pilots to be rotated to home establishment for rest and instructional duties after nine to twelve months in combat . Promoted to captain in March 1918 , Holden was posted to England in May as a flying instructor with No. 6 ( Training ) Squadron at Minchinhampton . His unit was part of the 1st Training Wing , led by Lieutenant Colonel Watt , the former commanding officer of No. 2 Squadron . Holden briefly took command of No. 6 Squadron from 25 July to 11 August . He was awarded the Air Force Cross , promulgated on 3 June 1919 , for his skill as an instructor .
= = Post @-@ war career and legacy = =
No. 6 Squadron was disbanded in March 1919 . Along with many other Australian Flying Corps personnel including Colonel Watt , Major Roy King , and Captain Garnet Malley , Holden departed for Australia on 6 May aboard the troopship Kaisar @-@ i @-@ Hind , disembarking in Sydney on 19 June . He was discharged from the AFC on 18 August 1919 . After taking part in the Commonwealth Government 's Peace Loan flights , he joined Holden 's Motor Body Builders as its Sydney manager . In May 1921 , he served with Malley and other veteran pilots as a pall @-@ bearer at Watt 's funeral in Randwick . Holden married Kathleen Packman at St Mark 's Anglican Church in Darling Point on 3 June 1924 ; the couple had three daughters . On 19 June 1925 , the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) established the Citizen Air Force as a part @-@ time active reserve , and Holden became one of its first recruits . Ranked flight lieutenant , he served as a pilot with No. 3 Squadron , which operated Airco DH.9s and S.E.5s. Formed at RAAF Point Cook , Victoria , it transferred to the newly opened RAAF Richmond , New South Wales , during 29 – 30 June ; Holden and Malley touched down at Richmond with the first two S.E.5s on the 30th .
Still hankering after a full @-@ time career in flying , Holden enlisted the help of friends to purchase a de Havilland DH.61 Giant Moth in 1928 . He named it Canberra , and used it to start a charter operation out of Mascot Aerodrome in Sydney . Holden became a national celebrity in April 1929 when he successfully undertook an aerial search of the north @-@ western Australian wilderness to locate Charles Kingsford Smith and Charles Ulm , after the pair had gone missing on a flight from Sydney to England in the Southern Cross . Two other searchers , Keith Anderson and Bob Hitchcock , were lost in their aircraft , the Kookaburra . The media of the day turned on Smith and Ulm , accusing them of a publicity stunt , and the Sydney Citizens ' Relief Committee , which had commissioned Holden to undertake the rescue operation , withheld payment of his expenses . He nevertheless continued flying commercially , and is credited with making — in September 1931 — possibly the first flight from Sydney to New Guinea , where he started an air freight service . Returning to Sydney the following year , he established Holden 's Air Transport Services . He also acquired two more aircraft for his New Guinea operations , a Waco and a Moth , to supplement the Canberra .
On 18 September 1932 , Holden was travelling as a passenger aboard a New England Airways DH.80 Puss Moth from Sydney to Brisbane when it crashed at Byron Bay in northern New South Wales , killing him instantly . The other occupants , pilot Ralph Virtue and the joint owner of the Canberra , Holden 's schoolfriend Dr George Hamilton , also perished . Investigations determined that the Puss Moth , VH @-@ UPM , had gone down as a result of wing failure caused by aileron flutter . A crowded memorial service for Holden and Hamilton took place at Sydney Church of England Grammar School on 20 September ; they were cremated that afternoon at Rookwood Cemetery , where eighteen aircraft piloted by friends and associates of the pair overflew the chapel . Holden was survived by his wife and children . His father Hubert carried on operating Holden 's Air Transport Services , floating it as a public corporation and serving as chairman . Les Holden , George Hamilton , and one of their schoolmates who had also recently died , Henry Braddon , were commemorated with a memorial stained @-@ glass window at the Sydney Church of England Grammar School chapel in 1934 . Holden was also honoured by Holden Street , built in the Sydney suburb of Maroubra in 1943 .
= Habitat =
A habitat is an ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular species of animal , plant , or other type of organism . The term typically refers to the zone in which the organism lives and where it can find food , shelter , protection and mates for reproduction . It is the natural environment in which an organism lives , or the physical environment that surrounds a species population .
A habitat is made up of physical factors such as soil , moisture , range of temperature , and light intensity as well as biotic factors such as the availability of food and the presence or absence of predators . Every organism has certain habitat needs for the conditions in which it will thrive , but some are tolerant of wide variations while others are very specific in their requirements . A habitat is not necessarily a geographical area , it can be the interior of a stem , a rotten log , a rock or a clump of moss , and for a parasitic organism it is the body of its host , part of the host 's body such as the digestive tract , or a single cell within the host 's body .
Habitat types include polar , temperate , subtropical and tropical . The terrestrial vegetation type may be forest , steppe , grassland , semi @-@ arid or desert . Fresh water habitats include marshes , streams , rivers , lakes , ponds and estuaries , and marine habitats include salt marshes , the coast , the intertidal zone , reefs , bays , the open sea , the sea bed , deep water and submarine vents .
Habitats change over time . This may be due to a violent event such as the eruption of a volcano , an earthquake , a tsunami , a wildfire or a change in oceanic currents ; or the change may be more gradual over millennia with alterations in the climate , as ice sheets and glaciers advance and retreat , and as different weather patterns bring changes of precipitation and solar radiation . Other changes come as a direct result of human activities ; deforestation , the ploughing of ancient grasslands , the diversion and damming of rivers , the draining of marshland and the dredging of the seabed . The introduction of alien species can have a devastating effect on native wildlife , through increased predation , through competition for resources or through the introduction of pests and diseases to which the native species have no immunity .
= = Definition and etymology = =
The word " habitat " has been in use since about 1755 and derives from the Latin third @-@ person singular present indicative of habitāre , to inhabit , from habēre , to have or to hold . Habitat can be defined as the natural environment of an organism , the place in which it is natural for it to live and grow . It is similar in meaning to a biotope , an area of uniform environmental conditions associated with a particular community of plants and animals .
= = Environmental factors = =
The chief environmental factors affecting the distribution of living organisms are temperature , humidity , climate , soil type and light intensity , and the presence or absence of all the requirements that the organism needs to sustain it . Generally speaking , animal communities are reliant on specific types of plant communities .
Some plants and animals are generalists , and their habitat requirements are met in a wide range of locations . The small white butterfly ( Pieris rapae ) for example is found on all the continents of the world apart from Antarctica . Its larvae feed on a wide range of Brassicas and various other plant species , and it thrives in any open location with diverse plant associations . The large blue butterfly is much more specific in its requirements ; it is found only in chalk grassland areas , its larvae feed on Thymus species and because of complex lifecycle requirements it inhabits only areas in which Myrmica ants live .
Disturbance is important in the creation of biodiverse habitats . In the absence of disturbance , a climax vegetation cover develops that prevents the establishment of other species . Wildflower meadows are sometimes created by conservationists but most of the flowering plants used are either annuals or biennials and disappear after a few years in the absence of patches of bare ground on which their seedlings can grow . Lightning strikes and toppled trees in tropical forests allow species richness to be maintained as pioneering species move in to fill the gaps created . Similarly coastal habitats can become dominated by kelp until the seabed is disturbed by a storm and the algae swept away , or shifting sediment exposes new areas for colonisation . Another cause of disturbance is when an area may be overwhelmed by an invasive introduced species which is not kept under control by natural enemies in its new habitat .
= = Types of habitat = =
Terrestrial habitat types include forests , grasslands , wetlands and deserts . Within these broad biomes are more specific habitats with varying climate types , temperature regimes , soils , altitudes and vegetation types . Many of these habitats grade into each other and each one has its own typical communities of plants and animals . A habitat may suit a particular species well , but its presence or absence at any particular location depends to some extent on chance , on its dispersal abilities and its efficiency as a coloniser .
Freshwater habitats include rivers , streams , lakes , ponds , marshes and bogs . Although some organisms are found across most of these habitats , the majority have more specific requirements . The water velocity , its temperature and oxygen saturation are important factors , but in river systems , there are fast and slow sections , pools , bayous and backwaters which provide a range of habitats . Similarly , aquatic plants can be floating , semi @-@ submerged , submerged or grow in permanently or temporarily saturated soils besides bodies of water . Marginal plants provide important habitat for both invertebrates and vertebrates , and submerged plants provide oxygenation of the water , absorb nutrients and play a part in the reduction of pollution .
Marine habitats include brackish water , estuaries , bays , the open sea , the intertidal zone , the sea bed , reefs and deep water zones . Further variations include rock pools , sand banks , mudflats , brackish lagoons , sandy and pebbly beaches , and seagrass beds , all supporting their own flora and fauna . The benthic zone or seabed provides a home for both static organisms , anchored to the substrate , and for a large range of organisms crawling on or burrowing into the surface . Some creatures float among the waves on the surface of the water , or raft on floating debris , others swim at a range of depths , including organisms in the demersal zone close to the seabed , and myriads of organisms drift with the currents and form the plankton .
A desert is not the kind of habitat that favours the presence of amphibians , with their requirement for water to keep their skins moist and for the development of their young . Nevertheless , some frogs live in deserts , creating moist habitats underground and hibernating while conditions are adverse . Couch 's spadefoot toad ( Scaphiopus couchii ) emerges from its burrow when a downpour occurs and lays its eggs in the transient pools that form ; the tadpoles develop with great rapidity , sometimes in as little as nine days , undergo metamorphosis , and feed voraciously before digging a burrow of their own .
Other organisms cope with the drying up of their aqueous habitat in other ways . Vernal pools are ephemeral ponds that form in the rainy season and dry up afterwards . They have their specially @-@ adapted characteristic flora , mainly consisting of annuals , the seeds of which survive the drought , but also some uniquely adapted perennials . Animals adapted to these extreme habitats also exist ; fairy shrimps can lay " winter eggs " which are resistant to desiccation , sometimes being blown about with the dust , ending up in new depressions in the ground . These can survive in a dormant state for as long as fifteen years . Some killifish behave in a similar way ; their eggs hatch and the juvenile fish grow with great rapidity when the conditions are right , but the whole population of fish may end up as eggs in diapause in the dried up mud that was once a pond .
Many animals and plants have taken up residence in urban environments . They tend to be adaptable generalists and use the town 's features to make their homes . Rats and mice have followed man around the globe , pigeons , peregrines , sparrows , swallows and house martins use the buildings for nesting , bats use roof space for roosting , foxes visit the garbage bins and squirrels , coyotes , raccoons and skunks roam the streets . About 2 @,@ 000 coyotes are thought to live in and around Chicago . A survey of dwelling houses in northern European cities in the twentieth century found about 175 species of invertebrate inside them , including 53 species of beetle , 21 flies , 13 butterflies and moths , 13 mites , 9 lice , 7 bees , 5 wasps , 5 cockroaches , 5 spiders , 4 ants and a number of other groups . In warmer climates , termites are serious pests in the urban habitat ; 183 species are known to affect buildings and 83 species cause serious structural damage .
= = Microhabitats = =
A microhabitat is the small @-@ scale physical requirements of a particular organism or population . Every habitat includes large numbers of microhabitats with subtly different exposure to light , humidity , temperature , air movement , and other factors . The lichens that grow on the north face of a boulder are different to those that grow on the south face , from those on the level top and those that grow on the ground nearby ; the lichens growing in the grooves and on the raised surfaces are different from those growing on the veins of quartz . Lurking among these miniature " forests " are the microfauna , each species of invertebrate with its own specific habitat requirements .
There are numerous different microhabitats in a wood ; coniferous forest , broad @-@ leafed forest , open woodland , scattered trees , woodland verges , clearings and glades ; tree trunk , branch , twig , bud , leaf , flower and fruit ; rough bark , smooth bark , damaged bark , rotten wood , hollow , groove and hole ; canopy , shrub layer , plant layer , leaf litter and soil ; buttress root , stump , fallen log , stem base , grass tussock , fungus , fern and moss . The greater the structural diversity in the wood , the greater the number of microhabitats that will be present . A range of tree species with individual specimens of varying sizes and ages , and a range of features such as streams , level areas , slopes , tracks , clearings and felled areas will provide suitable conditions for an enormous number of biodiverse plants and animals . For example , in Britain it has been estimated that various types of rotting wood are home to over 1700 species of invertebrate .
For a parasitic organism , its habitat is the particular part of the outside or inside of its host on or in which it is adapted to live . The life cycle of some parasites involves several different host species , as well as free @-@ living life stages , sometimes providing vastly different microhabitats . One such organism is the trematode ( flatworm ) Microphallus turgidus , present in brackish water marshes in the southeastern United States . Its first intermediate host is a snail and the second , a glass shrimp . The final host is the waterfowl or mammal that consumes the shrimp .
= = Extreme habitats = =
Although the vast majority of life on Earth lives in mesophyllic ( moderate ) environments , a few organisms , most of them microbes , have managed to colonise extreme environments that are unsuitable for most higher life forms . There are bacteria , for example , living in Lake Whillans , half a mile below the ice of Antarctica ; in the absence of sunlight , they must rely on organic material from elsewhere , perhaps decaying matter from glacier melt water or minerals from the underlying rock . Other bacteria can be found in abundance in the Mariana Trench , the deepest place in the ocean and on Earth ; marine snow drifts down from the surface layers of the sea and accumulates in this undersea valley , providing nourishment for an extensive community of bacteria .
Other microbes live in habitats lacking in oxygen , and are dependent on chemical reactions other than photosynthesis . Boreholes drilled 300 m ( 1 @,@ 000 ft ) into the rocky seabed have found microbial communities apparently based on the products of reactions between water and the constituents of rocks . These communities have been little studied , but may be an important part of the global carbon cycle . Rock in mines two miles deep also harbour microbes ; these live on minute traces of hydrogen produced in slow oxidizing reactions inside the rock . These metabolic reactions allow life to exist in places with no oxygen or light , an environment that had previously been thought to be devoid of life .
The intertidal zone and the photic zone in the oceans are relatively familiar habitats . However the vast bulk of the ocean is unhospitable to air @-@ breathing humans , with scuba divers limited to the upper 50 m ( 160 ft ) or so . The lower limit for photosynthesis is 100 to 200 m ( 330 to 660 ft ) and below that depth the prevailing conditions include total darkness , high pressure , little oxygen ( in some places ) , scarce food resources and extreme cold . This habitat is very challenging to research , and as well as being little studied , it is vast , with 79 % of the Earth 's biosphere being at depths greater than 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) . With no plant life , the animals in this zone are either detritivores , reliant on food drifting down from surface layers , or they are predators , feeding on each other . Some organisms are pelagic , swimming or drifting in mid @-@ ocean , while others are benthic , living on or near the seabed . Their growth rates and metabolisms tend to be slow , their eyes may be very large to detect what little illumination there is , or they may be blind and rely on other sensory inputs . A number of deep sea creatures are bioluminescent ; this serves a variety of functions including predation , protection and social recognition . In general , the bodies of animals living at great depths are adapted to high pressure environments by having pressure @-@ resistant biomolecules and small organic molecules present in their cells know as piezolytes , which give the proteins the flexibility they need . There are also unsaturated fats in their membranes which prevent them from solidifying at low temperatures .
Hydrothermal vents were first discovered in the ocean depths in 1977 . They result from seawater becoming heated after seeping through cracks to places where hot magma is close to the seabed . The under @-@ water hot springs may gush forth at temperatures of over 340 ° C ( 640 ° F ) and support unique communities of organisms in their immediate vicinity . The basis for this teeming life is chemosynthesis , a process by which microbes convert such substances as hydrogen sulfide or ammonia into organic molecules . These bacteria and Archaea are the primary producers in these ecosystems and support a diverse array of life . About 350 species of organism , dominated by molluscs , polychaete worms and crustaceans , had been discovered around hydrothermal vents by the end of the twentieth century , most of them being new to science and endemic to these habitats .
Besides providing locomotion opportunities for winged animals and a conduit for the dispersal of pollen grains , spores and seeds , the atmosphere can be considered to be a habitat in its own right . There are metabolically active microbes present that actively reproduce and spend their whole existence airborne , with hundreds of thousands of individual organisms estimated to be present in a cubic metre of air . The airborne microbial community may be as diverse as that found in soil or other terrestrial environments , however these organisms are not evenly distributed , their densities varying spatially with altitude and environmental conditions . Aerobiology has been little studied , but there is evidence of nitrogen fixation in clouds , and less clear evidence of carbon cycling , both facilitated by microbial activity .
There are other examples of extreme habitats where specially adapted lifeforms exist ; tar pits teeming with microbial life ; naturally occurring crude oil pools inhabited by the larvae of the petroleum fly ; hot springs where the temperature may be as high as 71 ° C ( 160 ° F ) and cyanobacteria create microbial mats ; cold seeps where the methane and hydrogen sulfide issue from the ocean floor and support microbes and higher animals such as mussels which form symbiotic associations with these anaerobic organisms ; salt pans harbour salt @-@ tolerant microorganisms and also Wallemia ichthyophaga , a basidomycotous fungus ; ice sheets in Antarctica which support fungi Thelebolus spp . , and snowfields on which algae grow .
= = Habitat change = =
Whether from natural processes or the activities of man , landscapes and their associated habitats change over time . There are the slow geomorphological changes associated with the geologic processes that cause tectonic uplift and subsidence , and the more rapid changes associated with earthquakes , landslides , storms , flooding , wildfires , coastal erosion , deforestation and changes in land use . Then there are the changes in habitats brought on by alterations in farming practices , tourism , pollution , fragmentation and climate change .
Loss of habitat is the single greatest threat to any species . If an island on which an endemic organism lives becomes uninhabitable for some reason , the species will become extinct . Any type of habitat surrounded by a different habitat is in a similar situation to an island . If a forest is divided into parts by logging , with strips of cleared land separating woodland blocks , and the distances between the remaining fragments exceeds the distance an individual animal is able to travel , that species becomes especially vulnerable . Small populations generally lack genetic diversity and may be threatened by increased predation , increased competition , disease and unexpected catastrophe . At the edge of each forest fragment , increased light encourages secondary growth of fast @-@ growing species and old growth trees are more vulnerable to logging as access is improved . The birds that nest in their crevices , the epiphytes that hang from their branches and the invertebrates in the leaf litter are all adversely affected and biodiversity is reduced . Habitat fragmentation can be ameliorated to some extent by the provision of wildlife corridors connecting the fragments . These can be a river , ditch , strip of trees , hedgerow or even an underpass to a highway . Without the corridors , seeds cannot disperse and animals , especially small ones , cannot travel through the hostile territory , putting populations at greater risk of local extinction .
Habitat disturbance can have long @-@ lasting effects on the environment . Bromus tectorum is a vigorous grass from Europe which has been introduced to the United States where it has become invasive . It is highly adapted to fire , producing large amounts of flammable detritus and increasing the frequency and intensity of wildfires . In areas where it has become established , it has altered the local fire regimen to such an extant that native plants cannot survive the frequent fires , allowing it to become even more dominant . A marine example is when sea urchin populations " explode " in coastal waters and destroy all the macroalgae present . What was previously a kelp forest becomes an urchin barren that may last for years and this can have a profound effect on the food chain . Removal of the sea urchins , by disease for example , can result in the seaweed returning , with an over @-@ abundance of fast @-@ growing kelp .
= = Habitat protection = =
The protection of habitats is a necessary step in the maintenance of biodiversity because if habitat destruction occurs , the animals and plants reliant on that habitat suffer . Many countries have enacted legislation to protect their wildlife . This may take the form of the setting up of national parks , forest reserves and wildlife reserves , or it may restrict the activities of humans with the objective of benefiting wildlife . The laws may be designed to protect a particular species or group of species , or the legislation may prohibit such activities as the collecting of bird eggs , the hunting of animals or the removal of plants . A general law on the protection of habitats may be more difficult to implement than a site specific requirement . A concept introduced in the Unites States in 1973 involves protecting the critical habitat of endangered species , and a similar concept has been incorporated into some Australian legislation .
International treaties may be necessary for such objectives as the setting up of marine reserves . Another international agreement , the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals , protects animals that migrate across the globe and need protection in more than one country . However , the protection of habitats needs to take into account the needs of the local residents for food , fuel and other resources . Even where legislation protects the environment , a lack of enforcement often prevents effective protection . Faced with food shortage , a farmer is likely to plough up a level patch of ground despite it being the last suitable habitat for an endangered species such as the San Quintin kangaroo rat , and even kill the animal as a pest . In this regard , it is desirable to educate the community on the uniqueness of their flora and fauna and the benefits of ecotourism .
= = Monotypic habitat = =
A monotypic habitat is one in which a single species of animal or plant is so dominant as to virtually exclude all other species . An example would be sugarcane ; this is planted , burnt and harvested , with herbicides killing weeds and pesticides controlling invertebrates . The monotypic habitat occurs in botanical and zoological contexts , and is a component of conservation biology . In restoration ecology of native plant communities or habitats , some invasive species create monotypic stands that replace and / or prevent other species , especially indigenous ones , from growing there . A dominant colonization can occur from retardant chemicals exuded , nutrient monopolization , or from lack of natural controls such as herbivores or climate , that keep them in balance with their native habitats . The yellow starthistle , Centaurea solstitialis , is a botanical monotypic @-@ habitat example of this , currently dominating over 15 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 61 @,@ 000 km2 ) in California alone . The non @-@ native freshwater zebra mussel , Dreissena polymorpha , that colonizes areas of the Great Lakes and the Mississippi River watershed , is a zoological monotypic @-@ habitat example ; the predators that control it in its home @-@ range in Russia are absent and it proliferates abundantly . Even though its name may seem to imply simplicity as compared with polytypic habitats , the monotypic habitat can be complex . Aquatic habitats , such as exotic Hydrilla beds , support a similarly rich fauna of macroinvertebrates to a more varied habitat , but the creatures present may differ between the two , affecting small fish and other animals higher up the food chain .
= Effects of Hurricane Dennis in Florida =
The effects of Hurricane Dennis in Florida included 14 deaths and $ 1 @.@ 5 billion ( 2005 US $ ) in damage . The tropical wave that became Hurricane Dennis formed on June 29 , 2005 , and proceeded westward across the Atlantic Ocean . It became a tropical depression on July 4 , a tropical storm on July 5 , and a hurricane on July 7 . Dennis rapidly intensified to attain Category 4 status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , and made landfall in Cuba where it weakened to Category 1 status , before re @-@ emerging in the Gulf of Mexico and re – intensifying . The storm made landfall as a Category 3 hurricane on Santa Rosa Island on July 10 .
As Dennis was impacting Cuba , the outer rainbands affected the Florida Keys causing moderate wind gusts peaking at 87 mph ( 140 km / h ) on Sombrero Key . In central Florida , Dennis produced numerous tornadoes , one severely damaging a house . In Punta Gorda , three people were found dead in a car submerged in a ditch flooded by heavy rain . Dennis made landfall in the Florida Panhandle , causing moderate damage , although not as severe as previously predicted . Wind gusts peaked at 121 mph ( 195 km / h ) , and maximum rainfall reached 7 @.@ 08 inches ( 180 mm ) . Storm surge of 6 – 9 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 7 m ) inundated parts of St. Marks and nearby locations . During the height of the storm , approximately 236 @,@ 000 customers in the Florida Panhandle were without electric power .
= = Preparations = =
On July 7 , a tropical storm watch was issued for Florida 's Gulf coast from Bonita Beach southward , and for Florida 's Atlantic coast from Golden Beach to Ocean Reef . Later that day , a hurricane watch was issued for the Florida Keys and Florida Bay . By 2100 UTC , the hurricane watch was upgraded to a hurricane warning for the Florida Keys . Subsequently , a tropical storm watch was issued for Florida 's west coast north of Bonita Beach to Longboat Key which was discontinued at 2100 UTC . At the same time , a hurricane watch was issued for Steinhatchee River , Florida to the mouth of the Pearl River . By 0900 UTC on July 9 , the hurricane watch was upgraded to a hurricane warning just prior to the discontinuing of the hurricane watch for the Florida Keys . At 2100 UTC on July 9 , the tropical storm warning was lifted for Florida 's coast from Golden Beach to Flamingo , and for the Florida Keys from the Seven Mile Bridge eastward . By July 10 , all advisories for the Keys were discontinued and the hurricane warning was downgraded to a tropical storm warning for Florida 's coast east of the Ochlockonee River to the Steinhatchee River . By July 11 , all advisories were discontinued .
About 50 @,@ 000 tourists in the Keys were forced to evacuate by July 8 . Governor Jeb Bush declared a statewide emergency , and evacuations started in the Florida Keys , a highly exposed chain of islands connected to the mainland by a single road and a series of bridges , stating that people " should have enough water , enough food , non @-@ perishable food , batteries of course for 72 hours so people could safely weather the storm " . Residents of the Florida Keys who did not evacuate were advised to remain indoors due to dangerous weather conditions that were predicted .
At Cape Canaveral , the space shuttle Discovery was considered to be safe on its launching pad after concerns of unfavorable weather , and NASA re @-@ scheduled a liftoff the following week ; however , shuttle managers eventually decided to begin moving Discovery from the launching pad to ride out the storm . In Miami , the Booker T. Washington Senior High School opened as a voluntary evacuation shelter for all pre @-@ registered special needs residents . Also , the MacDill Air Force Base in Tampa evacuated its aircraft to McConnell Air Force Base near Wichita .
In the Florida Panhandle , Governor Jeb Bush warned " This is serious . This is a very dangerous storm . " As Bush announced that hundreds of tractor @-@ trailers would be carrying ice , water and generators to staging areas in north central Florida , he stated " Here we go again " , referring to the large number of storms which had threatened Florida in the years prior to Dennis . 700 @,@ 000 people in the Florida panhandle were evacuated in the days prior to Dennis , 100 @,@ 000 of them in Escambia County alone . As a result of the large evacuations , more than 200 truckloads provided about 1 @.@ 8 million US gallons ( 6 @,@ 800 m3 ) of gasoline . The Red Cross put dozens of volunteers on standby to go into regions affected by the storm , and open shelters . The Red Cross also moved 60 mobile canteens , each capable of serving 30 @,@ 000 hot meals a day , to the staging points of Hattiesburg and Jackson . National guardsmen were mobilized , and four emergency medical teams , each capable of setting up a small field hospital , were on standby . Also , at Eglin Air Force Base , about 20 @,@ 000 military personnel were evacuated , and at Hurlburt Field , home to Air Force 's 16th Special Operations Wing , a mandatory evacuation was ordered for all 15 @,@ 000 airmen and their families .
= = Impact = =
= = = South Florida and Florida Keys = = =
In southern Florida , damage was mostly limited to moderate wind gusts ; in Miami @-@ Dade County , gusty winds knocked out several traffic lights along U.S. 1 , the only route to and from the Florida Keys . A man died in Ft . Lauderdale when he stepped on a downed electrical wire and was electrocuted . Also , 100 @,@ 000 homes in Miami Dade County were without electric power .
In the Florida Keys , Dennis passed to the west as a Category 2 hurricane producing winds of 59 miles per hour ( 95 km / h ) on Carysfort Reef Light . Rainfall peaked at 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) in the Monroe County Upper Keys . Damage in the Keys totaled $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 2005 USD ) , mostly to landscape and electric utility equipment . During the height of the storm , 211 @,@ 000 customers were without electric power in South Florida and the Keys .
Sand Key reported sustained winds of 62 miles per hour ( 100 km / h ) with a gust to 78 miles per hour ( 126 km / h ) at 0820 UTC on July 9 , while the " C @-@ MAN " station at Sombrero Key reported sustained winds of 74 miles per hour ( 119 km / h ) with a gust of 87 miles per hour ( 140 km / h ) at 0800 UTC on July 9 . These strong winds pushed a vintage DC @-@ 3 plane about 300 yards ( 1000 ft ) down the tarmac at the Key West airport , which was closed during the storm . Maximum storm surge topped out at 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) . In addition , a man drowned in a rip current off of Hollywood Beach .
One beneficial effect of Hurricane Dennis was the rolling of the former USS Spiegel Grove . Spiegel Grove was sunk in Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary in an attempt to create an artificial reef . However , the ship turned over and landed on the bottom upside down . Efforts to roll the ship were partially successful , bringing it onto its starboard side , but Hurricane Dennis completed the roll , bringing Spiegel Grove into its intended upright position .
= = = Central Florida = = =
Damage was mostly minor and limited to outer rainbands and tornadoes in Central Florida . In the Tampa Bay area , several tornadoes were reported to have touched down causing minor damage such as downed trees and power lines . On July 8 , five tornadoes were officially reported , three of which caused damage . The most notable one left a path of damage one @-@ half mile wide , severely damaging a house . That same day , a wind gust of 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) was reported at Pinellas . On July 9 , four tornadoes officially touched down , with the most notable one downing numerous trees and some powerlines . In Punta Gorda , three people were found dead in a car submerged in a ditch flooded by heavy rain . The road was covered with 6 inches ( 150 mm ) of water and caused the vehicle to hydroplane into a ditch where it flipped upside down . The victims were still wearing their seat belts when found .
= = = Florida Panhandle = = =
Hurricane Dennis made landfall as a Category 3 hurricane on Santa Rosa Island on July 10 . At Navarre Beach , sustained winds of 98 miles per hour ( 158 km / h ) were reported with a peak gust of 121 miles per hour ( 195 km / h ) , while a tower at the Pensacola Airport reported sustained winds of 82 miles per hour ( 132 km / h ) and a peak gust of 96 miles per hour ( 154 km / h ) . At the Pensacola Airport , a minimum pressure reading of 956 @.@ 3 mb was recorded and at Navarre , a pressure reading of 965 @.@ 2 mb was seen . Additionally , an unofficial storm chaser reported a minimum pressure of 942 mb at
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to retreat to a more secure position . Howe then did in fact embark his army and sailed south with his brother 's fleet . Howe maintained an effective secrecy surrounding the fleet 's destination : not only did Washington not know where it was going , neither did many British rank and file .
Howe 's campaign for Philadelphia began with an amphibious landing at Head of Elk , Maryland , southwest of the city in late August . Although Howe would have preferred to make a landing on the Delaware River below Philadelphia , reports of well @-@ prepared defences dissuaded him , and the fleet spent almost an entire extra month at sea to reach Head of Elk . Howe 's army left Head of Elk early on 3 September 1777 and pushed back an advance guard of American light infantry at Cooch 's Bridge . On 11 September 1777 , Howe 's army met Washington 's near Chadds Ford along the Brandywine Creek in the Battle of Brandywine . Howe established his headquarters at the Gilpin Homestead , where it stayed until the morning of 16 September . In a reprise of earlier battles , Howe once again flanked the Continental Army position and forced Washington to retreat after inflicting heavy casualties .
After two weeks of manoeuvre and engagements ( including The Battle of the Clouds , The Paoli Massacre , and an engagement at Valley Forge where Alexander Hamilton was nearly lost ) , Howe triumphantly entered the city on 26 September . The reception the British received was not quite what they had expected , however . They had been led to believe that " Friends thicker than Woods " would greet them upon their arrival ; they instead were greeted by women , children , and many deserted houses . Despite Howe 's best attempts to minimise the plundering by his army ( he authorised the execution of violators of his orders against it ) , this activity by the army had a significant negative effect on popular support .
One week after Howe entered Philadelphia , on 4 October , Washington made a dawn attack on the British garrison at Germantown . He very nearly won the battle before being repulsed by late @-@ arriving reinforcements sent from the city . This forced Howe to withdraw his troops a little closer to the city , where they were also needed to help clear the American Delaware River defences , which were preventing the navy from resupplying the army . It was late November before this task was accomplished , which included a poorly executed attack on Fort Mercer by a division of Hessians .
= = = Impact on Burgoyne 's campaign = = =
Concomitant with Howe 's campaign , General Burgoyne led his expedition south from Montreal to capture Albany . Burgoyne 's advance was stopped in the Battles of Saratoga in September and October , and he surrendered his army on 17 October . Burgoyne 's surrender , coupled with Howe 's near defeat at Germantown , dramatically altered the strategic balance of the conflict . Support for the Continental Congress , suffering from Howe 's successful occupation of Philadelphia , was strengthened , and the victory encouraged France to enter the war against Britain . Burgoyne 's loss also further weakened the British government of Lord North .
Burgoyne made his advance under the assumption that he would be met in Albany by Howe or troops sent by Howe . Burgoyne was apparently not aware that Howe 's plans had evolved as they had . Although Germain knew what Howe 's plans were , whether he communicated them to Burgoyne is unclear . Some sources claim he did while others state that Burgoyne was not notified of the changes until the campaign was well underway . Whether Germain , Howe and Burgoyne had the same expectations about the degree to which Howe was supposed to support the invasion from Quebec is also unclear . Some historians argue that Howe failed to follow instructions and essentially abandoned Burgoyne 's army , while others suggest that Burgoyne failed on his own and then tried to shift the blame to Howe and Clinton .
Howe 's decision to focus his own activity on an expedition to Philadelphia may have been motivated by competition with General Burgoyne , who was given command of the northern force despite lobbying by Howe for its command to be given to Clinton . John Alden notes the jealousies among the British leaders , saying , " It is likely that [ Howe ] was as jealous of Burgoyne as Burgoyne was of him and that he was not eager to do anything which might assist his junior up the ladder of military renown . " Along the same lines historian Don Higginbotham concludes that in Howe 's view , " It [ the northern campaign ] was Burgoyne 's whole show , and consequently he [ Howe ] wanted little to do with it . With regard to Burgoyne 's army , he would do only what was required of him ( virtually nothing ) . "
Howe himself wrote to Burgoyne on 17 July that he intended to stay close to Washington : " My intention is for Pennsylvania , where I expect to meet Washington , but if he goes to the northward contrary to my expectations , and you can keep him at bay , be assured I shall soon be after him to relieve you . " This suggested that Howe would follow Washington if he went north to assist in the defence of the Hudson . Howe , however , sailed from New York on 23 July . On 30 August , shortly after his arrival at Head of Elk , Howe wrote to Germain that he would be unable to assist Burgoyne , citing a lack of Loyalist support in the Philadelphia area . A small force sent north from New York by General Clinton in early October was also unable to assist Burgoyne .
= = = Resignation = = =
In October 1777 Howe sent his letter of resignation to London , complaining that he had been inadequately supported in that year 's campaigns . He was finally notified in April 1778 that his resignation was accepted . A grand party , known as the " Mischianza " , was thrown for the departing general on 18 May . Organized by his aides John André and Oliver De Lancey Jr . , the party featured a grand parade , fireworks , and dancing until dawn . Washington , aware that the British were planning to evacuate Philadelphia , sent the Marquis de Lafayette out with a small force on the night of the party to determine British movements . This movement was noticed by alert British troops , and Howe ordered a column out to entrap the marquis . In the Battle of Barren Hill , Lafayette escaped the trap with minimal casualties .
On 24 May , the day Howe sailed for England , General Clinton took over as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of British armies in America , and made preparations for an overland march to New York . Howe arrived back in England on 1 July , where he and his brother faced censure for their actions in North America . It is likely that the resignation of both William and his brother Richard was due to their desire to hurry home to vindicate their conduct during the campaign . In 1779 Howe and his brother demanded a parliamentary inquiry into their actions . The inquiry that followed was unable to confirm any charges of impropriety or mismanagement levelled against either of them . Because of the inconclusive nature of the inquiry , attacks continued to be made against Howe in pamphlets and the press , and in 1780 he published a response to accusations levelled by Loyalist Joseph Galloway , who issued a reply that harshly criticized the general 's conduct and accused him of deliberately undermining the war effort for the benefit of the anti @-@ war Whig faction in Parliament .
= = Later life = =
In 1780 Howe lost in his bid to be re @-@ elected to the House of Commons . In 1782 he was named lieutenant general of the ordnance and appointed to the Privy Council . His colonelcy was transferred from the 23rd Fusiliers to the 19th Light Dragoons in 1786 . He resumed limited active duty in 1789 , when a crisis with Spain over territorial claims in northwestern North America threatened to boil over into war . The crisis was resolved , and Howe did not see further action until 1793 , when the French Revolutionary Wars involved Britain . He was promoted to full general in 1793 , and commanded Northern District from 1793 and Eastern District from 1795 . In 1795 he was also appointed governor of Berwick @-@ on @-@ Tweed .
When his brother Richard died in 1799 without surviving male issue , Howe inherited the Irish titles and became the 5th Viscount Howe and Baron Clenawly . In 1803 he resigned as lieutenant general of the ordnance , citing poor health . In 1805 he was appointed governor of Plymouth , and died at Twickenham in 1814 after a long illness . He was married in 1765 to Frances Connolly , but the marriage was childless , and his titles died with him . His wife survived him by three years ; both are buried in Twickenham .
= = Popular culture = =
Howe appears as an antagonist in the supernatural TV series Sleepy Hollow , depicted in flashbacks by Nicholas Guest and described in the present as being notorious for his brilliant tactics and ruthless cruelty . In his historical role as the British military leader in the War for Independence , Howe was acquainted with Ichabod Crane ( Tom Mison ) before Crane defected to America ; his first major flashback appearance sees him offer Crane a chance to return to Britain if he identifies Washington 's spies in the British forces , with Crane feeling guilty that he was briefly tempted by the offer . Howe also plays a key role in the crossover episodes between Sleepy Hollow and crime drama Bones ; his body is discovered in a small American church in the present ( characters noting that he is recorded as being buried in Twickenham ) , with his skull being identified as the ' murder weapon ' in Bones episode " The Resurrection in the Remains " , and he is resurrected as a zombie @-@ like warrior in the following Sleepy Hollow episode " Dead Men Tell No Tales " , requiring Crane to destroy him with Greek fire .
= Lulworth skipper =
The Lulworth skipper ( Thymelicus acteon ) is a butterfly of the Hesperiidae family . Its name is derived from Lulworth Cove in the county of Dorset , England , where the first specimens in Great Britain were collected in 1832 by English naturalist James Charles Dale .
The species occurs locally across Central Europe , Asia Minor and North Africa , where its population is considered stable . Its numbers have declined in Northern Europe , leading to its European status of " vulnerable " . Its range in Britain is restricted to the south coast of Dorset , however it is locally abundant and its numbers currently are perhaps at their greatest since its discovery there .
With a wingspan of 24 to 28 millimetres , females being larger than males , the Lulworth skipper is a small butterfly , the smallest member of the Thymelicus genus in Europe and among the smallest butterflies in Britain . Aside from the size difference , the sexes are distinguished by females having a distinct circle of golden marks on each forewing . Due to their likeness to the rays around the eye of a peacock 's feather , these are often known as " sun @-@ ray " markings , and they can faintly appear on males .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Lulworth skipper was first described by German entomologist S. A. von Rottemburg in 1775 . The butterfly was first discovered in Britain on 15 August 1832 , when specimens were taken from Lulworth Cove in Dorset by English naturalist James Charles Dale It was introduced the following year as the Lulworth skipper ( Thymelicus acteon ) , a name that has remained unchanged ; it is the only one of Britain 's vernacular butterfly names for which there has never been a proposed substitute .
= = Description = =
The male Lulworth skipper has a wingspan of 24 to 27 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 94 to 1 @.@ 06 in ) , and the female 25 to 28 mm . This makes it one of Britain 's smallest butterflies and , in Europe , the smallest member of the Thymelicus genus . Of Britain 's five " golden " skippers — the others being the silver @-@ spotted skipper ( Hesperia comma ) , large skipper ( Ochlodes sylvanus ) , small skipper ( Thymelicus sylvestris ) and Essex skipper ( Thymelicus lineola ) — the Lulworth is both the smallest and darkest . Beyond its small size , it is distinguished particularly by its dark , dun @-@ coloured wings that appear with tinges of olive @-@ brown ; this darkening especially apparent in males .
Variations are known to occur ; in north @-@ west Africa , the uppersides of the fore and hind wing are darker , with hints of greenish or greyish brown . Similarly @-@ coloured races occur in Spain , Elba , Crete , and other Eastern Mediterranean islands . T. acteon christi , endemic to the Canary Islands , displays colour variations , with the uppersides of the fore @-@ wing showing defined yellow – orange markings .
The butterfly is sexually dimorphic ; females have a distinct circle of golden marks on each forewing , often called " sun @-@ ray " markings due to their likeness to the rays around the eye of a peacock 's feather . Males sometimes have these markings , though they are noticeably fainter ( see Illustration 1 ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Lulworth skipper is found locally across southern and central Europe , Asia Minor and North Africa , where its population is considered stable . In northern Europe , its numbers and range have severely declined , most notably in the Netherlands where it is now extinct . This decline has led to the butterfly 's European status of " vulnerable " . Isolated populations of the species in Armenia are also threatened , although not yet included in the National Red List . It is also listed as threatened under the United Kingdom Biodiversity Action Plan .
In Great Britain , where the butterfly reaches the northern limit of its range , its distribution is restricted to the southern coastline of the county of Dorset . Here , both the population and range have changed little in recent decades ; it is locally abundant , with the majority of colonies found on the coast between Weymouth and Swanage and on the Purbeck Ridge , a line of inland chalk hills . Two outlying colonies also exist , at Burton Bradstock and on the Isle of Portland ; the cause of the colony on Portland is unknown , but has been put down to either natural colonisation or released specimens . There is evidence to suggest that the Lulworth skipper is now more abundant in Dorset than at any other time since its discovery in 1832 .
Although colonies of Lulworth skippers existed in Devon , the species has , beyond single records , not be seen in the county since the 1930s . Similarly , records of occurrences exist for Cornwall , but they have not been verified as native colonies .
Habitats are primarily on unfertilised calcareous grassland ; this includes chalk download , coastal grassland and undercliffs in Britain . In all of these habits Tor @-@ grass ( Illustration 2 ) , the butterfly 's sole food plant and that on which it lays eggs , is widespread . Tall , ungrazed grass is a favoured habitat due to oviposition and larval development ; Lulworth skippers have benefited from the move away from tight grazing by sheep in the last century and recently outbreaks of myxomatosis among rabbit populations , which otherwise maintain a lower grass height . However , there is evidence to suggest that minimal grazing is not detrimental to the species , and may in fact be beneficial in that it encourages the growth of flowers that act as adult nectar sources .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Life cycle = = =
The females lay their eggs in rows of 5 to 6 ( although as many as 15 have been recorded ) on the flower @-@ sheath of Tor @-@ grass ( Brachypodium pinnatum ) , preferring the dead sheaths of tall plants . The care taken by females over where to lay their eggs is considered the only remarkable part of the Lulworth skipper breeding process , otherwise it is considered common .
Upon hatching , the 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 in ) long larva spins a compact cocoon on the site of the eggshell . In this , it will overwinter until around the third week of April , at which point it will eat its way out by making a small hole in the side of the sheath . The caterpillar will then search for tender Tor @-@ grass blades and feed upon them by chewing out notches from the margin . During this time , it will live separately , within a tube composed of the two edges of a blade bound by cords of silk . Fresh tubes will be made as the caterpillar grows larger . Lulworth skipper caterpillars live in the warmest zone of a grass clump , at a height of 20 to 40 centimetres ( 8 to 16 in ) .
The pupal stage lasts for about two weeks , from the beginning of June onwards , until late July . It is formed inside a loose " nest " of silk and grass that is spun deep inside a tussock of tor grass . Imago begin to emerge in the early middle of July and finish emerging in the middle of September . Typically , they will live for five to ten days — the normal lifespan for a non @-@ hibernating butterfly of the Lulworth 's seasonal stage . They fly only in strong sunshine and tend to form discrete colonies , with the largest containing up to 100 @,@ 000 individuals .
= = In literature = =
In the novel The Return of the Native , by Thomas Hardy , a possible reference is made to Lulworth skippers in the " strange amber @-@ coloured butterflies " which " were never seen elsewhere . "
= Re Umberto @-@ class ironclad =
The Re Umberto class were a group of three ironclad battleships built for the Italian Navy in the 1880s and 1890s . The ships — Re Umberto , Sicilia , and Sardegna — were built as the culmination of a major naval expansion program begun in the 1870s following Italy 's defeat at the Battle of Lissa in 1866 . The Re Umbertos incorporated several innovations over previous Italian designs , including a more efficient arrangement of the main battery , installation of wireless telegraphs , and in Sardegna , the first use of triple @-@ expansion steam engines in an Italian capital ship . Designed by Benedetto Brin , they retained the very thin armor protection and high top speeds of his earlier designs .
All three ships served in the Active Squadron for the first decade of their careers , which proved to be uneventful . They were transferred to the Reserve Squadron in 1905 , and by the outbreak of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in 1911 , they were serving as training ships . They provided fire support to Italian troops fighting in Libya during the conflict and took part in the seizure of several Ottoman ports , including Tripoli . During World War I , Sardegna was used as a guard ship in Venice , while Re Umberto served as a floating battery in Brindisi and Sicilia was reduced to a depot ship . All three ships survived the war and were broken up for scrap in the early 1920s .
= = Design = =
Starting in the 1870s , following the Italian fleet 's defeat at the Battle of Lissa , the Italians began a large naval expansion program , aimed at countering the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . The Re Umberto class was the culmination of the first phase of the program , which saw ten modern ironclad battleships built ; these ships placed Italy with the third largest navy , after Great Britain and France . The three Re Umbertos were designed by Benedetto Brin , then the president of the Committee for Naval Projects . The first two ships were authorized in 1883 , and in 1885 Brin , who was now the naval minister , proposed a third vessel .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The three ships of the class differed slightly in their dimensions ; Re Umberto and Sicilia were the same length and width but Sardegna was longer . The ships had an overall length of 127 @.@ 6 to 130 @.@ 73 meters ( 418 @.@ 6 to 428 @.@ 9 ft ) ; all three had a beam of 23 @.@ 44 m ( 76 @.@ 9 ft ) . The three ships displaced between 13 @,@ 058 to 13 @,@ 673 metric tons ( 12 @,@ 852 to 13 @,@ 457 long tons ) normally and 14 @,@ 842 to 15 @,@ 454 t ( 14 @,@ 608 to 15 @,@ 210 long tons ; 16 @,@ 361 to 17 @,@ 035 short tons ) at full load , with Sicilia the lightest and Re Umberto the heaviest . The first two ships had a draft of 9 @.@ 29 m ( 30 @.@ 5 ft ) , while Sardegna 's longer hull gave her a reduced draft , at 8 @.@ 84 m ( 29 @.@ 0 ft ) . The ships were fitted with a single military mast with two fighting tops amidships . Sardegna was one of the first warships equipped with Marconi 's new wireless telegraph . The ships ' crews also varied in size , from 733 officers and men aboard Re Umberto , to 736 for Sicilia and 794 on Sardegna .
The propulsion system for Re Umberto and Sicilia consisted of a pair of horizontal compound steam engines each driving a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by eighteen coal @-@ fired , cylindrical fire @-@ tube boilers . These ships ' engines were manufactured by Gio . Ansaldo & C. , based on a design from Maudslay , Sons and Field . Sardegna instead received a pair of triple @-@ expansion steam engines , with the same number and type of boilers ; she was the first Italian warship to be equipped with triple expansion engines . The ships ' boilers were trunked into three funnels , with two side @-@ by @-@ side just aft of the conning tower , and the third further aft . Re Umberto 's engines produced a top speed of 18 @.@ 5 knots ( 34 @.@ 3 km / h ; 21 @.@ 3 mph ) at 19 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 14 @,@ 500 kW ) , while Sicilia made 20 @.@ 1 knots ( 37 @.@ 2 km / h ; 23 @.@ 1 mph ) from 19 @,@ 131 ihp ( 14 @,@ 266 kW ) and Sardegna reached 20 @.@ 3 knots ( 37 @.@ 6 km / h ; 23 @.@ 4 mph ) from 22 @,@ 800 ihp ( 17 @,@ 000 kW ) . Specific figures for each ship 's cruising radius have not survived , but the ships of her class could steam for 4 @,@ 000 to 6 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 400 to 11 @,@ 100 km ; 4 @,@ 600 to 6 @,@ 900 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
The ships of the Re Umberto class were armed with a main battery of four 13 @.@ 5 in ( 343 mm ) 30 @-@ caliber guns , mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one on either end of the ship . This was more efficient than the arrangement used in previous designs , with both pairs of guns mounted in a central barbette that limited their arcs of fire . The guns were the Pattern B type manufactured by Armstrong Whitworth . These guns fired a 1 @,@ 250 @-@ pound ( 570 kg ) capped armor @-@ piercing shells with a 507 lb ( 230 kg ) brown powder charge , which produced a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 886 feet per second ( 575 m / s ) . The guns could elevate to 15 degrees and depress to -5 degrees ; elevation was controlled by hand , and loading required the guns to be elevated to 15 degrees .
They carried a secondary battery of eight 6 in ( 152 mm ) 40 @-@ caliber guns placed singly in shielded mounts atop the upper deck , with four on each broadside . Close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats was provided by a battery of sixteen 4 @.@ 7 in ( 119 mm ) guns in casemates in the upper deck aboard Re Umberto , eight on each broadside . Sicilia and Sardegna both had twenty of these guns , with ten per side . These were supported by sixteen 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) 43 @-@ caliber guns and ten 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns . As was customary for capital ships of the period , they carried five 17 @.@ 7 in ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes in above @-@ water launchers . The torpedoes carried a 90 lb ( 41 kg ) warhead and had a range of 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) at a speed of 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) .
The ships were lightly armored for their size ; the savings in weight allowed for the high top speed , which was typical for Italian capital ships of the period . This was especially true of those designed by Brin , who argued that armor technology of the time could not defeat contemporary heavy guns . The ships ' armor consisted of steel manufactured by Schneider @-@ Creusot . They were protected by belt armor that was 4 in ( 102 mm ) thick , with an armored deck that was 3 in ( 76 mm ) thick . Their forward conning towers were armored with 11 @.@ 8 in ( 300 mm ) of steel plate on the sides . Their main battery turrets had 4 in thick faces and the supporting barbettes had 13 @.@ 75 in ( 349 mm ) thick steel . The secondary guns had 2 in ( 51 mm ) thick gun shields .
= = Construction = =
= = Service history = =
For their first decade in service , all three ships saw duty in the Active Squadron of the Italian fleet , though their early careers were uneventful . Re Umberto and Sardegna made visits to Britain and Germany in 1895 , the latter for the opening of the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal . The ships were involved in an international naval demonstration off Crete in 1897 before the Greco @-@ Turkish War . In 1905 , all three ships were transferred to the Reserve Squadron , having been supplanted by the more modern pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of the Ammiraglio di Saint Bon and Regina Margherita classes .
The three ships saw significant action during the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , primarily conducting operations in support of Italian troops fighting in Libya . From October to December 1911 , the ships were stationed off Tripoli , where they bombarded Ottoman defenses to prepare for the initial landing and then provided fire support to Italian forces after they had seized the city . After returning to Italy for resupply , the ships were tasked with escorting troop convoys to attack other ports in Libya from June to August 1912 .
After the war , Sicilia became a depot ship for the new dreadnought Giulio Cesare in Taranto , and Re Umberto became a depot ship in Genoa . After Italy entered World War I in 1915 , Sardegna was stationed in Venice as the flagship of the naval forces defending the port and Re Umberto returned to service as a floating battery in Brindisi . After the catastrophic defeat at the Battle of Caporetto in November 1917 , Sardegna was withdrawn from Venice to Brindisi , and later to Taranto . In 1918 , Re Umberto was converted into an assault ship for the planned attack on the main Austro @-@ Hungarian naval base at Pola , but the war ended before the attack could be carried out . She was stricken in 1920 and broken up for scrap ; Sicilia and Sardegna followed in 1923 .
= Delaware Route 44 =
Delaware Route 44 ( DE 44 ) is a state highway in Kent County , Delaware . It runs from DE 300 in Everetts Corner southeast to DE 8 in Pearsons Corner . The route passes through rural areas of western Kent County as well as the town of Hartly . In Hartly , it intersects DE 11 . The route was built as a state highway east of Hartly by 1924 and west of Hartly by 1932 , receiving the DE 44 designation by 1936 .
= = Route description = =
Delaware Route 44 heads to the southeast of DE 300 on Everetts Corner Road . It passes through a mix of woodland and farmland before reaching the town of Hartly . In Hartly , the route intersects DE 11 , where it becomes Main Street , and passes by homes . It then heads to the east out of Hartly on Hartly Road , passing through more rural areas . The route continues to its eastern terminus at DE 8 near Pearsons Corner .
DE 44 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 4 @,@ 478 vehicles at the eastern terminus at DE 8 to a low of 1 @,@ 552 vehicles at the Fords Corner Road intersection northwest of Hartly . The entire length of DE 44 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
By 1920 , what is now DE 44 existed as an unimproved county road . The road east of Hartly was improved into a state highway by 1924 . By 1932 , the portion of road west of Hartly became a state highway . DE 44 was designated by 1936 to follow its current alignment . The route has not changed since its inception .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Kent County .
= Genome @-@ wide association study =
In genetic epidemiology , a genome @-@ wide association study ( GWA study , or GWAS ) , also known as whole genome association study ( WGA study , or WGAS ) , is an examination of many common genetic variants in different individuals to see if any variant is associated with a trait . GWASs typically focus on associations between single @-@ nucleotide polymorphisms ( SNPs ) and traits like major diseases .
These studies compare the DNA of participants having varying phenotypes for a particular trait or disease . Participants in a GWAS study may be people with a disease ( cases ) and similar people without ( controls ) , or they may be people with different phenotypes for a particular trait , for example blood pressure . This approach is known as phenotype @-@ first , in which the participants are classified first by their clinical manifestation ( s ) , as opposed to genotype @-@ first . Each person gives a sample of DNA , from which millions of genetic variants are read using SNP arrays . If one type of the variant ( one allele ) is more frequent in people with the disease , the variant is said to be associated with the disease . The associated SNPs are then considered to mark a region of the human genome that may influence the risk of disease . In contrast to methods that specifically test one or a few genetic regions , the GWA studies investigate the entire genome . The approach is therefore said to be non @-@ candidate @-@ driven in contrast to gene @-@ specific candidate @-@ driven studies . GWA studies identify SNPs and other variants in DNA associated with a disease , but they cannot on their own specify which genes are causal .
The first successful GWAS was published in 2005 . It investigated patients with age @-@ related macular degeneration and found two SNPs with significantly altered allele frequency compared to healthy controls . As of 2011 , hundreds or thousands of individuals are tested , over 1 @,@ 200 human GWA studies have examined over 200 diseases and traits , and almost 4 @,@ 000 SNP associations have been found . Several GWA studies have received criticism for omitting important quality control steps , rendering the findings invalid , but modern publications address these issues . However , the methodology itself still has opponents .
= = Background = =
Any two human genomes differ in millions of different ways . There are small variations in the individual nucleotides of the genomes ( SNPs ) as well as many larger variations , such as deletions , insertions and copy number variations . Any of these may cause alterations in an individual 's traits , or phenotype , which can be anything from disease risk to physical properties such as height . Around the year 2000 , prior to the introduction of GWA studies , the primary method of investigation was through inheritance studies of genetic linkage in families . This approach had proven highly useful towards single gene disorders . However , for common and complex diseases the results of genetic linkage studies proved hard to reproduce . A suggested alternative to linkage studies was the genetic association study . This study type asks if the allele of a genetic variant is found more often than expected in individuals with the phenotype of interest ( e.g. with the disease being studied ) . Early calculations on statistical power indicated that this approach could be better than linkage studies at detecting weak genetic effects .
In addition to the conceptual framework several additional factors enabled the GWA studies . One was the advent of biobanks , which are repositories of human genetic material that greatly reduced the cost and difficulty of collecting sufficient numbers of biological specimens for study . Another was the International HapMap Project , which , from 2003 identified a majority of the common SNPs interrogated in a GWA study . The haploblock structure identified by HapMap project also allowed the focus on the subset of SNPs that would describe most of the variation . Also the development of the methods to genotype all these SNPs using genotyping arrays was an important prerequisite .
= = Methods = =
The most common approach of GWA studies is the case @-@ control setup , which compares two large groups of individuals , one healthy control group and one case group affected by a disease . All individuals in each group are genotyped for the majority of common known SNPs . The exact number of SNPs depends on the genotyping technology , but are typically one million or more . For each of these SNPs it is then investigated if the allele frequency is significantly altered between the case and the control group . In such setups , the fundamental unit for reporting effect sizes is the odds ratio . The odds ratio is the ratio of two odds , which in the context of GWA studies are the odds of disease for individuals having a specific allele and the odds of disease for individuals who do not have that same allele . When the allele frequency in the case group is much higher than in the control group , the odds ratio is higher than 1 , and vice versa for lower allele frequency . Additionally , a P @-@ value for the significance of the odds ratio is typically calculated using a simple chi @-@ squared test . Finding odds ratios that are significantly different from 1 is the objective of the GWA study because this shows that a SNP is associated with disease .
There are several variations to this case @-@ control approach . A common alternative to case @-@ control GWA studies is the analysis of quantitative phenotypic data , e.g. height or biomarker concentrations or even gene expression . Likewise , alternative statistics designed for dominance or recessive penetrance patterns can be used . Calculations are typically done using bioinformatics software such as SNPTEST and PLINK , which also include support for many of these alternative statistics . Earlier GWAS focused on the effect of individual SNPs . However , the empirical evidence shows that complex interactions among two or more SNPs , epistasis , might contribute to complex diseases . Moreover , the researchers tries to integrate GWA data with other biological data such as protein protein interaction network to extract more informative results .
A key step in the majority of GWA studies is the imputation of genotypes at SNPs not on the genotype chip used in the study . This process greatly increases the number of SNPs that can be tested for association , increases the power of the study , and facilitates meta @-@ analysis of GWAS across distinct cohorts . Genotype imputation is carried out by statistical methods that combine the GWAS data together with a reference panel of haplotypes . These methods take advantage of sharing of haplotypes between individuals over short stretches of sequence to impute alleles . Existing software packages for genotype imputation include IMPUTE2 and MaCH .
In addition to the calculation of association , it is common to take into account any variables that could potentially confound the results . Sex and age are common examples of confounding variables . Moreover , it is also known that many genetic variations are associated with the geographical and historical populations in which the mutations first arose . Because of this association , studies must take account of the geographical and ethnical background of participants by controlling for what is called population stratification .
After odds ratios and P @-@ values have been calculated for all SNPs , a common approach is to create a Manhattan plot . In the context of GWA studies , this plot shows the negative logarithm of the P @-@ value as a function of genomic location . Thus the SNPs with the most significant association stands out on the plot , usually as stacks of points because of haploblock structure . Importantly , the P @-@ value threshold for significance is corrected for multiple testing issues . The exact threshold varies by study , but the conventional threshold is 5 × 10 − 8 to be significant in the face of hundreds of thousands to millions of tested SNPs . GWA studies typically perform the first analysis in a discovery cohort , followed by validation of the most significant SNPs in an independent validation cohort .
= = Results = =
Attempts have been made at creating comprehensive catalogues of SNPs that have been identified from GWA studies . As of 2009 , SNPs associated with diseases are numbered in the thousands .
The first GWA study , conducted in 2005 , compared 96 patients with age @-@ related macular degeneration ( ARMD ) with 50 healthy controls . It identified two SNPs with significantly altered allele frequency between the two groups . These SNPs were located in the gene encoding complement factor H , which was an unexpected finding in the research of ARMD . The findings from these first GWA studies have subsequently prompted further functional research towards therapeutical manipulation of the complement system in ARMD . Another landmark publication in the history of GWA studies was the Wellcome Trust Case Control Consortium ( WTCCC ) study , the largest GWA study ever conducted at the time of its publication in 2007 . The WTCCC included 14 @,@ 000 cases of seven common diseases ( ~ 2 @,@ 000 individuals for each of coronary heart disease , type 1 diabetes , type 2 diabetes , rheumatoid arthritis , Crohn 's disease , bipolar disorder , and hypertension ) and 3 @,@ 000 shared controls . This study was successful in uncovering many new disease genes underlying these diseases .
Since these first landmark GWA studies , there have been two general trends . One has been towards larger and larger sample sizes . At the end of 2011 , the largest sample sizes were in the range of 200 @,@ 000 individuals . The reason is the drive towards reliably detecting risk @-@ SNPs that have smaller odds ratios and lower allele frequency . Another trend has been towards the use of more narrowly defined phenotypes , such as blood lipids , proinsulin or similar biomarkers . These are called intermediate phenotypes , and their analyses may be of value to functional research into biomarkers .
A central point of debate on GWA studies has been that most of the SNP variations found by GWA studies are associated with only a small increased risk of the disease , and have only a small predictive value . The median odds ratio is 1 @.@ 33 per risk @-@ SNP , with only a few showing odds ratios above 3 @.@ 0 . These magnitudes are considered small because they do not explain much of the heritable variation . This heritable variation is known from heritability studies based on monozygotic twins . For example , it is known that 80 – 90 % of height is heritable . Of these 80 @-@ 90 % , however , the GWA studies only account for a minority .
= = Clinical applications = =
A challenge for future successful GWA study is to apply the findings in a way that accelerates drug and diagnostics development , including better integration of genetic studies into the drug @-@ development process and a focus on the role of genetic variation in maintaining health as a blueprint for designing new drugs and diagnostics . Several studies have looked into the use of risk @-@ SNP markers as a means of directly improving the accuracy of prognosis . Some have found that the accuracy of prognosis improves , while others report only minor benefits from this use . Generally , a problem with this direct approach is the small magnitudes of the effects observed . A small effect ultimately translates into a poor separation of cases and controls and thus only a small improvement of prognosis accuracy . An alternative application is therefore the potential for GWA studies to elucidate pathophysiology .
One such success is related to identifying the genetic variant associated with response to anti @-@ hepatitis C virus treatment . For genotype 1 hepatitis C treated with Pegylated interferon @-@ alpha @-@ 2a or Pegylated interferon @-@ alpha @-@ 2b combined with ribavirin , a GWA study has shown that SNPs near the human IL28B gene , encoding interferon lambda 3 , are associated with significant differences in response to the treatment . A later report demonstrated that the same genetic variants are also associated with the natural clearance of the genotype 1 hepatitis C virus . These major findings facilitated the development of personalized medicine and allowed physicians to customize medical decisions based on the patient 's genotype .
The goal of elucidating pathophysiology has also led to increased interest in the association between risk @-@ SNPs and the gene expression of nearby genes , the so @-@ called expression quantitative trait loci ( eQTL ) studies . The reason is that GWAS studies identify risk @-@ SNPs , but not risk @-@ genes , and specification of genes is one step closer towards actionable drug targets . As a result , major GWA studies of 2011 typically included extensive eQTL analysis . One of the strongest eQTL effects observed for a GWA @-@ identified risk SNP is the SORT1 locus . Functional follow up studies of this locus using small interfering RNA and gene knock @-@ out mice have shed light on the metabolism of low @-@ density lipoproteins , which have important clinical implications for cardiovascular disease .
= = Limitations = =
GWA studies have several issues and limitations that can be taken care of through proper quality control and study setup . Lack of well defined case and control groups , insufficient sample size , control for multiple testing and control for population stratification
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970s – " My Sweet Lord " , " What Is Life " , " Bangla Desh " and " Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " – were similarly written very quickly . In the case of " Ding Dong " and other tracks from the Dark Horse album , however , author Simon Leng recognises this haste as an example of Harrison abandoning his careful approach to his own music over the 1973 – 74 period , while remaining a " painstaking craftsman " on his concurrent projects with Ravi Shankar and the vocal duo Splinter . Preceding this change , elements of the British media had ridiculed Harrison 's continued association with the Hare Krishna movement , and some music critics had objected to the overtly spiritual content of his 1973 album Living in the Material World . With his marriage to Pattie Boyd all but over by the summer of 1973 , Harrison now wanted to be " one of the boys , not a spotlight @-@ grabbing philosopher " , according to Leng .
= = Production = =
= = = Initial recording = = =
Harrison recorded the rhythm track for " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " at his home studio , FPSHOT , in late November 1973 , during the first sessions for Dark Horse . Aside from himself , on acoustic guitar , the other musicians on the track were Gary Wright ( piano ) , Klaus Voormann ( bass ) , Ringo Starr and Jim Keltner ( both on drums ) – all of whom had appeared on Living in the Material World earlier in the year . The recording engineer was Phil McDonald .
The sessions coincided with a period of domestic turbulence at Friar Park , with Harrison and Boyd both involved in extramarital affairs . They saw in the 1973 – 74 New Year with a party at Starr 's Tittenhurst Park mansion – which was an " absolute dud " of a night , according to their friend Chris O 'Dell , due to Harrison having openly declared his love for Starr 's wife , Maureen Starkey , a few days before . Boyd recalls that Harrison told her at the party : " Let 's have a divorce this year . "
= = = Overdubbing = = =
Harrison included a rough mix of " Ding Dong " on a tape he sent to Asylum Records boss David Geffen in January 1974 , shortly before travelling to India to visit Shankar and escape his unhappy domestic situation with Boyd . The purpose of the tape was to find a distributor for albums by Harrison 's future Dark Horse Records acts – Shankar Family & Friends by Shankar , and Splinter 's The Place I Love – both of which had started off as Harrison productions for the Beatles ' Apple record label . He added two songs of his own on the tape , with introductory comments about " Ding Dong " .
As outlined to Geffen , Harrison went on to adopt the Wall of Sound production technique of his former collaborator , American producer Phil Spector , in his subsequent work on the track . Harrison 's musical arrangement reflects the influence of the 1963 album A Christmas Gift for You , which contained Spector @-@ produced songs by the Ronettes , the Crystals and Darlene Love , while more recently Spector had co @-@ produced the Apple Records single " Happy Xmas ( War Is Over ) " single , by John Lennon and Yoko Ono . Some authors claim that with " Ding Dong " , Harrison set out to create a seasonal " classic " , in an attempt to match the British chart success of " Happy Xmas " and particularly of Slade 's " Merry Xmas Everybody " and Wizzard 's " I Wish It Could Be Christmas Everyday " – two glam rock singles that were major UK hits over the winter of 1973 – 74 . Leng cites the inclusion on the finished version of " Ding Dong " of harmonium and distorted electric guitars , similar to the Slade hit , while Harrison 's use of baritone saxophones , two drummers and tubular bells , together with a female choir , matched the arrangement on " I Wish It Could Be Christmas Everyday " , which was heavily influenced by Spector 's sound . Having incorporated aspects of Spector 's technique on Material World , Harrison 's aim with " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " , according to Leng , was an update of the Wall of Sound that reflected " the glam rock mood of the day " .
Harrison overdubbed call @-@ and @-@ response guitar riffs by Alvin Lee and Ron Wood onto the 1973 rhythm track , as well as his own slide guitars . Further overdubs included baritone and tenor saxophone parts by Tom Scott , and a second acoustic guitar , played by Mick Jones . Harrison also contributed on organ , clavinet and percussion , the last of which included tubular bells ( or chimes ) , sleigh bells and zither .
Harrison 's workload ensured that he was rushing to finish Dark Horse in October 1974 before beginning his North American tour with Shankar on 2 November . Described by Leng as " growled " , Harrison 's rough @-@ sounding singing on " Ding Dong " shows the effects of a long @-@ standing throat problem . Due to a combination of overexertion and abuse , this condition worsened , leading to him contracting laryngitis as he simultaneously completed his vocals for the album in Los Angeles and rehearsed for the tour . The female backing singers on the track remain uncredited .
= = Release = =
In the United Kingdom , " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " was released as the lead single from Dark Horse on 6 December 1974 ( as Apple R 6002 ) . The B @-@ side was " I Don 't Care Anymore " , a non @-@ album track that Harrison recorded in a single take , specifically for the single .
In the United States , where " Dark Horse " had already been issued in advance of the album , " Ding Dong " was coupled with the instrumental " Hari 's on Tour ( Express ) " and released two days before Christmas ( as Apple 1879 ) . Apple issued white label promotional discs to US radio stations , containing a 3 : 12 edit of the song . The single was available in a picture sleeve consisting of the song lyrics printed on an off @-@ white background , with stamped Om symbols and the FPSHOT logo . The record 's A @-@ side face label included a photo of Harrison 's new girlfriend , Olivia Arias , above the song information , whereas the UK single had Harrison 's face on both sides .
On the Dark Horse LP , the two face labels similarly alternated between a picture of Harrison and one of Arias . Combined with the positioning of " Ding Dong " as the opening track on side two , this detail gave the impression that the song represented Harrison 's ushering @-@ in of his future wife and a farewell to Boyd . In the album 's inner @-@ sleeve credits , Harrison listed one of the guitarists on the track as " Ron Would if you let him " , a reference to Wood 's brief affair with Boyd before she took up with Eric Clapton . He also acknowledged Frank Crisp for having provided " spirit " on the recording . In another farewell to the past , Harrison signed the so @-@ called " Beatles Agreement " papers in New York on 19 December , further severing the four former bandmates from the group 's legal identity .
Rather than the smash hit that Harrison had hoped for , " Ding Dong " was only moderately successful . The single peaked at number 38 in Britain and number 36 on America 's Billboard Hot 100 . Madinger and Easter write that the single did " remarkably well " , however , given that it was issued too late to take advantage of holiday @-@ season programming . Harrison 's single enjoyed more success internationally , climbing to number 10 in the Netherlands and number 12 in Belgium .
Despite " Ding Dong " having had what author Bruce Spizer terms a " respectable " chart run in America , Apple distributor Capitol Records omitted the song from its 1976 compilation The Best of George Harrison , which the company issued after Harrison had moved on to Dark Horse Records . Following Dark Horse 's CD release in 1992 , the song was unavailable in newly remastered form until the Apple Years Harrison reissues , released in September 2014 .
= = Critical reception = =
= = = Contemporary reviews = = =
The majority of music critics were unimpressed with " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " , and its release came in the wake of unfavourable reviews for the North American tour . In keeping with the song 's message , Harrison refused to celebrate the past in his concerts by pandering to nostalgia for the Beatles , and many in the mainstream music press criticised the poor state of his voice and his decision to feature Ravi Shankar so heavily in the program .
In the UK , BBC DJ John Peel called " Ding Dong " " repetitive and dull " and accused Harrison of complacency , while the NME 's Bob Woffinden derided Dark Horse as " Just stuff and nonsense " , adding : " You keep looking for saving graces , for words of enthusiasm to pass on – ' Ding Dong ' , you begin to think , for all its inane lyrics , has some spirit , but it really is very slight . " Harrison 's standing there was not helped by the presence of " I Don 't Care Anymore " on the B @-@ side , due to its casual delivery and the literal message in the song title . In a more favourable review , for Melody Maker , Chris Irwin wrote of the single : " We ’ ve come to expect something with more substance than this glorified nursery rhyme from one of the most important musicians of the decade . True , it ’ s catchy with a full chunky sound to bounce it along , but with an undeniable infectiousness of the sort normally associated with chicken pox or measles ... Curiously , records of such banality have a habit of selling in their zillions and this is bound to be a biggie . Hit . "
Jim Miller of Rolling Stone condemned Harrison for releasing an album with his voice blown and for his apparent disdain towards the Beatles ' legacy , and he dismissed the song as " a raspy stab at ' Auld Lang Syne ' " . Amid the scathing critique he gave Harrison 's tour and album , Jack Sheridan of Baltimore radio station WCAO cited " Ding Dong " as an example of how the former Beatle 's music had altered " so radically " . Writing in Circus Raves magazine , Michael Gross defended Harrison 's move away from the past , saying that Dark Horse matched the critically acclaimed All Things Must Pass , " surpassing it , at times , with its clarity of production and lovely songs " , and he praised " Ding Dong " , the title track and the Harrison – Ron Wood collaboration " Far East Man " as " all , simply , good songs " . While remarking on the surprisingly late release for a holiday @-@ season single , Billboard 's reviewer deemed the track to be an " Extremely listenable performance " and added : " George has a genuine hit sound to offer here that 's just right for those early January time @-@ to @-@ change resolutions . Catchy , heavily percussive production in Harrison 's uptempo guru vein … Get on it , jocks . "
In the 1978 edition of The Beatles : An Illustrated Record , Roy Carr and Tony Tyler dismissed the song as " meticulously @-@ played emptiness , a charmless reworking of the traditional peal o ' bells " before concluding : " A pox on it . " Writing in his 1977 book The Beatles Forever , Nicholas Schaffner rued that " the exquisite , painstaking arrangements " of Harrison 's earlier albums were absent from Dark Horse , and labelled " Ding Dong " " a string of greeting @-@ card clichés with trite music to match " .
= = = Retrospective assessment and legacy = = =
In his song review for AllMusic , Lindsay Planer writes of " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " : " While arguably simplistic , both lyrics and tune boast Harrison 's trademark optimism , especially during the affable and repeated chorus of ' Ring out the old / Ring in the new / Ring out the false / Ring in the true . ' " Harrison biographer Alan Clayson acknowledges the traditional pop merits of the song while explaining its underachievement : " With a chirpy @-@ chirpy cheapness worthy of Red Rose Speedway , ' Ding Dong , Ding Dong ' had all the credentials of a Yuletide smash but none that actually grabbed the public . " Writing for Goldmine magazine in January 2002 , Dave Thompson described it as " sweetly simplistic " and " a sterling stab at a Christmas anthem … that deserved far better than its low Top 40 chart placings in the U.S. and Britain " .
In his 2010 book on Harrison for the Praeger Singer @-@ Songwriter series , Ian Inglis comments that the song had neither the " overt political message " of Lennon 's Christmas single nor the " unashamed commercialism " of Paul McCartney 's " Wonderful Christmastime " , and writes that " Ding Dong " ' s " somewhat halfhearted festive appeal " seems out of place on Dark Horse . Simon Leng views the song as an " intermittently amusing rocker " , but with the perilous state of Harrison 's voice on the recording , " Ding Dong " would have benefited from " hibernating another winter " . Author Robert Rodriguez opines that whereas Harrison 's " rough @-@ hewn " vocals on " Dark Horse " had enhanced that song , his " Father Time impression " did nothing for " Ding Dong " .
Among reviews of the 2014 Apple Years reissue of Dark Horse , Paste magazine 's Robert Ham refers to the song as " a Christmas anthem … that is as infectious as McCartney 's ' Wonderful Christmastime ' and as globally minded as Lennon 's ' Happy Xmas ( War Is Over ) ' " . Conversely , Paul Trynka of Classic Rock magazine singles out " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " as the one song that " embarrasses " on an album that is otherwise " packed with beautiful , small @-@ scale moments " . Trynka labels it " George 's own Frog Chorus " , with reference to McCartney 's 1984 children 's song , " We All Stand Together " , and adds : " its clunking glam evokes those horrible 70s TV shows where DJs drool over dollybirds in hotpants . "
In December 1999 , while promoting his album I Wanna Be Santa Claus , Starr hosted a Christmas @-@ themed radio show for New York 's MJI Broadcasting , during which he featured " Ding Dong " along with the singles by Lennon and McCartney , as well as seasonal recordings by Spector and by a selection of Motown artists . Japanese act Hi Limits & Kenichi Kurusawa covered the song on East West Records ' Gentle Guitar Dreams Harrison tribute album , released in May 2002 . Harrison 's original still receives some airplay over the Christmas – New Year period . Unlike " Happy Xmas " , however , and , to a lesser extent , " Wonderful Christmastime " , " Ding Dong " never achieved the status of a perennial holiday classic .
= = Promo clip = =
Harrison compiled a 16mm colour film for " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " , the first time he made a promotional clip for one of his singles . The film was little seen at the time of release ; it was first broadcast in January 1975 , on UK television , and then on the French network TF1 's show Midi Premiere in May that year . The video was issued officially on disc eight of Harrison 's Apple Years 1968 – 75 box set in September 2014 . Described as " a hoot " by Robert Rodriguez , it conveys what Harrison deemed the " comical " aspect of the song . Leng describes the clip as " sporadically amusing " and says of its content : " As the audiences at the Dark Horse Tour concerts were about to discover , the only ' old ' that he wanted to ' ring out ' was the Beatles . "
Harrison appears in a range of Beatles @-@ related costumes while miming to the track . His attire in these scenes represents a chronology of periods in the band 's career – starting with the Hamburg @-@ era black leathers , followed by 1963 mop @-@ top wig and grey collarless suit , and then the iconic Sgt. Pepper uniform from 1967 . During these scenes , he plays a mix of guitars , including his famous Rickenbacker 12 @-@ string , as used in the Beatles ' 1964 film A Hard Day 's Night , and the Gibson Les Paul ( christened " Lucy " ) that Clapton had used on the recording of " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " in September 1968 . The Sgt. Pepper portion shows Harrison playing a tuba while , behind him , an Indian man plays a sitar . Harrison also re @-@ creates Lennon and Ono 's Two Virgins album cover , by appearing naked save for an acoustic guitar and a pair of furry boots . Another change of costume and instrument , to denims and dobro , supports his stated rejection during the tour of early- ' 70s era , " Bangla Desh George " .
Harrison is also seen walking around the grounds of Friar Park . In these scenes , he wears scruffy , present @-@ day attire that represents " his own , new identity " , according to Leng , who likens Harrison 's appearance to the character on the cover of Jethro Tull 's Aqualung album . Harrison mimes the final choruses inside the house , filmed in close @-@ up and surrounded by a cast of " dwarfs , gnomes and other Pythonesque characters " . At the end of the clip , he is seen at the flagpole on the roof of the house , replacing a pirate standard with his yellow @-@ and @-@ red Om flag – a gesture that was the opposite of Boyd 's when she learned of Harrison 's affair with Maureen Starkey . The video was directed by Harrison and filmed by Nick Knowland .
= = Personnel = =
Adapted from Harrison 's original handwritten credits , as reproduced in the 2014 Dark Horse CD booklet :
George Harrison – vocals , 12 @-@ string acoustic guitar , slide guitars , organ , clavinet , percussion , backing vocals
Tom Scott – saxophones , horn arrangement
Gary Wright – piano
Klaus Voormann – bass
Jim Keltner – drums
Ringo Starr – drums
Ron Wood – electric guitar
Alvin Lee – electric guitar
Mick Jones – acoustic guitar
uncredited – female choir
= = Chart positions = =
= Did It Again ( Kylie Minogue song ) =
" Did It Again " is a song by Australian recording artist Kylie Minogue , originally featured on her sixth studio album Impossible Princess ( 1997 ) . The song was released as the album 's second single on 24 November 1997 through BMG , Deconstruction and Mushroom . Minogue had written the track with Steve Anderson and Dave Seaman , and it was produced by Minogue in collaboration with Brothers in Rhythm . Backed by guitars and drum , " Did It Again " is a pop rock track in which Minogue sings about her self @-@ consciousness and self @-@ hatred .
Critical response to " Did It Again " was mostly positive ; some critics praised the song 's composition and highlighted it as a career stand out track . In Australia , " Did It Again " peaked at number fifteen on the Australian Singles Chart and was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . In the United Kingdom , it peaked at fourteen on the UK Singles Chart . Petro Romanhi directed the song 's music video , which features four clones of Minogue in different outfits , and fighting with each other .
To promote " Did It Again " , Minogue performed the track on The National Lottery Live and MTV UK . It was later included on her 1998 concert tour Intimate and Live Tour . The song was subsequently included on Minogue 's compilation albums Confide in Me ( 2002 ) , Ultimate Kylie ( 2004 ) , and Confide in Me : The Irresistible Kylie ( 2007 ) .
= = Background = =
In 1997 , the British media reported that she was anorexic , labelling her " Kylie Thinogue " . Minogue had been told about the rumours and , as a response , wrote the track " Did It Again " . Interviewed by Company magazine that year , she was questioned on her weight and the song , and she explained " It 's a bit of a girl 's song , with me telling myself off and never learning my lesson , particularly with men . It 's me looking myself in the eye and saying ' You fool , stop being too clever and over @-@ neurotic . ' " She had begun writing the song whilst British tabloids published rumors about her private life , and the poor reception that Impossible Princess ' lead single " Some Kind of Bliss " received . However , she re @-@ wrote the original lyrics with Anderson and Seaman and Minogue said it told a " different meaning " . The song discusses telling herself off when she does not learn from her past mistakes . She commented that " Some of the songs from Impossible Princess are close to the heart , but this song was a little voice on my shoulder . " The song was originally titled " Clever Girl ( Did It Again ) " .
= = Composition = =
" Did It Again " was recorded at Real World , Sarm West and DMC Studios in England , and was mixed by Alan Bremnar at Real World . Greg Bone and Anderson played the guitars , while Anderson played the drums and keyboards . Produced by Brothers in Rhythm and Minogue , " Did It Again " is a pop rock song . Michael Dwyer from Western Australia magazine commented on Minogue 's departure from dance music and bubblegum pop and her maturity since her work with Stock , Aitken and Waterman , stating " Some Kind Of Bliss and Did It Again have already proved our Kylie has more tricks up her sleeve this time than Stock , Aitken and Waterman ever dreamed of and her sixth album harbours more strings to her carefully @-@ cultivated bow . " British writer Sean Smith , author of Kylie ( 2014 ) , commented that " Did It Again " was another track , along with " I Don 't Need Anyone " , from Impossible Princess that " didn 't really sound like Kylie " . He further commented that " Did It Again " was " a blend of drums and electric guitar that might have found its way onto The Beatles ' famous Revolver album . " Reviewing her compilation album Greatest Hits 87 – 97 ( 2003 ) , Michael Paoletta from Billboard magazine viewed the composition as progressive rock .
= = Critical reception = =
" Did It Again " received positive reviews from most music critics . Allmusic 's Chris True , who also reviewed the parent album , highlighted it as a stand out track from her career . MacKenzie Wilson from Allmusic selected " Did It Again " as a stand out from her compilation Hits + . Jack Foley from Indielondon.co.uk called " Did it Again " one of Minogue 's " chart @-@ busters " that " continue to fill the dancefloors despite being relentlessly over @-@ played in their heyday . " Darrin Farrant from The Age said " Best of the Impossible Princess bunch was clearly Did It Again , Minogue smiling and strutting , the crowd joining her to sing every word . " Gary James from Entertainment Focus praised all her co @-@ written and self @-@ penned tracks . Avoledo from BlogCritics.org described the song as blunt , but said it is a " cunning and self @-@ aware look at celebrity without even mentioning fame . "
A reviewer from Music Week magazine awarded " Did It Again " three stars out of five , stating that Minogue 's vocals " takes a stroppy edge " , but " it 's not strong enough to do much better than the modest performance of Some Kind Of Bliss . " Natasha Tripney from musicOMH said : " ' Did It Again ' reminds you of her valiant but wildly misjudged attempt to morph into Indie Kylie circa 1997 , only really serving to highlight the limitations of her voice in the process . " Michael R. Smith from Daily Vault felt the song represented the album " perfectly " and had labelled the songs as " undiscovered gems " . Smith felt the song was " another underrated song " from the Impossible Princess album and labelled it an " indie classic " . In the annual 1997 Triple J Hottest 100 list , " Did It Again " was eighty @-@ one . At the 1998 ARIA Music Awards , " Did It Again " was nominated for Single of the Year but lost to Natalie Imbruglia 's single " Torn " respectively .
= = Commercial performance = =
" Did It Again " entered at number twenty @-@ one on the Australian Singles Chart . The song peaked at fifteen , her highest charting and first top twenty single from Impossible Princess . The song lasted seventeen weeks in the top fifty , one of her longest spanning singles in the chart . The song was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) with shipments of 35 @,@ 000 units . In the United Kingdom , " Did It Again " entered and peaked at fourteen on the UK Singles Chart . It stayed in the top 100 for eight weeks and became highest charting single from the album alongside " Breathe " .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and development = = =
An accompanying music video was directed by Petro Romanhi in London , England . It was filmed over a two @-@ day period and was required to shoot each character individually . Minogue and long @-@ term collaborator and friend , William Baker , designed the clothing for each character : Sex Kylie , Cute Kylie , Indie Kylie , and Dance Kylie . Each character represented a difference appearance and persona ; Baker labelled Sex Kylie as a " drag queen " with a " bitchy " attitude and " slutty " appearance . Dance Kylie had , according to Baker , an " irritating frothiness " , while Cute Kylie had violet @-@ coloured hot pants and a bra . The original costume was blue , but quickly changed due to blue screen issues . The outfit for Indie Kylie , which was red three @-@ quarter pants with a high @-@ collar shirt , was inspired by Star Trek films that was assisted by British fashion design , Pellicano .
Frances Whiting from Sunday Mail discussed the music video with Minogue , where she mentioned that the video was a " fun " way to portray her media images throughout her career . Regarding her " Indie Kylie " phase , Minogue commented " I don 't mind being labelled Indie Kylie , I 've had so many labels , but labels are a bit silly because I 'm so many things , we all are . " The concept for the video was created by Romanhi after discovering several articles and magazing in the 1980s and early @-@ mid 1990s of Minogue , along with his influence of the American film Usual Suspects , but Minogue was sceptical on the final result . In an interview with MTV Australia , Minogue revealed the video was based on her life as a celebrity , stating ;
Basically we were having a laugh at a lot of the different articles that were appearing at that time in different magazines and papers , and they were talking about ' Pop Kylie , Dance Kylie , Sex Kylie ' and , you know , with every different release of a single they 'd say ' What Kylie is it now ? ' and it was just becoming a joke . So he , Pedro , cunningly picked up on that and said we should make a video with all the different Kylies , which I was more then [ sic ] happy about , because it was stating the obvious and having a laugh at the same time .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The characters were Sex Kylie , Cute Kylie , Indie Kylie and Dance Kylie , characters which had contributed to Minogue 's image throughout her career . Minogue commented that it took " longer than expected " because Romanhi wanted the outcome to be " precise " . Although Minogue said that " Indie Kylie " was the winner of fight , she felt " Cute Kylie " represented herself than the other three characters . The video opens with Sex Kylie singing and Cute Kylie pushes her . Indie Kylie appears and Dance kylie bumps her out of the way . Throughout the video , all four characters fight and cuss towards each other . The end finishes with Cute Kylie holding a baseball bat , declaring that she was the winner of all four of them . Despite the ending and Minogue commenting that Cute Kylie amused her the most in the video , Minogue said that Indie Kylie was the winner .
= = = Reception = = =
The video received positive reviews , and won the Australian Video entry at the MTV Video Music Awards in 1998 . Erika Brooks Adickman from Idolator said that " the tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek video had the pop icon acknowledging all the ways she had reinvented herself over the years " . American website BuzzFeed hosted a poll for online viewers to vote their best Kylie in the " Did It Again " video . As a result , Indie Kylie won with 36 % ( 2 @,@ 926 votes ) , Cute Kylie came second with 26 % ( 2 @,@ 083 votes ) , Dance Kylie came third with 20 % ( 1 @,@ 628 votes ) , and Sex Kylie came fourth with 18 % ( 1 @,@ 510 votes ) . During an interview Minogue gave to Jetstar Airways magazine , journalist Simon Price stated that the four different Kylies were " brilliantly " satirised in the video .
Costumes from the video , along with accessories spanning Minogue 's career , became part of an exhibition at the National Portrait Gallery in Australia , during May 2005 . They were also displayed in another exhibition with the same theme in February 2007 . A still with the four Kylie 's , standing together , was drawn by Jill Lamarina and added into the comic book Female Force : Kylie Minogue , published by Bluewater Comics . Media theorist Lee Barron , author of Social Theory in Popular Culture , discussed the Impossible Princess period and further stated " The Impossible Princess phase represented a period of diminished commercial success , marking the moment in which Minogue consciously began to engage in a playful awareness of image construction and referentiality ... This was unmistakably manifest in the promotional video ' Did it Again ' , which featured four Kylies , each defined by the labels that the media created for her " . Barron felt neither of the characters in the video won , but rather " the construction of an entirely new one " and concluded " Because , although Minogue was now reflexively alluding to her identity @-@ shredded progression , ' Indie Kylie ' did not gel with the wider recording @-@ buying public , and consequently ' Indie Kylie ' was discarded for ' Camp Kylie ' " ; Camp Kylie was a media label for her efforts around the Light Years ( 2000 ) era .
= = Live performances and other usage = =
Minogue performed " Did It Again " on the The National Lottery Live , and performed the song alongside " Some Kind of Bliss " and " I Don 't Need Anyone " on her performance with MTV on 4 October 1997 . Minogue included the song on the set list for her 1998 concert tour Intimate and Live . The performance was recorded on 30 June and 1 July at Capitol Theatre in Sydney , and appeared on the related CD and DVD .
" Did It Again " has been featured on many of Minogue 's compilation albums . Its first appearance was on her 2000 Deconstruction compilation Hits + and on her 2001 BMG greatest hits compilation album Confide in Me , a compilation consisting majority off her singles and tracks from her Deconstruction period ; Heather Phares from Allmusic praised the Impossible Princess tracks including " Did It Again " . It then appeared on her 2004 compilation albums Artist Collection and , which included most of her Impossible Princess era , and Ultimate Kylie through Parlophone . The song 's last appearance was on the first disc of Confide in Me : The Irresistible Kylie released in July 2007 by UK independent label Music Club . The Trouser Enthusiasts ' Goddess of Contortion remix and Razor n Go remix appeared on her 1998 remix compilations Mixes and Impossible Remixes .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from both maxi @-@ single liner notes .
Kylie Minogue – vocals , songwriting , vocal production
Steve Anderson – songwriting , guitar , Hammond organ
David Seaman – songwriting , guitar
Greg Bones – guitar
Alan Bremner – engineer , mixing production
Paul Wright – engineer
Stephane Sednaoui – photographer , designer
Farrow Design – cover sleeve designer
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Margaret Bondfield =
Margaret Grace Bondfield CH PC ( 17 March 1873 – 16 June 1953 ) was a British Labour politician , trades unionist and women 's rights activist . She became the first female cabinet minister , and the first woman to be a privy counsellor , when she was appointed Minister of Labour in the Labour government of 1929 – 31 . She had earlier become the first woman to chair the General Council of the Trades Union Congress ( TUC ) .
Bondfield was born in humble circumstances and received limited formal education . After serving an apprenticeship to an embroidress she worked as a shop assistant in Brighton and London . She was shocked by the working conditions of shop staff , particularly within the " living @-@ in " system , and became an active member of the shopworkers ' union . She began to move in socialist circles , and in 1898 was appointed assistant secretary of the National Union of Shop Assistants , Warehousemen , and Clerks ( NAUSAWC ) . She was later prominent in several women 's socialist movements : she helped to found the Women 's Labour League ( WLL ) in 1906 , and was chair of the Adult Suffrage Society . Her standpoint on women 's suffrage — she favoured extending the vote to all adults regardless of gender or property , rather than the limited " on the same terms as men " agenda pursued by the militant suffragists — divided her from the militant leadership .
After leaving her union post in 1908 Bondfield worked as organising secretary for the WLL and later as women 's officer for the National Union of General and Municipal Workers ( NUGMW ) . She was elected to the TUC Council in 1918 , and became its chairman in 1923 , the year she was first elected to parliament . In the short @-@ lived minority Labour government of 1924 she served as parliamentary secretary in the Ministry of Labour . Her term of cabinet office in 1929 – 31 was marked by the economic crises that beset the second Labour government . Her willingness to contemplate cuts in unemployment benefits alienated her from much of the Labour movement , although she did not follow Ramsay MacDonald into the National Government that assumed office when the Labour government fell in August 1931 .
Bondfield remained active in NUGMW affairs until 1938 , and during the Second World War carried out investigations for the Women 's Group on Public Welfare . She died in 1953 ; despite her years of service to party and union , and her successes in breaking through gender boundaries , she has not been greatly honoured within the Labour movement . According to a later female cabinet minister , Barbara Castle , Bondfield 's actions in office had brought her close to betrayal of the movement .
= = Childhood and family = =
Margaret Bondfield , known in private life as " Maggie " , was born on 17 March 1873 in the Somerset town of Chard . She was the tenth of eleven children , and third of four daughters born to William Bondfield and his wife Ann , née Taylor , the daughter of a Congregational minister . William Bondfield worked as a lacemaker , and had a history of political activism . As a young man he had been secretary of the Chard Political Union , a centre of local radicalism that the authorities had on occasion suppressed by military force . He had also been active in the Anti @-@ Corn Law League of the 1840s . Entirely self @-@ educated , he was fascinated by science and engineering , and was the co @-@ designer of a flying machine , a prototype of the modern aircraft , that was exhibited at the Great Exhibition of 1851 .
While Margaret was still an infant , William lost his job and was unable to find regular work . The family suffered hardship , with the threat of the workhouse a constant fear . Nevertheless , William and Ann did their best to ensure that their children were educated and prepared for life . Margaret was a clever child , whose skills at reciting poetry or playing piano pieces were often displayed at town events and Sunday School outings . Until the age of 13 she attended the local elementary school ; she then worked for a year as a pupil @-@ teacher ( she was paid three shillings a week ) in the school 's boys ' department . Local employment opportunities being scarce , she left Chard in 1887 , at the age of 14 , to begin an apprenticeship at a draper 's shop in Hove , near Brighton .
= = Early career = =
= = = Shop worker = = =
Bondfield joined a drapery and embroidery business in Church Road , Hove , where the young apprentices were treated as family members . Relations between customers and assistants were cordial , and Bondfield 's later recollections of this period were uniformly happy . Her apprenticeship complete , she worked as a living @-@ in assistant in a succession of Brighton drapery stores , where she quickly encountered the realities of shop staff life : unsympathetic employers , very long hours , appalling living conditions and no privacy . Bondfield reported on her experiences of living @-@ in : " Overcrowded , insanitary conditions , poor and insufficient food were the main characteristics of this system , with an undertone of danger ... In some houses both natural and unnatural vices found a breeding ground " . She found some relief from this environment when she was befriended by a wealthy customer , Louisa Martindale , and her daughter Hilda . The Martindales , socially conscious liberals and advocates for women 's rights , found Bondfield a willing learner , and lent her books that began her lifelong interest in labour and social questions . Bondfield described Mrs Martindale as " a most vivid influence on my life ... she put me in the way of knowledge that has been of help to many score of my shop mates " .
Bondfield 's brother Frank had established himself in London some years earlier as a printer and trades unionist , and in 1894 , having saved £ 5 , she decided to join him . She found London shopworking conditions no better than in Brighton , but through Frank her social and political circles widened . She became an active member of the National Amalgamated Union of Shop Assistants , Warehousemen , and Clerks ( NUSAWC ) , sometimes missing church on Sundays to attend union meetings . Her political and literary education was centred on the Ideal Club , where she met Bernard Shaw , and Sidney and Beatrice Webb . Under the influence of these socialist luminaries , she joined the Fabian Society and later the Independent Labour Party ( ILP ) .
As a shopworker , Bondfield was expected to work between 80 and 100 hours a week for 51 weeks in the year , and might be sent out late at night to check that rival shops had closed before her employer would do so . She began to record her experiences , in a series of articles and stories that she wrote under the pseudonym " Grace Dare " , for the shopworkers ' monthly magazine The Shop Assistant . She wrote surreptitiously , at night : " I would light my half @-@ penny dip [ candle ] , hiding its glare by means of a towel and set to work on my monthly article " . In 1896 she was recruited by the Women 's Industrial Council ( WIC ) as an undercover agent , working in various shops while secretly recording every aspect of shop life . Her accounts of squalor and exploitation were published in articles under the " Grace Dare " name , in both The Shop Assistant and the Daily Chronicle newspaper , and provided the basis for a WIC report on shopworkers ' conditions published in 1898 .
= = = Union official = = =
In 1898 Bondfield accepted the job of assistant secretary of NUSAWC , which that year became " NAUSAWC " after amalgamating with the United Shop Assistants ' Union . From this time onward she subordinated her life to her union work and to the wider cause of socialism . She " had no vocation for wifehood or motherhood , but an urge to serve the Union ... I had ' the dear love of comrades ' " . At the time the union 's membership , at under 3 @,@ 000 , represented only a small fraction of shopworkers , and Bondfield gave priority to increasing this proportion . For months she travelled the country , distributing literature and arranging meetings when she could , with mixed outcomes in the face of apathy from shop staff , and outright opposition from shopowners . In Reading and Bristol she reported no success , although in Gloucester , she thought , " it should not be difficult to organise every shop worker " . In 1899 Bondfield was the first woman delegate to the Trades Union Annual Congress , that year held in Plymouth , where she participated in the vote that led to the formation in 1900 of the Labour Representation Committee ( LRC ) , forerunner of the Labour Party . NAUSAWC , its membership by then around 7 @,@ 000 , was one of the first unions to affiliate to the committee .
In 1902 Bondfield met Mary Macarthur , some eight years her junior , who chaired the Ayr branch of NAUSAWC . Macarthur , the daughter of a wealthy Scottish draper , had held staunchly Conservative views until a works meeting in 1901 to discuss the formation of a NAUSAWC branch transformed her into an ardent trades unionist . In 1903 Macarthur moved to London where , with Bondfield 's recommendation , she became secretary of the Women 's Trade Union League . The two became close comrades @-@ in @-@ arms during the next two decades , in a range of causes affecting women . The historian Lise Sanders suggests that Bondfield 's more intimate friendships tended to be with women rather than men ; Bondfield 's biographer Mary Agnes Hamilton described Macarthur as the romance of Bondfield 's life .
The year 1904 saw the passage of the Shop Hours Act , which made some provision for limiting shop opening hours . In 1907 the first steps were taken to end the Victorian " living @-@ in " practice , which at the time still affected two @-@ thirds of Britain 's 750 @,@ 000 shopworkers . Initially , living @-@ out privileges were only given to male employees ; Bondfield campaigned for equivalent rights for women shop workers , arguing that if they were to become " useful , healthy ... wives and mothers " , they needed to live " rational lives " . As part of her campaign , Bondfield advised the playwright Cicely Hamilton , whose shop @-@ based drama Diana of Dobsons appeared that year . Bondfield described the opening scene , set in a dreary , comfortless women 's dormitory over a shop , as very like the real thing .
From 1904 onwards , Bondfield was increasingly occupied with the issue of women 's suffrage . In that year she travelled with Dora Montefiore of the Women 's Social and Political Union ( WSPU ) to the International Congress of Women in Berlin , but she was not in sympathy with the main WSPU policy , which was to secure the vote for women on the same highly restricted basis that it was then given to men . This involved a property qualification , and thus largely excluded the working class . Bondfield saw no benefit in this policy to the women that she represented , and aligned herself with the Adult Suffrage Society ( ASS ) , which campaigned for universal adult suffrage , men and women alike , regardless of property . In 1906 she became chairman of the society and supported the Franchise and Removal of Women 's Disabilities bill , introduced to parliament by Sir Charles Dilke . This proposed full adult suffrage , and the right of women to become MPs . The bill was " talked out " in the House of Commons , but Bondfield 's support antagonised many militants in the WSPU , who considered the bill a distraction from their more limited aims . In 1907 , in the course of a public debate with Teresa Billington @-@ Greig of the Women 's Freedom League ( a breakaway group from the WSPU ) , Bondfield argued that the only way forward was a bill that enfranchised all men and all women , without qualification . She wished good luck to those fighting for a " same terms as men " suffrage bill , but " don 't let them come and tell me that they are working for my class " . The strains of her duties and constant campaigning began to undermine her health , and in 1908 she resigned her union post after ten years ' service , during which NAUSAWC membership had risen to over 20 @,@ 000 . Her departure , she said , was " alike a grief and a deliverance " .
= = Women 's Labour League = =
After leaving NAUSAWC , Bondfield transferred the main focus of her energies to the Women 's Labour League ( WLL ) , which she had helped to found in 1906 . The League 's principal aims were " to work for independent labour representation in connection with the Labour Party , and to obtain direct labour representation of women in Parliament and on all local bodies . " The president of the League was Margaret MacDonald , wife of the future Labour Party leader Ramsay MacDonald ; Bondfield had known the MacDonalds since the 1890s , through their joint work for the WIC .
With a government suffrage reform bill pending in parliament , the WLL introduced a motion to the 1909 Labour Party conference committing the party to oppose any suffrage extension bill that did not specifically include women . However , while the party was largely sympathetic to the principle of women 's suffrage , it was unwilling to risk losing the limited reforms to male suffrage promised by the government 's bill . When Bondfield tabled the WLL motion at the Labour conference , she was persuaded by Arthur Henderson to water it down . Many suffragists reacted angrily ; the WSPU accused the WLL , and Bondfield in particular , of treachery . Fran Abrams , in a biographical essay , writes that although Bondfield " was prepared to argue loud and long for adult suffrage , ... she was not prepared to damage her relationship with the Labour Party for it " .
Since the passing of the Qualification of Women Act in 1907 , women had been eligible to vote in and stand as candidates in municipal elections . Several WLL members contested the London County Council elections in 1910 ; Bondfield stood in Woolwich , unsuccessfully ( she contested the same seat in 1913 , with a similar result ) . The League was active in all types of elections , supporting and canvassing for candidates of either sex who spoke out for women 's rights . Through these activities Bondfield experienced the lives of the poorest of families , writing : " Oh ! the lonely lives of these women , hidden away at the back of a network of small , mean streets ! "
Alongside her WLL duties , Bondfield maintained a range of other involvements . She spent part of 1910 in the United States , lecturing on suffrage issues with Maud Ward of the People 's Suffrage Federation ( PSF ) , and studying labour problems . At home , she worked with the Women 's Co @-@ operative Guild ( WCG ) on maternity and child welfare , and was co @-@ opted to the Parliamentary Standing Committee that piloted the introduction of state maternity benefits and other assistance to mothers . Her investigation on behalf of the WIC into the working conditions in the textile industries led her to join most of the Labour leadership in a " War against Poverty " campaign . In 1910 Bondfield accepted the chairmanship of the British section of the Women 's International Council of Socialist and Labour Organisations .
Between 1908 and 1910 the WLL and the WIC co @-@ operated in a nationwide investigation of married women 's working conditions . Bondfield carried out the fieldwork in Yorkshire . The relationship between the two bodies was sometimes fractious , and when the report was due to be published , there were disagreements over how it should be handled . As a result of these and other clashes , Bondfield , MacDonald and the other League women resigned from the Council . In 1911 Bondfield assumed the role of the WLL 's Organising Secretary , and spent much of the year travelling : she formed a WLL branch in Ogmore Vale , Glamorgan , reformed the Manchester branch , and found time to advise laundrywomen engaged in a dispute in South Wales . The sudden death of Mary MacDonald in September 1911 added considerably to Bondfield 's workload ; the strain , together with internal animosities within the WLL , led her to resign her position in January 1912 . The League made strenuous efforts to retain her , and only in September did its committee reluctantly accept her departure . An attempt to re @-@ engage her in 1913 was unsuccessful , and Marion Phillips was appointed to succeed her .
= = Campaigns and war = =
From 1912 Bondfield was a member of the WCG 's Citizenship Subcommittee , where she worked with Margaret Llewelyn Davies investigating minimum wage rates , infant mortality and child welfare . She also assisted the Guild 's education and training programme , lecturing on " Local Government in Relation to Maternity " . Freedom from her WLL responsibilities gave her more time for political work , and in 1913 she joined the ILP 's National Administration Council . Bondfield spoke at the ILP 's mass anti @-@ war rally in Trafalgar Square rally on 2 August 1914 , organised by George Lansbury ; other speakers included Keir Hardie , Henderson , and the dockers ' leader Ben Tillett . On the outbreak of war a few days later , Bondfield joined the Union of Democratic Control that , while not pacifist , opposed the use of war as an instrument of national policy . She was also a member of the Women 's Peace Council . In March 1915 she attended a conference in Bern , Switzerland , organised by the Women 's International of Socialist and Labour Organizations , which called for a negotiated peace . Later in the war the government , concerned by Bondfield 's association with peace organisations , prevented her from travelling to similar gatherings in Sweden and the United States .
Bondfield had helped Mary Macarthur to found the National Federation of Women Workers ( NFWW ) in 1906 . This organisation was dedicated to the unionisation of women , and by 1914 had more than 20 @,@ 000 members . In 1915 Bondfield became NFWW 's organising secretary . Together with Macarthur , Phillips and Susan Lawrence , she established the Central Committee for Women 's Employment , which organised relief work for the female unemployed . Bondfield 's investigations into workers ' pay revealed considerable differences between the rates paid to men and to women , even for identical work . Through the NFWW she campaigned for a £ 1 a week starting minimum wage for women , whatever the nature of the work , and for equal pay with men for equal work .
Suffragist militancy having largely lapsed after the outbreak of World War I , in October 1916 a Speaker 's Conference was convened to consider the issue of women 's franchise and make proposals for postwar legislation . While Bondfield , Lansbury and other prewar campaigners pressed for universal adult suffrage , the conference recommended only a limited extension of the franchise . The subsequent Representation of the People Act , 1918 , gave the vote to women over 30 who were property owners or the wives of property owners , or were university graduates . Bondfield described the Act , which excluded almost all working @-@ class women , as " mean and inadequate ... creating fresh anomalies " .
= = National prominence = =
The end of the war in November 1918 saw Bondfield 's election to the General Council of the TUC , the first woman to be thus elevated . In the following months she travelled as a TUC delegate to international conferences , in Bern and later in Washington DC , where she expressed the view that the peace terms being imposed on Germany were unjust . In April 1920 she was a member of a joint TUC @-@ Labour Party mission to the Soviet Union . A few months earlier , Lansbury had visited the incipient Soviet state and had been most impressed after meeting Lenin , whom he judged to be " symbolic of a new spirit " , " the father of his people " and " their champion in the cause of social and economic freedom " . Bondfield , who also met Lenin , was more cautious . She told an NFWW conference on her return that if she were a Russian citizen she would support the Bolshevist government as currently " the only possible form of administration " . Later , she came to see communism as anti @-@ democratic and dictatorial , and voted against the application of the British Communist Party for affiliation to the Labour Party .
Among various public activities , Bondfield joined the governing body of Ruskin College , the Oxford @-@ based institution founded in 1899 to provide higher education opportunities to working @-@ class men . She also became a Justice of the Peace . She first sought election to parliament in 1920 , as the Labour candidate in a by @-@ election in Northampton . She increased the Labour vote significantly , but lost by 3 @,@ 371 votes , to the Coalition Liberal candidate . At the general election of 1922 she was again adopted by Labour at Northampton and , as she had at Woolwich in 1913 , turned to Shaw for help in the campaign . He was contemptuous of the Labour leadership for not arranging a more promising seat ; nevertheless , he came and spoke for her , but her margin of defeat widened to 5 @,@ 476 .
Following two years of negotiation , in 1920 the NFWW voted to merge with the National Union of General Workers and become that union 's Women 's Section . Bondfield , who supported the merger , believed that provided women could maintain their separate group identity , it was better for men and women to work together . The secretary of the new section was to have been Mary Macarthur , but she died of cancer on 1 January 1921 , the date that the merger came into effect . Bondfield was appointed in her place , and remained in the post ( with leave of absence while holding ministerial office ) until 1938 . To honour her friend , Bondfield helped to organise the Mary Macarthur Memorial Fund . She added other responsibilities to her heavy schedule : chairing the Standing Joint Committee of Industrial Women 's Organisations ( SJCIWO ) , membership of the Labour Party 's Emergency Committee on Unemployment , and chairman of the 1922 Conference of Unemployed Women . In September 1923 she became the first women to assume the chair of the TUC 's General Council .
In November 1923 Stanley Baldwin 's Conservative Government fell . In the following month 's general election Bondfield was elected in Northampton with a majority of 4 @,@ 306 over her Conservative opponent . She was one of the first three women — Susan Lawrence and Dorothy Jewson were the others — to be elected as Labour MPs . In an outburst of local celebration her supporters , whom she described as " nearly crazy with joy " , paraded her around the town in a charabanc . The Labour Party had won 191 seats to the Conservatives ' 258 and the Liberals ' 158 ; with no party in possession of a parliamentary majority , the make @-@ up of the next government was in doubt for several weeks .
= = Parliament and office = =
= = = First Labour Government = = =
The Liberal Party 's decision not to enter a coalition with the Conservatives , and Baldwin 's unwillingness to govern without a majority , led to Ramsay MacDonald 's first minority Labour government which took office in January 1924 . According to Lansbury 's biographer , Bondfield turned down the offer of a cabinet post ; instead , she became parliamentary secretary to the Minister of Labour , Tom Shaw . This appointment meant that she had to give up the TUC Council chair ; her decision to do so , immediately after becoming the first woman to achieve this honour , generated some criticism from other trade unionists .
Bondfield later described her first months in government as " a strange adventure " . The difficulties of the economic situation would have created problems for the most experienced of governments , and the fledgling Labour administration was quickly in difficulties . Bondfield spent much of her time abroad ; in the autumn she travelled to Canada as the head of a delegation examining the problems of British immigrants , especially as related to the welfare of young children . When she returned to Britain in early October she found the government in its final throes . On 8 October MacDonald resigned after losing a confidence vote in the House of Commons . Labour 's chances of victory in the ensuing general election were fatally compromised by the controversy surrounding the so @-@ called Zinoviev letter , a missive purportedly sent by Grigory Zinoviev , president of the Communist International , which called on Britain 's socialists to prepare for violent revolution . The letter , published four days before polling day , generated a " Red Scare " that led to a significant swing of voters to the right , and ensured a massive Conservative victory . Bondfield lost her seat in Northampton by 971 votes .
= = = Opposition = = =
After her defeat , Bondfield resumed her work for NUGMW and was re @-@ elected to the TUC Council . In 1926 she supported the TUC 's decision to hold a General Strike , and also the decision to call it off after nine days . Following the resignation of Sir Patrick Hastings in June 1926 , Bondfield was adopted as the Labour candidate at Wallsend , and won the subsequent by @-@ election with a majority of over 9 @,@ 000 . Meanwhile , she had accepted appointment to the Blanesburgh Committee , which the Conservative government had set up to consider reforms to the system of unemployment benefit . Her private view , that entitlement to benefits should be related to contributions , was not widely shared in the Labour Party or the TUC . When the committee made recommendations along these lines she signed the report , which became the basis of the Unemployment Insurance Act 1927 . Bondfield 's association with this legislation permanently shadowed her relationship with the Labour movement .
On 29 March 1928 , when a bill came before parliament giving the vote in parliamentary elections to all men and women over 21 , she termed the measure " a tremendous social advance " , and added : " At last [ women ] are established on that equitable footing because we are human beings and part of society as a whole ... once and for all , we shall destroy the artificial barrier in the way of any women who want to get education in politics and who want to come forward and take their full share in the political life of their day " . When the bill became law , 4 million voters , most of them women , were added to the register . In the 1929 general election , held on 30 May , Bondfield easily held her Wallsend seat despite the intervention of a candidate representing unemployed workers . The overall election result left Labour as the largest party with 287 seats , but without an overall majority , and MacDonald formed his second minority administration .
= = = Minister of Labour = = =
When Bondfield accepted the post of Minister of Labour in the new government , she became Britain 's first woman cabinet minister , and Britain 's first woman privy counsellor . She considered the appointment " part of the great revolution in the position of women " . Her period in office was dominated by the issue of rising unemployment and the consequent increasing costs of benefit , which created a division between the government , anxious to demonstrate its financial responsibility , and the wider Labour movement whose priority was to protect the unemployed . According to the historian Robert Skidelsky : " Ministers worried about the finances of the [ unemployment ] fund ; backbenchers worried about the finances of the unemployed " . Under increasing pressure from the TUC , Bondfield introduced a bill that reversed the " Blanesburgh " restrictions on unemployment benefit introduced by the previous government , but with visible reluctance . Her handling of this issue is described by Marquand as " maladroit " , and by Skidelsky as showing " monumental tactlessness " .
As the cost of unemployment benefits mounted , Bondfield 's attempts to control the fund 's deficit provoked further hostility from the TUC and political attacks from the opposition parties . In February 1931 she proposed a scheme to cut benefit and restrict entitlement , but this was rejected by the cabinet as too harsh . Instead , seeking a cross @-@ party solution , the government accepted a Liberal proposal for an independent committee , eventually set up under Sir George May , to report on how public expenditure might be reduced . With the collapse in May 1931 of Austria 's leading private bank , Kreditanstalt , and the subsequent failure of several other European banks , the sense of crisis deepened . On 30 July the May committee recommended cuts in expenditure of £ 97 million , the majority ( £ 67 million ) to be found from reductions in unemployment costs . In the ensuing weeks , ministers struggled vainly to meet these demands . Bondfield was prepared to cut general unemployment benefit , provided the most needy recipients — those on so @-@ called " transitional benefit " — were protected . No formula could be found ; by 23 August the cabinet was hopelessly split , and resigned the next day . To the outrage of the TUC and most of the Labour Party , MacDonald formed an emergency National Government with the Conservative and Liberal parties , while the bulk of the Labour Party went into opposition .
Bondfield did not join the small number of Labour MPs who chose to follow MacDonald , although she expressed her " deep sympathy and admiration " for his actions . In the general election that followed on 27 October 1931 , the Labour Party lost more than three @-@ quarters of its Commons seats and was reduced to 52 members . Bondfield was defeated in Wallsend by 7 @,@ 606 votes ; Abrams observes that given the attacks on her from both right and left , " it would have been a miracle had she been re @-@ elected " . Of the former Labour cabinet members who opposed the National Government , only Lansbury kept his seat .
= = Later career = =
After her defeat , Bondfield returned to her NUGMW post . The TUC , suspicious of her perceived closeness to MacDonald , was cool towards her and she was not re @-@ elected to the General Council . She remained Labour 's candidate at Wallsend ; in the general election of 1935 she was again defeated . She never returned to parliament ; she was adopted as the prospective Labour candidate for Reading , but when it became obvious that the election due for 1940 would be delayed indefinitely by war , she resigned her candidacy .
In 1938 , after retiring from her NUGMW post , Bondfield founded the Women 's Group on Public Welfare . She studied labour conditions in the United States and Mexico during 1938 , and toured the US and Canada after the outbreak of war in 1939 , as a lecturer for the British Information Services . Her attitude towards the war was different from her semi @-@ pacifist stance of 1914 ; she actively supported the government and , in 1941 , published a booklet , Why Labour Fights . Her main wartime activity was leading an investigation by the Hygiene Committee of the Women 's Group on Public Welfare , into the problems that arose from the large @-@ scale evacuation into the countryside of city children . The group 's findings were published in 1943 , as Our Towns : a Close @-@ up ; the report gave many people their first understanding of the extent of inner @-@ city poverty . Suggested solutions included nursery education , a minimum wage , child allowances and a national health service . The report was reprinted several times , and was instrumental in developing support for the social reforms introduced by the Labour government that took office in 1945 . Among Bondfield 's other wartime activities , in 1944 she helped to launch a national drive for the appointment of more women police officers .
= = Last years , retirement and death = =
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Although not a candidate herself , Bondfield campaigned for Labour in the general election of July 1945 — a reporter found her instructing a meeting in Bury St Edmunds on the benefits of nationalisation . She was active in her local Labour Party , and continued to chair the Women 's Group of Public Welfare until 1948 . Her main task in these years was her autobiography , published in 1948 under the title A Life 's Work . The purpose of the book , she wrote , was not to celebrate her own achievements , instead she hoped that her experiences " may be of some service to the younger generation " . The book had an indifferent reception ; in The Observer , Harold Nicolson described it as " ill composed and badly proportioned " , with too much space devoted to inconsequential meetings while truly important events were hurried over . Nevertheless , he thought the book provided " a fine example of resolute and in the end triumphant energy " . The Manchester Guardian 's reviewer also criticised the work 's confused structure and unselective detail , but found it " a useful , direct and honest " account of Labour 's early years .
Apart from her autobiography , Bondfield contributed to a collection of essays entitled What Life Has Taught Me , in which 25 public figures pondered on the lessons of life . Bondfield wrote that her religious convictions gave her " strength to meet defeat with a smile , to face success with a sense of responsibility ; to be willing to do one 's best without hope of reward [ and ] to bear misrepresentation without giving way to futile bitterness " . In March 1948 Bondfield opened the Mary Macarthur Home at Poulton @-@ le @-@ Fylde , near Blackpool in Lancashire , which provided subsidised holidays for low @-@ paid women workers . In 1949 she made a six @-@ month speaking tour of the United States , her final visit to the country ; she left convinced that America would soon adopt a national health service .
Bondfield , who never married , maintained her good health and interest in life until her final illness in 1953 . She moved to a nursing home in Sanderstead , Surrey , where she died aged 80 on 16 June 1953 . At her cremation in Golders Green Crematorium the congregation sang the popular hymn " To Be a Pilgrim " . The Labour Party was fully represented ; Clement Attlee , the leader of the party and former prime minister , gave the address .
= = Appraisal and legacy = =
In his biographical sketch for the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography , Philip Williamson depicts Bondfield as " physically short and stout ... with sparkling eyes , a firm , brisk manner , and effective , sometimes inspired , public speaking " . She had the self @-@ confidence to exist and thrive in a male @-@ dominated world , deriving inspiration from a childhood that , though materially impoverished , her obituarist has described as " of great spiritual and mental wealth " . She inherited a strong nonconformist faith , which became a key element throughout her later career , and retained her links with the Congregational Church throughout her life . After her death The Times praised her " unusually wide human sympathies ... her generous nature and real sense of humour " . Skidelsky , however , describes her unsympathetically as " a humourless and somewhat priggish person , with long black skirts and a voice that emitted a harsh cascade of sound " .
Bondfield 's career was punctuated by " firsts " , in union , parliament and government spheres . Her own view of these achievements was modest : " Some woman was bound to be first . That I should be was the accident of dates and events " . Her appointment as Minister of Labour propelled her into what was , in 1929 , the hardest job in the cabinet , and in common with other ministers , her lack of experience in government left her heavily dependent on her official advisers . By temperament a realist , she based her actions in government on economic facts rather on party or sectional interests ; thus she became " caught between the opposition claims that she was soft on the unemployed , and her own backbenchers ' jibe that she had abandoned the workers " . Her stance , and her seemingly equivocal attitude towards MacDonald 's apostasy , reduced her standing in her own party for decades , so that when Barbara Castle was appointed as Minister of Labour by Harold Wilson in 1968 , she insisted that the ministry 's name be changed to " Department of Employment " , for fear of association with Bondfield 's term in office . Castle refused to contribute a preface to Fabian Society booklet celebrating Bondfield 's life , because she considered her predecessor 's actions close to political betrayal . In 2001 , a speech by Tony Blair celebrating the Labour Party 's 100 years in parliament paid tributes to many heroes of the movement 's early years ; Bondfield 's name was not mentioned .
Bondfield was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws degree by the University of Bristol , and in 1930 received the freedom of the borough from her home town of Chard , where in 2011 a plaque in her honour was fixed to the Guildhall wall . In 1948 she was appointed a Companion of Honour ( CH ) . Many years after her death , streets and apartment buildings were named after her in the London boroughs of Tower Hamlets and Barking ; she was further commemorated in her old constituency of Northampton when a hall of residence in the University of Northampton was named the Margaret Bondfield Hall . In 2014 a campaign began for a plaque on the shop in Church Street , Hove , where in 1886 – 67 Bondfield had served her apprenticeship .
To mark Bondfield 's centenary in 1973 , Linda Christmas in The Guardian reviewed the progress of women in parliament since the 1930s . By 1973 , Christmas reported , only 93 women had sat in parliament ; their contributions had overall " not been stunning " . Their best numerical representation at that point had been in the 1966 general election , when 29 women ( out of 630 MPs ) had been elected . The 1979 election saw this number fall to 19 , but also saw Margaret Thatcher become Britain 's first woman prime minister . Cox and Hobley draw attention to Thatcher 's early life as a shopkeeper 's daughter , and contrast her account of those days with Bondfield 's experiences half a century earlier . Thatcher believed that the concept of service to the customer was absolute ; thus , Cox and Hobley assert , she would have had little sympathy for Bondfield 's campaigns to better shopworkers ' conditions . Despite the changes that have taken place in the retail industry since Bondfield 's day , Cox and Hobley believe that , were she alive , " she 'd still be champing at the bit , trying to coax shop assistants to join a union , and fiercely championing shopworkers ' rights to better pay and conditions " .
= = Writings = =
Bondfield was a prolific writer of magazine and newspaper articles . Her main publications are listed below :
= = = Books = = =
A Life 's Work ( autobiography ) : London , Hutchinsons 1948 . OCLC 577150779
What Life Has Taught Me ( contributor with 27 others ) : London , Odhams Press 1948 . OCLC 222888739
= = = Booklets and pamphlets = = =
Socialism for Shop Assistants ( in " Pass On Pamphlets " series ) . London , Clarion Press , 1909 . OCLC 40624464
Shop Workers and the Vote ( co @-@ author with Kathryn Oliver ) . London , People 's Suffrage Federation , 1911 . OCLC 26958055
The National Care of Maternity . London , Women 's Co @-@ operative Guild , 1914 . OCLC 81111433
Labour and the League of Nations . ( co @-@ author with J. Ramsay MacDonald and Arthur Pugh ) . Bondfield 's chapter : " Great Britain 's Responsibility " . London , League of Nations Union , 1926 . OCLC 561089187
The Meaning of Trade . London , E. Benn Ltd , 1928 . OCLC 56418171
Why Labour Fights . London , 1941 . OCLC 44515437
Our Towns : A Close @-@ up ( with the Hygiene Committee of the Women 's Group on Public Welfare ) . London , Oxford University Press , 1943 . OCLC 750462348
= Strang School District No. 36 =
Strang School District No. 36 , or the Strang Public School , is a historic school located in Fillmore County , Nebraska , in the village of Strang . The school is one of the two sites listed on the National Register of Historic Places in the village of Strang . The school building is a small , two @-@ story , brick public schoolhouse , which was built to replace the schoolhouse that was previously located on that site . The schoolhouse was built between 1929 and 1930 , and replaced the previous schoolhouse , which burned down in 1928 . The schoolhouse still retains all original building materials . The school served high school students from 1930 to 1951 , and still functions as a school today , serving grades K – 8 . The NRHP listing also includes a flagpole located outside the schoolhouse , and five pieces of playground equipment .
= = History and education = =
In October 1928 a fire destroyed the small school that had previously been located in Strang . Classes were held in two local churches and the Belle Prairie Township Hall for the remainder of that year , while the townspeople held a series of meetings to discuss the construction of a new schoolhouse . Later in 1928 , plans for the new schoolhouse were drawn up and approved , and construction on the new Strang Public School began in 1929 . The majority of the people that worked on constructing the school were local townspeople . The first classes in the new school were held in February 1930 . The schoolhouse was constructed in a " fireproof " fashion , as to prevent another accident . The new schoolhouse was constructed to hold students from first through twelfth grades , from Strang and the surrounding communities . Primary students attending classes were located on the second floor and secondary students classes were held on the first floor . Since construction , there have been no projects undertaken to refurbish or restore the original building , as to protect its historical importance . In 1951 , due to a decline in enrollment , the school reduced to serving just students in grades K through 8 , and has remained this way since . In fall of 2001 , the school had an enrollment of just eight students . By the fall of 2004 ( the last published figures available ) , that number had fallen to just five .
= = Architecture = =
The Strang Public School is a near perfect example of what is considered a typical twentieth @-@ century " fireproof " schoolhouse in Nebraska , and is constructed somewhat symmetrically . The school was constructed in a simplified version of the Renaissance Revival style , consisting of two stories , with a flat roof .
= = = Exterior = = =
The building is constructed in a rectangular shape , symmetrical on the exterior , and measures 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) by 66 feet ( 20 m ) . The approximate height measurements are not provided by the Register . Large , six over six paned windows are located in the front and the back of the building on both floors . Similar windows are also located on the south side of the building , but only on the top floor . There are no windows located on the north side . The entire exterior of the building is constructed from brick . The roof is flat and constructed of roofing cement , with a parapet located around it , with a section of a chimney that sticks out of the south end of the roof . The most prominent feature of the exterior of the building is the large , central pavilion , with a stepped gable parapet wall .
= = = Interior = = =
The first level of the building contains two classrooms , both of which have a cloakroom , a set of three swivel doors , and a large slate chalkboard that covers one of the walls . The first story also contains two bathrooms , four small storage closets , and a central hall , as well as a large stairwell leading up to the second floor . The second story contains three classrooms , with the same features as those downstairs , along with an office and three small storage rooms . A metal fire escape door is located in the center of the west wall of the second story . The schoolhouse also has a partial basement , which contains a large storage room , a coal room , and a disused coal furnace .
= = Geography and facilities = =
The Strang Public School is positioned at the intersection of Main Street and Sharon Street , on the southern edge of Strang , originally planned as a convenient location for the teachers and students coming from surrounding communities . The campus consists of the main schoolhouse , five historic pieces of playground equipment , a flagpole located in front of the building , a basketball / tennis court located north of the school building , and a large playing field west of the schoolhouse . The entire property is contained inside a 300 by 300 foot square plot of land .
A flagpole is located outside the main entrance to the school building , and is included in the NRHP listing as a contributing feature . A set of gym bars , a tether ball pole , a swing set , a " slippery slide " , and a merry @-@ go @-@ round are located on the south and west sides of the property , and are all listed as contributing features . A fenced tennis and basketball court is located on the north side of the property , and a large track and playing field are located on the west side of the property , but none of these features are included in the listing .
= = Significance = =
Strang School District No. 36 was added to the National Register of Historic Places on June 25 , 1992.Note 1 On its nomination , Strang School District No. 36 was cited as being significant under criteria C , with the statement : " as a multi @-@ story , brick , " fireproof " school building , an example of a type , period , and method of construction representative of school buildings constructed in many communities in Nebraska , particularly in Fillmore County , during the first quarter of the twentieth century " . The school 's listed year of significance was 1930 , the year it was constructed . The school is considered significant to the surrounding community by Fillmore County , due to its importance to education an historic qualities , being one of the oldest buildings in the area .
= Kylfings =
The Kylfings ( Old Norse Kylfingar ; Finnic Kylfingid ; Hungarian Kölpények ; Old East Slavic Колбяги , Kolbiagi ; Byzantine Greek Κουλπίγγοι , Koulpingoi ; Arabic al @-@ Kilabiyya ) were a people of uncertain origin active in Northern Europe during the Viking Age , roughly from the late ninth century to the early twelfth century . They could be found in areas of Lapland , Russia , and the Byzantine Empire that were frequented by Scandinavian traders , raiders and mercenaries . Scholars differ on whether the Kylfings were ethnically Finnic or Norse . Also disputed is their geographic origin , with Denmark , Sweden and the Eastern Baltic all put forward as candidates . Whether the name Kylfing denotes a particular tribal , socio @-@ political , or economic grouping is also a matter of much debate .
They are mentioned in Old Norse runestone inscriptions , sagas ( most notably in Egil 's Saga ) , and poetry ( such as Thorbjorn Hornklofi 's poem Haraldskvæði ) , as well as Byzantine records and Rus ' law @-@ codes . According to the sagas , the Kylfings opposed the consolidation of Norway under Harald Fairhair and participated in the pivotal late ninth century Battle of Hafrsfjord . After Harald 's victory in that battle , they are described in the sagas as having raided in Finnmark and elsewhere in northern Norway and having fought against Harald 's lieutenants such as Thorolf Kveldulfsson .
= = Etymology = =
The exact etymology of the word kylfing is disputed and many different theories have been put forward as to its ultimate origin . The general trend has been to trace kylfing to the Old Norse words kylfa and kolfr , but scholars disagree as to the meaning of these words as well . Cleasby notes that in Old Norse , kylfa can mean a club or cudgel . Thus the national Icelandic antiquarian Barði Guðmundsson translated Kylfing to mean " club @-@ wielders " . As Foote points out , it can also mean a smaller stick , such as a tally @-@ stick or wooden token used by merchants , and , according to Jesch , it can also mean the " highest and narrowest part " of a ship 's stem . Holm discussed the term kylfa in connection with the word hjúkolfr which means " meeting " or " guild " ; according to Holm , the second element kolfr could refer to a symbolic arrow traditionally used as a device to summon people for a meeting .
These varied derivations have led to a number of interpretations . Holm offers two meanings : " archer " and " man armed with a cudgel " . A number of historians have asserted that Kylfing referred to a member of a " club in the social or Anglo @-@ American sense " , a " brotherhood " or a member of a Norse félag . In a number of minor Icelandic manuscripts on mathematics and geography , Kylfingaland is identified as Garðaríki , i.e. Kievan Rus ' , but the sources are unclear as to whether Kylfingaland is named for the Kylfings or vice versa , or whether , indeed , there is any connection at all .
The Russian cognate of Kylfing is Kolbjag , following the pattern of development * kolƀing ( * kulƀing ) > * kolƀęg > kolbjag . The Kolbiagi were a group of foreign merchant @-@ venturers and mercenaries mentioned in a number of Old Russian sources . They are often mentioned together with the Varangians , a term used in Eastern Europe to describe traders and pirates of the Baltic sea . In Byzantine Greek , they were named koulpingoi and they served as a unit of the Byzantine army listed alongside the Varangian Guard , which was of Scandinavian origin .
A very different derivation was put forward by the Russian scholar B. Briems . He hypothesised that Kylfingr was a direct Norse translation of the Votic self @-@ designation Vatjalaiset and Vatja ( or Vadjalaiset and Vadja ) used by the Votes , a Finnic tribe residing in Ingria , Russia . A non @-@ Norse origin was also proposed by Julius Brutzkus , who argued that both Varangian and Kylfing derived from the Turkic languages , particularly the Bulgar and Khazar languages . Brutzkus asserted that Varangian came from the Turkic root varmak ( " to walk , travel " ) while Kylfing was a Norse pronunciation of the Slavic kolbiagi , itself deriving from the Turkic phrase köl @-@ beg ( " sea @-@ king " ) ; under this interpretation the word Kylfing would be more or less synonymous with " Viking " .
= = Identity = =
According to Egil 's Saga , the Kylfings were trading and plundering in Finnmark around the year 900 . Thorolf Kveldulfsson , King Harald 's tax agent in northern Norway , engaged Saami scouts to monitor the Kylfings ' movements and report back to him . Countering their raids , he is reported to have killed over a hundred Kylfing marauders .
Some scholars see them as Scandinavians while others consider them to have been a Finnic tribe , and assert a connection between the word Kylfing and the Finnish , Saami , and Karelian myths of Kaleva . Elsewhere they are described as a mixture of Norse and Finnish people who were employed as mercenaries and tax @-@ agents by Scandinavian rulers ; in this context Ravndal interpreted the kylfa element to refer to a " club " in the sense of organization . Arbman argues that the Kolbiagi were a separate fur @-@ trading guild . Postan et al . , on the other hand , hypothesize that Kolbiag denoted a junior participant in a Varangian trade guild , rather than a separate group .
= = = Finnic peoples = = =
Holm ( 1992 ) considers Egil 's saga to equate the Kylfings with the Finnic Karelians . In the 14th century , when the Swedish kings began to direct their attention northwards and encourage Swedish colonization in Norrbotten , there were regulations that the Birkarls and the Saami peoples were not to be interrupted in their traditional activities . A large part of the Karelians were under Novgorod which was included in what Icelandic sources called Kylfingaland , and thus the Kylfings could have been Baltic Finnish tribes under Novgorod .
Both East Slavs and Byzantines consistently made a clear distinction between Varangians and Kylfings , and Byzantines distinguished between them in the same manner as they separated Franks from Saracens . According to Holm such separations are indicative of clear ethnic differences between the two groups . Additionally , both East Slavic and Byzantine sources explicitly associate the Varangians with Baltic region , which they called Varangia , and in Arabic , the Baltic Sea was called Bahr Varank , i.e. the " Varangian Sea " . There are no comparable connections when they mention the Kylfings . Another difference is the fact that the Byzantine sources connect the word varangoi with rhōs in order to make it clear that the rhōs @-@ varangoi and the varangoi originate in Baltic just like the rhōs , but do not establish the same associations for the koulpingoi .
The Kylfings have also been identified with the Votic people . Carl Christian Rafn , Edgar V. Saks , B. Briem and Sigurður Nordal have proposed Kylfings to have been the Norse name for the Votes . The reason is that the ethnonym Vadja ( laiset ) can be associated with the word vadja ( modern Estonian vai ' ) which means " stake " , " wedge " or " staff " , which corresponds to Old Norse kolfr . Vadjalaiset would consequently be translated into Old East Norse as kolfingar , which in Old West Norse ( Old Icelandic ) would be umlauted as kylfingar . Whereas some native names were Scandinavized , as Rostov into Ráðstofa , the Norse learned of the meaning of other names and translated them , which they did at Volkhov , and in the case of some of the Dniepr rapids . The theory that the Kylfings were Votes has been opposed by Max Vasmer and Stender @-@ Petersen , whereas Holm finds it likely . Holm considers it apparent that the Varangians and the Finnic tribes were able to cooperate well , and he points to the relative ease and stability with which Finland was later integrated as a part of the Swedish kingdom . Jorma Koivulehto , a Finnish linguist , disagrees with the Vote theory and maintains that the Votic name or any other Finnic ethnonym is not etymologically connected with the name Kylfingar .
Estonians have also been identified as Kylfings .
= = = Scandinavians = = =
Barði Guðmundsson identified the Kylfings as an East Scandinavian , possibly Swedish , tribe that infiltrated northern Norway during the late ninth century . Guðmundsson connects the Kylfings with the Germanic Heruli who were active throughout northern Europe and in Italy during the fifth and sixth centuries . According to Guðmundsson , many of these Kylfings may ultimately have emigrated to Iceland during the ninth and tenth centuries . Other scholars have assigned a Danish origin to this tribe .
Some scholars have considered the Kylfings of Egil 's Saga to be a " conquering Germanic people " , or the Swedish king 's tax collectors . Holm ( 1992 ) considers such suggestions to be anachronistic because the Swedish kings lacked any interest in northern Fenno @-@ Scandia during the ninth and tenth centuries , and not even the later law of Hälsingland mentions any Swedish settlement north of Bygdeå in southern Västerbotten .
Pritsak identified the Kylfings as a " professional trading and mercenary organization " that organized expeditions northward , into the Saami lands , as distinct from other Varangian and viking groups whose expeditions focussed on lands to the west and east of Scandinavia . This interpretation is supported by such historians as Stender @-@ Petersen .
A number of runestones in Sweden contain the personal name Kylfingr , which may or may not be connected to the Kylfings as a group .
= = = Other suggestions = = =
A few historians have hypothesized that the Kylfings were a West Slavic people related to the Pomeranians . Under this interpretation , the Slavic term Kolbiag may share common origins with such place @-@ names as Kołobrzeg ( formerly Kolberg ) , a town on the Pomeranian Baltic coast , and Kolpino , a settlement near modern St. Petersburg .
= = Status = =
= = = Byzantine Empire = = =
Eleventh @-@ century Byzantine sources refer to Kylfings ( Κουλπίγγοι , Koulpingoi ; often attested in the genitive plural Κουλπίγγων , Koulpingon ) as being among the foreigners serving as mercenaries in Constantinople , but appear to distinguish between them and the Varangians . For instance , an imperial chrysobull , an edict bearing a golden seal , issued in 1073 exempts certain monasteries from being forced to billet soldiers of specific ethne : Varangians , Rus ' , Saracens , Franks and Koulpingoi . In previous edicts issued in 1060 and 1068 the Koulpingoi had not been separately delineated . Similar edicts were issued in 1082 , 1086 , and 1088 . The edict issued by Alexios I Komnenos 1088 , for instance , reads :
The whole of the above @-@ mentioned island [ of Patmos ] , as well as the monastery with all its properties , is granted exkousseia [ exemption ] from the billetting [ mitata ] of all commanders , both Roman [ Rhomaioi ] and foreign allies , that is the Rus , Varangians , Koulpingoi , Inglinoi , Frangoi , Nemitsoi , Bulgarians , Saracens , Alans , Abasgoi , the Immortals , and all other Romans and foreigners .
= = = Russia and the eastern Baltic = = =
The Kylfings were also active in the eastern Baltic and northern Russia . Kylfingaland may have been used to refer to Karelia ; on some runestones it has been interpreted as a synonym for Garðariki , the Old Norse name for Russia . The eleventh @-@ century Ruskaya Pravda , the law code of the Kievan Rus ' , grants certain privileges to Kylfings ( Колбяги or " Kolbiagi " ) in addition to Varangians ( " Varyagi " ) . For instance , Varangians and Kylfings were entitled to press charges with an oath without relying on any witnesses . In addition , in order to swear innocence , they needed only two witnesses , whereas a native Slav needed as many as seven . Moreover , the Varangians and the Kylfings were entitled to give shelter to a fugitive for as many as three days , whereas Slavs and others had to hand him over directly .
= = = Hungary = = =
A military organization called Kölpények is reported to have existed in Medieval Hungary during the tenth , eleventh and twelfth centuries . Hungarian scholars have proposed that the Kölpények were identical with the Kylfings / Kolbiagi . Hungarian sources regard the Kölpények as being of Scandinavian origin . They were hired by the early rulers of the House of Arpad , particularly Taksony of Hungary in the 950s , to serve as frontier guards . They fought with their Magyar employers alongside Sviatoslav I of Kiev against Bulgaria and the Byzantine Empire . Alternatively , the Kölpények may have been of Pecheneg origin , as there was a Pecheneg tribal group called Külbej during roughly the same period .
= = Austkylfur = =
The skaldic poet Thorbjorn Hornklofi wrote about Austkylfur , or " East @-@ Kylfings " , in his epic poem Haraldskvæði . In some manuscripts the name was , probably erroneously , rendered auðkylfur or " rich men " . Some philologists , using the nautical meaning of the word kylfa , interpret the phrase as " eastern ships " . Others , such as F. Jonsson , interpreted Austkylfur to mean " eastern logs " , while Vigfusson believed that the phrase properly meant simply " men of the east " . Another interpretation of the term used in Haraldskvæði is the derogatory " eastern oafs " .
Guðmundsson specifically identified the Austkylfur of Hornklofi 's poem with the Kylfings mentioned elsewhere in Scandinavian and Eastern European sources , and interpreted the phrase Austkylfur to mean " eastern club @-@ wielding men " .
In Haraldskvæði as recorded by Snorri Sturluson in the Heimskringla , the Austrkylfur were described as being opponents of Harald Fairhair at the Battle of Hafrsfjord . As such they formed part of the force , led by Kjotve the Rich of Agder and the kings and jarls of Hordaland , Rogaland , and Telemark , that came to Hafrsfjord to fight Harald 's encroaching hegemony . The exact relationship between the Austkylfur and the anti @-@ Harald coalition is unknown . Nora Chadwick identifies the Austkylfur as the part of the force opposing Harald that came from Agder and Telemark . These districts lie further east than the other kingdoms opposing Harald 's rule . After their defeat by Harald and his army , the Kylfings ' property was plundered and their womenfolk , described as " eastern maidens " , were distributed by the victorious king among his warriors .
= = Timeline = =
= Bloodbath of B @-@ R5RB =
The Bloodbath of B @-@ R5RB or the Battle of B @-@ R5RB was a massive @-@ scale virtual battle fought in the MMORPG space game Eve Online , and was possibly the largest player versus player battle in history . Pitting the Clusterfuck Coalition and Russian alliances ( CFC / Rus ) against N3 and Pandemic Legion ( N3 / PL ) , the 21 @-@ hour @-@ long conflict involved over 7 @,@ 548 player characters overall and a maximum of 2 @,@ 670 players in the B @-@ R5RB system at one time . The in @-@ game cost of the losses totalled over 11 trillion InterStellar Kredit ( ISK ) , an estimated theoretical real @-@ world value of $ 300 @,@ 000 to $ 330 @,@ 000 USD . This theoretical value is derived from time cards which are purchasable for real currency and can be converted into a tradable item in @-@ game .
Part of a larger conflict known as the Halloween War , the fight started after a single player controlling a space station in the star system B @-@ R5RB accidentally failed to make a scheduled in @-@ game routine maintenance payment which made the system ( a key staging area used by N3 / PL in the war ) highly vulnerable to capture . The CFC and Russian coalitions began pouring players into the system in a swift offensive , and N3 / PL moved in a large fleet of players as a response as well . A massive battle erupted in the system and numerous smaller engagements occurred throughout the game universe as players attempted to block reinforcements from joining the battle . CFC / Rus gained a clear win by inflicting heavy losses on N3 / PL and successfully capturing B @-@ R5RB . The losses totalled 576 Capital @-@ class ships including 75 Titans ( the largest ships available to players ) , along with thousands of smaller vessels .
To commemorate the sheer size and cost of the battle , the game 's creators , CCP Games , erected a permanent monument in the system B @-@ R5RB named " The Titanomachy " , consisting of non @-@ salvageable capital ship wrecks .
= = Background = =
Eve Online is a MMORPG space game in which players engage in a variety of activities including mining , piracy , manufacturing , trading , exploration , and combat . A few dozen players form corporations ( called clans , guilds or alliances in other video games ) , and these corporations in turn can formally join in alliance with other corporations . Many of these alliances create informal coalitions to work toward common goals and fight competing alliances . The Halloween War was a conflict in the game universe which started around Halloween in late October 2013 and pitted the CFC and " Russian " coalition and their allies against the N3 and Pandemic Legion coalitions and their allies . B @-@ R5RB , located in the Immensea region , served as the staging ground for all Pandemic Legion fleets . A few days before the fighting in B @-@ R5RB , the CFC and Russian coalition suffered a decisive loss to N3 and Pandemic Legion forces in the Battle of HED @-@ GP in the Catch region , due to the N3 / PL 's " Wrecking Ball " formation of Titan and Supercarrier " supercapital " ships in the center of a huge sphere of mainly Archon carriers .
= = Battle = =
= = = Outbreak of conflict = = =
On January 27 , 2014 ( YC 116 in @-@ game ) , the one @-@ year anniversary of the immense Battle of Asakai , player corporation " H A V O C " , a member of Nulli Secunda , which in turn is a part of the N3 / Pandemic Legion coalition , mistakenly failed to make a scheduled payment to in @-@ game security force CONCORD . This resulted in the star system B @-@ R5RB losing its sovereign status , which meant that other players could capture the system without needing to wait for the normal " reinforcement timers " ( real time waiting periods of several days designed to allow defenders to rally ) . An enemy scout discovered Nulli Secunda quietly attempting to regain control with their Territorial Control Units ( TCU ) . At around 14 : 00 UTC , with an hour remaining on the clock before Nulli Secunda could regain control , the CFC and Russian coalition sent a capital fleet to the station . RAZOR Alliance took the station , and the Russians destroyed the N3 / PL Territorial Control Unit and set up its own TCU in order to establish control . As capturing this system would enable them to trap Pandemic Legion assets , including hundreds of capital and sub @-@ capital ships , inside and prevent them from joining the war , CFC Alliance and Russian @-@ heavy coalition forces scrambled to gain control of the system , with thousands of players logging on and preparing their fleets . Manfred Sideous of Pandemic Legion claimed that the missed payment resulted from a bug , as he had enough ISK in his holding corporation wallet and had autopay checked .
= = = Battle for B @-@ R5RB = = =
Pandemic Legion and N3 moved to retake the system , but the Russians destroyed all Territorial Control Units anchored in the system . N3 / PL then deployed their super @-@ carrier and carrier fleet in the " Wrecking Ball " formation just off the system 's space station , a formation which had previously defeated the CFC and Russian alliance . As the conflict was a surprise and occurred on a Monday workday , CFC and Rus decided to take advantage and gain field superiority before N3 and PL could respond and so deployed their entire capital fleet to the system . Meanwhile , they deployed their sub @-@ capital fleets to N3 staging systems , including I @-@ NGI8 and GXK @-@ 7F , to delay any reinforcements .
Each side then attempted to rush all available pilots into the system , and the game 's time dilation software engaged . Time dilation is a game feature created by developer CCP Games to handle heavy loads on the game server without the game lagging or disconnecting players . In time dilation , the game slows to ten percent normal speed , with each second of game time displaying as ten seconds of real time . The two sides traded Titan kills every hour , when their Doomsday weapons could fire again , and the system became filled with warp disruption bubbles , making extraction difficult . For a while neither side gained any real advantage , though CFC / Rus managed to on @-@ line their Territorial Control Units and held a slight lead in the number of enemy Titans destroyed . Throughout the engagement , related battles played out across the entire game universe as fleets tried to block reinforcements , destroy fleeing capitals and super @-@ capitals , or trap pilots attempting to enter the fray .
The tide of the battle started to turn when Manfred Sideous , the initial N3 / PL fleet commander , handed control to Vince Draken , CEO of Northern Coalition . Vince Draken managed to concentrate fire on and destroy several CFC / Rus Titans , and forced some additional Russian Titans to leave the system with depleted shields and armor . However , N3 / PL overestimated their success and began to focus their attacks on the Titan belonging to Sort Dragon , the commander of all remaining Russian forces in the field . This Titan had very high damage resistance , and Sort Dragon drew upon his entire fleet to assist in repairing it , enabling it to hold out much longer than most other Titans up to that point . By the time his Titan fell , the CFC / Rus had managed to destroy five N3 / PL Titans , putting the alliance well ahead . James Carl , a member of the N3 / Pandemic Legion coalition , reported to the Associated Press that " It looks like CFC is winning , but we 're hoping now that all of our US players are online , we 'll turn the tide . " But when the US @-@ timezone players logged on and reinforcements became available , PL did not see the numbers they had expected , and the CFC blockaded adjacent systems to prevent them joining the battle . Eventually , N3 / PL could no longer destroy any Titans , and ordered a retreat . They switched their fire onto CFC / Rus 's Dreadnoughts in an attempt to take out as many ships as possible during retreat . Due to their spy network , CFC knew that N3 / PL had ordered a retreat and deployed Interdictors and Heavy Interdictors to prevent the withdrawal . N3 / PL lost several more Titans , Super Carriers , and Capitals in the extraction , with many trapped by the warp disruption bubbles strewn throughout the battle area .
= = Aftermath = =
Over 7 @,@ 548 unique characters participated in the overall battle , of which 6 @,@ 058 participated directly in the B @-@ R5RB system with a maximum of 2 @,@ 670 in system at the same time . These numbers included 717 unique player corporations and involved 55 unique player alliances . Joystiq called the battle potentially the largest recorded PvP battle in any game to date . The 21 @-@ hour @-@ long conflict resulted in the loss of 75 Titans , 13 Super Carriers , 370 Dreadnoughts , and 123 Carriers , along with thousands of smaller ships and innumerable fighters and drones . N3 and Pandemic Legion lost 59 Titans while the CFC and Russian coalition lost only 16 . An estimated 11 trillion ISK in assets was lost during the battle , and media outlets reported the battle as the biggest and most expensive in EVE Online 's history , estimating that the battle cost $ 300 @,@ 000 – $ 330 @,@ 000 in real @-@ world money . This estimate comes from a figure listed in the official report by CCP Games , which the report based off a theoretical conversion of pilot license extensions , or PLEX , into real @-@ world USD . While direct conversion of real currency into ISK , or vice versa , is strictly prohibited , and PLEX units are purchasable in @-@ game , additional PLEX units can be purchased for $ 20 USD , and it is from this theoretical real @-@ world value that the estimated dollar amounts lost in the battle are drawn . However , this does not mean this amount of real @-@ world money was expended , as many ships were purchased through in @-@ game currency or corporation assets . Dr. Eyjólfur Guðmundsson , an economist hired by CCP Games to oversee EVE Online 's economy , stated that " To me , as an economist , that doesn ’ t really matter . In both cases this is economical value that is created by people ’ s work , either in real life or in virtual life . They put their blood , sweat and tears into making stuff so they can have an advantage in a battle , because in this battle like in any other battle in meet worlds , in real life , it is the resources you have available . "
Alexander Gianturco , who goes by the in @-@ game character The Mittani , CEO of Goonwaffe ( the largest corporation in the Goonswarm Federation alliance and hence the largest alliance in the CFC ) , reported to Polygon near the end of the battle that " As vengeance for [ the battle of ] Asakai goes , it 's somewhat ironic ; our forces lost three Titans and seven supercarriers last year in Asakai , and lost the battle . This year we 've killed 40 + hostile Titans and we have seven more hours of killing before downtime . " Also near the end of the battle , Ali Aras wrote on TheMittani.com , an Eve Online @-@ devoted website , that " The kills made here decide not only this war , but the next , and the next after that . " Aras also noted some of the economic repercussions , stating that " the price of Tritanium has been creeping upwards , anticipating the flurry of industrial production to come . "
Following the Battle of B @-@ R5RB , Pandemic Legion withdrew from the Southeast theater and formed an agreement with the CFC which allowed them to evacuate billions of assets from the B @-@ R5RB system . Other N3 forces retreated in from the south , and in the following few days CFC alliances managed to capture a total of twenty three systems in the regions Immensea , Catch , Tenerifis , and Feythabolis from N3 / Pandemic Legion alliances . The CFC then withdrew from the southeast theater . In the weeks after , the Russian bloc suffered internal troubles , allowing N3 to regain all of the territory lost after B @-@ R5RB and conquer most of the Russian bloc 's territory . In the longer term , B @-@ R5RB established CFC , later re @-@ branded as The Imperium , as the predominant superpower in Eve Online , with little serious resistance challenging the coalition for the next two years .
= = Commemoration = =
Once the game went into downtime , developer CCP Games announced that it would create an in @-@ game monument in the B @-@ R5RB star system to commemorate the battle . " Titanomachy " was created using brand new Titan wreck models introduced with Eve Online : Rubicon 's 1 @.@ 1 release which came out immediately following the battle . CCP Games posted on the Eve Online website that they planned to install " Titanomachy " during downtime of January 31 , and were " hard at work placing the wrecks in a hauntingly beautiful arrangement . " Placed around the seventh planet in the B @-@ R5RB system , the installation is " off grid " from the space @-@ station . CCP Games stated that " Thereafter , any player who plays [ Eve Online ] can make the dangerous pilgrimage there and marvel at the scope of destruction . We expect some of the ' travel ' bloggers to do full write @-@ ups on it almost immediately and [ Eve Online ] videographers to make some moving tributes as well . "
= R.C. Pro @-@ Am =
R.C. Pro @-@ Am is a racing video game developed by Rare . It was released for the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) by Nintendo for North America in 1988 , and then in Europe on April 15 of the following year . Presented in an overhead isometric perspective , a single player races a radio @-@ controlled car around a series of tracks . The objective of each track is to qualify for the next race by placing in the top three racers . Players collect items to improve performance , and they must avoid a variety of hazards such as rain puddles and oil slicks . It is an example of a racing game which features vehicular combat , in which racers can use missiles and bombs to temporarily disable opposing vehicles . Originally titled Pro Am Racing , R.C. Pro @-@ Am was also ported to the Sega Genesis in 1992 as Championship Pro @-@ Am , an enhanced remake with enhanced graphics and additional features . R.C. Pro @-@ Am was followed by two sequels : Super R.C. Pro @-@ Am in 1991 , and R.C. Pro @-@ Am II in 1992 .
Listed by video game reviewers as one of Rare 's first successful NES titles , R.C. Pro @-@ Am was well @-@ received for its visuals , sound , gameplay , and enjoyability . The game distanced itself from earlier racing titles by using an overhead , instead of a first @-@ person , perspective . Reviews have cited it as inspiration for future games such as Super Off Road , Rock n ' Roll Racing , and the Mario Kart series . It has appeared in many " top games of all time " lists and is regarded as one of the best titles in the NES library .
= = Gameplay = =
R.C. Pro @-@ Am is a racing video game in which a player controls a radio @-@ controlled car against three opponents around a track from an overhead isometric perspective . Players use the horizontal buttons on the control pad to steer their car left or right , and they use the other buttons to accelerate , fire weapons , and pause the game . Consisting of 24 tracks total , the goal for each racer is to qualify for the next race by finishing in the top three in the four @-@ car field . The game ends if players finish in fourth ; however , they have two continues in which they can restart the previous race , but they will lose all points accumulated up to that point . For each successful completion of a race , the player receives a trophy ; larger " High Score Trophies " , leading up to the " Super Trophy " , can also be obtained for achieving high scores . After the game ends , players can record their scores on " Top Pro @-@ Am Drivers " list , but the scores are erased when the console power is powered off .
Throughout the courses , there are items on the track that players can collect by driving over them . " Tune @-@ up items " help increase the car 's performance , such as turbo acceleration , " hotter engines " for higher top speed , and " super sticky tires " for increased traction and cornering ; these additional abilities are displayed on the " track conditions " screen between races . Players can also collect weapons that can temporarily disable other vehicles : missiles take out the opposing vehicles from the front , while bombs take them out from the rear . The number of missiles and bombs carry over to the next race , and players can collect extra ammunition , represented by stars , on the track . Roll cages , which opponents can also collect , help protect cars from crash damage , stationary " zippers " give cars an extra speed boost , and " bonus letters " give players large point bonuses and the ability to drive an upgraded car if they can spell " NINTENDO " ( " CHAMPION " in the Rare Replay version ) with them . Players can upgrade from a standard truck to a faster 4 @-@ Wheeler and then to the fastest Off Roader . There are also various hazards which must be avoided : oil slicks which cause cars to spin out of control , water puddles and " rain squalls " which slow them down , pop @-@ up barriers which crash cars , and skulls which decrease ammunition . Excessive use of projectile weaponry on opponents will result in the yellow car accelerating to 127 mph , which cannot be matched by the player .
The Sega Genesis port , Championship Pro @-@ Am , features some gameplay differences from the NES version of the game . In this port , players race against five other vehicles instead of three , but players must still place in the top three to move to the next track . Another feature is that race records are recorded ; players are prompted to enter their name before the game start to track high scores and race records . Finally , players try to successfully spell " CHAMPION " in order to upgrade to a new car .
= = Development = =
R.C. Pro @-@ Am was developed by UK @-@ based company Rare . In 1987 , the game was originally titled Pro @-@ Am Racing but was later renamed . It was released for the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) by Nintendo in 1987 in North America , and in Europe on April 15 of the next year . It would later be ported to the Sega Genesis under the name Championship Pro @-@ Am and was released by Tradewest in 1992 . Its music was composed by David Wise , known for his work on Cobra Triangle as well as the Donkey Kong Country series .
R.C. Pro @-@ Am was subject to preview coverage in the Fall 1987 issue of Nintendo Fun Club News – the company 's predecessor to its house organ Nintendo Power . It received a more in @-@ depth look into the game in the proceeding Winter 1987 issue , saying that " this game is a must for RC Car ( radio @-@ controlled ) owners " . It was featured on the cover of the magazine 's February – March 1988 issue , which also included a full walkthrough . Later , in Nintendo Power ' premiere issue in July 1988 , R.C. Pro @-@ Am was listed 6th on its " Top 30 " NES games list , and it was the top " Dealer 's Pick " . It went down to the 8th position in September 1988 , and 12th in November .
= = Reception and legacy = =
R.C. Pro @-@ Am was reviewed in Computer Gaming World who called it " a compelling , innovating approach to car racing video games " . Bill Kunkel found that it distanced itself from earlier racing titles such as Sega 's Enduro Racer , Nintendo 's Mach Rider , and Atari 's Pole Position by going from a more traditional first @-@ person to an isometric perspective . He also praised the game 's simplicity and controls , comparing them to that of an actual radio @-@ controlled car . He criticized the game for its lack of a two @-@ player feature and for the instruction booklet 's vagueness . He concluded by lauding its graphics and sound , saying that they " help make this the best game of its kind ever produced in any electronic game format " . Bloomberg Businessweek listed R.C. Pro @-@ Am , along with Cobra Triangle , as Rare 's most notable titles in the NES library .
The game has continued to be well received by contemporary video game publications . Allgame 's Chris Couper stated that R.C. Pro @-@ Am is among the best NES games , due to its realistic nature . He commented that the game 's challenge and sounds contributed to its enjoyment level . Retro Gamer saw the game as a precursor to Codemasters ' Micro Machines , and they compared the action and variety of items to the later Mario Kart series . They hailed it as one of Rare 's best early products , stating : " Radio @-@ controlled car racing in videogame form was pretty much perfected here . " The 2009 book Vintage Games compared the game to Spy Hunter , noting that game emphasized collecting power @-@ ups and weapons and not just on racing . It added how the trend of combining racing with vehicular combat would reappear in future games such as Super Mario Kart and Rock n ' Roll Racing . Later in 2010 , as part of Rare 's 25th anniversary , the magazine said that it was Rare 's first successful NES title as well as one of the first games to combine racing and vehicular combat . Readers ranked the game 22nd in a list of their 25 favourite Rare games . More recently , in 2016 , VintageGamer.com praised R.C. Pro Am for still being enjoyable and challenging 28 years after its release .
R.C. Pro @-@ Am has appeared many times on various " best games " lists over the years . A survey conducted by GamePro in 1990 ranked the game as the 10th @-@ best sports video game at that time . Game Informer put the game at number 84 on its " Top 100 Games of All Time " list in August 2001 . Paste magazine placed it as the 8th greatest NES game ever , saying that it is " way more fun than real remote @-@ control cars , which never seemed to be equipped with missile capabilities " . IGN listed the game as the 13th @-@ best NES game of all time , citing its popularity amongst players as well as good sales . Executive Editor Craig Harris said that it was one of the first games to introduce the concept of vehicular combat , inspiring other titles such as Super R.C. Pro @-@ Am , R.C. Pro @-@ Am II , and the Mario Kart series . 1UP.com listed it as the 14th best NES title , citing the game 's good graphics and gameplay elements , though it said that the difficulty level was too high . As with other retrospectives , the website staff listed the game as inspiration for future series such as Super Off Road and Rock n ' Roll Racing . In a look back at Rare as part of the company 's 25th anniversary , GamePro listed R.C. Pro @-@ Am as one of Rare 's best games , calling the release " one of Rare 's finest moments " . The NES version of R.C. Pro @-@ Am is one of the 30 games selected for the upcoming Xbox One compilation Rare Replay .
= Three Men and Adena =
" Three Men and Adena " is the fifth episode of the first season of the American police drama television series Homicide : Life on the Street . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on March 3 , 1993 . The episode was written by executive producer Tom Fontana and directed by Martin Campbell . In the episode , Pembleton and Bayliss have a 12 @-@ hour limit to elicit a confession from Risley Tucker for the murder of 11 @-@ year @-@ old Adena Watson . The episode takes place almost entirely within the confines of the police interrogation room with the three actors .
Tucker was played by actor Moses Gunn , which was his final acting role before his death in December 1993 . " Three Men and Adena " was seen by 7 @.@ 08 million households in its original broadcast , which was among the lowest @-@ rated network shows from that evening . However , the episode received positive reviews ; it is considered one of the classic Homicide episodes , and ranked number 74 in an Entertainment Weekly list of the 100 greatest television moments . Tom Fontana won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series for the episode 's script .
= = Plot summary = =
Bayliss ( Kyle Secor ) and Pembleton ( Andre Braugher ) prepare to interview Risley Tucker ( Moses Gunn ) , an elderly arabber . Bayliss is convinced Tucker murdered 11 @-@ year @-@ old Adena Watson , but Pembleton is less confident . Since they have already interviewed Tucker multiple times , the court will not allow him to be bothered anymore if he does not confess after this interview , and the detectives have only 12 hours to elicit a confession before Tucker walks free . Pembleton starts off acting friendly while Bayliss , who has taken the Watson case very personally , is more aggressive . Adena used to work for Tucker , taking care of his horse . Pembleton brings up Tucker 's alcoholism , but Tucker said he gave up drinking because he used to black out , insisting he hasn 't had a drink in 16 months . Tucker also insists he hadn 't seen Adena for three days before she died , but Bayliss shows him she had soot on her skirt that matched soot from Tucker 's barn , indicating she was there the day she was killed .
During a moment of anger , Bayliss nearly presses Tucker 's face against a hot pipe on the wall , but Pembleton stops him . Tucker still angrily insists he did not kill her , and he agrees to submit to a polygraph test . When Bayliss leaves , Pembleton speaks to Tucker in a soft and comforting tone , trying to get Tucker to trust him . Pembleton suggests Tucker had a drink and blacked out the night he killed Adena , and he seems close to getting a confession before Tucker once again insists he is innocent . With four hours left before the deadline , Bayliss returns and says Tucker failed the polygraph test . Bayliss and Pembleton then aggressively team up on Tucker , talking quickly and intimidating him with repeated questions . They bring up a previously dropped statutory rape charge against Tucker involving a 14 @-@ year @-@ old girl , then suggest he attempted to have sex with Adena and killed her because she resisted . They confront Tucker with gruesome crime scene photos of Adena and ask him if he is sure he didn 't kill her , to which a
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that blacks in the North had high rates of insanity and mortality , Smith responded with a masterful paper . In " A Dissertation on the Influence of Climate on Longevity " ( 1846 ) , published in Hunt 's Merchants ' Magazine , Smith analyzed the census both to refute Calhoun 's conclusions and to show the correct way to analyze data . He showed that blacks in the North lived longer than slaves , attended church more , and were achieving scholastically at a rate similar to whites .
As Smith started publishing , his work was quickly accepted by newer scientific organizations : in 1852 Smith was invited to be a founding member of the New York Statistics Institute . In 1854 he was elected as a member by the American Geographical Society ( founded in New York in 1851 by top scientists as well as wealthy amateurs interested in exploration ) . The Society recognized him by giving him an award for one of his articles . He also joined the New @-@ York Historical Society .
Among numerous other works supporting abolitionism and dealing with issues related to race , Smith is well known for his introduction to Frederick Douglass ' second autobiography , My Bondage and My Freedom ( 1855 ) . It expressed the new independence in African @-@ American accounts of slavery , compared to earlier works , which had to seek approval for authentication from white abolitionists , as readers rejected some harsh accounts of conditions under slavery . Smith wrote :
... the worst of our institutions , in its worst aspect , cannot keep down energy , truthfulness , and earnest struggle for the right .
In 1859 he published an article using scientific findings and analysis to refute the former president Thomas Jefferson 's theories of race , as expressed in his well @-@ known Notes on the State of Virginia ( 1785 ) . Dr. Vanessa Northington Gamble , a medical doctor and historian at George Washington University , in 2010 noted , " As early as 1859 , Dr. McCune Smith said that race was not biological but was a social category . " He also commented on the positive ways that ethnic Africans would influence US culture and society , in music , dance , food , and other elements . His collected essays , speeches and letters have been published as The Works of James McCune Smith : Black Intellectual and Abolitionist ( 2006 ) , edited by John Stauffer .
= = = Later years = = =
In 1863 Smith was appointed as professor of anthropology at Wilberforce College , Ohio . It was founded in a collaboration between the African Methodist Episcopal Church ( AME Church ) and the Methodist Church of Cincinnati as a college for students of color before the American Civil War . By 1860 , it had numerous mixed @-@ race students from the South , whose tuition was paid by their wealthy white planter fathers . The war caused the withdrawal of most southern students , threatening survival of the school . In 1863 the college was purchased by the AME Church and established as the first African American @-@ owned and operated college in the United States .
At the time , Smith was too ill to take the position . He died two years later on November 17 , 1865 of congestive heart failure on Long Island , New York at the age of 52 . This was nineteen days before ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States , which abolished slavery throughout the country . He was buried at Cypress Hills Cemetery , in Brooklyn . Smith was survived by his widow , Malvina , and five children .
In 1870 the Smiths were again all classified as white on the census . James Smith Jr. had married a white woman and had children . His siblings also would marry white spouses and have families . Because of trying to escape racial prejudice , it appeared that they did not pass on the stories about their father 's achievements , as later generations did not learn of them . It was not until the twenty @-@ first century that a connection was made again , and his descendants learned of some of their African @-@ American ancestors .
= = Legacy and honors = =
Gradually Smith 's achievements were forgotten within the family , as his sons worked to escape racial prejudice in New York and did not discuss their African @-@ American ancestry .
= = Works = =
Smith , James McCune ( 1841 ) . A Lecture on the Haytien Revolutions . New York : D. Fanshaw . OCLC 16788188 .
Smith , James McCune ( 1843 ) . The Destiny of the People of Color . New York : s.n. OCLC 27872624 .
Smith , James McCune ( 1846 ) . A Dissertation on the Influence of Climate on Longevity . Office of Merchants ' Magazine ( New York ) . OCLC 34227767 .
Smith , James McCune ( 1860 ) . Ira Aldridge . New York : Arno Press ; The New York Times . OCLC 35129946 .
Smith , James McCune ( 2006 ) . Stauffer , John , ed . The Works of James McCune Smith : Black Intellectual and Abolitionist . New York : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 530961 @-@ 8 .
= St James ' Church , Stretham =
St James ' Church , Stretham , is an active Anglican church in the village of Stretham , Cambridgeshire , England . Founded in the 12th century , it was heavily restored by the architect J. P. St Aubyn in 1876 . English Heritage , a body responsible for preserving historical sites in the United Kingdom , assessed the church a Grade II * listed building . The turret clock on the east face of the tower was also made in 1876 , by JB Joyce & Co of Whitchurch , Shropshire , and still keeps good time . The church has a ring of six bells hung for change ringing . Regular ringing resumed at the church in June 2011 after several years ' silence . St James ' is one of eight churches in the Ely Team Ministry .
= = History = =
St James ' Church stands in the centre of the small village of Stretham , which has a population of 1 @,@ 685 . The village lies 6 kilometres ( 4 mi ) south @-@ south @-@ west of Ely in Cambridgeshire , England , about 119 kilometres ( 74 mi ) by road from London . The earliest written record of this still active church is in the Liber Eliensis , a 12th @-@ century history of the Isle of Ely . In 1137 , during Bishop Nigel 's ( c . 1100 – 1169 ) time , Anglo @-@ Saxon conspirators were said to have met in Stretham church . Fragments of the east chancel are known to be from about the 12th century , corroborating the record of the church 's existence in that period .
Lancelot Ridley ( d . 1576 ) , appointed one of the first Six Preachers of Canterbury Cathedral in 1541 and a rector of Stretham from 1560 , was buried in the parish . Mark Ridley ( 1560 – 1624 ) , one of Lancelot 's sons , became the physician to the Tsar of Russia .
In 1751 , Francis Blomefield , in his Collectanea Cantabrigiensia , recorded St James ' as having a square tower , with four bells and a clock . The north aisle was leaded and there was a chantry chapel at the east end with a screen . He concludes this to be the Chancel of the Resurrection . At this time , the south aisle , nave and chancel were also recorded as leaded .
The church was restored very heavily in 1876 by the architect J. P. St Aubyn at a cost of £ 4 @,@ 400 ( equivalent to £ 373 @,@ 274 in 2016 ) . The north and south transepts were added at this time as well as the whole south aisle of the nave , the chancel , a clerestory and a new porch .
St James ' Church , Stretham , is an historic building protected by Acts of Parliament . Originally , the church was listed Grade A in a publicly available register on 5 February 1952 until a resurvey and regrading by the English Heritage on 19 August 1988 . Since then , it is listed as a Grade II * building , which makes the church particularly important to the country 's heritage and warrants every effort to preserve it . The church records are kept in the County Records Office , Cambridge . Since 1990 , St James ' Church has had an ecumenical agreement with the Stretham Methodists .
St James ' is part of the Ely Team Ministry , a group of eight churches : St Mary 's , Ely ; St Peter 's , Ely ; St Leonard 's , Little Downham ; St Michael and All Angels , Chettisham ; St George 's , Little Thetford ; St James , Stretham ; Holy Cross , Stuntney ; St Peter 's , Prickwillow . The Prickwillow church was closed for worship in 2008 ; it is part of the parish of St Mary 's , Ely .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Exterior = = =
The building is mainly 14th century although the east wall of the chancel contains remnants of 12th @-@ century material , including two clamped buttresses . The ashlar @-@ faced tower is 14th century with angled buttresses north and south . The west window has three lights with flowing tracery . The clock on the east face of the tower , dated 1876 , is by JB Joyce & Co of Whitchurch , Shropshire , the oldest firm of tower clockmakers in the world ; it is wound weekly by the churchwardens .
The east wall of the chancery has one window with five lights ( stained glass panels ) with tracery above in a Gothic style . The church floodlighting is supported by funds from the National Lottery church floodlighting trust
= = = Interior = = =
There is a lowered sill on the southeast window of the chancel for a three @-@ seat ( sedilia ) ; a cabinet ( aumbry ) is along the east of the north wall with an arched tomb recess to the west of it with an inscribed tomb lid which commemorates Nicholas de Kyngestone , late 13th @-@ century rector . A 1440 oak screen to the chancel is very finely carved . Lying in the chancel is a black marble slab that dates back to 1667 ; it is a memorial , commemorating Anne Brunsell , sister of Sir Christopher Wren and wife of the rector of the time . The pipe rack organ , built in 1886 by J W Walker and sons of London , is in a chamber built onto the south wall of the chancery . Paddy Benson of Norman & Beard , carried out a reconstruction and enlargement of the organ in 1907 at a cost of £ 350 ( equivalent to £ 33 @,@ 392 in 2016 ) ; it was converted to electric blowing sometime after 1937 .
= = Bells = =
Until 1952 , the church had a ring of five bells hung for change ringing ; and at this time , a sixth bell was added and one bell was recast , replacing a 1727 bell by Henry Penn of Peterborough . The oldest bell as of 2010 , is the 840 @-@ millimetre ( 33 in ) 360 @-@ kilogram ( 790 lb ) number four bell of 1796 by Joseph Eayre ; the newest are of 1951 by John Taylor & Co of Loughborough . This set of six bells are rung from a first @-@ floor ringing chamber above the recently constructed servery and toilets .
According to Canon K W H Felstead 's records , now maintained by the Central Council of Church Bell Ringers , there have been 78 peals rung at St James ' Church , Stretham , since 1952 .
= = Rectors = =
Records before 1523 have not been confirmed ; they have been checked ( other than minor spelling differences ) with the painted board in the south @-@ west corner of the nave
= Ammonia fuming =
Ammonia fuming is a wood finishing process that darkens wood and brings out the grain pattern . It consists of exposing the wood to fumes from a strong aqueous solution of ammonium hydroxide which reacts with the tannins in the wood . The process works best on white oak because of the high tannin content of this wood . Fumed oak is also called smoked oak . Other species may also be fumed but usually will not darken as much as white oak . The introduction of the process is usually associated with the American furniture maker Gustav Stickley at the beginning of the twentieth century , but fuming was certainly known in Europe some time before this .
= = Process = =
The wood to be fumed is placed in a sealed chamber with all the surfaces to be fumed exposed to freely circulating air . A large shallow container of ammonium hydroxide solution is placed on the floor of the chamber and the chamber is sealed . If the chamber is large or the fuming is to be done for a long time then more than one container may be provided or the ammonia may be replenished during the process . The fuming time depends on the amount of darkening required , the size of the chamber , and the strength of the ammonia used . It is usual to oil the wood after fuming to fully bring out the effect .
= = Advantages and disadvantages = =
Fuming has an advantage over staining in that it does not obscure the grain , it just darkens it . Unlike staining , there is no possibility of blotches or runs . Fuming is also colourfast . Fuming has the disadvantage that it is not a very precise process . Different batches of wood will react to fuming differently . For this reason wood that is to be fumed for a particular project is often taken from the same tree . Even so , boards from the same tree , and even different regions of the same board , can have a noticeably different colour . Where a consistent colour is important , staining or dyeing may be better options .
Fuming has some inconvenient safety issues . The solution of ammonium hydroxide used is much stronger ( 26 % to 30 % ) than in household ammonia and is corrosive . The fuming must be done in an enclosed sealed chamber . Ammonia splashes can burn skin and the fumes can cause burns to eyes and lungs . Operators need to wear gas masks , gloves and eye protection .
The darkening of the colour relies on the ammonia reacting with tannins in the wood . The process is most usually applied to white oak as this wood has a high tannin content . Red oak may turn greenish rather than deep brown . Other species may not darken so noticeably as white oak , or at all , depending on the tannin content . The effect of fuming can be enhanced in non @-@ tannic woods by applying a coat of tannic acid to the surface before fuming .
= = History = =
Fuming was an accidental discovery in England after it was noticed that oak boards stored in a stable had darkened . This was caused by the ammonia fumes from the horse urine reacting with the wood . At the end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twentieth centuries fuming became popular with furniture makers in the Arts and Crafts movement . The technique was introduced to the US by Gustav Stickley in 1901 and a manufacturing technique was perfected in the mission style furniture line of the Stickley family business . Stickley also described a method of fuming the wooden architecture of an entire room by setting down bowls of ammonia within the room and completely sealing it . This method was not very practical and quite dangerous for the person placing the ammonia without the personal protective equipment available to modern workers . Stickley was quickly followed by other American Arts and Crafts furniture makers such as Charles Limbert and the Roycroft community .
= Castleshaw Roman fort =
Castleshaw Roman fort was a castellum in the Roman province of Britannia . Although there is no evidence to substantiate the claim , it has been suggested that Castleshaw Roman fort is the site of Rigodunum , a Brigantian settlement . The remains of the fort are located on Castle Hill on the eastern side of Castleshaw Valley at the foot of Standedge but overlooking the valley . The hill is on the edge of Castleshaw in Greater Manchester . The fort was constructed in c . AD 79 , but fell out of use at some time during the 90s . It was replaced by a smaller fortlet , built in c . 105 , around which a civilian settlement grew . It may have served as a logistical and administrative centre , although it was abandoned in the 120s .
The site has been the subject of antiquarian and archaeological investigation since the 18th century , but the civilian settlement lay undiscovered until the 1990s . The fort , fortlet , and civilian settlement are all protected as a Scheduled Ancient Monument , recognising its importance as a " nationally important " archaeological site or historic building , and protecting it against unauthorised change .
= = Location = =
The fort and fortlet at Castleshaw are situated on a step of Grindslow shale on the eastern side of Castleshaw Valley below Standedge , part of the Pennine ridge in northern England . From the site there are clear views up and down the valley , although it is overshadowed by higher ground on all sides . It is remote and exposed and lies along the Deva Victrix ( Chester ) to Eboracum ( York ) Roman road . The road crosses the Pennines at Standedge where the area dips and narrows , creating a traversable pass which would have been guarded by the Castleshaw fort . The nearest forts are Mamucium ( Manchester ) 16 miles ( 26 km ) to the west and one at Slack 8 miles ( 13 km ) to the east , both on the line of the Roman road . There was also possibly a fortlet or signal station at Worlow , between Slack and Castleshaw . The later fortlet is on the same site as the fort ( grid reference SD99880965 ) .
= = History = =
= = = Roman = = =
The fort at Castleshaw , constructed from turf and timber , was built around 79 and guarded the York to Chester Roman road . Due to the site 's protected status as a Scheduled Ancient Monument it has not been possible to excavate the fort , however previous trenches have demonstrated that the fort had two phases to its construction . The location of the fort 's granary , stables , the principia ( headquarters ) , the praetorium ( commander 's tent ) , and six long narrow buildings which are possibly workshops or storerooms are all known . The fort was small , would probably have been home to around 500 soldiers of an auxiliary cohort , and fell out of use during the mid AD 90s . Rather than allow the defences to fall into potentially hostile hands or be used against Rome , the fort was slighted .
The fort was replaced by a fortlet , also built using turf and timber , in AD 105 . Although the fortlet was built on the same site as the fort , it did not use the same foundation trenches . There were two construction phases of the fortlet , the second – dating to c . 120 – featured gates , an oven , a well , a granary , a hypocaust a workshop , barracks , a commanders house , a courtyard building , and possibly a latrine . The barracks were built to accommodate 48 soldiers and even with administrative staff and officers , the garrison of the fortlet would have numbered less than 100 . The first phase was laid out along the same lines as the second phase . The fortlet defences – as with most other fortlets – were designed to withstand attacks from brigands or hold off an enemy until reinforcements from the main army could arrive rather than withstand a determined attack . A civilian settlement or vicus grew around the fortlet in the early 2nd century . It probably would have been home to those who benefited from trade with the garrison or hangers on of the soldiers . Since it is unlikely that a garrison of under 100 could have supported a vicus , it has been suggested that the fortlet was a commissary fortlet , one which was the administrative and logistical centre of part of the Roman army . With soldiers regularly arriving to collect pay and orders , a vicus could have been supported . The fortlet fell out of use in the mid 120s . The fort and fortlet of Castleshaw were superseded by the neighbouring forts at Manchester and Slack . The vicus was abandoned around the same time as the fortlet fell out of use .
According to Ptolemy , there was a polis called Rigodunum belonging to the Brigantes near the position of Castleshaw . Rigodunum means " royal fort " . Although it has been suggested that Castleshaw is the location of the Brigantine settlement , there is no evidence to support this . Stamps on two tegulae , produced at the Roman tilery at Grimescar Wood near Huddersfield , suggest the fortlet was supplied by the Cohors III Bracaraugustanorum from Pannonia , maybe even garrisoned by them at one stage . Similar stamps have been found in the forts at Manchester , Slack , and Ebchester , indicating these forts were linked .
= = = Post @-@ Roman = = =
After being abandoned by the Romans , Castleshaw was rediscovered by antiquarian Thomas Percival in 1752 . The remains were in good enough condition for him to draw a plan and he commented that he was " pleased to find a double Roman camp " . He also remarked that the Roman road from Manchester running east to the Pennines was " the finest remain of a Roman road in England that I ever saw " . The site has suffered damage from ploughing in the 18th and 19th centuries as it is situated in one of the best draining areas of the valley . In 1897 , a local antiquarian and poet , Ammon Wrigley , dug several trenches on the site . He did not record the results of his digging and unrecorded digs continued on and off until 1907 . In 1907 , the site was bought for the purpose of organised excavation and survey which continued from 1907 to 1908 under the supervision of Francis Bruton who had recently been involved with the excavation of Mamucium . The spoil heaps from the 1907 – 08 dig were never levelled , leaving a series of misleading modern earthworks on the interior of the site .
Under the supervision of the University of Manchester , further excavation was undertaken on the site in 1957 – 61 and 1963 – 64 . Between 1984 and 1988 , Greater Manchester Archaeological Unit undertook excavations and restoration of the site . A group led by Professor Barri Jones – an expert on Roman Britain – was set up to co @-@ ordinate the work . North West Water , then the owners of the site , ensured the area would not be used for agriculture . In an attempt to make the site accessible to the public , the outline of the fort and fortlet was marked out in low mounds and an education centre was set up nearby . The area beyond the fort was investigated for the first time in 1995 – 96 ; archaeologists were searching for a civilian settlement or vicus associated with the fort . Surveys revealed a settlement triangular in shape and to the south of the fort . The vicus is listed as a Scheduled Ancient Monument with the fort and fortlet .
= = Layout = =
The fort was rectangular in shape and had sides of 115 metres ( 377 ft ) and 100 metres ( 330 ft ) , covering an area of approximately 1 @.@ 2 hectares ( 3 @.@ 0 acres ) . The fortlet was built over the south of the fort , making it difficult to discover what lay beneath . It has been possible to however to ascertain that barrack buildings lay on the east side of the fort , a granary on the north , and the principia and praetorium to the south west .
The fortlet was rectangular , with sides of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) by 40 metres ( 130 ft ) , and covered 1 @,@ 950 square metres ( 0 @.@ 48 acres ) . It was originally thought to be surrounded by a single Punic ditch but investigation revealed there to be two Punic ditches separated by a 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) wide berm . The inner ditch was 3 @.@ 9 metres ( 13 ft ) wide and 1 @.@ 3 metres ( 4 @.@ 3 ft ) deep while the outer ditch was 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) wide and 0 @.@ 9 metres ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) deep . A Punic ditch is a defensive v @-@ shaped ditch with one side much steeper than the other ; the ditches surrounding the fortlet had an outer face at 27 degrees and the inner face at 69 degrees . The rampart behind the ditches only survives to 0 @.@ 5 metres ( 1 @.@ 6 ft ) at its highest point . It was built from turf on top of sandy clay with a rubble foundation . The fortlet ramparts to the south lay on top of the slighted fort ramparts . Whether corner towers were a feature of the fortlet is unknown , no evidence remains aside from a single posthole , although only the north and east corners survive in good condition . There were two gateways , one to the north and one to the south .
A civilian settlement is located to the south of the fortlet 's defences . The extent of the vicus is uncertain , however , test pits have indicated that it probably extends 12 metres ( 39 ft ) west to east and between 25 metres ( 82 ft ) and 35 metres ( 115 ft ) to south .
= Nick Mitchell =
Nicholas Cole " Nick " Mitchell ( born November 9 , 1982 ) is an American retired professional wrestler who is best known for his work in World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) as Mitch of the Spirit Squad on the Raw brand . Before starting a wrestling career , Mitchell played football for the Beaumont Drillers while at Blinn College . After not being accepted for a National Football League combine , Mitchell focused on a career in wrestling .
Mitchell took part of the fourth season of the reality series Tough Enough , a televised competition that would award the winner a WWE contract . Despite not winning , he signed a developmental contract with WWE , and was assigned to their developmental territory , Deep South Wrestling , where he wrestled as " Big Time " Nick Mitchell . He was later moved Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) where he joined the Spirit Squad faction .
After the Spirit Squad were called up to the Raw roster , they debuted in January 2006 , and won the World Tag Team Championship three months later . Following the split of the team , Mitchell was released from his WWE contract in May 2007 . Following his release , Mitchell began a career in mixed martial arts .
= = American football career = =
In high school , Mitchell played four years of varsity football , on both sides of the ball . He received a full scholarship to Northwestern State University of the Southland Conference , but was expelled for fighting during his freshman season . After attending Blinn College in Bryan , Texas for two semesters , Mitchell joined the Beaumont Drillers of the National Indoor Football League in 2003 . After a season with them , he attended a National Football League combine , but was told to go home after officials found out he had been expelled from college for fighting .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment = = =
= = = = Tough Enough and developmental territories ( 2004 – 2006 ) = = = =
Mitchell took part in the fourth season of World Wrestling Entertainment 's reality series Tough Enough in 2004 . He was the first to be eliminated . Despite not winning , he was still signed to a WWE developmental contract and assigned to the company 's developmental territory , Deep South Wrestling . Several other competitors from Tough Enough were also signed , including Daniel Puder , Mike Mizanin , and Marty Wright , but near the end of 2006 , Mitchell and Mizanin were the only two left on the main WWE roster . He began wrestling under the name " Big Time " Nick Mitchell , and competed against wrestlers including Kid Kash and Johnny Parisi . He later suffered a knee injury , and although it was feared that he had torn his ACL , he was moved to Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) where he joined The Spirit Squad . Within days of his debut , the Squad was called up to the main WWE roster .
= = = = The Spirit Squad ( 2006 ) = = = =
As part of The Spirit Squad , a group consisting of five wrestlers who used the in @-@ ring personas of male cheerleaders , he adopted the name Mitch . As a result of his ACL injury , his ability to wrestle was curtailed and Mitch spent the first few months of his time in the Spirit Squad in a non @-@ wrestling role . On January 23 , 2006 , they had their WWE television debut as a group , appearing on Raw and helping Jonathan Coachman win a Royal Rumble qualifying match against Jerry " The King " Lawler by performing cheers for Coachman and distracting Lawler . They later became a part of the ongoing scripted feud between WWE chairman Vince McMahon and Shawn Michaels . The villainous McMahon brought in the Squad to attack Michaels on numerous occasions , including placing them in multiple handicap matches .
They also wrestled in the tag team division , and on April 3 , on Raw , won the World Tag Team Championship when Kenny and Mikey defeated Big Show and Kane , with outside help from the other three Squad members as they attacked The Big Show in order to gain the advantage . After winning the championship , all five members of the team were recognized as the champions , allowing any combination of them to defend the championship .
Three weeks later , McMahon scheduled another handicap match , with The Spirit Squad facing Michaels . The match never started , however ; instead The Spirit Squad attacked Michaels , ripping apart his ring attire and , as part of the storyline , shattering his knee with a steel chair . McMahon then called Triple H to the ring to attack Michaels with a sledgehammer ; however , Kenny snatched the sledgehammer away , disrespecting Triple H , which led to him attacking the group . Triple H and Michaels revived D @-@ Generation X ( DX ) , since their teased reunion in 2002 , and as a team began a feud with the Spirit Squad . DX played various sophomoric pranks on the team and the McMahons ( Vince and Shane ) , as well as defeating The Spirit Squad in handicap matches at Vengeance and a clean sweep in an elimination handicap match at Saturday Night 's Main Event .
During their feud with DX and their alignment with McMahon , the team also wrestled other teams in Raw 's tag division over their World Tag Team Championship . The group successfully defended the tag team championship against the teams of Jim Duggan and Eugene , Charlie Haas and Viscera , and Snitsky and Val Venis . They then entered a lengthy feud with The Highlanders , whom they eventually defeated to retain the title at Unforgiven .
The Squad as a whole later began a losing streak with separate members losing singles matches to Ric Flair on consecutive episodes of Raw . After two consecutive losses to the debuting Cryme Tyme , Kenny attacked Mikey on the October 23 episode of Raw and announced that he was going to defeat Flair . Kenny was successful , despite Flair attempting to even the odds by bringing other WWE Legends , Dusty Rhodes , Sgt. Slaughter , and " Rowdy " Roddy Piper , to the ring with him . It was then announced that Flair and a legend , selected by interactive voting , would wrestle the team for the World Tag Team Championship at the Cyber Sunday pay @-@ per @-@ view in early November . The fans chose Piper , and he and Flair defeated Kenny and Mikey to win the championship .
The group was " killed off " on the November 27 Raw after they were defeated in a five @-@ on @-@ three match by Flair and DX . Later that night , in a backstage segment , DX placed all members into a crate stamped " OVW , Louisville , Kentucky " , a reference to the developmental territory from which the Squad had come .
Mitchell was released from his WWE contract on May 15 , 2007 .
= = Mixed martial arts = =
After being released by WWE , Mitchell began training for a career in mixed martial arts ( MMA ) under Rocky Long , a former mixed martial artist . He made his MMA debut on April 9 , 2010 , losing to Derek Lewis via second round technical knockout . Mitchell was set to fight again on December 11 , 2010 , but pulled out at the last minute due to an injury .
= = Personal life = =
He graduated from The Woodlands High School in 2001 . Mitchell played four years of varsity American football in high school , and received a full scholarship to Northwestern State University . During his freshman season , however , he was expelled for getting into a fight . Mitchell then spent two semesters at Blinn College in Bryan , Texas .
In 2007 he and his girlfriend , Torrie Wilson , started a business together , called " Officially Jaded " , a fashion boutique . The couple began dating in mid @-@ 2006 . Mitchell has since said that he feels that he was prevented from becoming successful in WWE when he began dating Wilson , as he " was a young , fresh meat WWE guy who ' didn 't deserve ' the most beautiful diva " . The couple separated in 2011 .
As a professional wrestler , Mitchell suffered numerous injuries , including damaging a disc in his neck and injuring his knee , as well as breaking his nose three times within one month .
= = In wrestling = =
Nicknames
" Big Time "
= = Mixed martial arts record = =
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
World Wrestling Entertainment
World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with The Spirit Squad
= Kala ( album ) =
Kala is the second studio album by English @-@ Sri Lankan recording artist M.I.A. , released on 8 August 2007 by XL Recordings . The album features musical styles including dance music and makes extensive use of South Asian music such as that of the urumee , a drum used in gaana music native to Tamil Nadu , India . It was mainly written and produced by M.I.A. and Switch , and features contributions from Timbaland , Diplo , Afrikan Boy and The Wilcannia Mob .
M.I.A. named the album after her mother , in contrast to her first album Arular , which was named after her father , and stated that her mother 's struggles in life are a major theme of the recording . She began recording the album in early 2006 and worked on the tracks in various locations around the world , including India , Jamaica , Australia , Liberia and Trinidad . Planned sessions in the United States failed to occur , after M.I.A. was refused a long @-@ term work visa to enter the country .
Kala was ranked as one of the best albums of the year by several publications . It reached number eighteen on the Billboard 200 chart and topped the magazine 's Top Electronic Albums chart . In the United Kingdom it reached number thirty @-@ nine on the UK Albums Chart . Kala spawned the singles " Bird Flu " , " Boyz " , " Jimmy " and " Paper Planes " . As of 2013 the album had sold over 500 @,@ 000 copies in the US .
= = Composition and recording = =
M.I.A. ( Mathangi " Maya " Arulpragasam ) had released her debut album Arular in 2005 , which achieved critical acclaim and sold 130 @,@ 000 copies . Plans for a second album were first revealed when she spoke later that year of her intention to work with American producer Timbaland . At one point it was anticipated that he would produce the bulk of the album . However , she was unable to gain a long @-@ term work visa to enter the US , reportedly due to her family 's connections with guerrillas in Sri Lanka . This led to conflicts between the two artists ' schedules and meant that Timbaland 's involvement was restricted to a poorly received guest verse on the track " Come Around " . M.I.A. instead opted to record the album at a variety of locations around the world , beginning by travelling to India following the last date of her Arular Tour in Japan in February 2006 .
She initially travelled to India to meet A. R. Rahman , but found it hard to communicate her ideas to him and the planned musical collaboration did not take place . Rahman did , however , provide M.I.A. with a number of contacts and allow her to use his studio , where 22 members of drumming group The Tapes were recorded for Kala . Producer Switch , who had initially travelled to India purely to engineer the planned sessions , ultimately became involved in the composition of several tracks for the album . A visit to Angola to work with DJ Znobia was cancelled after Znobia was involved in a car accident , but M.I.A. was able to record in Trinidad , Liberia , Jamaica and Australia . She and Switch relied heavily on Logic Pro , a digital audio workstation produced by Apple , and were able to capture vocals and background sounds outside the traditional studio environment , using a microphone and a Macbook Pro . The album features guest vocals from Afrikan Boy , The Wilcannia Mob , and Timbaland , and further collaborations with Switch , Blaqstarr , Morganics and Diplo . She likened the process of recording the album to " making a big old marble cake with lots of different countries and influences . Then you slice it up and call each slice a song " .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Kala is named after M.I.A. ' s mother , in contrast to her previous album , Arular , which was named after her father . She contends that Arular was a " masculine " album , but that Kala " is about my mum and her struggle – how do you work , feed your children , nurture them and give them the power of information ? " She further summed the album up as " shapes , colours , Africa , street , power , bitch , nu world , and brave . " According to Dominic Horner of The Independent , the album 's music may not be appropriately described exclusively as either dance or world music , but it is a mixture of the two . Music critic Robert Christgau characterised its music as an " eclectic world @-@ underclass dance amalgam " , and Jonathan Brown of the Irish Independent cited Kala as a proper introduction to " world fusion " , a genre that " blends sounds from across the globe which wouldn 't – and some say shouldn 't – be put together . " By contrast , NPR 's Oliver Wang argued that , rather than a " so @-@ called world music fusion " attempt , Kala is " agitated , propulsive pop " informed by international sounds . Music journalist Jody Rosen called it " an agitprop dance record " that reappropriates hip hop in an international setting with beatbox riddims , " playground " rhymes , unconventional samples , and gunshot sounds .
The tracks " Boyz " and " Bird Flu " use urumee drums , a signature instrument of Gaana , a Tamil genre of music , with which M.I.A. was familiar from her time spent living in Sri Lanka . She later worked on these tracks in Trinidad , where she absorbed influences from the country 's love of soca music . The lyrics of " Boyz " deal with the artist 's time in Jamaica , and reference Jamaican dance moves . The song " Hussel " began as an image in M.I.A. ' s head of refugees being smuggled in boats , which she expressed musically by imagining how " if they banged that beat on the side of a boat , what would it sound like ? That 's why it 's all echo @-@ y and submarine @-@ y " . The sounds on the intro were recorded from Keralan [ sic ] fishermen chanting as they pull their fishing boats into the water . " World Town " used instrumentation from the temple music she recalled waking up to as a child in Sri Lanka . After playing the track to children in Liberia , she expressed a desire to record a video for the song there . M.I.A. ' s " flat , unaffected vocals and delivery of lyrics " on some songs drew comparisons to British post @-@ punk bands such as Delta 5 and The Slits . She says it " was just what was happening to me naturally ... I wanted it to be difficult and raw and not get into it so much " .
Afrikan Boy , an exponent of grime , a UK @-@ based genre of urban music , provided vocals on the song " Hussel " . M.I.A. opted to work with him because she felt that he seemed comfortable with his identity as a " real immigrant " and because his background was different to that of most MCs in the genre . She had originally planned to include " Mango Pickle Down River " — her remix of The Wilcannia Mob 's song " Down River " — on a mix @-@ tape , but chose to include it on the album because she felt it was rare to hear the " aboriginal voice " in recorded music , and described opening track " Bamboo Banga " as having a " bamboo @-@ stick beat , house @-@ y feel " . The song " Jimmy " was included as a tribute to her mother and is M.I.A. ' s version of an old Bollywood film track to which she used to dance at parties as a child . Despite the involvement of Baltimore club musician Blaqstarr , " The Turn " turned out to be the album 's only ballad , and the track has been described as the least like club music . " 20 Dollar " was written about the relative ease of buying AK @-@ 47s in war @-@ torn Liberia . " XR2 " recalls part of the artist 's life growing up with rave music in early 1990s London , while the song " Paper Planes " jokingly plays on M.I.A. ' s problems with visas and certain perceptions of immigrants .
= = Release and artwork = =
In April 2007 Rolling Stone reported that Kala would be released on 26 June of that year . After being delayed for unknown reasons , the album was eventually released by XL Recordings on 8 August 2007 in Japan and on 20 August in the UK , and by Interscope Records on 21 August in the United States . The Japanese edition featured three extra tracks not included on the versions released in other countries . Following the unexpected commercial success of " Paper Planes " , Kala was re @-@ issued in the United Kingdom in October 2008 . A 4 November 2008 US re @-@ release was announced , but as of late 2009 the album had not been re @-@ issued in the United States .
The album 's packaging includes photographs taken by M.I.A. and others in Liberia and Jamaica . The cover artwork to Kala , designed by Steve Loveridge , features neon fractal patterns and repeated slogans , including " Fight On ! Fight On ! Fight On ! " , which surrounds her image on the front cover . The cover was considered garish , prompting The Village Voice to comment " Maybe one day [ she 'll ] make an album cover that it doesn 't hurt to look at " . Additional graphics for the album were provided by English fashion designer Carri Mundane ( also known as Cassette Playa ) and Steve Loveridge . The album 's artwork was inspired by African art , " from dictator fashion to old stickers on the back of cars , " which M.I.A hoped , like her artwork extended " Okley Run " clothing range , would capture " a 3 @-@ D sense , the shapes , the prints , the sound , film , technology , politics , economics " of a certain time .
= = Promotion = =
M.I.A. began her promotion of the new album with a live appearance at Radio 1 's Big Weekend in Preston in May 2007 , where she performed six songs from Kala . In July she began the full KALA Tour with dates in the United States before going on to play a number of festivals in Europe and America . After dates in Asia , she returned to America for a series of shows in October and November , before ending the year with concerts in the UK . The tour continued during the first half of 2008 under the banner of the People Vs . Money Tour with further dates in North America , although the planned European leg of the tour was eventually cancelled .
The first track from the album to be made available to the public was " Bird Flu " , which was made available as a downloadable promotional single on 13 November 2006 . The first official single to be lifted from the album , " Boyz " , was released on 11 June 2007 . The second single was " Jimmy " , which was released on 1 October 2007 . The EP Paper Planes - Homeland Security Remixes EP , featuring various mixes of " Paper Planes " , was released digitally on 11 February 2008 and physically three weeks later . A new physical single version was released in the UK on 13 October 2008 . Also in October 2008 , How Many Votes Fix Mix EP was released , containing a remix of " Boyz " with Jay @-@ Z and the tracks " Shells " and " Far Far " .
= = Critical reception = =
Kala received widespread acclaim from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 87 , based on 37 reviews . In the Los Angeles Times , Ann Powers wrote that Kala succeeded at embodying disenfranchised characters in the dissonant Third World with " truly multi @-@ vocal " music whose " every sound signified something different , driving the music 's meaning into some new corner " . Andy Battaglia from The A.V. Club said the music ventured far enough where it served as both a party album and a progressive aural assault , while AllMusic 's Andy Kellman felt that Kala was better for intensifying Arular 's qualities and " mixing cultures with respectful irreverence " . Barry Walters of Spin credited M.I.A. with evoking both the social demands and percussive sounds of the Third World , while finding the album relevant at a time when " more Americans than ever feel like outsiders in their own country " . Writing for MSN Music , Robert Christgau said although the lyrics were " cannier politically " than Arular , the music was more decisive in embodying the imagination and recreation of " an unbowed international underclass that proves how smart it is just by stating its business , which includes taking your money " . He later said that he had " pressed " the editors of Rolling Stone to let him give Kala four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars in his review for the magazine , wishing he " had the foresight to fight for five " because the album " kept growing on me till I even dug the Timbaland remnant [ ' Come Around ' ] " .
In a less enthusiastic review , Jonathan Keefe from Slant Magazine believed Kala was less successful than Arular because it lacked its predecessor 's immediate hooks and clever pop sensibility . Pitchfork Media critic Mark Pytlik said because most of M.I.A. ' s lyrics gave the impression they were written " in the service of the rhythms " , her allusions sounded more " rewarding " than what she literally wrote . Andy Gill of The Independent found her lyrics unfocused in their arguments on money and social concerns , remarking that the gun references on " World Town " and " Paper Planes " blemished " an otherwise fine album " . In The Guardian , Alexis Petridis wrote that Kala was still a " unique " listen in spite of occasionally tuneless songs . Writing for NME , Alex Miller acknowledged that the record 's music polarised opinion , claiming that some members of the magazine 's staff had " fed several copies [ of the album ] into the shredder claiming aural abuse " , although others went on to praise the album for its innovation and referred to it as M.I.A. ' s masterpiece .
At the end of 2007 , Kala was named one of the year 's best albums in critics ' lists , including rankings at number eight ( Stylus Magazine ) , number seven ( NME ) , number six ( Paste , The A.V. Club and Entertainment Weekly ) , number four ( The Guardian and Drowned in Sound ) , and number three ( Pitchfork Media ) . The album was also listed at number three on The Village Voice 's 35th annual Pazz & Jop poll . Blender and Rolling Stone both named Kala as their number one album of 2007 . " Boyz " was number nine and " Shells " number sixty @-@ seven on the same magazine 's list of the 100 Best Songs of 2007 and 2008 respectively . The album was nominated for the 2007 Shortlist Music Prize . In 2009 NME placed the album at number seventy @-@ two in its list of the 100 greatest records of the decade , and Rolling Stone ranked it as the ninth best album of the same period . Christgau named it the decade 's best album in his ballot for the magazine . In 2012 , Rolling Stone ranked it at number 393 in a revised edition of their " Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " issue .
= = Commercial performance = =
Kala debuted at number eighteen on the US Billboard 200 , selling 29 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It failed to rise above this position but still significantly outperformed the peak position of 190 attained by M.I.A. ' s previous album . It also topped the Top Electronic Albums chart . The album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on 5 March 2010 , and by September 2013 , it had sold 559 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
The album debuted at number thirty @-@ nine on the UK Albums Chart , and again did not rise above this position , although as in the US this represented an improvement on the chart performance of Arular , which had peaked at number ninety @-@ eight . The album was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) on 30 January 2009 , denoting sales in excess of 60 @,@ 000 copies within the United Kingdom . In Canada , Kala was certified gold by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) . The album also reached the top forty in a number of other countries , including Belgium , Finland , Ireland , Japan , Norway and Sweden .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ a signifies an additional producer
" Bamboo Banga " incorporates elements of " Roadrunner " written by Jonathan Richman and " Kaattukkuyilu " , written and performed by Ilaiyaraaja from the film Thalapathi .
" Bird Flu " incorporates elements of " Thirvizha Na Vantha " written and performed by R. P. Patnaik from the film Jayam .
" Jimmy " incorporates elements of " Jimmy Jimmy Jimmy Aaja " written by Bappi Lahiri from the film Disco Dancer .
" Mango Pickle Down River " is remixed from the original recording " Down River " by The Wilcannia Mob .
" 20 Dollar " incorporates elements of " Where Is My Mind ? " by the Pixies .
" World Town " incorporates elements of " Hands Up , Thumbs Down " written by Blaqstarr .
" Paper Planes " incorporates elements of " Straight to Hell " by The Clash .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of the expanded edition of Kala .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= About a Girl ( Sugababes song ) =
" About a Girl " is a song by English girl group Sugababes from their seventh studio album , Sweet 7 ( 2010 ) . RedOne produced the song and wrote it in collaboration with Makeba Riddick . It is an uptempo Europop and house song with a dance @-@ inspired middle eight . The song was released on 8 November 2009 in the United Kingdom and Ireland , as the album 's second single . " About a Girl " is the first single to feature vocals by band member Jade Ewen , following the departure of Keisha Buchanan in September 2009 .
Critical response to the song was mixed . Some critics praised it as a standout track from Sweet 7 , although other criticised it as unoriginal and generic . The song peaked at number eight on the UK Singles Chart , number four on the Scottish Singles Chart , and inside the top twenty on the Irish Singles Chart . It additionally charted in Poland and Slovakia . The music video for the song was filmed in September 2009 amid the group 's controversial line @-@ up change . It was directed by Martin Weisz and filmed at Vasquez Rocks , near Los Angeles . The video has a Kill Bill theme , and features stunt doubles fighting businessmen in a caravan . The Sugababes performed the song on GMTV , at Children in Need , and at the UK Asian Music Awards .
= = Development and composition = =
The Sugababes travelled to the United States in April 2009 , to commence work on their seventh studio album , Sweet 7 . They signed a contract with Jay @-@ Z 's label , Roc Nation , resulting in collaborations with high @-@ profile producers . In late April 2009 , the Sugababes revealed that they were working with Nadir Khayat , known by his stage name RedOne , on two songs . " About a Girl " was written and produced by RedOne , who wrote the song in collaboration with Makeba Riddick . The song was recorded at Henson Studios in Los Angeles , California . It was mixed by Robert Orton .
" About a Girl " is an uptempo Europop and house song . NME 's Alex Denney described it as a " slice of future @-@ house " . The song contains club synthesizers and a middle eight with a " 90s dance @-@ inspired " feel . Nick Levine of Digital Spy noted that it is a departure from the group 's previous sounds . The lyrical content makes references to Louboutins and apple pie , the latter of which is sung by group member Amelle Berrabah during the bridge in a " gravelly " style . According to Fraser McAlphine from BBC , " About a Girl " rivals " Get Sexy " in terms of the overall noise levels .
= = Release = =
In August 2009 , " About a Girl " was confirmed for release as the second single from Sweet 7 . The first version of the song , featuring Buchanan 's vocals , premiered on BBC Radio 1 on 6 September 2009 . During the single release interval between " Get Sexy " and " About a Girl " , Buchanan controversially left the group . As a result of the group line @-@ up change , " About a Girl " was re @-@ recorded to feature the vocals of new member Jade Ewen in replacement of former member Buchanan 's . The new version of the song was released as a digital download on 8 November 2009 and a CD single the following day .
= = Critical reception = =
" About a Girl " received mixed reviews from critics . Levine from Digital Spy described the song as a " europoppy club pumper with an ear @-@ snagging chorus " . He suggested it was the group 's most infectious single since " About You Now " , but called it characterless along with the album 's other tracks . Fraser McAlpine of BBC regarded the song as a " dancefloor @-@ friendly tune with an insistent chorus that echoes around your head " , and compared it to the group 's music from previous years . Jon O 'Brien of Allmusic described " About a Girl " as a " gloriously sassy uptempo Lady Gaga @-@ esque number that stands up next to the best of their back catalog " , and named it the " one saving grace " from the album . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian admitted that although Sweet 7 was significantly Americanised , the track " escaped with some quirky Britishness intact " . The Independent critic Andy Gill criticised the song as a " generic disco stomper " and regarded it as " vacuous " .
= = Chart performance = =
" About a Girl " debuted on the 21 November 2009 issue of the UK Singles Chart at number eight , becoming the fourth @-@ highest debut during that week . It lasted eight weeks on the chart . The song has sold 125 @,@ 000 copies in the UK , ranking as the group 's thirteenth best @-@ selling UK single . Group member Berrabah commented upon their satisfaction with the song 's performance in the UK , saying : " We didn ’ t do any promotion for the new single and it still came in at number eight . We are over the moon with that and our record label is as well . " The single debuted and peaked at number four on the Scottish Singles Chart , and was the second @-@ highest debut for that week . It reached number 14 on the Irish Singles Chart . The single peaked at number 22 on the Polish Dance Top 50 chart . " About a Girl " charted at number 43 on the Croatian Airplay Radio Chart , and number 69 on the Slovakian Singles Chart . The single 's performance throughout Europe allowed it to chart on the European Hot 100 Singles chart , where it reached number 28 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " About a Girl " was directed by Martin Weisz . Inspired by a Kill Bill theme , the video was filmed at Vasquez Rocks , near Los Angeles , California on 22 September 2009 , one day following the announcement that Buchanan was replaced by Ewen . Ewen had not met the remaining members of the Sugababes until two days before the video shoot for " About a Girl " . Stunt doubles were used to portray the Sugababes members as they were unsure if the band would be together by the time of the song 's release .
The video begins with two businessmen in a caravan discussing a job . After the conversation has ended , a vehicle driven by the stunt doubles arrives in the desert . They leave the vehicle while group member Heidi Range sings her verse as she dances around it . All three members of the group begin dancing during the chorus while a stunt double enters the caravan with a red briefcase . Following this , Berrabah sings her verse of the song while her stunt double is talking to the businessman . Sugababes begin dancing again while the stunt double attacks the businessman , who is drop @-@ kicked out of the caravan . Another businessman begins attacking her , although he too loses the fight . Ewen 's stunt double begins fighting with another man outside of the caravan , and he also is defeated . Later in the video , the businessmen are seen tied together on the ground and the stunt double throws the briefcase , which turns out to be a jack in the box . At the end of the video , the stunt doubles re @-@ enter the vehicle and drive out of the desert .
David Balls of Digital Spy commended the video , describing it as an " action @-@ packed affair that 's nearly as dramatic as the group 's own history " and praising its " plenty of slick dance moves and provocative pouting thrown in for good measure " . Chris Johnson of Daily Mail noted the group 's " sexy studded leather outfits " .
= = Live performances = =
Following Buchanan 's departure from the group , promotion for " About a Girl " was halted when Berrabah was admitted to a private health clinic in Europe citing " nervous exhaustion " ; this led to the cancellation of a scheduled appearance on German TV . The Sugababes were scheduled to headline the Scottish Royal Variety Performance , although this was cancelled due to " a number of legal issues to be finalised " . Following Berrabah 's return from the clinic , " About a Girl " was performed live for the first time by the new line @-@ up on GMTV . An acoustic version of the song was performed live on 11 November 2009 on Radio 1 from Maida Vale Studios . Sugababes also performed the song on 21 November 2009 for Children in Need , an annual British charity appeal organised by the BBC . In March 2010 , the band performed a " Desi " remix of the song at the UK Asian Music Awards .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Sweet 7 .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Vangjel Meksi =
Vangjel Meksi ( 1770 – 1821 ) was an Albanian physician , writer , and translator . One @-@ time personal physician to Ali Pasha , the 19th @-@ century Albanian ruler of the Pashalik of Yanina , Meksi produced the first translation of the New Testament into Albanian with the help and sponsorship of the British and Foreign Bible Society ( BFBS ) . Meksi did not live to see his work 's publication however , which was supervised by Gregory IV of Athens . As a member of Filiki Etaireia , a secret society whose purpose was to establish an independent Greek state , Meksi joined the Greeks in the Siege of Tripolitsa during their war of independence against the Ottoman Empire and died shortly afterwards .
As well as its value to Albanian Christians , who could for the first time read the Gospels in their own language , Meksi 's work advanced the study of written Albanian , and in particular informed the work of 19th @-@ century linguists and philologists such as Joseph Ritter von Xylander , August Schleicher , and Johann Georg von Hahn . Their studies of the Albanian language were significantly influenced by Meksi 's Bible translation .
= = Early life = =
Meksi was born in 1770 in Labovë , a village near Gjirokastër , a member of Meksi family and pursued secondary studies in Ioannina , then an important Ottoman provincial center ( now in Greece ) . His first employment was as a folk physician to the court of Ali Pasha , the Albanian ruler of the Pashalik of Yanina , a position he held until 1803 . Armed with a letter of recommendation from Ali Pasha , Meksi was admitted to the University of Naples in Italy , where he studied medicine under Dr. Nicola Acuto and practiced in a hospital administered by the parish of San Giovanni a Carbonara . After completing his studies in 1808 , Meksi returned to Yanina and once again served in Ali Pasha 's court , this time as one of his four physicians . His colleagues were Dr. Metaxa , ( degree in medicine from the University of Paris ) , Dr. Saqeralliu ( degree in medicine from the University of Vienna ) , and Dr. Loukas Vagias , ( brother of Thanasis Vagias , with a degree in medicine from Leipzig University ) .
= = Philological activity = =
After falling out of favor with Ali Pasha , for reasons unknown , Meksi left the court in 1810 to travel around Europe . During a brief stay in Venice he began to develop an interest in
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the Albanian alphabet and grammar . He published two translations into Albanian during 1814 , both now lost , one of which was a religious work by Abbé Claude Fleury ( 1640 – 1723 ) .
Meksi also wrote a grammar of the Albanian language in Albanian . It too has been lost , but it is mentioned in many letters reporting Meksi 's work as an Albanian philologist written by Robert Pinkerton to his superiors at the British and Foreign Bible Society ( BFBS ) , which subsequently sponsored the translation of the New Testament into Albanian . The work must have been written before 1819 and may be either the first Albanian grammar or the second , after that of Jani Evstrat Vithkuqari ; it is not known which was published first .
In this period Meksi also created a new Albanian alphabet , rationalizing and consolidating the many different pre @-@ existing alphabets , employing a mix of Greek and Latin characters . Using his new alphabet , he wrote a book called Orthography of the Albanian language , ( Albanian : Drejtshkrimi i gjuhës shqipe ) .
= = Translation of the New Testament = =
Pinkerton , who in 1816 was the BFBS 's representative in Moscow , had met that year with a community of Albanians in Vienna , then capital of the Austrian Empire . They assured him that a translation of the New Testament into Albanian was indeed possible . In a letter to his superiors at the BFBS , dated August 28 , 1816 , Pinkerton wrote that the Albanian nation occupied a large part of the ancient Illyria , that they spoke a language completely different from Slavic , Turkish , Greek , or Latin , and that for the Albanian Orthodox the mass was recited in Greek , a language that believers and even some of the priests did not understand . According to Pinkerton , the translation could be done by one or more Albanians from the Ionian islands under the supervision of an Albanian bishop .
In 1819 , apparently with the blessing of his superiors at the BFBS , Pinkerton met with Meksi ( referring him as Evangelos Mexicos ) in Istanbul . Meksi , who was then a teacher in Serres , had been recommended to Pinkerton because of his Albanian grammar book . Pinkerton also relates in one of his letters to the BFBS that Meksi was well regarded by the Albanian community , the Greek Orthodox Church , and by Patriarch Gregory V of Constantinople . Gregory , according to Pinkerton , also offered to find two suitable clergymen to assist Meksi in his endeavor . Lastly , Pinkerton recommended that the Greek alphabet be used as the most suitable for the Albanian language . On October 19 , 1819 , Pinkerton and Meksi concluded a contract to translate the New Testament into Albanian on behalf of the society . It was agreed that the Bible would have to be translated into the Albanian dialect of Yanina . Meksi completed the work in two years , ten months earlier than the contract 's deadline .
Early in 1821 Mr. Leeves of the BFBS visited Thessaloniki to supervise the translation . On February 8 , 1821 he wrote that the work had been completed , and that the only outstanding task was a final review by a competent person , who had already been assigned to the task . In 1822 the revised manuscript was sent to Malta to be printed , and in 1823 Leeves sent from Malta to the representative of the society in Corfu the first copy of a printed New Testament in Albanian . Meanwhile , the New Testament had had a final revision performed by the Archimandrite of Euboea , Grigor Gjirokastriti , an Albanian who subsequently became Archbishop Gregory IV of Athens . Archimandrite Grigor had recommended that the Bible be printed in a large typeface in two columns , one in Albanian and the other in modern Greek , because Albanians would rather read modern Greek than Koine .
On March 16 , 1824 Mr. Lowndes , the BFBS 's secretary in Corfu , sent a letter to the society in which he mentioned that the sum paid to Meksi for his work was 6 @,@ 000 piastras and that Archimandrite Grigor was paid 60 crowns . On September 5 , 1824 the Saint Matthew 's Gospel was published in Albanian . According to Lowndes ' letters , the Albanian community of Missolonghi was extremely excited when mass was said with a piece from Saint Matthew , as since its translation they had been impatient to hear it in Albanian . In July 1827 the form in which the first 500 copies of the New Testament were to be bound was decided in London . The entire edition amounted to 2 @,@ 000 copies .
Although Gjirokastriti 's edition of the New Testament was written in Albanian , it used the Greek alphabet . It is not known which alphabet Meksi used in his own manuscript .
The Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople was not against the work of Meksi or the Bible Society at that time . On the contrary , for the translation the British missionaries successfully appealed to Gregory V and enlisted the help of an Orthodox bishop , Gjirokastriti , for the final edition of the New Testament in Albanian .
= = Greek War of Independence = =
Meksi was a member of the Filiki Etaireia , a secret society whose purpose was to overthrow Ottoman rule over the Balkans and to establish an independent Greek state . When the Greek War of Independence broke out in 1821 , after his translation had been completed , Meksi joined the Greeks in the Siege of Tripolitsa . Despite suffering from a serious bout of pneumonia , he continued to work as a physician during the war . He is also said to have taken part in the negotiations leading to an agreement proposed by Theodoros Kolokotronis that permitted the Albanians who were defending Tripolitsa to leave unharmed , an arrangement that helped the Greeks to capture the town from the Turks .
= = Legacy = =
Meksi did not live to see the 1827 publication of his translation of the New Testament ; he had died a bachelor six years earlier , at the age of about 51 . The first publication of a Bible translation from Greek to a modern Balkanic language , it ran to 2 @,@ 000 copies , a huge number for the time . It preceded the modern Bulgarian version by two years and the Romanian translation by twenty . A second edition was published in 1858 in Athens , but as it had not been revised by any native speakers of Albanian it was full of errors .
Meksi 's work was important for the development of written Albanian , and his endeavors strengthened the conviction that a stable Albanian alphabet had to be created . His translation served as the basis for Joseph Ritter von Xylander 's studies of the Albanian language , which definitively refuted the thesis that the language had a Tatar origin . Von Xylander concluded that Albanian had an Indo @-@ European root .
Two other international scholars also studied the Albanian language mainly based on Meksi 's translation of the New Testament : August Schleicher , who stated that his knowledge of the conjugation of Albanian verbs was based on Meksi 's work , and Johann Georg von Hahn an Austrian diplomat , philologist , and specialist in Albanian history , language , and culture , who translated the Bible into Gheg Albanian with the help of Kostandin Kristoforidhi .
= Paul Des Jardien =
Paul Raymond " Shorty " Des Jardien ( August 24 , 1893 – March 7 , 1956 ) was an American football , baseball and basketball player . He played for the University of Chicago where he was selected as the first @-@ team All @-@ American center in both 1913 and 1914 and also pitched a no @-@ hitter for the baseball team . He later played professional baseball for the Cleveland Indians and professional football for the Cleveland Indians ( 1916 ) , Hammond Pros ( 1919 ) , Chicago Tigers ( 1920 ) and Minneapolis Marines ( 1922 ) . He was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1955 .
= = Early years and college = =
Des Jardien was born in Coffeyville , Kansas and moved to Chicago as a child . He attended Chicago 's Wendell Phillips Academy High School before enrolling at the University of Chicago , where he played on the Chicago Maroons ' football , baseball , basketball , and track and field teams . He earned 12 varsity letters , played on Western Conference championship teams in both football and baseball , and became known as one of the best all @-@ around athletes ever produced by the University of Chicago . While attending the University of Chicago , Des Jardien was 6 feet , 5 inches tall and weighed 190 pounds ; his teammates called him " Shorty . "
In baseball Des Jardien was a pitcher , but also played at first and third base . The University of Chicago Magazine wrote : " Des Jardien at third base fields well , and adds strength by his spirit . All in all , the tall young man is one of the most excellent athletes Chicago has had in years . " In May 1914 he threw a no @-@ hitters and struck out 14 Iowa Hawkeyes batters in a game .
Des Jardien gained his greatest fame playing at the center position for Amos Alonzo Stagg 's Chicago Maroons football teams from 1912 to 1914 . Des Jardien played at the center position on both offense and defense , was considered " the mainstay of his team on defense , " and was also known for his ability as a long punter . During Des Jardien 's three years as Chicago 's center , the Maroons compiled a record of 17 – 3 – 1 , including an undefeated 7 – 0 record and Western Conference championship in 1913 .
After his sophomore year in 1912 , Des Jardien was selected as a first @-@ team All @-@ Western player . Stagg praised Des Jardien as a " spectacular " player and " as flashy a center as I have seen in many years . " In naming Des Jardien to his All @-@ Western team in 1912 , E.C. Patterson in Collier 's wrote : " Des Jardien is not great of bulk , at least not horizontally . He is tall and rangy and remarkably active . His usefulness is accentuated when it is seen that some of Coach Stagg 's forward pass tricks center around him . "
In his junior and senior years of 1913 and 1914 , Des Jardien was selected as a first @-@ team All @-@ American . He was also chosen by his teammates as the captain of the 1914 football team . In 1914 Walter Camp wrote about Des Jardien , calling him " [ ... ] the best center in the country — steady , reliable , absolutely dependable for his share of line work on attack , and a power on defense . "
= = Professional baseball and Asian tour = =
The New York Times reported in January 1915 that Des Jardien had agreed to play professional baseball for the Chicago Cubs upon graduating from the University of Chicago in June 1915 . According to the report , Des Jardien declined to sign a contract with the Cubs to avoid endangering his amateur status . The report described Des Jardien as one of the best pitchers in the Western Conference , a right @-@ hander with a good curve ball .
Instead of playing Major League Baseball in the summer of 1915 , Des Jardien traveled to Asia with the University of Chicago baseball team . The team played 15 games , winning 12 , while traveling to the West Coast of the United States . It sailed from San Francisco on the SS Mongolia and arrived in Honolulu , Hawaii in early September 1915 , spending ten days there and playing games against teams from the U.S. Army and the St. Louis Athletic Club and teams made up of Chinese and Portuguese players . The team next sailed to Japan . On September 24 , 1915 , the Chicago squad played a double header in front of a crowd of 20 @,@ 000 people in Tokyo . Des Jardien pitched both games , defeating Waseda 5 – 3 and the Keio University 4 – 1 . Des Jardien hit a home run and struck out 11 batters in the game against the Keio . Des Jardien served as an assistant coach for the University of Chicago 's basketball , baseball and track teams upon returning from Japan in January 1916 .
In early May 1916 Des Jardien signed to play Major League Baseball with the Cleveland Indians . Indians manager Lee Fohl said at the time , " I think I will make him a good pitcher . He already has learned to put more on his fast ball while his control is almost perfect . " He made his debut on May 20 , 1916 , pitching one inning and allowing one hit , one base on balls , and two earned runs . Des Jardien did not pitch another game in Major League Baseball . In the summer of 1917 , Des Jardien played semi @-@ professional baseball with the Mohawks in the Chicago League .
= = Professional football and World War I = =
In September 1916 Des Jardien was hired as the football coach at Oberlin College . With almost every veteran player missing from the football team due to a fraternity expulsion , Des Jardiens ' 1916 Oberlin team failed to win a game for the first time in the program 's history and scored only 13 points throughout the season .
That year , Des Jardien also played for Peggy Parratt 's Cleveland Indians football team in their first and only season as a professional football team . Parratt built a team of all @-@ stars around Des Jardien . The Indians lost two games to Jim Thorpe 's Canton Bulldogs , played the Massillon Tigers to a scoreless tie , and closed the season with three wins against the Columbus Panhandles , Detroit Heralds and Toledo Maroons . Des Jardien also reportedly played professional football for the Canton Bulldogs and Fort Wayne Friars . During the 1916 – 17 basketball season he played professional basketball with the Pine Village , Indiana team .
Des Jardien served in the United States Army during World War I. In the fall of 1917 he played on an Army football team at Fort Sheridan that included a number of former All @-@ Americans including Albert Benbrook , Ernest Allmendinger , James B. Craig and Dolly Gray . In 1918 he was placed in charge of a German prison camp in Paris . After returning from France , Des Jardien played professional football for the Hammond Pros in 1919 . In December 1919 , P.J. Parduhn , president of the Hammond football team , was arrested on a charge of issuing bogus checks , after a complaint was lodged by Des Jardien and Milt Ghee . They dropped the charges when Parduhn agreed to make good on the payment . After the end of the football season that month , Des Jardien signed to play professional basketball with the Red Crowns team from Whiting , Indiana . The Red Crowns were backed by Standard Oil and were considered the fastest team west of Buffalo . Des Jardien 's presence was expected to draw crowds from throughout the Midwest . In 1920 he played for the Chicago Tigers in the inaugural season of the National Football League , then known as the APFA . Des Jardien played in all eight games for the 1920 Tigers , including seven as the starting center . The Tigers compiled a record of 2 – 5 – 1 in 1920 and Des Jardien was selected as a second @-@ team All @-@ APFA player .
In October 1922 Des Jardien signed to play semi @-@ professional football for the Ironwood Legion team from Ironwood in Michigan 's Upper Peninsula . In an October 1922 game against Bessemer , Des Jardien kicked punts of 50 , 55 and 65 yards . He also appeared in one game for the Minneapolis Marines in the 1922 NFL season .
= = Later years = =
After retiring from athletics , Des Jardien worked as a manufacturing executive in Los Angeles . He was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in July 1955 . He died at his home in Monrovia , California in 1956 from a cerebral thrombosis and was buried at the Forest Lawn Cemetery . Des Jardien was posthumously inducted into the University of Chicago Hall of Fame in 2006 .
= = Head coaching record = =
= Forest raven =
The forest raven ( Corvus tasmanicus , also commonly known as the Tasmanian raven ) is a passerine bird in the family Corvidae native to Tasmania and parts of southern Victoria , such as Wilsons Promontory and Portland . Populations are also found in parts of New South Wales , including Dorrigo and Armidale . Measuring 50 – 53 cm ( 20 – 21 in ) in length , it has all @-@ black plumage , beak and legs . As with the other two species of raven in Australia , its black feathers have grey bases . Adults have white irises ; younger birds have dark brown and then hazel irises with an inner blue rim . New South Wales populations are recognised as a separate subspecies C. tasmanicus boreus , but appear to be nested within the Tasmanian subspecies genetically .
The forest raven lives in a wide variety of habitats in Tasmania but is restricted to more closed forest on mainland Australia . Breeding takes place in spring and summer , occurring later in Tasmania than in New South Wales . The nest is a bowl @-@ shaped structure of sticks sited high in a tree . An omnivorous and opportunistic feeder , it eats a wide variety of plant and animal material , as well as food waste from urban areas and roadkill . It has been blamed for killing lambs and poultry and raiding orchards in Tasmania , and is unprotected under Tasmanian legislation . The forest raven is sedentary , with pairs generally bonding for life and establishing permanent territories .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
John Latham described the " South @-@ Seas raven " in 1781 , with loose throat feathers and found in " the Friendly Isles " in the South Seas , but did not give a binomial name . Although " the Friendly Isles " refers to Tonga , the specimen resembles what is now known as the forest raven and was collected by ships ' surgeon William Anderson on the third voyage of James Cook in January 1777 . Tasked as the expedition 's naturalist , Anderson collected many bird specimens but had died of tuberculosis in 1778 before the return home . Many collection localities were incorrect , and notes were lost or pieced together many years later . German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin gave the species the name Corvus australis in the 13th edition of Systema naturae in 1788 .
Since Australia was settled by Europeans , all species of crows and ravens have been colloquially known as crows by the general population and are difficult to distinguish . In his 1865 Handbook to the Birds of Australia , John Gould noted a single species of corvid in Australia , Corvus australis , which he called the white @-@ eyed crow . He used Gmelin 's 1788 name , which took precedence by virtue of its age over Vigors and Horsfield 's description . In 1912 Scottish naturalist William Robert Ogilvie @-@ Grant clarified the species as C. coronoides ( raven , and incorporating little and Australian ravens ) and C. cecilae ( Torresian crow ) . Subsequently , French @-@ American ornithologist Charles Vaurie acted as First Revisor under Article 24 of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ( ICZN ) Code and discarded C. australis as a junior homonym — in 1788 , Gmelin had used the same binomial name to describe the black nunbird — to preserve the stability of the name . This has been followed by later authors .
Gregory Mathews described the forest raven as a distinct subspecies — Corvus marianae tasmanicus — of the Australian raven in 1912 , its species name derived from Tasmania , the type locality . Rowley raised the forest raven to species rank in 1970 , noting there were no intermediate forms between it and the little raven ( its closest relative ) and that it was clearly larger with a much more massive bill . He described a second subspecies — Corvus tasmanicus boreus — the same year , observing that C. tasmanicus from Tasmania and southern Victoria has a very short tail compared with individuals from the northern New South Wales population . Rowley gave the species name forest raven in 1970 . The term " crow " is colloquially applied to any or all species of Australian corvid .
Preliminary genetic analysis of the genus using mitochondrial DNA showed the three raven species to belong to one lineage and the two crows to another , and that the two lineages are not closely related . The genetic separation between species is small and there was a suggestion the forest raven may be conspecific with the Australian raven . Subsequent multigene analysis using nuclear DNA by Jønsson and colleagues in 2012 clarified that the forest and little raven are each other 's closest relative . The northern subspecies boreus turned out to be nested in the Tasmanian tasmanicus , indicating the populations separated very recently . It is still recognised as a distinct subspecies by the International Ornithological Committee .
Ian Rowley proposed that the common ancestor of the five species diverged into a tropical crow and temperate raven sometime after entering Australia from the north . The raven diverged into the ancestor of the forest and little ravens in the east and Australian raven in the west . As the climate was cooler and dryer , the aridity of central Australia split them entirely as the habitat between became inhospitable . Furthermore , the eastern diverged into nomadic little ravens and , in forested refuges , forest ravens . As the climate eventually became warmer , the western ravens spread eastwards and outcompeted forest ravens on mainland Australia , as evidenced by the forest raven being only found in closed forest refuges on the mainland but in a wider variety of habitats in Tasmania .
= = Description = =
The largest of the Australian corvids , the adult forest raven is 50 – 53 cm ( 20 – 21 in ) in length with a wingspan between 91 – 113 cm ( 36 – 44 in ) and weight of approximately 650 g ( 1 @.@ 43 lb ) . There is no seasonal variation in plumage , which is entirely glossy black with a blue or green sheen visible on the upperparts . The wings are long and broad , with the largest of its ten primary feathers ( usually the seventh but occasionally the eighth ) almost reaching the end of the tail when at rest . The tail is rounded or wedge @-@ shaped . It is quite short in Tasmanian populations but longer in northern New South Wales . The beak is a similar shape to that of the little raven , though more massive and heavy @-@ set . The upper mandible , including the nares and nasal groove , is covered with bristles . The mouth and tongue are black , as are the powerful legs and feet . The tibia is fully feathered and the tarsus is long .
Sexes have identical plumage ; the male is generally larger , but there is considerable overlap in size between individuals . The forest raven can be distinguished from the two species of crow occurring in Australia by the grey base of the feathers , which is white in the latter species . The demarcation between pale and black regions on the feather is gradual in the ravens and sharply delineated in the crows . Feather bases are not normally visible when observing birds in the field , but can sometimes be seen on a windy day if the feathers are ruffled . The three species of raven are more heavily set with a broader chest than the two crow species , with the forest raven the stockiest of all . Relative size is only useful when two species can be seen side by side , as the overlap in size is large and the difference in size small . In Tasmania , the forest raven could be confused with the black currawong , though the latter species has more slender wings with white markings , a longer tail and a very different call .
Juveniles ( birds up to a year old ) have a shorter , shallower bill , which is dark grey with some pink at the base . The gape is pink . The plumage is softer and fluffier and often has a brown tint . It generally lacks the glossy sheen of adult birds , though a blue @-@ purple sheen can be seen sometimes on mantle and shoulders plumage . Birds between one and two years old closely resemble adults but retain juvenile feathers on wings and tail and have smaller bills . Birds between two and three years have adult plumage but lack the adult eye colour . Eye colour varies with age : nestlings up to four months old have blue @-@ grey eyes , juveniles aged from four to fourteen months have brown eyes , and immature birds have hazel eyes with blue eyerings around the pupil until age two years and ten months .
= = = Vocalization = = =
The call is considered the most reliable means of identification in areas where the forest raven 's range overlaps with other corvids . It is a deep and husky " korr @-@ korr @-@ korr @-@ korr " with a similarly drawn out last note to the Australian raven . It can also utter a barking alarm call . The calls of juveniles have a higher pitch than those of adult birds . Mated pairs greet each other with a specific return @-@ home call ; a long extended descending call , and characteristic flapping flight with reduced @-@ amplitude wingbeats .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The only member of the corvid family that has a permanent population in Tasmania , the forest raven is the most widely distributed bird species in the state . There are three populations in southern Victoria : from the vicinity of Lakes Entrance west across Gippsland to Wilsons Promontory , the Otway Ranges from 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) west of Torquay to Port Campbell , and lastly in the Grampians and Millicent Plain extending into south @-@ east South Australia . Isolated records suggest the latter two populations may actually be continuous . There are two disjunct populations in northern New South Wales . A coastal population is found from Tea Gardens north to Yuraygir National Park , while a more montane population is found along the Great Dividing Range and New England Tableland from Tenterfield and Glen Innes in the north to Gloucester Tops in the south . The gap between the two populations is around 70 km ( 43 mi ) , shrinking to 30 km ( 19 mi ) at Dorrigo .
The forest raven inhabits a wide range of habitat within Tasmania such as woods , open interrupted forest , mountains , coastal areas , farmland and town and city fringes . A survey of Mount Wellington found it to be one of the few birds that remained in open and marshland habitat at higher elevations over the winter . On mainland Australia it appears to be more confined to forests : wet and dry sclerophyll forest and cool temperate rainforest , as well as pine plantations in Victoria . Populations in Victoria and New South Wales are possibly expanding , with the species more evident in towns such as Forster @-@ Tuncurry and Port Macquarie , and along segments of the Oxley Highway between Wauchope and Walcha , and Thunderbolts Way between Gloucester and Nowendoc , most likely due to roadkill from increased vehicular traffic . It is unclear whether records since the 1970s in areas where the forest raven was unknown are the result of range expansion or improved field observations and identification .
Forest ravens fly from Tasmania and the mainland to islands well offshore in Bass Strait and may even traverse the strait entirely . First recorded on King Island in Bass Strait in 1979 , the forest raven has become more numerous and flocks of several hundred birds were recorded by 1997 . The island was previously inhabited by little ravens .
= = = Conservation = = =
Its large range and abundance means the bird is classified as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List ; some decrease has been noted but it is of insufficient size or duration to change classification . The populations of northern New South Wales have been classified as Near Threatened in 2000 by Garnett and Crowley and were estimated at the time to number about 10 @,@ 000 breeding pairs .
= = Behaviour = =
Sedentary and territorial , the forest raven is similar in breeding and feeding habits to the Australian raven . A single breeding pair and their brood occupy a territory of variable size — areas of 40 to 400 ha ( 99 to 988 acres ) have been recorded — and remains there year @-@ round , though groups of ravens may enter this area to forage . In northern New South Wales , forest ravens have been recorded nesting near Australian ravens and Torresian crows . They were observed warding off the Australian ravens but to a degree permitting the crows to pass through their territories . Forest ravens will defend their territory by chasing and mobbing intruding birds of prey as large as wedge @-@ tailed eagles and white @-@ bellied sea eagles . Agonistic displays to ward off potential intruders include flying to a high perch and calling loudly with head extended and hackles raised . Forest ravens will give their wings a flick on the upward wingbeat when flying to the perch and may continue flicking their wings after landing . Subadult and nonbreeding forest ravens form flocks that move around , though they may use the same roosting site for a few months at a time . Forest ravens generally walk when moving around on the ground , though do hop when hurrying , such as when trying to avoid an oncoming car on a road .
= = = Feeding = = =
The forest raven is an omnivore , though it eats more meat than smaller corvids . Its diet includes a wide range of foods such as insects , carrion , fruit , grain and earthworms . It has been known to attack and eat birds as large as the little penguin , though many birds and mammals are already dead when encountered . In general , a significant proportion of its food appears to come from habitats in or near water . Forest ravens observed on the beach at Wilson 's Promontory would glean the sand and turn over or disturb pieces of seaweed and debris for insect prey . They have also been reported taking crabs from sandbars and raiding seabird colonies for eggs and young .
Forest ravens forage in pairs or groups of up to ten birds , though they may gather in much larger numbers if there is an abundant food source , such as a large carcass , rubbish or insect swarm . The species is attracted to areas where people have discarded excess food , such as rubbish tips , picnic grounds , parks , gardens and roads . Forest ravens sometimes forage in mixed @-@ species flocks with Torresian crows , little and Australian ravens . In these situations , the more abundant species may exclude the less abundant . In Tasmania , forest ravens have been recorded foraging with Pacific and silver gulls , and black currawongs . Foraging takes place in the early morning or late afternoon ; birds rest in the hotter part of the day . Food is taken mainly from the ground , birds either finding objects while walking along and looking , and turning over objects with their bills as they go . Forest ravens often fly 1 – 2 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) above the ground over marshland , heath or beaches looking for food . Nests of various birds , including domestic chickens and burrowing seabirds have been raided for eggs and young . Forest ravens have been observed attempting to raid the nest of ospreys on the New South Wales north coast .
Forest ravens cache food items for later consumption , generally using trees to evade other scavengers . Field observations in Nambucca showed that they built stick @-@ like platforms 30 – 40 cm ( 12 – 16 in ) in diameter high in the canopies of trees as places to store and eat food . They were recorded storing food in tree forks 10 – 20 m ( 33 – 66 ft ) above the ground and within the folds of the bark of paperbark trees . In another field study , a forest raven stole a cape barren goose egg and hid it in a grassy tussock to consume later .
Alongside Australian ravens , forest ravens have been blamed for damaging orchards and killing lambs and poultry . This is not supported by fieldwork . They most often scavenge for afterbirth and newborn lamb faeces , which are highly nutritious . They are thought to have a beneficial role in cleaning up carcasses and consuming insect pests . Forest ravens prey on the larvae of the pasture beetle Scitala sericans . The beetle can damage pastures and is an agricultural pest ; the raven may uproot plants when digging out the grubs .
= = = Breeding = = =
Forest ravens breed after at least three years , and form monogamous pairs . Birds breed later in Tasmania than mainland Australia , though the species has been little @-@ studied . Eggs have been recorded from July to September and nestlings in September and October in New South Wales , while nestlings have been noted from September to December in Victoria . In Tasmania , the breeding season appears to take place from August to January . Forest ravens generally nest in forks in tall trees , usually eucalypts , below the canopy line . They have been recorded nesting on the ground on some Bass Strait Islands . Breeding success rates were impacted severely by droughts in New South Wales .
The nest is a bowl @-@ shaped structure of twigs lined with available materials such as leaves , wool , grass , bark , feathers , or occasionally horse manure or hair from cattle . The sticks are generally 4 – 14 mm ( 0 @.@ 16 – 0 @.@ 55 in ) thick . Nests are sometimes renovated from previous years . A clutch can comprise up to six eggs , though usually four or five are laid . Measuring 45 by 31 mm ( 1 3 ⁄ 4 × 1 1 ⁄ 4 in ) , eggs are green @-@ cream and splotched with brown and grey markings . Eggs are laid every one to two days . Eggs are quite variable , and thus which Australian corvid laid them cannot be reliably identified . Incubation of the eggs is done solely by the female . The chicks are altricial and nidicolous ; that is , they are born helpless , naked and blind , and remain in the nest for an extended period . Both parents feed the young .
= = = Parasites = = =
The mite Knemidocoptes intermedius has been isolated from the forest raven . Infestation results in crusty ( hyperkeratotic ) grey lesions around their tibiotarsal joints , the mites living in tunnels under the skin . The channel @-@ billed cuckoo ( Scythrops novaehollandiae ) has been recorded as a brood parasite .
= = Relationship with humans = =
Like the Australian raven on mainland Australia , the Forest raven in Tasmania has a history of being shot or poisoned — generally by farmers as it is perceived to be a threat to livestock and orchard crops . It is not protected under Tasmania 's Nature Conservation Act 2002 and no permit is required if landowners seek to kill them . Larger numbers of forest ravens ( alongside swamp harriers and brown falcons ) were killed in 1958 as rabbit populations dwindled due to myxomatosis and predatory birds were thought to have turned their attention to poultry and livestock . Studies on corvids elsewhere in Australia showed that the killing of healthy lambs was rare , but that sick animals were predisposed to being attacked , and hence their poor reputation was unjustified . Forest ravens may do more good than harm by preying on insects and removing carrion . Despite their fondness for roadkill , forest ravens are rarely hit by vehicles .
= ToeJam & Earl III : Mission to Earth =
ToeJam & Earl III : Mission to Earth is an action video game released for the Xbox on October 23 , 2002 . Developed by ToeJam & Earl Productions and Visual Concepts , and published by Sega and Microsoft , it is the third installment in the ToeJam & Earl series . Players assume the role of one of three extraterrestrial protagonists : ToeJam and Earl , who starred in the series ' first two games , and Latisha , a new character . While using power @-@ ups to combat enemies , players seek to collect the twelve " Sacred Albums of Funk " and defeat the antagonistic " Anti @-@ Funk " .
The original two ToeJam & Earl games were a key Sega Genesis franchise , but development of a third game was prevented by the poor North American commercial performance of the console 's successor , the Sega Saturn . Versions of ToeJam & Earl III developed at different times for the Nintendo 64 and Dreamcast were canceled , but the latter was completed for the Xbox . On release , the game met with poor sales and mixed reviews ; while certain critics found its gameplay innovative , its humor , soundtrack and graphics were variously praised and derided . Opinions of the game 's overall enjoyability and longevity were also mixed .
= = Synopsis = =
ToeJam & Earl III follows the extraterrestrial protagonists ToeJam and Earl , who starred in the series ' previous games , and a new female character named Latisha . ToeJam is three @-@ legged and red ; Earl is overweight and orange . Both characters have been considered parodies of American hip @-@ hop and urban culture . Latisha has been variously described as " feisty " and " brimming with attitude " by critics .
The three characters journey to Earth , in order to retrieve the stolen twelve Sacred Albums of Funk and return them to Lamont the Funkopotamus . Levels take place on terrains that represent Earth 's ecosystems . The game 's ultimate antagonist is the Anti @-@ Funk , whose defeat will " save the world from all that is unfunky " . The " funk " has been described as a parody of Star Wars ' the Force , with the Anti @-@ Funk being the dark side .
= = Gameplay = =
The game has been called both a platform game and an action @-@ adventure game . GameSpot asserts that it combines elements of ToeJam & Earl and its platformer sequel , ToeJam & Earl in Panic on Funkotron , while GameNOW and Electronic Gaming Monthly liken it to the former game . The game features both single- and two @-@ player modes ; in both , players control one of the three protagonists . ToeJam moves quickly and jumps high , but has weak attacks ; Earl is tougher and has more powerful attacks , but is slow and jumps lower than ToeJam ; Latisha ranks between the two in terms of athleticism , and gains additional power @-@ ups later in the game . In the game 's two @-@ player mode , the camera moves between single and split @-@ screen as players maneuver their characters away from each other . Characters can share power @-@ ups when in close proximity .
The game 's randomly generated levels are connected together by hubs . Additional levels can be downloaded from Xbox Live . Level exploration is based around collecting items : the player searches for the Sacred Albums of Funk , and for keys that grant access to more levels . Enemies include rabbit ninja , a " demented chicken " , and " psycho cheerleaders " , which the player combats with Funk @-@ Fu and Funk Notes . Funk Notes are projectiles that render enemies " funkified " , or harmless ; more powerful than Funk @-@ Fu , they require the player to gather ammunition . The player may also find wrapped presents , which contain power @-@ ups such as rocket skates , spring shoes and food ; these variously grant greater defensive abilities , access to certain areas , and additional health . Another power @-@ up involves a simple rhythm game , and leaves nearby enemies " funkified " if the player successfully copies on @-@ screen rhythms .
= = Development = =
ToeJam & Earl and its sequel ToeJam & Earl in Panic on Funkatron together formed one of the Mega Drive 's main series . However , creator Greg Johnson said that installments for the console 's Mega @-@ CD or 32X add @-@ ons were never planned , and though rumors of a new game persisted throughout the commercial life of the Sega Saturn console , that system 's poor performance in North America prevented development of a sequel . Johnson and programmer Mark Voorsanger regained the rights to ToeJam and Earl in 1995 , and in November 1998 made an agreement with GT Interactive to publish a new game in the franchise for the Nintendo 64 . Johnson and Voorsanger conducted research to determine whether series fans preferred the original ToeJam & Earl or its sequel ; the former emerged as the clear favorite . In April 1999 , however , it was reported that the deal with GT Interactive had fallen through ; the publisher had decided that the series ' previous game was not an encouraging success commercially , particularly in Europe . GT Interactive 's restructuring and the Nintendo 64 's declining commercial performance were also believed to be factors by commentators .
It was reported the following month that the developer was planning to create the game for Sony 's PlayStation 2 , perhaps to coincide with the console 's release . Ultimately , however , the developer became involved with Sega 's Dreamcast through Visual Concepts — a Sega developer in charge of third @-@ party game development . Johnson and Voorsanger began development of the third game with the intention to re @-@ make ToeJam & Earl ; according to Johnson , the game would include the same elements as the first game , but with improved graphics . However , this notion was curtailed by Visual Concepts , who felt that the result would be too old @-@ fashioned , and too niche in appeal . Johnson later said that he was unsure , at the time , whether to cater to fans who wanted a remake of the original or attempt to capture a new audience .
Visual Concepts assisted with the development process , as ToeJam & Earl Productions was struggling with the game 's technical demands . Johnson and Voorsanger indicated the development of a new character with the game 's working title , " ToeJam , Earl , and Latisha " . Lisa Lopes was nearly signed to provide Latisha 's voice acting , but disagreements over fees caused the deal to fail . Actress Sherrie Jackson provided the character 's voice instead . The game was previewed at E3 in 2001 , but Sega subsequently ceased its support of the Dreamcast due to poor commercial performance . Once again , Johnson 's preferred format was the PlayStation 2 or Nintendo GameCube , but the developer ultimately ported the game to Microsoft 's Xbox because of its technical simplicity , as well as free advertising offered to Sega by Microsoft . Promotional copies of the game portrayed the Anti @-@ Funk as a disembodied head reminiscent of a Ku Klux Klan mask — an anti @-@ racism statement , according to Johnson . Sega vetoed this , however , and the character was changed to a skull design for the game 's retail release .
In September 2013 an unreleased Dreamcast version of ToeJam & Earl III : Mission to Earth was found on a Katana Development Kit . Sega was asked to approve its release , but no response was ever received . The creators of this series , Greg Johnson and Mark Voorsanger , agreed to a community release . The prototype is now available for downloading online .
= = Reception = =
According to GamaSutra , ToeJam & Earl III was met with mixed to positive reviews , while IGN asserts that the game was " thrashed soundly by critics " . Computer and Video Games lauded its " superb sense of humour and the kind of offbeat gameplay that shows up every other identikit shooter , stealth ' em up and extreme sports title as imagination @-@ devoid shams . " PC World praised the game 's " laugh out loud " humor , and acclaimed the two @-@ player mode as " damned good fun " .
GameNOW and Electronic Gaming Monthly praised the game 's power @-@ ups , whose strategic element the former enjoyed , and two @-@ player mode . However , GameNOW derided the game 's hip @-@ hop dialogue , and Electronic Gaming Monthly found it repetitive ; the latter also believed that Latisha was an unnecessary addition . Game Informer found the hip @-@ hop theme to be embarrassingly dated , and likened the game to In Living Color and The Fresh Prince of Bel Air . The reviewer also believed that its randomly generated levels necessitated " simple and arbitrary " mission goals .
EuroGamer praised the game 's graphics , camera angles and mini @-@ games , but complained about unfair enemies , annoying character accents and an arbitrary mix of musical genres . The reviewer believed that " [ the game , ] in the final analysis [ , ] is just not good enough to warrant spending £ 40 . " IGN gave it a " passable " verdict : the reviewer felt that the game 's brief initial appeal quickly gave way to repetition . He had a mixed opinion of its graphics , with praise given to the character animations , but criticism to perceived poor draw distance . GameSpot deemed the game " mediocre " . The reviewer noted that " the humor almost always falls flat " , and that " ToeJam 's speech [ ... ] is filled with stupid double entendres " . The website found the soundtrack to be dated , and called the game 's audio " a serious disappointment " .
The Guardian praised the originality of the characters , and the " crisply defined textures and realistic lighting " ; the paper deemed the game " a treat for the eyes " . However , the reviewers decided that the game was merely average overall , and noted its limited longevity . The Las Vegas Review @-@ Journal wrote of the game : " It 's all right , but probably most useful for certain parents to force on kids . " The Sydney Morning Herald described the game as " an average platform game that masks its conventional gameplay with over @-@ stimulating graphics " . The Daily Mirror called it " anarchic , fun , hilarious and very cool " . Entertainment Weekly wrote that " TJ & E is fun -- but forgettable fun . Still , its promise of downloadable content , and sheer silliness , brings some whimsy to the funk @-@ starved Xbox . "
= Hymns for the Amusement of Children =
Hymns for the Amusement of Children ( 1771 ) was the final work completed by English poet Christopher Smart . It was completed while Smart was imprisoned for outstanding debt at the King 's Bench Prison , and the work is his final exploration of religion . Although Smart spent a large portion of his life in and out of debt , he was unable to survive his time in the prison and died soon after completing the Hymns .
Smart 's Hymns are one of the first works of hymns dedicated to children , and they are intended to teach Christian virtues . Unlike some of the other works produced by Smart after his release from a mental asylum , such as A Song to David or Hymns and Spiritual Songs , this work was a success and went into many immediate editions . Part of the success of this work lies in the simplicity and accessibility of the text . However , Smart died before he ever saw the proceeds of the work and never learned of the book 's success .
= = Background = =
Smart was released from asylum in 1763 and published two religious works , A Song to David and Hymn and Spiritual Songs , soon after . These were quickly attacked by critics that declared Smart was still " mad " and subsequently failed to become popular . Smart continued to work on religious works as he struggled to publish and support himself . However , he quickly fell into debt and , on 20 April 1770 , he was arrested and sent to Debtors ' prison .
On January 11 , 1771 , he was recommended to the King 's Bench Prison . Although he was in prison , Charles Burney purchased the " Rules " ( allowing him some freedom ) in order to help make Smart 's final weeks peaceful although pathetic . In his final letter , written to Rev. Mr. Jackson , Smart begged for three shillings in order to purchase food . Soon after , Smart died , May 20 , 1771 , from either liver failure or pneumonia , after completing his final work , Hymns , for the Amusement of Children .
It is unknown how many poems published in the Hymns were written before Smart was imprisoned or during his final days , but at least one , titled " Against Despair " was produced during this time . A different version of the poem was published after his death in the Gentleman 's Magazine . This version included a note claiming , " Extempore by the late C. Smart , in the King 's @-@ Bench , " which verifies that he was writing hymns throughout this time , or , at least , editing them to create a better version .
Although five editions of the Hymns were published in the 18th century , only one edition was published before Smart died . This edition was published by his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Thomas Carnan , and was announced in the Public Advertiser 27 December 1770 . However , this edition did not list Smart as the author . It is possible that there was a sixth edition of the Hymns , but that has since " disappeared " ; there is also a possible pirated edition produced by Thomas Walker . Although the work made it as far as Boston , Massachusetts , as shown by an advertisement for selling the work in 1795 , no Boston editions have been found , but such editions could exist in addition to the Philadelphia , Pennsylvania edition .
Smart 's first children 's hymn was " A Morning Hymn , for all the little good boys and girls " in the Lilliputian Magazine in 1751 . During this time , there were only two models for him to base his children 's hymns on : the works of Isaac Watts and of Charles Wesley . Watts 's work attempted to amuse children while Wesley 's attempted to simplify morality for them . It is possible that Smart 's Hymns were not modelled on Watts 's or Wesley 's actual hymns or songs , but instead after a note in Watts 's work the Divine Songs which says :
A Slight Specimen of Moral Songs , such as I wish some happy and condescending genius would undertake for the use of children , and perform much better ... The sense and subjects might be borrow 'd plentifully from the Proverbs of Solomon , from all the common appearances of nature , from all the occurrences in the civil life , both in city and country : ( which would also afford matter for other Divine Songs . ) Here the language and measures should be easy and flowing with chearfulness , and without the solemnities of religion , or the sacred names of God and holy things ; that children might find delight and profit together .
The work was dedicated " to his Royal Highness Prince Frederick , Bishop of Osnabrug , these hymns , composed for his amusement , are , with all due Submission and Respect , humbly inscribed to him , as the best of Bishops , by his Royal Highness 's Most Obedient and Devoted Servant , Christopher Smart . " Although the prince , the second son of King George III , was only seven at the time , Smart was given special permission to dedicate the work to the boy through the intervention with the royal family by either Richard Dalton or the King 's Chaplain , William Mason .
= = Hymns for the Amusement of Children = =
In essence , the Hymns for the Amusement of Children is intended to teach children the specific virtues that make up the subject matter of the work . While trying to accomplish this goal , Smart emphasizes the joy of creation and Christ 's sacrifice that allowed for future salvation . However , he didn 't just try to spread joy , but structured his poems to treat valuable lessons about morality ; his subjects begin with the three Theological Virtues ( Faith , Hope , and Charity ) , then the four Cardinal Virtues ( Prudence , Justice , Temperance , and Fortitude ) and adds Mercy . The next six hymns deal with Christian duties and are followed by ten hymns on the Gospels . The final works introduce the miscellaneous Christian virtues that were necessary to complete Christopher 's original self @-@ proclaimed " plan to make good girls and boys . "
All but three of the hymns were provided with a corresponding woodblock illustration . The original illustrations either represented the scene of the hymn or a symbolic representation of the hymn . However , later editions of the work sometimes included illustrations that did not match the corresponding hymn , which was the fault of " a general deterioration of standards in book production " . With such possibilities , it is hard to justify an exact relationship between any particular hymn and illustration .
There are thirty @-@ nine hymns included in Hymns for the Amusement of Children :
= = = Mirth = = =
Besides the hymns that are " expected " in a book of hymns , Arthur Sherbo points out that the collection contains hymns " on learning and on ' good @-@ nature to animals ' . " In particular , he emphasizes Hymn XXV " Mirth " as " showing anew the love for flowers that is a recurring characteristic of his poetry " as it reads :
If you are merry sing away ,
And touch the organs sweet ;
This is the Lord 's triumphant day ,
Ye children in the gall 'ries gay ,
Shout from each goodly seat .
It shall be May to @-@ morrow 's morn ,
A field then let us run ,
And deck us in the blooming thorn ,
Soon as the cock begins to warn ,
And long before the sun .
I give the praise to Christ alone ,
My pinks already shew ;
And my streak 'd roses fully blown ,
The sweetness of the Lord make known ,
And to his glory grow .
To Sherbo , this poem is " a good example of the artless quality " of the whole collection of Hymns .
= = = Long @-@ Suffering of God = = =
According to Moira Dearnley , Hymn XXIX " Long @-@ Suffering of God " is " one of the more pathetic poems in Hymns for the Amusement of Children . " As a poem , it " restates Smart 's certainty that the long @-@ suffering God will eventually bestow his grace upon the barren human soul " as it reads :
Thus man goes on from year to year ,
And bears no fruit at all ;
But gracious God , still unsevere ,
Bids show 'rs of blessing fall .
The beams of mercy , dews of grace ,
Our Saviour still supplies-
Ha ! ha ! the soul regains her place ,
And sweetens all the skies .
This final poem fittingly ends in " manic exultation " and shows " that for Smart , presentiments of the grace and mercy of God were inseparable from madness . "
= = = The Conclusion of the Matter = = =
Smart 's final poem of the work , XXXIX " The Conclusion of the Matter " , demonstrates to Neil Curry that the " joy and optimism of [ Smart ] are unwavering . " Smart " does not look back , he looks forward and the sequence ends on a note of triumph " as it reads :
Fear God - obey his just decrees ,
And do it hand , and heart , and knees ;
For after all our utmost care
There 's nought like penitence and prayer .
Then weigh the balance in your mind ,
Look forward , not one glance behind ;
Let no foul fiend retard your pace ,
Hosanna ! Thou hast won the race .
However , as Curry claims , " in this world Smart himself had won nothing . " Instead , Curry believes what Christopher Hunter stated about his uncle : " I trust he is now at peace ; it was not his portion here . "
= = Critical response = =
Although he wrote his second set of hymns , Hymns for the Amusement of Children , for a younger audience , Smart cares more about emphasizing the need for children to be moral instead of " innocent " . These works have been seen as possibly too complicated for " amusement " because they employ ambiguities and complicated theological concepts . In particular , Mark Booth questions " why , in this carefully polished writing .... are the lines sometimes relatively hard to read for their paraphrasable sense ? " Arthur Sherbo disagreed with this sentiment strongly and claims the Hymns " are more than mere hack work , tossed off with speed and indifference . They were written when Smart was in prison and despairing of rescue . Into these poems , some of them of a bare simplicity and naiveté that have few equals in literature of merit anywhere ... " However , he does admit some of the argument when he claims that " Generosity " , along with a handful other hymns , was " not so simple and surely proved too much for the children for whom they were bought . "
Not all critics agree that the work is too complex for children , and some , like Marcus Walsh and Karina Williamson , view that the works would have fit the appropriate level for children in the 18th century , especially with the short length of each hymn and a small illustration of the scene proceeding each one . This is not to say that the works are " simple " , because many words are complex , but , as Donald Davie explains , there is a " naiveté " in the work that allow them to be understood . In particular , Moira Dearnley claims that the hymns contain a " high @-@ spirited delight in the day @-@ to @-@ day life of children , the joy that characterizes the best the Hymns for the Amusement of Children . "
= Armament of the Iowa @-@ class battleship =
The armament of the Iowa @-@ class battleships underwent a massive development since the first Iowa @-@ class ship was laid down in June 1940 . Owing to the continual development of the weaponry aboard these battleships they remain the most heavily armed gunships the United States has ever put to sea . In their World War II configuration , each of the Iowa @-@ class battleships had a main battery of 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) guns that could hit targets nearly 20 statute miles ( 32 km ) away with a variety of artillery shells designed for anti @-@ ship or bombardment work . The secondary battery of 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) guns could hit targets nearly 9 statute miles ( 14 km ) away with solid projectiles or proximity fuzed shells , and were equally adept in an anti @-@ aircraft role and for damaging smaller ships . Each of the four battleships carried a wide array of 20 mm and 40 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns for defense against enemy aircraft .
When reactivated and modernized in the 1980s each battleship retained the original battery of nine 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) guns , but the secondary battery on each battleship was reduced from ten twin @-@ gun mounts and twenty guns to six twin @-@ gun mounts with 12 guns to allow for the installation of two platforms for the Tomahawk missiles . Each battleship also received four Harpoon missile magazines , Phalanx anti @-@ aircraft / anti @-@ missile Gatling gun systems , and electronic warfare suites . When required ( duty in the Persian Gulf in particular ) up to twelve single mount M2 Browning 50 caliber machine guns and four 35 mm Bushmaster cannon were installed to provide close range defense against small surface craft .
= = Main battery = =
= = = Turrets = = =
The primary armament of an Iowa @-@ class battleship consisted of nine breech @-@ loading 16 inch ( 406 mm ) / 50 @-@ caliber Mark 7 naval guns , which were housed in three 3 @-@ gun turrets : two forward and one aft in a configuration known as " 2 @-@ A @-@ 1 " . The guns were 66 feet ( 20 m ) long ( 50 times their 16 @-@ inch ( 410 mm ) bore , or 50 calibers , from breechface to muzzle ) . About 43 feet ( 13 m ) protruded from the gun house . Each gun weighed about 239 @,@ 000 pounds ( 108 000 kg ) without the breech , or 267 @,@ 900 pounds with the breech . They fired projectiles weighing from 1 @,@ 900 to 2 @,@ 700 pounds ( 860 to 1 @,@ 220 kg ) at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 690 ft / s ( 820 m / s ) ( 1834 @.@ 1 mph ) to a maximum range of 42 @,@ 345 yards ( 38 @,@ 720 m ) ( 24 @.@ 06 mi ) using an armor @-@ piercing shell .
Each gun rested within an armored turret , but only the top of the turret protruded above the main deck . The turret extended either four decks ( Turrets 1 and 3 ) or five decks ( Turret 2 ) down . The lower spaces contained the equipment required to rotate the turret and to elevate the guns attached to each turret . At the bottom of the turret were rooms which were used for handling the projectiles and storing the powder bags used to fire them . All of the compartments within the turrets were separated by flameproof bulkheads to prevent any flame or lethal gas from spreading throughout the turret . Each turret required a crew of 77 — 94 men to operate . The turrets were not actually attached to the ship , but sat on rollers , which meant that if the ship were to capsize the turrets would fall out . Each turret cost US $ 1 @.@ 4 million , but this number did not include the cost of the guns themselves .
The turrets were " three @-@ gun , " not " triple , " because each barrel could be elevated and fired independently . The ship could fire any combination of its guns , including a broadside of all nine .
The guns could be elevated from − 5 ° to + 45 ° , moving at up to 12 ° per second . The turrets could be rotated about 300 ° at a rate of about four degrees per second and can even be fired back beyond the beam , which is sometimes called " over the shoulder . " The guns were never fired horizontally forward ( in the 1980s refit , a satellite up @-@ link antenna was mounted at the bow ) . To distinguish between the rounds fired from different battleships the Iowa class used dye bags which allowed artillery observers to determine which rounds had been fired by which ship . Iowa , New Jersey , Missouri , and Wisconsin were assigned the colors orange , blue , red and green , respectively .
Within each turret , a red stripe on the interior wall , inches from the railing , marked the boundary of the barrel 's recoil , warning the crew to keep back .
When brought into service during World War II the guns had a barrel life of roughly 290 rounds , limited in large part by the Nitrated @-@ Cellulose ( NC ) propellant . After World War II the Navy switched to smokeless Powder Diphenylamine ( SPD ) , a cooler @-@ burning propellant , which increased the barrel life from 290 to about 350 rounds . This was increased further by the introduction of a titanium dioxide and wax compound known as " Swedish Additive " on New Jersey for her tour in Vietnam , and later used on all four Iowa 's when they were reactivated in the 1980s . These measures were further augmented by the addition of polyurethane jackets , which were placed over the powder bags to reduce gaseous erosion during the firing of the guns . These measures greatly prolonged barrel life , and ultimately resulted in a shift from measuring barrel life in Equivalent Service Rounds ( ESR ) to measuring barrel life in Fatigue Equivalent Rounds ( FER ) .
After the guns were fired , each rifle barrel had to be cleaned . Unlike small caliber guns which can be field @-@ stripped , the guns aboard an Iowa @-@ class battleship could not be disassembled , so the gunners mates assigned the job of cleaning the rifles required a full day or more to ensure that the barrels were correctly and adequately cleaned . To clean the rifles , a bore brush was lifted by two sailors and inserted into the gun barrel , where it was pulled through the rifle with the same equipment used to load the shells . Within the turret , crewmen checked to ensure that the breech fittings were properly cleaned and lubricated , while sailors outside the turret scraped off soot , and painted over flash burns left from the explosive expulsion of the 16 @-@ inch shells from the gun barrels .
= = = Fire control = = =
The early main battery fire control consisted of the Fire Control Tower , two Mark 38 Gun Fire Control Systems ( GFCS ) , and fire control equipment located in two of the three turrets . As modernized in the 1980s , each turret carried a DR @-@ 810 radar that measured the muzzle velocity of each gun , which made it easier to predict the velocity of succeeding shots . Together with the Mark 160 FCS and better propellant consistency , the improvements created the most accurate battleship @-@ caliber guns ever made .
= = = = Fire control tower = = = =
The fire control tower ( pictured ) was the Gunnery Officer 's heavily armored battle station , and it was accessible to the Captain 's heavily armored battle station , the Battle Bridge . It was equipped with periscopes poking through the armor , and control consoles showing the status of the ship 's weapons ( director bearings , turret bearings , gun 's loaded status , Fire Control ( FC ) Radar displays , ... ) . With the radar 's displays , the Gunnery Officer could determine what Spots ( aim corrections ) were needed by watching the fall of shot around the target .
= = = = Mark 38 gun fire control system = = = =
The major components of the Mk38 Gun Fire Control System ( GFCS ) were the Director , Plotting Room , and interconnecting data transmission equipment . Two systems , forward and aft , were each complete and independent . Their plotting rooms were isolated to protect against battle damage propagating from one to the other .
= = = = = Director = = = = =
The forward Mk38 Director ( pictured ) was situated on top of the fire control tower . The director was equipped with optical sights , optical Mark 45 Rangefinder ( the long thin boxes sticking out each side ) , and a Mark 13 Fire Control Radar antenna ( the rectangular shape sitting on top ) . The purpose of the director was to track the target 's present bearing and range . This could be done optically by the men inside using the sights and Rangefinder , or electronically with the radar . ( The FC radar was the preferred method . ) The present position of the target was called the Line @-@ Of @-@ Sight ( LOS ) , and it was continuously sent down to the Mk 8 Rangekeeper in the plotting room by Synchro transmitters . Also , when not using the radar 's display to determine Spots , the director was the optical spotting station .
= = = = = Plotting room = = = = =
The forward main battery plotting room was located below the waterline and inside the armored belt . It housed the forward system 's Mark 8 Rangekeeper , Mark 41 Stable Vertical , Mk13 FC Radar controls and displays , Parallax Correctors , Fire Control Switchboard , battle telephone switchboard , battery status indicators , assistant Gunnery Officers , and Fire Control Technicians ( FTs ) .
The Mk8 Rangekeeper was an electromechanical analog computer whose function was to continuously calculate the gun 's bearing and elevation , Line @-@ Of @-@ Fire ( LOF ) , to hit a future position of the target . It did this by automatically receiving information from the director ( LOS ) , the FC Radar ( range ) , the ship 's gyrocompass ( true ship 's course ) , the ship 's Pitometer log ( ship 's speed ) , the Stable Vertical ( ship 's roll and pitch ) , and the ship 's anemometer ( relative wind speed and direction ) . Also , before the surface action started , the FTs made manual inputs for the average initial velocity of the projectiles fired out of the battery 's gun barrels , and air density . With all this information , the Rangekeeper calculated the relative motion between the ship and the target . It then could calculate an offset angle and change of range between the target 's present position ( LOS ) and future position at the end of the projectile 's time of flight . To this bearing and range offset , it added corrections for gravity , wind , Magnus Effect of the spinning projectile , earth 's curvature , and coriolis effect . The result was the turret 's bearing and elevation orders ( LOF ) . During the surface action , range and deflection Spots and target altitude ( not zero during Gun Fire Support ) were manually entered .
The Mk 41 Stable Vertical ( also called Gun Director ) was a vertical seeking gyroscope . Its function was to establish and maintain a stable earth vertical with its associated horizontal plane . With the horizontal plane established , the Mk 41 continuously measured the angles between the deck and the horizontal plane . These deck angles were continuously transmitted to the Rangekeeper so that it could keep the guns correctly elevated as the ship rolled and pitched . Mounted waist high on its side were the battery 's firing keys . ( see picture ) The left key was the Salvo Signal Key , and it sounded the Salvo Buzzer in each of the turrets to warn the gun crews that the guns were about to fire . The center key ( with bumps on its handle for tactile identification ) was the Automatic Firing Key . When this key was held closed , the Mk 41 was enabled to automatically fire the guns whenever the ship 's deck was parallel the horizontal plane . Also , if the sea state was such that the turrets ' elevation power drives could not keep up with the ship 's motion , the guns could be held at a fixed elevation , and the MK 41 could again automatically fire the guns as described . The right key was the Hand Firing Key . It bypassed the Mk 41 , and fired the guns directly .
The Mk 13 FC Radar supplied present target range , and it showed the fall of shot around the target so the Gunnery Officer could correct the system 's aim with range and deflection spots put into the Rangekeeper . It could also automatically track the target by controlling the director 's bearing power drive . Because of radar , Fire Control systems are able to track and fire at targets at a greater range and with increased accuracy during the day , night , or inclement weather . This was demonstrated in November 1942 when the battleship USS Washington engaged the Imperial Japanese Navy battlecruiser Kirishima at a range of 18 @,@ 500 yards ( 16 @,@ 900 m ) at night . The engagement left Kirishima in flames , and she was ultimately scuttled by her crew . This capability gave the United States Navy a major advantage in World War II , as the Japanese did not develop radar or automated fire control to the level of the US Navy and were at a significant disadvantage . See also The Battle of Surigao Strait ( 25 October 1944 ) during the WWII Leyte Gulf landings .
The Parallax Correctors were needed because the turrets were located hundreds of feet from the director . There was one for each turret , and each had the turret / director distance manually set in . They automatically received Relative Target Bearing ( bearing from own ship 's bow ) , and Target Range . They corrected the bearing order for each turret so that all rounds fired in a salvo converged on the same point .
The Fire Control Switchboard configured the battery . With it , the Gunnery Officer could mix and match the three turrets to the two GFCSs . He could have the turrets all controlled by the forward system , all controlled by the aft system , or split the battery to shoot at two targets .
The assistant Gunnery Officers and Fire Control Technicians operated the equipment , talked to the turrets and ship 's command by sound @-@ powered telephone , and watched the Rangekeeper 's dials and
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system status indicators for problems . If a problem arose , they could correct the problem , or reconfigure the system to mitigate its effect .
= = = = Turret fire control systems = = = =
Turrets 2 & 3 had optical rangefinders and ballistics computers . ( The rangefinders are the boxes on the turret 's rear corners ) . If in a surface action the GFCSs were damaged , the Turret Officer could turn the Auto @-@ Local rotary switch to Local and continue the action using the turret 's fire control equipment .
= = = Ammunition = = =
The large caliber guns were designed to fire two different 16 @-@ inch shells : an armor @-@ piercing round for anti @-@ ship and anti @-@ structure work and a high explosive round designed for use against unarmored targets and shore bombardment . A third type of ammunition for delivering tactical nuclear warheads was developed subsequently .
The Mk . 8 APC ( Armor @-@ Piercing , Capped ) shell weighed 2 @,@ 700 lb ( 1225 kg ) and was designed to penetrate the hardened steel armor carried by foreign battleships . At 20 @,@ 000 yards ( 18 km ) the Mk . 8 could penetrate 20 inches ( 500 mm ) of steel armor plate . At the same range , the Mk . 8 could penetrate 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) of reinforced concrete .
For unarmored targets and shore bombardment , the 1 @,@ 900 lb ( 862 kg ) Mk . 13 HC ( High @-@ Capacity — referring to the large bursting charge ) shell was available . The Mk . 13 shell would create a crater 50 feet ( 15 m ) wide and 20 feet ( 6 m ) deep upon impact and detonation , and could defoliate trees 400 yards ( 360 m ) from the point of impact .
The final type of ammunition developed for the Iowa class were " Katie " shells . These shells were born from the concept of nuclear deterrence that had begun to shape the United States armed forces as the Cold War began . To compete with the Air Force and the Army , which had developed nuclear bombs and nuclear shells for use on the battlefield , the US Navy began a top @-@ secret program to develop Mk . 23 nuclear naval shells with an estimated yield of 15 to 20 kilotons . These shells were designed to be launched from the best seaborne artillery platform available , which at the time were the four ships of the Iowa class . The shells entered development around 1953 , and were reportedly ready by 1956 ; however , it is not known whether they were ever actually deployed on the Iowa @-@ class battleships because the US Navy does not confirm or deny the presence of nuclear weapons aboard its ships . In 1991 the US unilaterally withdrew its nuclear artillery shells from service , and Russia responded in kind in 1992 . The US removed around 1 @,@ 300 nuclear shells from Europe and reportedly dismantled its last shells by 2003 .
= = Secondary battery = =
The secondary battery was a dual @-@ purpose weapon system ; it was designed to defend the ship from either surface or airborne threats . The original secondary battery consisted of 10 Mark 28 , Mod 2 twin gun mounts , and four Mark 37 Gun Fire Control Systems . At first , this battery 's effectiveness against aircraft diminished as planes became faster , but this changed toward the end of World War II through a combination of an upgrade to the Mk37 System and the development of the VT ( Variable Time ) proximity fuze . In preparation for the reactivations in the 1960s and 1980s , the battery was updated to the latest gun and fire control system modifications . In the 1968 upgrade to the USS New Jersey for service off Vietnam , three Mark 56 Gun Fire Control Systems were installed , two on either side just forward of the aft stack , and one between the aft mast and the aft Mk 38 Director tower . This increased New Jersey 's anti @-@ aircraft capability , because the Mk 56 system could track and shoot at faster planes . In the 1980s modernization , the Mk 56 GFCSs and four mounts were removed to make room for missiles , leaving the Secondary battery with four Mk 37 GFCSs and six twin mounts on all the Iowa class . By the time of the Gulf War the secondary battery was largely relegated to shore bombardment and littoral defense . Since each battleship carried a small detachment of Marines aboard , the Marines would man one of the 5 @-@ inch gun mounts .
= = = Mark 28 , Mod 2 mounts = = =
Each Mk 28 Mod 2 Mount carried two Mark 12 , 5in / 38cal gun assemblies , electric @-@ hydraulic drives for bearing and elevation , optical sights , automatic fuze setter , automatic sight setter , and an upper handling room . Each armored twin mount weighed 170 @,@ 635 lb ( 77 @,@ 399 kg ) . The mount had a crew of 13 , not including the ammunition movers in the upper handling room and magazines , drawn from the sailors and Marines serving aboard the ship .
= = = = Mark 12 gun assembly = = = =
The Mk12 Gun Assembly ( pictured ) was a semi @-@ automatic , power rammed , vertical sliding @-@ wedge breech block type gun . Since this gun assembly fired semi @-@ fixed ammunition , ( pictured ) each round was delivered to the guns in two pieces . Each gun , in this twin mount , had its own projectile hoist and powder case hoist from the upper handling room . The electric @-@ hydraulic projectile hoist would deliver a projectile next to the projectile man with the nose down and waist high . The electric @-@ hydraulic powder case hoist poked the case through a powder scuttle in the gun room 's deck just next to the powder man 's feet . At the load command , the powder man would slip a primer protector off the end of the powder case , extract the case from the scuttle , and lift it into the gun 's rammer tray . Meanwhile , the projectile man would pull a projectile out of the hoist , and place it in the rammer tray in front of the powder case . Then , as he turned to get the next projectile out of the hoist , the projectile man would pull down on the rammer lever . This caused the power rammer to ram the projectile and powder case into the chamber . As the powder case cleared the top of the breechblock , the block would rise to seal the chamber . The gun was ready to fire . The case combination primer in the base of the powder case could be fired either electrically or by percussion . Electrical firing was the preferred method because the firing circuit could be energized by firing keys down in the plotting room when firing salvos at surface targets , or up in the director when firing at air targets . Percussion firing could be executed by the Pointer ( man controlling elevation ) by pushing a foot treadle . When the gun fired , the recoil 's rearward motion returned the rammer lever to the up position , and the rammer would drive back to the rear of the rammer tray . During counter @-@ recoil , the breechblock was automatically lowered and the spent powder case was ejected from the chamber . When the gun returned to battery , a blast of compressed air was sent down the bore to clean it out . The gun was ready to be reloaded .
= = = = Electric @-@ hydraulic drives = = = =
The electric @-@ hydraulic drives powered the mount 's motion . The three modes of drive operation were automatic , local , and manual . In automatic , the drives would follow the bearing and elevation orders of the fire control system . In local , the drives would follow the motion of the trainer 's and pointer 's hand wheels . ( This is similar to power steering on a car . ) Manual was direct gear linkage from the hand wheels to move the mount with no power assist .
= = = = Sights = = = =
The periscopic sights ( the boxes on the side of the mount ) allowed the trainer and pointer to see the target from inside the armored enclosure . Each sight had movable prisms that allowed its line of sight to be moved relative to the barrel 's bore axis . These prisms could be controlled by the fire control system when the mount was in Automatic , or by the mount 's sight setter operator when the mount was in Local . Local control was not the preferred combat method , but it could be used if the fire control systems were damaged . The mount captain was trained in aiming and correcting the fall of shot .
= = = = Upper handling room = = = =
The upper handling room was just below the visible part of the mount . It was armored and reinforced to support the weight of the mount . A person standing in the upper handling room could look up and see the bottom of the gun mount inside the training circle on which the mount rotated . Hanging from the mount , and rotating with it , was the equipment used to pass ammunition up to the mount . This included the lower ends of the projectile and powder case hoists . In the center of the room there was a vertical tube that also turned with the mount . This tube enclosed the electrical power and control cables going up to the mount . Around the perimeter of the upper handling room were the ready service ammunition racks welded to the bulkheads . Close by , either in a corner of the handling room or in an adjoining compartment was the upper end of an ammunition hoist from the magazine . The responsibility of the men stationed in the upper handling room was to shuttle 30 to 40 projectiles and 30 to 40 powder cases per minute from the ready service racks to the hoists while avoiding the equipment rotating with the mount . During quiet spells , they would replenish the ready service racks with ammunition from the magazines .
= = = Mark 37 gun fire control system = = =
The Mark 37 Gun Fire Control System ( GFCS ) was the primary Fire Control System for the Secondary Battery . There were four Mk37 GFCSs on board ; one forward above the navigation bridge , two amidships on either side of the forward stack , and one aft between the aft Mk38 Director and Turret three . The major components of the Mk 37 GFCS were the Mk 37 Director , and the equipment in the plotting room .
= = = = Mark 37 director = = = =
The function of the Mark 37 director ( pictured ) was to track the present position of the target in bearing , elevation , and range . To do this , it had optical sights ( the rectangular widows on the front ) , an optical rangefinder ( the tubes sticking out each side ) , and Fire Control Radar antennas . On the MK 37 Director pictured , the rectangular antenna is for the Mark 12 FC radar , and the parabolic antenna on the left is for the Mk 22 FC radar . They were part of an upgrade to improve tracking of aircraft . The Director Officer also had a Slew Sight that he could use to quickly point the director towards a new target .
= = = = Plotting room = = = =
The secondary battery plotting rooms were down below the waterline and inside the armor belt . They contained four complete sets of fire control equipment needed to aim and shoot at four targets . Each set included a Mark 1A computer , a Mark 6 Stable Element , FC Radar controls and displays , Parallax correctors , a switchboard , and crew to operate it all .
The Mark 1A Fire Control Computer ( pictured ) was an electro @-@ mechanical analog ballistic computer . Its function was to automatically aim the guns so that a fired projectile would collide with the target . This was the same function as the main battery 's Mk 8 Rangekeeper above except that some of the targets the Mark 1A had to deal with also moved in elevation — and much faster . For a surface target , the Secondary Battery 's Fire Control problem is the same as the Main Battery 's with the same type inputs and outputs . The major difference between the two computers was their ballistics calculations . The amount of gun elevation needed to project a 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) shell 9 nmi ( 17 km ) is different than the elevation needed to project a 16 @-@ inch shell the same distance . The ballistics calculations in these mechanical analog computers were performed by mechanisms like differential gears , levers , and small rods riding on the surface of three @-@ dimensional cams . These mechanical adders , multipliers , and table lookup devices were handmade at the factory , and were buried deep in the workings of the computer . It was not possible to change a computer 's ballistics at sea until the advent of fast digital computers . The anti @-@ aircraft fire control problem was more complicated because it had the additional requirement of tracking the target in elevation and making target predictions in three dimensions . The outputs of the Mk 1A were the same ( gun bearing and elevation ) , except fuze time was added . The fuze time was needed because the ideal of directly hitting the fast moving aircraft with the projectile was impractical . With fuze time set into the shell , it was hoped that it would explode near enough to the target to destroy it with the shock wave and shrapnel . Towards the end of World War II , the invention of the VT proximity fuze eliminated the need to use the fuze time calculation and its possible error . This greatly increased the odds of destroying an air target .
The function of the Mk 6 Stable Element ( pictured ) in this fire control system was the same as the function of the Mk 41 Stable Vertical in the main battery system above . It was a vertical seeking gyroscope that supplied the system with a stable up direction on a rolling and pitching ship . In surface mode , it replaced the director 's elevation signal . It also had the surface mode firing keys .
The Fire @-@ control radar used on the Mk 37 GFCS has evolved . In the 1930s , the Mk 37 Director did not have a radar antenna . Then in September 1941 , the rectangular Mk 4 Fire @-@ control radar antenna was mounted on top . Soon aircraft flew faster , and in c1944 to increase speed and accuracy the Mk 4 was replaced by a combination of the Mk 12 ( rectangular antenna ) and Mk 22 ( parabolic antenna ) radars . ( pictured ) Finally , the circular SPG 25 antenna was mounted on top as seen in the USS Wisconsin photo at the top of this article . ( Look at the Mk 37 Director just above the bridge . )
= = Anti @-@ aircraft batteries = =
Since they were designed to escort the US fleet of fast attack aircraft carriers , the Iowa @-@ class battleships were all intended to carry a fearsome array of anti @-@ aircraft guns to protect US aircraft carriers from Japanese fighters and dive bombers . This array included up to 20 quad 40 mm mounts and 49 single 20 mm mounts . In the 1968 USS New Jersey re @-@ activation for service off Vietnam , the 20 mm and 40 mm batteries were removed . In the 1980s re @-@ activation , all the ships with 20 mm and 40 mm batteries had them removed , and four Phalanx CIWS mounts were added to all .
= = = Oerlikon 20 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns = = =
The Oerlikon 20 mm anti @-@ aircraft gun was one of the most heavily produced anti @-@ aircraft guns of the Second World War ; the US alone manufactured a total of 124 @,@ 735 of these guns . When activated in 1941 these guns replaced the 0 @.@ 50 " / 90 ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) M2 Browning MG on a one @-@ for @-@ one basis . The Oerlikon 20 mm AA gun remained the primary anti @-@ aircraft weapon of the United States Navy until the introduction of the 40 mm Bofors AA gun in 1943 .
These guns were air @-@ cooled and used a gas blowback recoil system . Unlike other automatic guns employed during World War II the barrel of the 20 mm Oerlikon gun did not recoil , the breechblock never locked against the breech and actually moved forward when the gun fired . This weapon lacked a counter @-@ recoil brake , as the force of the counter @-@ recoil was checked by the explosion of the next round of ammunition .
Between December 1941 and September 1944 , 32 % of all Japanese aircraft downed were credited to this weapon , with the high point being 48 @.@ 3 % for the second half of 1942 . In 1943 the revolutionary Mark 14 Gun Sight was introduced which made these guns even more effective ; however , the 20 mm guns were found to be ineffective against the Japanese Kamikaze attacks used during the latter half of World War II . They were subsequently phased out in favor of the heavier 40 mm Bofors AA guns .
= = = Bofors 40 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns = = =
Arguably the best light anti @-@ aircraft weapon of World War II , the Bofors 40 mm anti @-@ aircraft gun was used on almost every major warship in the US and UK fleet during World War II from about 1943 to 1945 . Although a descendant of German and Swedish designs , the Bofors mounts used by the US Navy during World War II had been heavily " Americanized " to bring the guns up to the standards placed on them by the US Navy . This resulted in a guns system set to English standards ( now known as the Standard System ) with interchangeable ammunition , which simplified the logistics situation for World War II . When coupled with electric @-@ hydraulic drives for greater speed and the Mark 51 Director ( pictured ) for improved accuracy , the Bofors 40 mm gun became a fearsome adversary , accounting for roughly half of all Japanese aircraft shot down between 1 October 1944 and 1 February 1945 .
When the Iowa @-@ class battleships were launched in 1943 and 1944 they carried twenty quad Bofors 40 mm gun mounts , which they used for defense against enemy aircraft . These heavy guns were also employed in the protection of allied aircraft carriers operating in the Pacific Theater of World War II . These guns remained on the battleships Iowa , Missouri , and Wisconsin from the time they were commissioned until they were reactivated for service in the 1980s . As each battleship arrived for modernization during the early and mid @-@ 1980s the Bofors mounts that remained aboard were removed due in large part to the ineffectiveness of such manually aimed weapons against modern day jet fighters and enemy missiles . The replacement for the Bofors guns was the US Navy 's Phalanx Close @-@ in weapon system ( CIWS ) .
= = = Phalanx CIWS = = =
During their modernization in the 1980s , each Iowa @-@ class battleship was equipped with four of the US Navy 's Phalanx CIWS mounts , two of which sat just behind the bridge and two which were forward and outboard of the after ship 's funnel . Iowa , New Jersey , and Missouri were equipped with the Block 0 version of the Phalanx , while Wisconsin received the first operational Block 1 version in 1988 .
Developed as the final line of defense ( terminal defense or point defense ) against anti @-@ ship missiles , the Phalanx Close in Weapon System ( CIWS , pronounced " sea @-@ whiz " ) is the anti @-@ aircraft / anti @-@ missile gun currently in use in the US Navy . Due to their distinctive shape , they have been nicknamed " R2D2s " , in reference to the droid R2 @-@ D2 from the Star Wars universe . Designed in the early 1970s by General Dynamics , and currently produced by Raytheon , the Phalanx CIWS mount utilizes a 20 mm M61 Vulcan Gatling gun to destroy enemy missiles and aircraft that manage to escape anti @-@ missile and anti @-@ aircraft missiles fired from friendly ships .
The Phalanx guns worked by using a search radar and a tracking radar to follow targets that approached within 1 to 1 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 2 @.@ 8 km ) . When a target was within this range the CIWS mount moved to track the target while simultaneously evaluating the target against several preset criteria to determine the next course of action . Depending on whether the target criteria were met , the Phalanx mount automatically engaged the incoming target if it was judged to be hostile in nature , or the system recommended that the Phalanx operator engage the target .
Phalanx CIWS mounts were used by Missouri and Wisconsin during the 1991 Gulf War ; Wisconsin alone fired 5 @,@ 200 20 mm Phalanx CIWS rounds . Missouri also received Phalanx fire during a " friendly fire " incident in which the Oliver Hazard Perry @-@ class guided missile frigate USS Jarrett mistook chaff fired by Missouri for a legitimate target and shot at Missouri . Rounds from this attack struck the ship in the bulkhead above the famed " surrender deck " and bounced off the armor , one round penetrated the forward funnel and passed completely through it , and another round penetrated a bulkhead and embedded in an interior passageway of the ship .
= = Missiles = =
During the modernization in the 1980s , three important weapons were added to the Iowa @-@ class battleships . The first was the CIWS anti @-@ aircraft / anti @-@ missile system discussed above . The other two were missiles for use against both land and sea targets . At one point the NATO Sea Sparrow was to be installed on the reactivated battleships ; however , it was determined that the system could not withstand the over @-@ pressure effects when the main battery was fired .
= = = Tomahawk land attack missile = = =
The BGM @-@ 109 Tomahawk Land Attack Missile ( TLAM ) was first introduced in the 1970s , and entered service with the United States in 1983 . Designed as a long @-@ range , all @-@ weather , subsonic cruise missile , the Tomahawk was capable of reaching targets at a much greater range than the 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) guns on the Iowa @-@ class ships . When added to the battleships in the 1980s the Tomahawk became the longest @-@ ranged weapon carried by the battleships .
Owing to the original 1938 design of the battleships , the Tomahawk missiles could not be fitted to the Iowa @-@ class unless the battleships were physically rebuilt in such a way as to accommodate the missile mounts that would be needed to store and launch the Tomahawks . This realization prompted the removal of the anti @-@ aircraft guns previously installed on the Iowas and the removal of four of each of the battleships ' ten 5 " / 38 DP mounts . The mid and aft end of the battleships were then rebuilt to accommodate the missile magazines . This resulted in the construction of two separate platforms , one located between the first and second funnel and one located behind the second funnel , to which MK @-@ 143 Armored Box Launcher ( ABL ) canisters could be attached . Each Armored Box Launcher carried four missiles , and each of the battleships was outfitted with eight canisters , enabling the Iowa @-@ class to carry and fire a total of 32 Tomahawk missiles .
The type of Tomahawk carried by the battleships varied , as there were three basic configurations for the Tomahawk : the Anti @-@ Ship Missile ( TASM ) , the Land @-@ Attack Missile @-@ Conventional ( TLAM @-@ C ) , and the Land @-@ Attack Missile @-@ Nuclear ( TLAM @-@ N ) . Each version was similar in appearance and used the same airframe body and launcher . The conventional Tomahawk missile could carry a 1 @,@ 000 lb ( 450 kg ) explosive warhead or submunitions which used the missile body to reach their destination . The nuclear variant carried a 200 kt W80 nuclear warhead .
The TLAM could be equipped with an inertial and terrain contour matching ( TERCOM ) radar guidance package to find and destroy its target . The TERCOM radar used a stored map reference to compare with the actual terrain to determine the missile 's position . If necessary , a course correction was then made to place the missile on course to the target . Terminal guidance in the target area was provided by the optical Digital Scene Matching Area Correlation ( DSMAC ) system , which compared a stored image of target with the actual target image .
The firing weight of the Tomahawk was 2 @,@ 650 lb ( 1 @,@ 200 kg ) plus a 550 lb ( 250 kg ) booster . It had a cruising speed of 0 @.@ 5 Mach and an attack speed of 0 @.@ 75 Mach . The anti @-@ ship version of the Tomahawk had an operating range of 250 nmi ( 460 km ) and a maximum range of 470 nmi ( 870 km ) , while the conventional land attack missile version had a maximum range of 675 nmi ( 1 @,@ 250 km ) and TLAM @-@ N had maximum range of 1 @,@ 500 nmi ( 2 @,@ 800 km ) .
During the 1991 Gulf War , USS Missouri and USS Wisconsin used ABL launchers to fire Tomahawk missiles at Iraqi targets during Operation Desert Storm . Wisconsin served as the Tomahawk Land Attack Missile ( TLAM ) strike commander for the Persian Gulf , directing the sequence of launches that marked the opening of Operation Desert Storm and fired a total of 24 of her own TLAMs during the first two days of the campaign .
= = = Harpoon anti @-@ ship missile = = =
For protection against enemy ships , the Iowa class was outfitted with the Harpoon Weapons System . The system consisted of four Mk 141 " shock @-@ hardened " quad cell launchers designed to carry and fire the McDonnell Douglas RGM @-@ 84 Harpoon anti @-@ ship missile . Each Harpoon was placed in one of four Mk 141 launchers located alongside the aft stack ; eight per side , in two pods of four . The weight of the Harpoon at firing was 1 @,@ 530 lb ( 690 kg ) , which included a booster weighing about 362 lb ( 164 kg ) . The cruising speed was 0 @.@ 87 Mach and the maximum range was 64 nmi ( 119 km ) in Range and Bearing Launch mode and 85 nmi ( 157 km ) in Bearing Only Launch mode .
When an Iowa class battleship fired a Harpoon Missile , a booster propelled the missile away from the ship ; after approximately 5 miles ( 8 km ) , the booster dropped away . After the booster was discarded a turbojet engine ignited and propelled the missile to the target . The stabilizing and actuator fins , which helped to guide the missile to its target , were stored folded in the canister and sprang into position after launching . These fins directed the missile to the target through inputs from the AN / SWG @-@ 1 Harpoon Fire Control System .
The battleships carried and used the RGM / UGM @-@ 84 variants of the Harpoon Missile , which was designed to be fired by surface ships . The version used a solid @-@ fueled rocket booster in an A / B44G @-@ 2 or -3 booster section , which was discarded after burn @-@ out . The maximum range was around 140 kilometres ( 76 nmi ) .
After launch , the missile was guided towards the target location as determined by the ship using a three @-@ axis Attitude Reference Assembly ( ATA ) in an AN / DSQ @-@ 44 guidance section . The ATA was less accurate than a full @-@ fledged inertial system , but good enough for Harpoon 's range . For stabilization and control , the AGM @-@ 84A had four fixed cruciform wings ( 3x BSU @-@ 42 / B , 1x BSU @-@ 43 / B ) and four movable BSU @-@ 44 / B tail fins . The missile flew at a low cruise altitude and at a predetermined distance from the expected target position , its AN / DSQ @-@ 28 J @-@ band active radar seeker in the nose was activated to acquire and lock on the target . The radar switch @-@ on distance could be set to lower or higher values , the former requiring a more precisely @-@ known target location but reducing the risk to be defeated by enemy Electronic Counter Measures ( ECM ) .
An alternative launch mode was called Bearing @-@ Only Launch ( BOL ) . In this mode , the missile was launched in the general direction of the target , and its radar activated from the beginning to scan for the target in a + / - 45 ° sector in front of the flight path . Once a target was located and the seeker locked the xGM @-@ 84A missile climbed rapidly to about 1800 m before diving on the target in what was known as a " pop @-@ up maneuver " . The 221 kg ( 488 lb ) WDU @-@ 18 / B penetrating blast @-@ fragmentation warhead ( in the WAU @-@ 3 ( V ) / B warhead section ) was triggered by a time @-@ delayed impact fuze . When no target was acquired after radar activation , the Harpoon would self @-@ destruct .
= Paleontology =
Paleontology or palaeontology ( / ˌpeɪlɪɒnˈtɒlədʒi / , / ˌpeɪlɪənˈtɒlədʒi / or / ˌpælɪɒnˈtɒlədʒi / , / ˌpælɪənˈtɒlədʒi / ) is the scientific study of life that existed prior to , and sometimes including , the start of the Holocene Epoch ( roughly 11 @,@ 700 years before present ) . It includes the study of fossils to determine organisms ' evolution and interactions with each other and their environments ( their paleoecology ) . Paleontological observations have been documented as far back as the 5th century BC . The science became established in the 18th century as a result of Georges Cuvier 's work on comparative anatomy , and developed rapidly in the 19th century . The term itself originates from Greek παλαιός , palaios , i.e. " old , ancient " , ὄν , on ( gen. ontos ) , i.e. " being , creature " and λόγος , logos , i.e. " speech , thought , study " .
Paleontology lies on the border between biology and geology , but differs from archaeology in that it excludes the study of anatomically modern humans . It now uses techniques drawn from a wide range of sciences , including biochemistry , mathematics , and engineering . Use of all these techniques has enabled paleontologists to discover much of the evolutionary history of life , almost all the way back to when Earth became capable of supporting life , about 3 @,@ 800 million years ago . As knowledge has increased , paleontology has developed specialised sub @-@ divisions , some of which focus on different types of fossil organisms while others study ecology and environmental history , such as ancient climates .
Body fossils and trace fossils are the principal types of evidence about ancient life , and geochemical evidence has helped to decipher the evolution of life before there were organisms large enough to leave body fossils . Estimating the dates of these remains is essential but difficult : sometimes adjacent rock layers allow radiometric dating , which provides absolute dates that are accurate to within 0 @.@ 5 % , but more often paleontologists have to rely on relative dating by solving the " jigsaw puzzles " of biostratigraphy . Classifying ancient organisms is also difficult , as many do not fit well into the Linnean taxonomy that is commonly used for classifying living organisms , and paleontologists more often use cladistics to draw up evolutionary " family trees " . The final quarter of the 20th century saw the development of molecular phylogenetics , which investigates how closely organisms are related by measuring how similar the DNA is in their genomes . Molecular phylogenetics has also been used to estimate the dates when species diverged , but there is controversy about the reliability of the molecular clock on which such estimates depend .
= = Overview = =
The simplest definition is " the study of ancient life " . Paleontology seeks information about several aspects of past organisms : " their identity and origin , their environment and evolution , and what they can tell us about the Earth 's organic and inorganic past " .
= = = A historical science = = =
Paleontology is one of the historical sciences , along with archaeology , geology , astronomy , cosmology , philology and history itself . This means that it aims to describe phenomena of the past and reconstruct their causes . Hence it has three main elements : description of the phenomena ; developing a general theory about the causes of various types of change ; and applying those theories to specific facts .
When trying to explain past phenomena , paleontologists and other historical scientists often construct a set of hypotheses about the causes and then look for a smoking gun , a piece of evidence that indicates that one hypothesis is a better explanation than others . Sometimes the smoking gun is discovered by a fortunate accident during other research . For example , the discovery by Luis Alvarez and Walter Alvarez of an iridium @-@ rich layer at the Cretaceous – Tertiary boundary made asteroid impact and volcanism the most favored explanations for the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event .
The other main type of science is experimental science , which is often said to work by conducting experiments to disprove hypotheses about the workings and causes of natural phenomena – note that this approach cannot confirm a hypothesis is correct , since some later experiment may disprove it . However , when confronted with totally unexpected phenomena , such as the first evidence for invisible radiation , experimental scientists often use the same approach as historical scientists : construct a set of hypotheses about the causes and then look for a " smoking gun " .
= = = Related sciences = = =
Paleontology lies on the boundary between biology and geology since paleontology focuses on the record of past life but its main source of evidence is fossils , which are found in rocks . For historical reasons paleontology is part of the geology departments of many universities , because in the 19th century and early 20th century geology departments found paleontological evidence important for estimating the ages of rocks while biology departments showed little interest .
Paleontology also has some overlap with archaeology , which primarily works with objects made by humans and with human remains , while paleontologists are interested in the characteristics and evolution of humans as organisms . When dealing with evidence about humans , archaeologists and paleontologists may work together – for example paleontologists might identify animal or plant fossils around an archaeological site , to discover what the people who lived there ate ; or they might analyze the climate at the time when the site was inhabited by humans .
In addition paleontology often uses techniques derived from other sciences , including biology , osteology , ecology , chemistry , physics and mathematics . For example , geochemical signatures from rocks may help to discover when life first arose on Earth , and analyses of carbon isotope ratios may help to identify climate changes and even to explain major transitions such as the Permian – Triassic extinction event . A relatively recent discipline , molecular phylogenetics , often helps by using comparisons of different modern organisms ' DNA and RNA to re @-@ construct evolutionary " family trees " ; it has also been used to estimate the dates of important evolutionary developments , although this approach is controversial because of doubts about the reliability of the " molecular clock " . Techniques developed in engineering have been used to analyse how ancient organisms might have worked , for example how fast Tyrannosaurus could move and how powerful its bite was . It is relatively commonplace to study fossils using X @-@ ray microtomography A combination of paleontology , biology , and archaeology , paleoneurology is the study of endocranial casts ( or endocasts ) of species related to humans to learn about the evolution of human brains .
Paleontology even contributes to astrobiology , the investigation of possible life on other planets , by developing models of how life may have arisen and by providing techniques for detecting evidence of life .
= = = Subdivisions = = =
As knowledge has increased , paleontology has developed specialised subdivisions . Vertebrate paleontology concentrates on fossils of vertebrates , from the earliest fish to the immediate ancestors of modern mammals . Invertebrate paleontology deals with fossils of invertebrates such as molluscs , arthropods , annelid worms and echinoderms . Paleobotany focuses on the study of fossil plants , but traditionally includes the study of fossil algae and fungi . Palynology , the study of pollen and spores produced by land plants and protists , straddles the border between paleontology and botany , as it deals with both living and fossil organisms . Micropaleontology deals with all microscopic fossil organisms , regardless of the group to which they belong .
Instead of focusing on individual organisms , paleoecology examines the interactions between different organisms , such as their places in food chains , and the two @-@ way interaction between organisms and their environment . One example is the development of oxygenic photosynthesis by bacteria , which hugely increased the productivity and diversity of ecosystems . This also caused the oxygenation of the atmosphere . Together , these were a prerequisite for the evolution of the most complex eukaryotic cells , from which all multicellular organisms are built .
Paleoclimatology , although sometimes treated as part of paleoecology , focuses more on the history of Earth 's climate and the mechanisms that have changed it – which have sometimes included evolutionary developments , for example the rapid expansion of land plants in the Devonian period removed more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere , reducing the greenhouse effect and thus helping to cause an ice age in the Carboniferous period .
Biostratigraphy , the use of fossils to work out the chronological order in which rocks were formed , is useful to both paleontologists and geologists . Biogeography studies the spatial distribution of organisms , and is also linked to geology , which explains how Earth 's geography has changed over time .
= = = Body fossils = = =
Fossils of organisms ' bodies are usually the most informative type of evidence . The most common types are wood , bones , and shells . Fossilisation is a rare event , and most fossils are destroyed by erosion or metamorphism before they can be observed . Hence the fossil record is very incomplete , increasingly so further back in time . Despite this , it is often adequate to illustrate the broader patterns of life 's history . There are also biases in the fossil record : different environments are more favorable to the preservation of different types of organism or parts of organisms . Further , only the parts of organisms that were already mineralised are usually preserved , such as the shells of molluscs . Since most animal species are soft @-@ bodied , they decay before they can become fossilised . As a result , although there are 30 @-@ plus phyla of living animals , two @-@ thirds have never been found as fossils .
Occasionally , unusual environments may preserve soft tissues . These lagerstätten allow paleontologists to examine the internal anatomy of animals that in other sediments are represented only by shells , spines , claws , etc . – if they are preserved at all . However , even lagerstätten present an incomplete picture of life at the time . The majority of organisms living at the time are probably not represented because lagerstätten are restricted to a narrow range of environments , e.g. where soft @-@ bodied organisms can be preserved very quickly by events such as mudslides ; and the exceptional events that cause quick burial make it difficult to study the normal environments of the animals . The sparseness of the fossil record means that organisms are expected to exist long before and after they are found in the fossil record – this is known as the Signor @-@ Lipps effect .
= = = Trace fossils = = =
Trace fossils consist mainly of tracks and burrows , but also include coprolites ( fossil feces ) and marks left by feeding . Trace fossils are particularly significant because they represent a data source that is not limited to animals with easily fossilised hard parts , and they reflect organisms ' behaviours . Also many traces date from significantly earlier than the body fossils of animals that are thought to have been capable of making them . Whilst exact assignment of trace fossils to their makers is generally impossible , traces may for example provide the earliest physical evidence of the appearance of moderately complex animals ( comparable to earthworms ) .
= = = Geochemical observations = = =
Geochemical observations may help to deduce the global level of biological activity , or the affinity of certain fossils . For example , geochemical features of rocks may reveal when life first arose on Earth , and may provide evidence of the presence of eukaryotic cells , the type from which all multicellular organisms are built . Analyses of carbon isotope ratios may help to explain major transitions such as the Permian – Triassic extinction event .
= = Classifying ancient organisms = =
Naming groups of organisms in a way that is clear and widely agreed is important , as some disputes in paleontology have been based just on misunderstandings over names . Linnean taxonomy is commonly used for classifying living organisms , but runs into difficulties when dealing with newly discovered organisms that are significantly different from known ones . For example : it is hard to decide at what level to place a new higher @-@ level grouping , e.g. genus or family or order ; this is important since the Linnean rules for naming groups are tied to their levels , and hence if a group is moved to a different level it must be renamed .
Paleontologists generally use approaches based on cladistics , a technique for working out the evolutionary " family tree " of a set of organisms . It works by the logic that , if groups B and C have more similarities to each other than either has to group A , then B and C are more closely related to each other than either is to A. Characters that are compared may be anatomical , such as the presence of a notochord , or molecular , by comparing sequences of DNA or proteins . The result of a successful analysis is a hierarchy of clades – groups that share a common ancestor . Ideally the " family tree " has only two branches leading from each node ( " junction " ) , but sometimes there is too little information to achieve this and paleontologists have to make do with junctions that have several branches . The cladistic technique is sometimes fallible , as some features , such as wings or camera eyes , evolved more than once , convergently – this must be taken into account in analyses .
Evolutionary developmental biology , commonly abbreviated to " Evo Devo " , also helps paleontologists to produce " family trees " , and understand fossils . For example , the embryological development of some modern brachiopods suggests that brachiopods may be descendants of the halkieriids , which became extinct in the Cambrian period .
= = Estimating the dates of organisms = =
Paleontology seeks to map out how living things have changed through time . A substantial hurdle to this aim is the difficulty of working out how old fossils are . Beds that preserve fossils typically lack the radioactive elements needed for radiometric dating . This technique is our only means of giving rocks greater than about 50 million years old an absolute age , and can be accurate to within 0 @.@ 5 % or better . Although radiometric dating requires very careful laboratory work , its basic principle is simple : the rates at which various radioactive elements decay are known , and so the ratio of the radioactive element to the element into which it decays shows how long ago the radioactive element was incorporated into the rock . Radioactive elements are common only in rocks with a volcanic origin , and so the only fossil @-@ bearing rocks that can be dated radiometrically are a few volcanic ash layers .
Consequently , paleontologists must usually rely on stratigraphy to date fossils . Stratigraphy is the science of deciphering the " layer @-@ cake " that is the sedimentary record , and has been compared to a jigsaw puzzle . Rocks normally form relatively horizontal layers , with each layer younger than the one underneath it . If a fossil is found between two layers whose ages are known , the fossil 's age must lie between the two known ages . Because rock sequences are not continuous , but may be broken up by faults or periods of erosion , it is very difficult to match up rock beds that are not directly next to one another . However , fossils of species that survived for a relatively short time can be used to link up isolated rocks : this technique is called biostratigraphy . For instance , the conodont Eoplacognathus pseudoplanus has a short range in the Middle Ordovician period . If rocks of unknown age are found to have traces of E. pseudoplanus , they must have a mid @-@ Ordovician age . Such index fossils must be distinctive , be globally distributed and have a short time range to be useful . However , misleading results are produced if the index fossils turn out to have longer fossil ranges than first thought . Stratigraphy and biostratigraphy can in general provide only relative dating ( A was before B ) , which is often sufficient for studying evolution . However , this is difficult for some time periods , because of the problems involved in matching up rocks of the same age across different continents .
Family @-@ tree relationships may also help to narrow down the date when lineages first appeared . For instance , if fossils of B or C date to X million years ago and the calculated " family tree " says A was an ancestor of B and C , then A must have evolved more than X million years ago .
It is also possible to estimate how long ago two living clades diverged – i.e. approximately how long ago their last common ancestor must have lived – by assuming that DNA mutations accumulate at a constant rate . These " molecular clocks " , however , are fallible , and provide only a very approximate timing : for example , they are not sufficiently precise and reliable for estimating when the groups that feature in the Cambrian explosion first evolved , and estimates produced by different techniques may vary by a factor of two .
= = Overview of the history of life = =
The evolutionary history of life stretches back to over 3 @,@ 000 million years ago , possibly as far as 3 @,@ 800 million years ago . Earth formed about 4 @,@ 570 million years ago and , after a collision that formed the Moon about 40 million years later , may have cooled quickly enough to have oceans and an atmosphere about 4 @,@ 440 million years ago . However , there is evidence on the Moon of a Late Heavy Bombardment from 4 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 800 million years ago . If , as seems likely , such a bombardment struck Earth at the same time , the first atmosphere and oceans may have been stripped away . The oldest clear evidence of life on Earth dates to 3 @,@ 000 million years ago , although there have been reports , often disputed , of fossil bacteria from 3 @,@ 400 million years ago and of geochemical evidence for the presence of life 3 @,@ 800 million years ago . Some scientists have proposed that life on Earth was " seeded " from elsewhere , but most research concentrates on various explanations of how life could have arisen independently on Earth .
For about 2 @,@ 000 million years microbial mats , multi @-@ layered colonies of different types of bacteria , were the dominant life on Earth . The evolution of oxygenic photosynthesis enabled them to play the major role in the oxygenation of the atmosphere from about 2 @,@ 400 million years ago . This change in the atmosphere increased their effectiveness as nurseries of evolution . While eukaryotes , cells with complex internal structures , may have been present earlier , their evolution speeded up when they acquired the ability to transform oxygen from a poison to a powerful source of energy in their metabolism . This innovation may have come from primitive eukaryotes capturing oxygen @-@ powered bacteria as endosymbionts and transforming them into organelles called mitochondria . The earliest evidence of complex eukaryotes with organelles such as mitochondria , dates from 1 @,@ 850 million years ago .
Multicellular life is composed only of eukaryotic cells , and the earliest evidence for it is the Francevillian Group Fossils from 2 @,@ 100 million years ago , although specialisation of cells for different functions first appears between 1 @,@ 430 million years ago ( a possible fungus ) and 1 @,@ 200 million years ago ( a probable red alga ) . Sexual reproduction may be a prerequisite for specialisation of cells , as an asexual multicellular organism might be at risk of being taken over by rogue cells that retain the ability to reproduce .
The earliest known animals are cnidarians from about 580 million years ago , but these are so modern @-@ looking that the earliest animals must have appeared before then . Early fossils of animals are rare because they did not develop mineralised hard parts that fossilise easily until about 548 million years ago . The earliest modern @-@ looking bilaterian animals appear in the Early Cambrian , along with several " weird wonders " that bear little obvious resemblance to any modern animals . There is a long @-@ running debate about whether this Cambrian explosion was truly a very rapid period of evolutionary experimentation ; alternative views are that modern @-@ looking animals began evolving earlier but fossils of their precursors have not yet been found , or that the " weird wonders " are evolutionary " aunts " and " cousins " of modern groups . Vertebrates remained an obscure group until the first fish with jaws appeared in the Late Ordovician .
The spread of life from water to land required organisms to solve several problems , including protection against drying out and supporting themselves against gravity . The earliest evidence of land plants and land invertebrates date back to about 476 million years ago and 490 million years ago respectively . The lineage that produced land vertebrates evolved later but very rapidly between 370 million years ago and 360 million years ago ; recent discoveries have overturned earlier ideas about the history and driving forces behind their evolution . Land plants were so successful that they caused an ecological crisis in the Late Devonian , until the evolution and spread of fungi that could digest dead wood .
During the Permian period synapsids , including the ancestors of mammals , may have dominated land environments , but the Permian – Triassic extinction event 251 million years ago came very close to wiping out complex life . The extinctions were apparently fairly sudden , at least among vertebrates . During the slow recovery from this catastrophe a previously obscure group , archosaurs , became the most abundant and diverse terrestrial vertebrates . One archosaur group , the dinosaurs , were the dominant land vertebrates for the rest of the Mesozoic , and birds evolved from one group of dinosaurs . During this time mammals ' ancestors survived only as small , mainly nocturnal insectivores , but this apparent set @-@ back may have accelerated the development of mammalian traits such as endothermy and hair . After the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event 65 million years ago killed off the non @-@ avian dinosaurs – birds are the only surviving dinosaurs – mammals increased rapidly in size and diversity , and some took to the air and the sea .
Fossil evidence indicates that flowering plants appeared and rapidly diversified in the Early Cretaceous , between 130 million years ago and 90 million years ago . Their rapid rise to dominance of terrestrial ecosystems is thought to have been propelled by coevolution with pollinating insects . Social insects appeared around the same time and , although they account for only small parts of the insect " family tree " , now form over 50 % of the total mass of all insects .
Humans evolved from a lineage of upright @-@ walking apes whose earliest fossils date from over 6 million years ago . Although early members of this lineage had chimp @-@ sized brains , about 25 % as big as modern humans ' , there are signs of a steady increase in brain size after about 3 million years ago . There is a long @-@ running debate about whether modern humans are descendants of a single small population in Africa , which then migrated all over the world less than 200 @,@ 000 years ago and replaced previous hominine species , or arose worldwide at the same time as a result of interbreeding .
= = = Mass extinctions = = =
Life on earth has suffered occasional mass extinctions at least since 542 million years ago . Although they are disasters at the time , mass extinctions have sometimes accelerated the evolution of life on earth . When dominance of particular ecological niches passes from one group of organisms to another , it is rarely because the new dominant group is " superior " to the old and usually because an extinction event eliminates the old dominant group and makes way for the new one .
The fossil record appears to show that the rate of extinction is slowing down , with both the gaps between mass extinctions becoming longer and the average and background rates of extinction decreasing . However , it is not certain whether the actual rate of extinction has altered , since both of these observations could be explained in several ways :
The oceans may have become more hospitable to life over the last 500 million years and less vulnerable to mass extinctions : dissolved oxygen became more widespread and penetrated to greater depths ; the development of life on land reduced the run @-@ off of nutrients and hence the risk of eutrophication and anoxic events ; marine ecosystems became more diversified so that food chains were less likely to be disrupted .
Reasonably complete fossils are very rare , most extinct organisms are represented only by partial fossils , and complete fossils are rarest in the oldest rocks . So paleontologists have mistakenly assigned parts of the same organism to different genera , which were often defined solely to accommodate these finds – the story of Anomalocaris is an example of this . The risk of this mistake is higher for older fossils because these are often unlike parts of any living organism . Many " superfluous " genera are represented by fragments that are not found again , and these " superfluous " genera appear to become extinct very quickly .
Biodiversity in the fossil record , which is
" the number of distinct genera alive at any given time ; that is , those whose first occurrence predates and whose last occurrence postdates that time "
shows a different trend : a fairly swift rise from 542 to 400 million years ago , a slight decline from 400 to 200 million years ago , in which the devastating Permian – Triassic extinction event is an important factor , and a swift rise from 200 million years ago to the present .
= = History of paleontology = =
Although paleontology became established around 1800 , earlier thinkers had noticed aspects of the fossil record . The ancient Greek philosopher Xenophanes ( 570 – 480 BC ) concluded from fossil sea shells that some areas of land were once under water . During the Middle Ages the Persian naturalist Ibn Sina , known as Avicenna in Europe , discussed fossils and proposed a theory of petrifying fluids on which Albert of Saxony elaborated in the 14th century . The Chinese naturalist Shen Kuo ( 1031 – 1095 ) proposed a theory of climate change based on the presence of petrified bamboo in regions that in his time were too dry for bamboo .
In early modern Europe , the systematic study of fossils emerged as an integral part of the changes in natural philosophy that occurred during the Age of Reason . In the Italian Renaissance , Leonardo Da Vinci made various significant contributions to the field as well designed numerous fossils . At the end of the 18th century Georges Cuvier 's work established comparative anatomy as a scientific discipline and , by proving that some fossil animals resembled no living ones , demonstrated that animals could become extinct , leading to the emergence of paleontology . The expanding knowledge of the fossil record also played an increasing role in the development of geology , particularly stratigraphy .
The first half of the 19th century saw geological and paleontological activity become increasingly well organised with the growth of geologic societies and museums and an increasing number of professional geologists and fossil specialists . Interest increased for reasons that were not purely scientific , as geology and paleontology helped industrialists to find and exploit natural resources such as coal .
This contributed to a rapid increase in knowledge about the history of life on Earth and to progress in the definition of the geologic time scale , largely based on fossil evidence . In 1822 Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blanville , editor of Journal de Physique , coined the word " palaeontology " to refer to the study of ancient living organisms through fossils . As knowledge of life 's history continued to improve , it became increasingly obvious that there had been some kind of successive order to the development of life . This encouraged early evolutionary theories on the transmutation of species . After Charles Darwin published Origin of Species in 1859 , much of the focus of paleontology shifted to understanding evolutionary paths , including human evolution , and evolutionary theory .
The last half of the 19th century saw a tremendous expansion in paleontological activity , especially in North America . The trend continued in the 20th century with additional regions of the Earth being opened to systematic fossil collection . Fossils found in China near the end of the 20th century have been particularly important as they have provided new information about the earliest evolution of animals , early fish , dinosaurs and the evolution of birds . The last few decades of the 20th century saw a renewed interest in mass extinctions and their role in the evolution of life on Earth . There was also a renewed interest in the Cambrian explosion that apparently saw the development of the body plans of most animal phyla . The discovery of fossils of the Ediacaran biota and developments in paleobiology extended knowledge about the history of life back far before the Cambrian .
Increasing awareness of Gregor Mendel 's pioneering work in genetics led first to the development of population genetics and then in the mid @-@ 20th century to the modern evolutionary synthesis , which explains evolution as the outcome of events such as mutations and horizontal gene transfer , which provide genetic variation , with genetic drift and natural selection driving changes in this variation over time . Within the next few years the role and operation of DNA in genetic inheritance were discovered , leading to what is now known as the " Central Dogma " of molecular biology . In the 1960s molecular phylogenetics , the investigation of evolutionary " family trees " by techniques derived from biochemistry , began to make an impact , particularly when it was proposed that the human lineage had diverged from apes much more recently than was generally thought at the time . Although this early study compared proteins from apes and humans , most molecular phylogenetics research is now based on comparisons of RNA and DNA .
= Iowa Highway 173 =
Iowa Highway 173 ( Iowa 173 ) is a 14 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 23 km ) state highway in western Iowa . It begins at Iowa 83 northwest of Atlantic and ends at Iowa 44 in Kimballton . Iowa 173 connects Elk Horn and Kimballton , two small towns with tributes to their residents ' Danish heritage . From its intersection with Interstate 80 ( I @-@ 80 ) north to Iowa 44 , Iowa 173 is designated as part of the Western Skies Scenic Byway . Designated in 1930 , the highway was originally a spur route into Elk Horn from Kimballton . The route was lengthened to its current extent in 1980 .
= = Route description = =
Iowa 173 begins at an intersection with Iowa 83 three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) northwest of Atlantic . It heads north through rural Cass County and intersects Interstate 80 ( I @-@ 80 ) at a partial cloverleaf interchange . Just north of the Interstate Highway , the route enters Shelby County . Further north , Iowa 173 passes through Elk Horn along Main Street where an authentic Danish windmill greets visitors to the Iowa welcome center .
North of Elk Horn , the highway curves to the west along the Shelby – Audubon county line and then back to the north . It continues north for three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) until it reaches Kimballton , where it also runs along Main Street . Near its northern end at Iowa 44 , Iowa 173 passes a replica of The Little Mermaid , a tribute to the town 's Danish heritage . The section of Iowa 173 from I @-@ 80 north to Iowa 44 is part of the 140 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 230 km ) Western Skies Scenic Byway .
= = History = =
Iowa 173 was designated in 1930 along a dirt road as a 3 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) spur route from Iowa 7 near Kimballton south to Elk Horn . The road was graveled in late 1932 , and it was paved in 1956 . In 1980 , Iowa 173 was lengthened significantly to the south . The new 11 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 18 km ) section of the route was paved when it was designated . Since its extension , the route has not undergone any changes .
= = Major intersections = =
= Peresvet @-@ class battleship =
The Peresvet class was a group of three pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Russian Navy around the end of the 19th century . Peresvet and Pobeda were transferred to the Pacific Squadron upon completion and based at Port Arthur from 1901 and 1903 , respectively . All three ships were lost by the Russians in the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 ; Peresvet and Pobeda participated in the Battles of Port Arthur and the Yellow Sea and were sunk during the Siege of Port Arthur . Oslyabya , the third ship , sailed to the Far East with the Second Pacific Squadron to relieve the Russian forces blockaded in Port Arthur and was sunk at the Battle of Tsushima with the loss of over half her crew .
Peresvet and Pobeda were salvaged after the Japanese captured Port Arthur and incorporated into the Imperial Japanese Navy . Peresvet was sold back to the Russians during World War I , as the two countries were by now allies , and sank after hitting German mines in the Mediterranean in early 1917 while Pobeda , renamed Suwo , remained instead in Japanese service and participated in the Battle of Tsingtao in late 1914 . She became a gunnery training ship in 1917 . The ship was disarmed in 1922 to comply with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty and probably scrapped around that time .
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gangster stars — Edward G. Robinson and Cagney — for the 1931 film Smart Money . So keen was the studio to follow up the success of Robinson 's Little Caesar that Cagney actually shot Smart Money ( for which he received second billing in a supporting role ) at the same time as The Public Enemy . As in The Public Enemy , Cagney was required to be physically violent to a woman on screen , a signal that Warner Bros. was keen to keep Cagney in the public eye . This time , he slapped co @-@ star Evalyn Knapp .
With the introduction of the United States Motion Picture Production Code of 1930 , and particularly its edicts concerning on @-@ screen violence , Warners allowed Cagney a change of pace . They cast him in the comedy Blonde Crazy , again opposite Blondell . As he completed filming , The Public Enemy was filling cinemas with all @-@ night showings . Cagney began to compare his pay with his peers , thinking his contract allowed for salary adjustments based on the success of his films . Warner Bros. disagreed , however , and refused to give him a raise . The studio heads also insisted that Cagney continue promoting their films , even ones he was not in , which he opposed . Cagney moved back to New York , leaving his brother Bill to look after his apartment .
While Cagney was in New York , his brother , who had effectively become his agent , angled for a substantial pay raise and more personal freedom for his brother . The success of The Public Enemy and Blonde Crazy forced Warner Bros. ' hand . They eventually offered Cagney a contract for $ 1000 a week . Cagney 's first film upon returning from New York was 1932 's Taxi ! . The film is notable for not only being the first time that Cagney danced on screen , but it was also the last time he allowed himself to be shot at with live ammunition ( a relatively common occurrence at the time , as blank cartridges and squibs were considered too expensive and hard to find to use in most motion picture filming ) . He had been shot at in The Public Enemy , but during filming for Taxi ! , he was almost hit .
In his opening scene , Cagney spoke fluent Yiddish , a language he had picked up during his boyhood in New York City . Critics praised the film .
Taxi ! was the source of one of Cagney 's most misquoted lines ; he never actually said , " MMMmmm , you dirty rat ! " , a line commonly used by impressionists . The closest he got to it in the film was , " Come out and take it , you dirty , yellow @-@ bellied rat , or I 'll give it to you through the door ! " The film was swiftly followed by The Crowd Roars and Winner Take All .
Despite his success , Cagney remained dissatisfied with his contract . He wanted more money for his successful films , but he also offered to take a smaller salary should his star wane . Warner Bros. refused , so Cagney once again walked out . He held out for $ 4000 a week , the same salary as Edward G. Robinson , Douglas Fairbanks , Jr . , and Kay Francis . Warner Bros. refused to cave in this time , and suspended Cagney . Cagney announced that he would do his next three pictures for free if they canceled the five years remaining on his contract . He also threatened to quit Hollywood and go back to Columbia University to follow his brothers into medicine . After six months of suspension , Frank Capra brokered a deal that increased Cagney 's salary to around $ 3000 a week , and guaranteed top billing and no more than four films a year .
Having learned about the block @-@ booking studio system that almost guaranteed the studios huge profits , Cagney was determined to spread the wealth . He regularly sent money and goods to old friends from his neighborhood , though he did not generally make this known . His insistence on no more than four films a year was based on his having witnessed actors — even teenagers — regularly being worked 100 hours a week to turn out more films . This experience was an integral reason for his involvement in forming the Screen Actors Guild in 1933 .
Cagney returned to the studio and made Hard to Handle in 1933 . This was followed by a steady stream of films , including the highly regarded Footlight Parade , which gave Cagney the chance to return to his song @-@ and @-@ dance roots . The film includes show @-@ stopping scenes with Busby Berkeley @-@ choreographed routines . His next notable film was 1934 's Here Comes the Navy , which paired him with Pat O 'Brien for the first time . The two would have an enduring friendship .
In 1935 , Cagney was listed as one of the Top Ten Moneymakers in Hollywood for the first time , and was cast more frequently in nongangster roles ; he played a lawyer who joins the FBI in G @-@ Men , and he also took on his first , and only , Shakespearean role , as top @-@ billed Nick Bottom in A Midsummer Night 's Dream alongside Joe E. Brown as Flute and Mickey Rooney as Puck
Cagney 's last movie in 1935 was Ceiling Zero , his third film with Pat O 'Brien . O 'Brien received top billing , which was a clear breach of Cagney 's contract . This , combined with the fact that Cagney had made five movies in 1934 , again against his contract terms , caused him to bring legal proceedings against Warner Bros. for breach of contract . The dispute dragged on for several months . Cagney received calls from David Selznick and Sam Goldwyn , but neither felt in a position to offer him work while the dispute went on . Meanwhile , while being represented by his brother William in court , Cagney went back to New York to search for a country property where he could indulge his passion for farming .
= = = 1936 – 37 : Independent years = = =
Cagney spent most of the next year on his farm , and went back to work only when Edward L. Alperson from Grand National Films , a newly established , independent studio , approached him to make movies for $ 100 @,@ 000 a film and 10 % of the profits . Cagney made two films for Grand National : Great Guy and Something to Sing About . He received good reviews for both , but overall the production quality was not up to Warner Bros. standards , and the films did not do well . A third film , Dynamite , was planned , but Grand National ran out of money .
Cagney also became involved in political causes , and in 1936 , agreed to sponsor the Hollywood Anti @-@ Nazi League . Unknown to Cagney , the League was in fact a front organization for the Communist International ( Comintern ) , which sought to enlist support for the Soviet Union and its foreign policies .
The courts eventually decided the Warner Bros. lawsuit in Cagney 's favor . He had done what many thought unthinkable : taking on the studios and winning . Not only did he win , but Warner Bros. also knew that he was still their foremost box office draw and invited him back for a five @-@ year , $ 150 @,@ 000 @-@ a @-@ film deal , with no more than two pictures a year . Cagney also had full say over what films he did and did not make . Additionally , William Cagney was guaranteed the position of assistant producer for the movies in which his brother starred .
Cagney had demonstrated the power of the walkout in keeping the studios to their word . He later explained his reasons , saying , " I walked out because I depended on the studio heads to keep their word on this , that or other promise , and when the promise was not kept , my only recourse was to deprive them of my services . " Cagney himself acknowledged the importance of the walkout for other actors in breaking the dominance of the studio system . Normally , when a star walked out , the time he or she was absent was added onto the end of an already long contract , as happened with Olivia de Havilland and Bette Davis . Cagney , however , walked out and came back to a better contract . Many in Hollywood watched the case closely for hints of how future contracts might be handled .
Artistically , the Grand National experiment was a success for Cagney , who was able to move away from his traditional Warner Bros. tough guy roles to more sympathetic characters . How far he could have experimented and developed will never be known , but back in the Warner fold , he was once again playing tough guys .
= = = 1938 – 42 : Return to Warner Bros. = = =
Cagney 's two films of 1938 , Boy Meets Girl and Angels with Dirty Faces , both costarred Pat O 'Brien . The former had Cagney in a comedy role , and received mixed reviews . Warner Bros. had allowed Cagney his change of pace , but was keen to get him back to playing tough guys , which was more lucrative . Ironically , the script for Angels was one that Cagney had hoped to do while with Grand National , but the studio had been unable to secure funding .
Cagney starred as Rocky Sullivan , a gangster fresh out of jail and looking for his former associate , played by Humphrey Bogart , who owes him money . While revisiting his old haunts , he runs into his old friend Jerry Connolly , played by O 'Brien , who is now a priest concerned about the Dead End Kids ' futures , particularly as they idolize Rocky . After a messy shootout , Sullivan is eventually captured by the police and sentenced to death in the electric chair . Connolly pleads with Rocky to " turn yellow " on his way to the chair so the Kids will lose their admiration for him , and hopefully avoid turning to crime . Sullivan refuses , but on his way to his execution , he breaks down and begs for his life . It is unclear whether this cowardice is real or just feigned for the Kids ' benefit . Cagney himself refused to say , insisting he liked the ambiguity . The film is regarded by many as one of Cagney 's finest , and garnered him an Academy Award for Best Actor nomination for 1938 . He lost to Spencer Tracy in Boys Town . Cagney had been considered for the role , but lost out on it due to his typecasting . ( He also lost the role of Notre Dame football coach Knute Rockne in Knute Rockne , All American to his friend Pat O 'Brien for the same reason . ) Cagney did , however , win that year 's New York Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor .
His earlier insistence on not filming with live ammunition proved to be a good decision . Having been told while filming Angels with Dirty Faces that he would be doing a scene with real machine gun bullets ( a common practice in the Hollywood of the time ) , Cagney refused and insisted the shots be added afterwards . As it turned out , a ricocheting bullet passed through exactly where his head would have been .
During his first year back at Warner Bros. , Cagney became the studio 's highest earner , making $ 324 @,@ 000 . He completed his first decade of movie @-@ making in 1939 with The Roaring Twenties , his first film with Raoul Walsh and his last with Bogart . After The Roaring Twenties , it would be a decade before Cagney made another gangster film . Cagney again received good reviews ; Graham Greene stated , " Mr. Cagney , of the bull @-@ calf brow , is as always a superb and witty actor " . The Roaring Twenties was the last film in which Cagney 's character 's violence was explained by poor upbringing , or his environment , as was the case in The Public Enemy . From that point on , violence was attached to mania , as in White Heat . In 1939 , Cagney was second to only Gary Cooper in the national acting wage stakes , earning $ 368 @,@ 333 .
His next notable role was as George M. Cohan in Yankee Doodle Dandy , a film Cagney " took great pride in " and considered his best . Producer Hal Wallis said that having seen Cohan in I 'd Rather Be Right , he never considered anyone other than Cagney for the part . Cagney , though , insisted that Fred Astaire had been the first choice , but turned it down .
Filming began the day after the attack on Pearl Harbor , and the cast and crew worked in a " patriotic frenzy " as the United States ' involvement in World War II gave the cast and crew a feeling that " they might be sending the last message from the free world " , according to actress Rosemary DeCamp . Cohan was given a private showing of the film shortly before his death , and thanked Cagney " for a wonderful job " . A paid première , with seats ranging from $ 25 to $ 25 @,@ 000 , raised $ 5 @,@ 750 @,@ 000 for war bonds for the US treasury .
Many critics of the time and since have declared it Cagney 's best film , drawing parallels between Cohan and Cagney ; they both began their careers in vaudeville , struggled for years before reaching the peak of their profession , were surrounded with family and married early , and both had a wife who was happy to sit back while he went on to stardom . The film was nominated for eight Academy Awards and won three , including Cagney 's for Best Actor . In his acceptance speech , Cagney said , " I 've always maintained that in this business , you 're only as good as the other fellow thinks you are . It 's nice to know that you people thought I did a good job . And don 't forget that it was a good part , too . "
= = = 1942 – 48 : Independent again = = =
Cagney announced in March 1942 that his brother William and he were setting up Cagney Productions to release films though United Artists . Free of Warner Bros. again , Cagney spent some time relaxing on his farm in Martha 's Vineyard before volunteering to join the USO . He spent several weeks touring the US , entertaining troops with vaudeville routines and scenes from Yankee Doodle Dandy . In September 1942 , he was elected president of the Screen Actors Guild .
Almost a year after its creation , Cagney Productions produced its first film , Johnny Come Lately , in 1943 . While the major studios were producing patriotic war movies , Cagney was determined to continue dispelling his tough @-@ guy image , so he produced a movie that was a " complete and exhilarating exposition of the Cagney ' alter @-@ ego ' on film " . According to Cagney , the film " made money but it was no great winner " , and reviews varied from excellent ( Time ) to poor ( New York 's PM ) .
Following the film 's completion , Cagney went back to the USO and toured US military bases in the UK . He refused to give interviews to the British press , preferring to concentrate on rehearsals and performances . He gave several performances a day for the Army Signal Corps of The American Cavalcade of Dance , which consisted of a history of American dance , from the earliest days to Fred Astaire , and culminated with dances from Yankee Doodle Dandy .
The second movie Cagney 's company produced was Blood on the Sun . Insisting on doing his own stunts , Cagney required judo training from expert Ken Kuniyuki and Jack Halloran , a former policeman . The Cagneys had hoped that an action film would appeal more to audiences , but it fared worse at the box office than Johnny Come Lately . At this time , Cagney heard of young war hero Audie Murphy , who had appeared on the cover of Life magazine . Cagney thought that Murphy had the looks to be a movie star , and suggested that he come to Hollywood . Cagney felt , however , that Murphy could not act , and his contract was loaned out and then sold .
While negotiating the rights for his third independent film , Cagney starred in 20th Century Fox 's 13 Rue Madeleine for $ 300 @,@ 000 for two months of work . The wartime spy film was a success , and Cagney was keen to begin production of his new project , an adaptation of William Saroyan 's Broadway play The Time of Your Life . Saroyan himself loved the film , but it was a commercial disaster , costing the company half a million dollars to make ; audiences again struggled to accept Cagney in a nontough @-@ guy role .
Cagney Productions was in serious trouble ; poor returns from the produced films , and a legal dispute with Sam Goldwyn Studio over a rental agreement forced Cagney back to Warner Bros. He signed a distribution @-@ production deal with the studio for the film White Heat , effectively making Cagney Productions a unit of Warner Bros.
= = = 1949 – 55 : Back to Warner Bros. = = =
Cagney 's portrayal of Cody Jarrett in the 1949 film White Heat is one of his most memorable . Cinema had changed in the 10 years since Walsh last directed Cagney ( in The Strawberry Blonde ) , and the actor 's portrayal of gangsters had also changed . Unlike Tom Powers in The Public Enemy , Jarrett was portrayed as a raging lunatic with few if any sympathetic qualities . In the 18 intervening years , Cagney 's hair had begun to gray , and he developed a paunch for the first time . He was no longer a romantic commodity , and this was reflected in his performance . Cagney himself had the idea of playing Jarrett as psychotic ; he later stated , " it was essentially a cheapie one @-@ two @-@ three @-@ four kind of thing , so I suggested we make him nuts . It was agreed so we put in all those fits and headaches . "
Cagney 's final lines in the film – " Made it , Ma ! Top of the world ! " – was voted the 18th @-@ greatest movie line by the American Film Institute . Likewise , Jarrett 's explosion of rage in prison on being told of his mother 's death is widely hailed as one of Cagney 's most memorable performances . Some of the extras on set actually became terrified of the actor because of his violent portrayal . Cagney attributed the performance to his father 's alcoholic rages , which he had witnessed as a child , as well as someone that he had seen on a visit to a mental hospital .
The film was a critical success , though some critics wondered about the social impact of a character that they saw as sympathetic . Cagney was still struggling against his gangster typecasting . He said to a journalist , " It 's what the people want me to do . Some day , though , I 'd like to make another movie that kids could go and see . " However , Warner Bros. , perhaps searching for another Yankee Doodle Dandy , assigned Cagney a musical for his next picture , 1950 's The West Point Story with Doris Day , an actress he admired .
His next film , Kiss Tomorrow Goodbye , was another gangster movie , which was the first by Cagney Productions since its acquisition . While compared unfavorably to White Heat by critics , it was fairly successful at the box office , with $ 500 @,@ 000 going straight to Cagney Productions ' bankers to pay off their losses . Cagney Productions was not a great success , however , and in 1953 , after William Cagney produced his last film , A Lion Is in the Streets , the company came to an end .
Cagney 's next notable role was the 1955 film Love Me or Leave Me , his third with Day . Cagney played Martin " Moe the Gimp " Snyder , a lame Jewish @-@ American gangster from Chicago , a part Spencer Tracy had turned down . Cagney described the script as " that extremely rare thing , the perfect script " . When the film was released , Snyder reportedly asked how Cagney had so accurately copied his limp , but Cagney himself insisted he had not , having based it on personal observation of other people when they limped : " What I did was very simple . I just slapped my foot down as I turned it out while walking . That 's all " .
His performance earned him another Best Actor Academy Award nomination , 17 years after his first . Reviews were strong , and the film is considered one of the best of his later career . In Day , he found a co @-@ star with whom he could build a rapport , such as he had had with Blondell at the start of his career . Day herself was full of praise for Cagney , stating that he was " the most professional actor I 've ever known . He was always ' real ' . I simply forgot we were making a picture . His eyes would actually fill up when we were working on a tender scene . And you never needed drops to make your eyes shine when Jimmy was on the set . "
Cagney 's next film was Mister Roberts , directed by John Ford and slated to star Spencer Tracy . Tracy 's involvement ensured that Cagney accepted a supporting role , although in the end , Tracy did not take part . Cagney had worked with Ford before on What Price Glory ? , and they had gotten along fairly well . However , as soon as Ford met Cagney at the airport , the director warned him that they would " tangle asses " , which caught Cagney by surprise . He later said , " I would have kicked his brains out . He was so goddamned mean to everybody . He was truly a nasty old man . " The next day , Cagney was slightly late on set , incensing Ford . Cagney cut short his imminent tirade , saying " When I started this picture , you said that we would tangle asses before this was over . I 'm ready now – are you ? " Ford walked away , and they had no more problems , though Cagney never particularly liked Ford .
Cagney 's skill at noticing tiny details in other actors ' performances became apparent during the shooting of Mister Roberts . While watching the Kraft Music Hall anthology television show some months before , Cagney had noticed Jack Lemmon performing left @-@ handed . The first thing that Cagney asked Lemmon when they met was if he was still using his left hand . Lemmon was shocked ; he had done it on a whim , and thought no one else had noticed . He said of his co @-@ star , " his powers of observation must be absolutely incredible , in addition to the fact that he remembered it . I was very flattered . "
The film was a success , securing three Oscar nominations , including Best Picture , Best Sound Recording and Best Supporting Actor for Lemmon , who won . While Cagney was not nominated , he had thoroughly enjoyed the production . Filming on Midway Island and in a more minor role meant that he had time to relax and engage in his hobby of painting . He also drew caricatures of the cast and crew .
= = = 1955 – 61 : Later career = = =
In 1955 , Cagney replaced Spencer Tracy on the Western film Tribute to a Bad Man for Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer . He received praise for his performance , and the studio liked his work enough to offer him These Wilder Years with Barbara Stanwyck . The two stars got on well ; they had both previously worked in vaudeville , and they entertained the cast and crew off @-@ screen by singing and dancing .
In 1956 , Cagney undertook one of his very rare television roles , starring in Robert Montgomery 's Soldiers From the War Returning . This was a favor to Montgomery , who needed a strong fall season opener to stop the network from dropping his series . Cagney 's appearance ensured that it was a success . The actor made it clear to reporters afterwards that television was not his medium : " I do enough work in movies . This is a high @-@ tension business . I have tremendous admiration for the people who go through this sort of thing every week , but it 's not for me . "
The following year , Cagney appeared in Man of a Thousand Faces , in which he played Lon Chaney . He received excellent reviews , with the New York Journal American rating it one of his best performances , and the film , made for Universal , was a box office hit . Cagney 's skill at mimicry , combined with a physical similarity to Chaney , helped him generate empathy for his character .
Later in 1957 , Cagney ventured behind the camera for the first and only time to direct Short Cut to Hell , a remake of the 1941 Alan Ladd film This Gun for Hire , which in turn was based on the Graham Greene novel A Gun for Sale . Cagney had long been told by friends that he would make an excellent director , so when he was approached by his friend , producer A. C. Lyles , he instinctively said yes . He refused all offers of payment , saying he was an actor , not a director . The film was low budget , and shot quickly . As Cagney recalled , " We shot it in twenty days , and that was long enough for me . I find directing a bore , I have no desire to tell other people their business " .
In 1959 , Cagney played a labor leader in what proved to be his final musical , Never Steal Anything Small , which featured a comical song and dance duet with Cara Williams , who played his girlfriend .
For Cagney 's next film , he traveled to Ireland for Shake Hands with the Devil , directed by Michael Anderson . Cagney had hoped to spend some time tracing his Irish ancestry , but time constraints and poor weather meant that he was unable to do so . The overriding message of violence inevitably leading to more violence attracted Cagney to the role of an Irish Republican Army commander , and resulted in what some critics would regard as the finest performance of his final years .
Cagney 's career began winding down , and he made only one film in 1960 , the critically acclaimed The Gallant Hours , in which he played Admiral William F. " Bull " Halsey . The film , although set during the Guadalcanal Campaign in the Pacific Theater during World War II , was not a war film , but instead focused on the impact of command . Cagney Productions , which shared the production credit with Robert Montgomery 's company , made a brief return , though in name only . The film was a success , and The New York Times ' Bosley Crowther singled its star out for praise : " It is Mr. Cagney 's performance , controlled to the last detail , that gives life and strong , heroic stature to the principal figure in the film . There is no braggadocio in it , no straining for bold or sharp effects . It is one of the quietest , most reflective , subtlest jobs that Mr. Cagney has ever done . "
Cagney 's penultimate film was a comedy . He was hand @-@ picked by Billy Wilder to play a hard @-@ driving Coca @-@ Cola executive in the film One , Two , Three . Cagney had concerns with the script , remembering back 23 years to Boy Meets Girl , in which scenes were reshot to try to make them funnier by speeding up the pacing , with the opposite effect . Cagney received assurances from Wilder that the script was balanced . Filming did not go well , though , with one scene requiring 50 takes , something to which Cagney was unaccustomed . In fact , it was one of the worst experiences of his long career . For the first time , Cagney considered walking out of a film . He felt he had worked too many years inside studios , and combined with a visit to Dachau concentration camp during filming , he decided that he had had enough , and retired afterward . One of the few positive aspects was his friendship with Pamela Tiffin , to whom he gave acting guidance , including the secret that he had learned over his career : " You walk in , plant yourself squarely on both feet , look the other fella in the eye , and tell the truth . "
= = = 1961 – 86 : Later years and retirement = = =
Cagney remained in retirement for 20 years , conjuring up images of Jack L. Warner every time he was tempted to return , which soon dispelled the notion . After he had turned down an offer to play Alfred Doolittle in My Fair Lady , he found it easier to rebuff others , including a part in The Godfather Part II . He made few public appearances , preferring to spend winters in Los Angeles , and summers either at his Martha 's Vineyard farm or at Verney Farms in New York . When in New York , Billie Vernon and he held numerous parties at the Silver Horn restaurant , where they got to know Marge Zimmermann , the proprietress .
Cagney was diagnosed with glaucoma and began taking eye drops , but continued to have vision problems . On Zimmermann 's recommendation , he visited a different doctor , who determined that glaucoma had been a misdiagnosis , and that Cagney was actually diabetic . Zimmermann then took it upon herself to look after Cagney , preparing his meals to reduce his blood triglycerides , which had reached alarming levels . Such was her success that , by the time Cagney made a rare public appearance at his American Film Institute Lifetime Achievement award ceremony in 1974 , he had lost 20 pounds ( 9 @.@ 1 kg ) and his vision had improved . Charlton Heston opened the ceremony , and Frank Sinatra introduced Cagney . So many Hollywood stars attended — said to be more than for any event in history — that one columnist wrote at the time that a bomb in the dining room would have ended the movie industry . In his acceptance speech , Cagney lightly chastised the impressionist Frank Gorshin , saying , " Oh , Frankie , just in passing , I never said ' MMMMmmmm , you dirty rat ! ' What I actually did say was ' Judy , Judy , Judy ! ' " — a joking reference to a similar misquotation attributed to Cary Grant .
While at Coldwater Canyon in 1977 , Cagney had a minor stroke . After two weeks in the hospital , Zimmermann became his full @-@ time caregiver , traveling with Billie Vernon and him wherever they went . After the stroke , Cagney was no longer able to undertake many of his favorite pastimes , including horseback riding and dancing , and as he became more depressed , he even gave up painting . Encouraged by his wife and Zimmermann , Cagney accepted an offer from the director Miloš Forman to star in a small but pivotal role in the film Ragtime ( 1981 ) .
This film was shot mainly at Shepperton Studios in Surrey , England , and on his arrival at Southampton aboard the Queen Elizabeth 2 , Cagney was mobbed by hundreds of fans . Cunard Line officials , who were responsible for the security at the dock , said they had never seen anything like it , although they had experienced past visits by Marlon Brando and Robert Redford .
Despite the fact that Ragtime was his first film in 20 years , Cagney was immediately at ease : Flubbed lines and miscues were committed by his co @-@ stars , often simply through sheer awe . Howard Rollins , who received a Best Supporting Actor Oscar nomination for his performance , said , " I was frightened to meet Mr. Cagney . I asked him how to die in front of the camera . He said ' Just die ! ' It worked . Who would know more about dying than him ? " Cagney also repeated the advice he had given to Pamela Tiffin , Joan Leslie , and Lemmon . As filming progressed , Cagney 's sciatica worsened , but he finished the nine @-@ week filming , and reportedly stayed on the set after completing his scenes to help the other actors with their dialogue .
Cagney 's frequent co @-@ star , Pat O 'Brien , appeared with him on the British chat show Parkinson in the early 1980s and they both made a surprise appearance at the Queen Mother 's command birthday performance at the London Palladium in 1980 . His appearance on stage prompted the Queen Mother to rise to her feet , the only time she did so during the whole show , and she later broke protocol to go backstage to speak with Cagney directly .
Cagney made a rare TV appearance in the lead role of the movie Terrible Joe Moran in 1984 . This was his last role . Cagney 's health was fragile and more strokes had confined him to a wheelchair , but the producers worked his real @-@ life mobility problem into the story . They also decided to dub his impaired speech , using the impersonator Rich Little . The film made use of fight clips from Cagney 's boxing movie Winner Take All ( 1932 ) , despite the fact that the TV movie is about an entirely different character .
= = Personal life = =
In 1920 , Cagney was a member of the chorus for the show Pitter Patter , where he met Frances Willard " Billie " Vernon . They married on September 28 , 1922 , and the marriage lasted until his death in 1986 . Frances Cagney died in 1994 . In 1941 , they adopted a son whom they named James Cagney , Jr . , and later a daughter , Cathleen " Casey " Cagney . Cagney was a very private man , and while he was very willing to give the press opportunities for photographs , he generally spent his time out of the public eye .
Cagney 's son married Jill Lisbeth Inness in 1962 . The couple had two children , James III and Cindy . Cagney Jr. died from a heart attack on January 27 , 1984 in Washington , DC , two years before his father 's death . He had become estranged from his father and had not seen or talked to him since 1982 .
Cagney 's daughter Cathleen married Jack W. Thomas in 1962 . She , too , was estranged from her father during the final years of his life . She died on August 11 , 2004 .
As a young man , Cagney became interested in farming – sparked by a soil conservation lecture he had attended – to the extent that during his first walkout from Warner Bros. , he helped to found a 100 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 40 km2 ) farm in Martha 's Vineyard . Cagney loved that no concrete roads surrounded the property , only dirt tracks . The house was rather run @-@ down and ramshackle , and Billie was initially reluctant to move in , but soon came to love the place , as well . After being inundated by movie fans , Cagney sent out a rumor that he had hired a gunman for security . The ruse proved so successful that when Spencer Tracy came to visit , his taxi driver refused to drive up to the house , saying , " I hear they shoot ! " Tracy had to go the rest of the way on foot .
In 1955 , having shot three films , Cagney bought a 120 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 49 km2 ) farm in Stanfordville , Dutchess County , New York , for $ 100 @,@ 000 . Cagney named it Verney Farm , taking the first syllable from Billie 's maiden name and the second from his own surname . He turned it into a working farm , selling some of the dairy cattle and replacing them with beef cattle . He expanded it over the years to 750 acres ( 3 @.@ 0 km2 ) . Such was Cagney 's enthusiasm for agriculture and farming that his diligence and efforts were rewarded by an honorary degree from Florida 's Rollins College . Rather than just " turning up with Ava Gardner on my arm " to accept his honorary degree , Cagney turned the tables upon the college 's faculty by writing and submitting a paper on soil conservation .
Cagney , born in 1899 ( prior to widespread use of automobiles ) loved horses from childhood . As a child , he often sat on the horses of local deliverymen , and rode in horse @-@ drawn streetcars with his mother . As an adult , well after horses were replaced by automobiles as the primary mode of transportation , Cagney raised horses on his farms , specializing in Morgans , a breed of which he was particularly fond .
Cagney was a keen sailor and owned boats harbored on both US coasts , His joy in sailing , however , did not protect him from occasional seasickness — becoming ill , sometimes , on a calm day while weathering rougher , heavier seas at other times . Cagney greatly enjoyed painting , and claimed in his autobiography that he might have been happier , if somewhat poorer , as a painter than a movie star . The renowned painter Sergei Bongart taught Cagney in his later life and owned two of Cagney 's works . Cagney often gave away his work , but refused to sell his paintings , considering himself an amateur . He signed and sold only one painting , purchased by Johnny Carson to benefit a charity .
= = = Political views = = =
In his autobiography , Cagney said that as a young man , he had no political views , since he was more concerned with where the next meal was coming from . However , the emerging labor movement of the 1920s and 1930s soon forced him to take sides . The first version of the National Labor Relations Act was passed in 1935 and growing tensions between labor and management fueled the movement . Fanzines in the 1930s , however , described his politics as " radical " . This somewhat exaggerated view was enhanced by his public contractual wranglings with Warner Bros. at the time , his joining of the Screen Actors Guild in 1933 , and his involvement in the revolt against the so @-@ called " Merriam tax " . The " Merriam tax " was an underhanded method of funneling studio funds to politicians ; during the 1934 Californian gubernatorial campaign , the studio executives would ' tax ' their actors , automatically taking a day 's pay from their biggest @-@ earners , ultimately sending nearly half a million dollars to the gubernatorial campaign of Frank Merriam . Cagney ( as well as Jean Harlow ) publicly refused to pay and Cagney even threatened that , if the studios took a day 's pay for Merriam 's campaign , he would give a week 's pay to Upton Sinclair , Merriam 's opponent in the race .
He supported political activist and labor leader Thomas Mooney 's defense fund , but was repelled by the behavior of some of Mooney 's supporters at a rally . Around the same time , he gave money for a Spanish Republican Army ambulance during the Spanish Civil War , which he put down to being " a soft touch " . This donation enhanced his liberal reputation . He also became involved in a " liberal group ... with a leftist slant , " along with Ronald Reagan . However , when Reagan and he saw the direction the group was heading , they resigned on the same night .
Cagney was accused of being a communist sympathizer in 1934 , and again in 1940 . The accusation in 1934 stemmed from a letter police found from a local Communist official that alleged that Cagney would bring other Hollywood stars to meetings . Cagney denied this , and Lincoln Steffens , husband of the letter 's writer , backed up this denial , asserting that the accusation stemmed solely from Cagney 's donation to striking cotton workers in the San Joaquin Valley . William Cagney claimed this donation was the root of the charges in 1940 . Cagney was cleared by U.S. Representative Martin Dies , Jr . , on the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee .
Cagney became president of the Screen Actors Guild in 1942 for a two @-@ year term . He took a role in the Guild 's fight against the Mafia , which had begun to take an active interest in the movie industry . His wife , Billie Vernon , once received a phone call telling her that Cagney was dead . Cagney alleged that , having failed to scare off the Guild and him , they sent a hitman to kill him by dropping a heavy light onto his head . Upon hearing of the rumor of a hit , George Raft made a call , and the hit was supposedly canceled .
During World War II , Cagney raised money for war bonds by taking part in racing exhibitions at the Roosevelt Raceway and selling seats for the premiere of Yankee Doodle Dandy . He also let the Army practice maneuvers at his Martha 's Vineyard farm .
After the war , Cagney 's politics started to change . He had worked on Democrat Franklin D. Roosevelt 's presidential campaigns , including the 1940 presidential election against Wendell Willkie . However , by the time of the 1948 election , he had become disillusioned with Harry S. Truman , and voted for Thomas E. Dewey , his first non @-@ Democratic vote . By 1980 , Cagney was contributing financially to the Republican Party , supporting his friend Ronald Reagan 's bid for the presidency in the 1980 election . As he got older , he became more and more conservative , referring to himself in his autobiography as " arch @-@ conservative . " He regarded his move away from liberal politics as " ... a totally natural reaction once I began to see undisciplined elements in our country stimulating a breakdown of our system ... Those functionless creatures , the hippies ... just didn 't appear out of a vacuum . "
= = Death = =
Cagney died at his Dutchess County farm in Stanfordville , New York , on Easter Sunday 1986 , of a heart attack . He was 86 years old . A funeral Mass was held at Manhattan 's St. Francis de Sales Roman Catholic Church . The eulogy at the funeral was given by his close friend , who was also the President of the United States at the time , Ronald Reagan . His pallbearers included the boxer Floyd Patterson , the dancer Mikhail Baryshnikov ( who had hoped to play Cagney on Broadway ) , actor Ralph Bellamy , and the director Miloš Forman . Governor Mario M. Cuomo and Mayor Edward I. Koch were also in attendance at the service .
Cagney was interred in a crypt in the Garden Mausoleum at Cemetery of the Gate of Heaven in Hawthorne , New York .
= = Honors and legacy = =
In 1974 , Cagney received the American Film Institute 's Life Achievement Award . Charlton Heston , in announcing that Cagney was to be honored , called him " ... one of the most significant figures of a generation when American film was dominant , Cagney , that most American of actors , somehow communicated eloquently to audiences all over the world ... and to actors as well . "
He received the Kennedy Center Honors in 1980 . In 1984 , Ronald Reagan awarded him the Presidential Medal of Freedom .
In 1999 , the U.S. Postal Service issued a 33 @-@ cent stamp honoring Cagney .
Cagney was among the most favored actors for the director Stanley Kubrick and the actor Marlon Brando , and was considered by Orson Welles to be " ... maybe the greatest actor to ever appear in front of a camera . " Warner Bros. arranged private screenings of Cagney films for Winston Churchill .
On May 19 , 2015 , a brand @-@ new musical celebrating Cagney , and dramatizing his relationship with Warner Bros. , opened off @-@ Broadway in New York City at the York Theatre .
= = Filmography = =
Source : " James Cagney " . IMDb . Retrieved October 4 , 2013 .
= = Television = =
What 's My Line 1960 - Secret Guest
The Ballad of Smokey the Bear ( 1966 ) – voice , narrator
Terrible Joe Moran ( 1984 )
= = Radio appearances = =
= Increase Sumner =
Increase Sumner ( November 27 , 1746 – June 7 , 1799 ) was an American lawyer , jurist , and politician from Massachusetts . He was the fifth governor of Massachusetts , serving from 1797 to 1799 . Trained as a lawyer , he served in the provisional government of Massachusetts during the American Revolutionary War , and was elected to the Confederation Congress in 1782 . Appointed to the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court the same year , he served there as an associate justice until 1797 .
He was three times elected governor of Massachusetts by wide margins , but died not long after the start of his third term . His descendants include his son William H. Sumner , for whom the Sumner Tunnel in Boston , Massachusetts is named , and 20th @-@ century diplomat Sumner Welles .
= = Early life = =
Increase Sumner was born on November 27 , 1746 in Roxbury , Province of Massachusetts Bay , one of eight children of Increase Sumner and Sarah Sharp . The elder Increase Sumner was a successful farmer descended from early settlers of Dorchester ; he held a number of public offices including coroner for Suffolk County , and selectman of Roxbury .
In 1752 Sumner enrolled in the grammar school in Roxbury , now Roxbury Latin School , where the headmaster was William Cushing , future justice of the Supreme Court of the United States . Sumner excelled at school , and over the resistance of his father ( who envisioned his son 's future to be in agriculture ) was enrolled at Harvard College in 1763 . He graduated in 1767 .
= = Legal career = =
After graduating from Harvard , Sumner took charge of the Roxbury school , where he taught for two years while he apprenticed law under Samuel Quincy , the provincial solicitor general . He sought to study under John Adams , but the latter had enough students . Adams wrote that Sumner " was a promising genius , and a studious and virtuous youth . " Sumner was admitted to the bar in 1770 and opened a law office in Roxbury that year .
Sumner was chosen a member of the Massachusetts Provincial Congress in 1776 where he represented the town of Roxbury . In 1777 he participated in a state convention to draft a new constitution , whose result was not adopted . He continued to serve in the provincial congress until the state constitution was adopted in 1780 , when he was elected state senator for Suffolk County . This post he held for two years . In June 1782 he was elected to the Confederation Congress by the state legislature , replacing Timothy Danielson , who resigned , but Sumner never actually took the seat . In August 1782 Governor John Hancock nominated him as an associate justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court to replace James Sullivan . He accepted this position instead of the senate seat , and served from 1782 to 1797 . Details on his judicial record are sparse , in part because few official court records survive from the time , and decisions were usually oral ( the court did not begin formal record keeping with written decisions until 1805 ) . Sumner did take detailed notes of many of the cases he heard ; these notes , preserved at the Massachusetts Historical Society , now form a valuable repository of early Massachusetts judicial history .
The period when he served in the Supreme Judicial Court included a time of great turmoil in Massachusetts . Following the American Revolutionary War the value of the paper currency then in circulation fell significantly leaving many citizens in financial difficulties . The administration of James Bowdoin in 1786 raised taxes to pay the public debt which had run up during the war , and stepped up collection of back taxes . These economic pressures led to outbreaks of civil unrest which culminated in Shays ' Rebellion , an uprising in central and western Massachusetts lasting from 1786 to 1787 . Sumner sat on the criminal cases in which participants of the rebellion were tried . Many participants were pardoned , but eighteen were convicted and sentenced to death . Most of these sentences were commuted ; two men were hanged .
Sumner sat on the court when it heard the appeals in the Quock Walker cases in 1783 , concerning a former slave who was seeking confirmation of his freedom . A ruling in one of these cases confirmed that the state constitution had effectively abolished slavery . In 1785 he was chosen by the legislature to sit on a committee which revised the laws of the state , to modernize them and remove references to British authority . In 1789 he was a member of the state convention that met to ratify the United States Constitution , in which he explained to the convention the meaning and importance of habeas corpus . He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1791 .
= = Governor of Massachusetts = =
In 1795 some factions of the Federalist Party sought to promote Sumner as a candidate for governor , but he was not formally nominated , and Governor Samuel Adams was reelected . The following year Sumner was actively promoted by the Federalists , but Adams was able to prevail by a comfortable margin . The campaign was not very divisive : Sumner was presented as comparatively youthful alternative to the aging Adams . Sumner wrote afterwards that Adams " has waded through a sea of political troubles and grown old in labors for the good of his country . "
Adams ' popularity , however , was declining , and he decided not to run for reelection in 1797 . A number of popular figures were raised as nominees , and in that year 's election , Sumner won the vote with 15 @,@ 000 out of a total of 25 @,@ 000 votes cast against a divided opposition . On June 2 Sumner rode from his home in Roxbury accompanied by 300 citizens on horseback to the State House in Boston , where the Secretary of the Commonwealth proclaimed his governorship from the eastern balcony . Sumner was the last governor to preside in what is now called the Old State House as the seat of government was moved to the New State House the following year .
Sumner was reelected in 1798 and 1799 against minimal opposition . His popularity as governor was seen by his garnering a larger share of the vote for his third term , where he won 17 @,@ 000 out of 21 @,@ 000 votes cast , receiving unanimous votes in 180 towns out of 393 in the state . During Sumner 's period in office the state was principally preoccupied with the threat of attack by France as a result of the ongoing naval Quasi @-@ War . Comparatively younger and more vigorous than his predecessors , Sumner actively built up the state militia and worked to ensure its preparedness in case of attack .
Sumner never assumed the duties of office after winning the 1799 election as he was sick on his death bed at the time . In order to avoid constitutional issues surrounding the succession to the governor 's office , he managed to take the oath of office in early June . He died in office from angina pectoris , aged 52 on June 7 , 1799 . His funeral , with full military honors , took place on June 12 , and was attended by United States President John Adams . The funeral procession which included four regiments of militia ran from the governor 's Roxbury mansion to a service at the Old South Meeting House . He is interred at the northerly corner of Boston 's Granary Burying Ground . The brass epitaph indicates :
" Here repose the remains of Increase Sumner . He was born at Roxbury , November 27 , 1746 , and died at the same place , June 7 , 1799 in the 53rd year of his age . He was for sometime a practitioner at the bar ; and for fifteen years an associate judge of the supreme judicial court ; was thrice elected governor of Massachusetts in which office he died . As a lawyer he was faithful and able . As a judge , patient , impartial and decisive . As a chief magistrate , accessible , frank and decisive . In private life , he was affectionate and mild . In public life was dignified and firm . Party feuds were allayed by the correctness of his conduct . Calumny was silenced by the weight of his virtues and rancour softened by the amenity of his manners in the vigour of intellectual attainments and in the midst of usefulness . He was called by Divine Providence to rest with his fathers and went down to the chambers of death in the full belief that the grave is the pathway to future existence . "
The lieutenant governor , Moses Gill , became acting governor and ran the state until elections were held in 1800 .
= = Family and legacy = =
Sumner was married on September 30 , 1779 to Elizabeth Hyslop , daughter of William Hyslop . Upon his father @-@ in @-@ law 's death , Sumner inherited a sizable estate which allowed him to maintain a dignified lifestyle during his public service . The couple had three children ; his son William H. Sumner is well known for his efforts to develop what is now East Boston and for whom Boston 's Sumner Tunnel is named . His later descendants include Sumner Welles , a 20th @-@ century diplomat and advisor to President Franklin Delano Roosevelt . Sumner , Maine , incorporated while he was governor in 1798 , was named in his honor .
Sumner was described by his son as a talented and practical farmer and an excellent horseman . He was fond of agriculture and personally grafted an entire orchard of fruit trees on his farm . He was a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and President of the Board of Trustees of the Roxbury Latin School .
= Through the Rain =
" Through the Rain " is a song by American singer Mariah Carey , taken from her ninth studio album , Charmbracelet ( 2002 ) . It was written by Carey and Lionel Cole , and produced by the former and Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis . The song was released as the album 's lead single on October 17 , 2002 , and a shorter version was used as the ending credits theme for a 2002 Japanese drama known as You 're Under Arrest . Classified by Carey as a ballad , it is influenced by pop and R & B music genres , and features a simple and under @-@ stated piano melody , backed by soft electronic synthesizers . " Through the Rain " was meant to be an insight into Carey personal struggles throughout 2001 , and lyrically talks about encouraging others .
The song has been well @-@ received , with many complimenting its inspirational lyrical content , and described it as an open window into Carey 's personal life for listeners . Commercially it was Carey 's lowest charting lead single to date on the US Billboard Hot 100 , and her first lead single to that point to not reach the top ten in the United States . Though stalling at number 81 , it managed to achieve higher placements in international markets , reaching the top in Spain and peaking within the top ten in Canada , the Netherlands , Italy , Sweden , Switzerland and the United Kingdom .
Carey performed " Through the Rain " live on several television and award show appearances around the world . She debuted the song at the 2002 NRJ Awards , and features it on a one @-@ hour special titled Mariah Carey : Shining Through the Rain , which aired three days later on MTV . In the United States , Carey performed the song on Today , The Oprah Winfrey Show , and American Music Awards of 2003s . Throughout Europe , Carey performed the song on The Graham Norton Show and on talent competition , Fame Academy . Additionally , " Through the Rain " was included on the set @-@ list of Carey 's Charmbracelet World Tour : An Intimate Evening with Mariah Carey , which spanned throughout 2003 – 04 .
The music video , directed by Dave Meyers , was set in the late 1960s . It features a past and present story @-@ line based on Carey 's childhood , and stars J. D. Williams and Jamie @-@ Lynn Sigler as the singer 's parents . The video begins with past scenes of Carey 's mother being disowned by her family after becoming romantically involved with a black man , and finds the singer in the present walking through a heavy rainstorm in New York . The song was covered on live television by Filipino singers Regine Velasquez and Charice Pempengco .
= = Background = =
In 2000 , Carey parted from Columbia Records and signed a record @-@ breaking $ 100 million five @-@ album recording contract with Virgin Records America ( EMI Records ) . She often stated that Columbia had regarded her as a commodity , with her separation from Tommy Mottola exacerbating her relations with label executives . However , in July 2001 , Carey had suffered a physical and emotional breakdown . Due to this situation , Virgin and 20th Century Fox delayed the release of Carey 's film Glitter , as well as its soundtrack of the same name . Both the releases received negative feedback and were commercially unsuccessful . This also resulted in her deal with Virgin being bought out for $ 50 million . Soon after , Carey flew to Capri , Italy for a period of five months , in which she began writing material for her new album , stemming from all the personal experiences she had endured throughout the past year . Carey later said that her time at Virgin was " a complete and total stress @-@ fest [ ... ] I made a total snap decision which was based on money and I never make decisions based on money . I learned a big lesson from that . " Later that year , she signed a contract with Island Records , valued at more than $ 24 million , and launched the record label MonarC . To add further to Carey 's emotional burdens , her father , with whom she had little contact since childhood , died of cancer that year .
= = Release = =
Throughout the first years of her career , Carey 's musical styles mainly involved pop influenced R & B. Additionally , her image was of a reserved and modestly dressed female , or as Carey 's later described it " the 90s version of Mary Poppins " . As the 1990s wore on , Carey began featuring rappers on remixes , and began infusing hip @-@ hop into her musical palette . As her music changed , so too did her image , which became more sexual , and aimed at younger audiences than the more contemporary appeal of her earlier works . According to Michael Paoletta from Billboard , " Through the Rain " was used not only as a vehicle for listeners to become more in @-@ tune with Carey 's personal struggles , but also as a means to " re @-@ capture " her audience throughout the earlier stages of her career . A contemporary and pop ballad , he felt the song would find " much embrace " from her older fans , while her audience that grew accustomed to her hip @-@ hop flavored music would feel " lost and abandoned " . In an interview with MTV News , the song 's co @-@ producer Jimmy Jam described why Carey chose to release it as the lead single : " I think ' Through the Rain ' is a great way to start the record , because it is emotional and it kind of speaks directly to the questions people might have about the last year of her life . It 's a good idea to get that out of the way and move on to happy , less emotional songs . "
= = = Remix = = =
The song 's official remix features guest vocals from Kelly Price and Joe . The remix incorporates a more up @-@ tempo background , and differs melodically from the original . While the album 's co @-@ producer , Jimmy Jam , described it as a " star search , " Sarah Rodman from the Boston Herald felt that even though the remix was more up @-@ beat than the original , it " failed to quicken the pulse . "
= = Composition = =
" Through the Rain " is a mid @-@ tempo ballad , which is influenced by pop and R & B music genres . The song is built around a piano melody , and features a beat that is accentuated by synthesizers . Aside from its pop @-@ driven melody and structure , Jeff Vrabel of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times noted an hint of gospel towards the song 's crescendo , describing it as " lite @-@ gospel " . Vocally , " Through the Rain " finds Carey singing in a " restrained " style for the duration of most of the song , as the first verse and chorus are sung in breathy vocals . After the second chorus , the bridge is linked to the song 's climax through a long belted note . The Daily Union 's David Germain felt the song 's composition , as well as Carey 's vocal performance were " simple and reserved " , with Carey in " complete control " of her voice . " Through the Rain " was written by Carey and Lionel Cole and produced by the former and Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Ltd . , " Through the Rain " is set in common time with a tempo of 64 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of A @-@ flat major but with the transposing key to B @-@ major , with Carey 's vocal range spanning from the low @-@ note of E ♭ 3 to the high @-@ note of F ♯ 5 .
Lyrically , the song features an inspirational message of inner strength , and finds Carey reaching out to listeners . The song uses a rainstorm as a metaphor for troubles in life , while encouraging others to " make it through the rain " through perseverance . The fist chorus begins : " When you get caught in the rain / With no where to run / When your distraught and in pain without anyone / When you keep crying out to be saved " , illustrating a moment in an individual 's life where they are surrounded by conflict . The chorus then serves as a guide to those still suffering , " I can make it through the rain , I can stand up once again on my own / And I know that I 'm strong enough to mend / And every time I feel afraid I hold tighter to my faith / And I live one more day and I make it through the rain " . Similarly , the second verse once again revisits difficult times when " shadows grow close " , before continuing into the second chorus and climax . While the song in meant for listeners to gain confidence and strength , it also allows them into Carey 's personal struggles she endured throughout 2001 . Lola Ogunnaike of The New York Times described the song as a " triumph over adversity " , while a writer from the Sydney Morning Herald wrote " it 's an insight into her recent troubles . " In an interview with MTV News , Carey described the song 's lyrical content in depth :
I 've always tried to insert positivity into my songs wherever I can , to inspire other people who go through stuff . I mean the stuff they talked about in tabloids and the things that were so overly exaggerated , that 's one aspect . I also went through a lot of personal stuff , a lot of family stuff this year . Losing a parent is an intense thing for anybody . It 's brought me to another place . People are going to read into it as , ' This is Mariah and her struggle ' . But the way I try to word it is , ' It 's OK once you say I can make it through the rain . ' Not just me going , ' I can make it through the rain , ' it 's me telling people that if you believe you can get through whatever you 're going through , you can get to the other side .
= = Critical reception = =
" Through the Rain " received positive reviews from music critics ; many complimented Carey 's restrained vocal performance , as well as the song 's simple instrumental accompaniment , while others criticized it for being overly @-@ dramatic . Jon Pareles of The New York Times described it as " inspirational " , and felt that due to its vagueness , the song is would be applicable to all listeners , not just Carey . The Daily Union 's David Germain commented how the song 's simple musical arrangement and Carey 's " restrained " vocal delivery aided it in becoming " modest and reserved " . Writing for Billboard , Michael Paoletta chose " Through the Rain " as a top pick from the album , as did Allmusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine . He described it as a song that was designed as " ' Vision of Love ' meets ' Hero ' " , and wrote , " Mariah is back in the adult contemporary camp , no longer trying to prove that she 's real . " Cara DiPasquale from the Chicago Tribune called it a " powerhouse ballad " , while Entertainment Weekly 's Tom Sinclair wrote " embellished with her trademark vocal pyrotechnics , it is one of those highly personal songs about finding your way out of an emotional wilderness , but it sinks in its own sodden sentimentality " . Similarly , a writer from Newsday also described " Through the Rain " as a " powerhouse ballad " , and felt it was reminiscent of Carey 's previous single " One Sweet Day " ( 1995 ) . Writing for the Los Angeles Times , Randy Lewis noted how the song was able to effectively take listeners right into Carey 's personal struggles from the previous year . Tina Brown from Newsweek felt that while Carey 's personal troubles may not have been fully solved , the song made her appear " strong and triumphant " .
= = Commercial performance = =
After premiering in the United States , " Through the Rain " managed to peak at number 81 on the Billboard Hot
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100 . Though accompanied by several live promotional appearances , the song failed to garner sufficient airplay to make much of an impact on radio stations . While barely managing to crack the primary US charts , it reached number one on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs . While radio appeal was primarily weak throughout the United States , the song managed to sustain strong airplay throughout Asia . In Canada , " Through the Rain " peaked at number five on the singles chart , and was certified Gold by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) , denoting shipments of over 50 @,@ 000 units . Throughout Australasia and Europe , the song managed to peak within the top five in several countries . In Australia , " Through the Rain " debuted at its peak position of number fifteen on the singles chart , during the week of November 14 , 2002 . The following week , the song began its decline , and had a total chart trajectory of ten weeks . On November 11 , 2002 , " Through the Rain " debuted at number forty @-@ eight on the Ö3 Austria Top 40 chart . The song peaked at number forty @-@ five the next week , and fell out of the chart in its eleventh week , while it was at sixty @-@ eight .
The song achieved relatively weak charting in both the Flemish and Wallonian territories in Belgium , peaking at numbers forty @-@ four and twenty @-@ nine , respectively . Making its debut at its peak position of number sixteen , " Through the Rain " charted for a total of nineteen weeks in France , before falling out on March 22 , 2003 . On the Dutch Top 40 chart , the song made its debut at number thirty @-@ two . Four weeks later , the song peaked at number nine , before dropping outside the top 40 five weeks later , ending its eleven @-@ week run . " Through the Rain " entered the New Zealand Singles Chart at number thirty @-@ seven , during the week dated December 1 , 2002 . In total , the song spent three weeks at its peak position of number thirty @-@ seven , and a total of seven weeks on the chart . In both Denmark and Norway , the song saw moderate success , peaking at numbers thirteen and fifteen , and lasting on the chart for one and three weeks , respectively . On November 28 , 2002 , " Through the Rain " debuted at number twelve on the Swedish Singles Chart , and reached a peak of number seven . Though released at the end of the year , it managed to finish at number 83 on the year @-@ end chart . Similarly in Switzerland , the song peaked at number seven , and finished at number 98 on the end of year chart . On the UK Singles Chart , " Through the Rain " debuted at its peak of number eight . The following week , the song dropped to number twenty @-@ one on the chart , before dropping outside the top @-@ forty two weeks later .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background = = =
The music video , directed by Dave Meyers , was filmed on location in New York City on September 30 , and October 1 , 2002 . It is loosely based on the singer 's parents , Alfred and Patricia Carey , during the times that she was conceived . The characters are played by J. D. Williams and Jamie @-@ Lynn Sigler respectively and incorporates themes from Charmbracelet as well as from Carey 's life . In an interview with MTV News , Carey said that originally , the plot for the video wasn 't going to have anything to do with her parent 's past experiences with racism , but was changed a few days before shooting began . During the interview , she described how to plot came into reality :
Originally it wasn 't going to have anything to do with that , but people were looking through my photo albums this year . My father and I had made some photo albums together of his relatives and different people in the family . A couple people saw [ the albums ] and they were like , ' This is amazing that you have this . ' I guess everybody was like , ' How would you feel about this type of concept [ for a video ] ? ' So I guess I thought if someone 's going to do it might as well be me . The story line [ of the video ] is about an interracial couple . It 's sort of Romeo and Juliet but it 's set in the ' 60s and they 're kind of torn apart . It 's about their struggle and I 'm sort of the narrator . I don 't want to give too much away about it , but it 's nice . Something I could relate to , being the product of an interracial union , though [ my parents ] did not wind up happily ever after standing in church together .
Sigler , who was offered the role only days before filming commenced , said that she had always been a fan of Carey , and accepted the offer immediately . She described that the shoot was set in the 1960s , and that she played the singer 's mother during and after her pregnancy . Sigler described the plot : " With my character , she 's basically going against her parent 's wishes to be with this gentleman . She 's pregnant with a baby , which is Mariah , and they run away together . So it 's kind of an epic love story , it 's nice . " Carey revealed that the video would incorporate a rainstorm scene in New York City . Carey jokingly explained how she originally did not intend to get wet , but felt it added a lot to the video .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins with a view of a Carey 's personal family album . As the pages open , the camera zooms to one particular photograph , of her young mother facing a wall , with her back turned . As the picture comes into full view , it turns into actual footage . Her mother turns around in anguish , as her own mother begins shouting at her and calling her a disgrace to the family . This is due to the fact that she is pregnant with the child of a black man , with whom she wants to move out with . As she goes to leave the home , her mother grabs her arm and rips off a " charmbracelet " from her wrist . As she picks it up off the floor , she tells her mother she hates her and leaves in a taxi . From the clothing and scenery , it is notable that the scenes depicted are happening in the late 1960s , prior to Carey 's birth . As the song starts playing , the video focuses on Carey , walking down the street in New York City . As she continues singing and walking down the street , the camera aims to the sky , which is darkened with cloud while light starts to peer through .
While rain starts to fall , and people start to clear the streets , Carey remains walking on the pathway . The girl now reaches her destination , and is welcomed into the home of her lover . They soon board a bus , and travel to a new home where they will live together . As they are about to enter the bus , the girl 's mother is seen screaming in tears for her daughter to return to her . She hesitates , and then continues with her lover onto the transport . The scene once again focuses on Carey , who is standing in the midst of a torrential downpour , singing to the heavens . As she reaches the song 's climax , Carey , now dry and dressed in a long black gown , is shown singing at the altar of a church . As she sings at the church , scenes of the girl lighting a candle , and her lover laying together with her on a bed are shown , before focusing back on Carey . She stares at an elderly couple in the first row at the church , an inter @-@ racial couple now revealed to be her parents , and smiles while wearing her mother 's charmbracelet . The elderly woman begins crying , as her husband holds her hand as they intently stare at Carey . Their faces rejuvenate to show them as a young couple , as their photo is taken and placed into the family album from the beginning of the video .
= = Live performances = =
Following the release of " Through the Rain " , Carey embarked on several stateside , European and Asian promotional tours in support of Charmbracelet , as well as its accompanying singles . Promotion for the former song began at the 2002 NRJ Awards , where Carey appeared on stage sporting a long wavy style and wearing a long black skirt and denim blazer . Three days prior to the album 's stateside release , a one @-@ hour special titled Mariah Carey : Shining Through the Rain aired on MTV , in which Carey was interviewed and sang several songs from Charmbracelet and of her catalog . During the interview , Carey addressed rumors of her breakdown and its cause , as well as of the album and its inspiration , followed by a question and answer with fans . During the album 's month of release , Carey appeared on several television talk shows , launching her promotional tour on Today , where she performed a four song set @-@ list at Mall of America for a crowd of over 10 @,@ 000 . On December 3 , 2002 , Carey appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show , where she performed " Through the Rain " and " My Saving Grace " , and covered a highly publicized interview regarding Carey 's hospitalization . On December 4 , Carey traveled to Brazil for South American promotion of Charmbracelet , appearing on the popular Brazilian program , Fantástico . She sang " My All " , and reprised performances of " Through the Rain " and " I Only Wanted " wearing a long pink gown . On December 7 , 2002 , Carey performed " Through The Rain " in front of a crowd of 50 @,@ 000 people , at the closing concert of the Mexican Teletón , which took place in the country 's Azteca Stadium .
One month later , Carey was featured as one of the headlining performers at the 30th annual American Music Awards , held on January 13 , 2003 . Introduced by Sharon Osbourne , Carey performed " Through the Rain " alongside a complete live gospel choir , and wore a long black evening gown . During the recital , images of newspaper headlines describing Carey 's breakdown were projected on a large curtain behind her , with one reading " When you fall down , you get back up . " Following the song 's completion , Carey received a standing ovation . Towards the end of March , Charmbracelet saw release throughout Europe , prompting Carey to appear on several programs in promotion of the album . She first performed the album 's leading two singles on the British music chart show , Top of the Pops , followed by a similar set on The Graham Norton Show and Fame Academy . On the latter program , Carey was joined on stage by the show 's finalists , as they all sang the climax on " Through the Rain " alongside her . " Through the Rain " was only performed on Carey 's Charmbracelet World Tour : An Intimate Evening with Mariah Carey , which spanned throughout 2003 – 04 . During the performances , Carey wore a sparkling bra and mini @-@ skirt . During most of the song , Carey performed it while sitting on a large sofa , before standing for the climax . At her concert in Manila , Rito P. Asilo from Philippine Daily Inquirer praised Carey 's live rendition of the song , describing it as one of the show 's high @-@ lights .
= = = Cover versions = = =
The song was covered by several Asian artists . In 2003 , singer Regine Velasquez performed a live rendition of " Through the Rain " as part of an intimate concert that was later broadcast on Asian television .
The song was also covered by Rachelle Ann Go in the 2004 singing competition Search for a Star as her winning song . Additionally , while promoting her debut EP in the Philippines in 2007 , Charice Pempengco sang an a cappella version of the song 's bridge and climax .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for " Through the Rain " adapted from the Charmbracelet liner notes .
Mariah Carey – songwriting , producer , vocals
Lionel Cole – songwriting
James Wright – keyboard , co @-@ producer
James Harris III – producer
Terry Lewis – producer
Steve Hodge – engineer ( vocals )
Brad Yost – engineer ( assistant ) , audio mixing
Xavier Smith – engineer ( assistant ) , audio mixing
Bob Ludwig – mastering
= = Charts = =
= Jane Williams =
Jane Williams ( née Jane Cleveland ; 21 January 1798 – 8 November 1884 ) was a British woman best known for her association with the Romantic poet Percy Bysshe Shelley . Jane was raised in England and India , before marrying a naval officer and settling in London . She soon left him for another military officer , Edward Ellerker Williams . After Edward and she left England for Italy , they became acquainted with Percy and Mary Shelley . Though she never had a romantic relationship with Shelley , near the end of his life he became deeply infatuated with her and addressed several of his poems to her . After Shelley and Edward Williams perished in a boating accident , she lived with Thomas Jefferson Hogg , also a close friend of Shelley , and had two children with him . The rest of her life was spent as a housewife in London .
= = Early life and first marriage = =
Jane was born in Marylebone into a wealthy family who owned an extensive library . Her mother gave birth to her when she was close to forty years old . Her father , who had spent much of his life working in India , died shortly after her birth . Her mother soon gambled away much of the family fortune .
As a girl , she learned to sing and to play the harp , the guitar , and the piano . By her mid teens , Jane possessed an annual annuity of only ₤ 30 . Jane spent much of her early life around military officers . Her brother , John Wheeler Cleavland , was an officer in the British Army who eventually reached the rank of general . He was deployed to India as a young man . Jane spent part of her childhood in India . While in India , she learned Hindustani and remained proficient in the language throughout her life . She often incorporated Indian harmonies into her music .
After returning to London , she fell in love with John Edward Johnson , who was the captain of an East Indiaman . This was a potentially lucrative career , and they were married at St Pancras Old Church in 1814 . Though she could have travelled with him , Jane remained at home . They soon separated , most likely due to abuse by John . Jane later said that she suffered " irreparable injuries " while married to him .
= = Relationship with Edward Williams = =
After John Johnson left on a voyage in May 1817 Jane decided to leave him for Edward Ellerker Williams , to whom she may have been introduced by John . Williams was an Eton College graduate who had served in the Navy before becoming a lieutenant in the 8th Dragoons . Edwards had inherited enough money from his father , a military historian and descendant of Oliver Cromwell , to allow them to live comfortably . Although they never legally married , she became his common @-@ law wife and began referring to herself as Mrs. Jane Williams . Their relationship initially drew disapprobation from their families , with Jane 's brother and Edward 's stepmother reproaching them for their decisions . Jane 's brother later apologised , and declared Johnson a " vile fellow " . Edward 's stepmother , however , always resented Jane . Though long distance mail moved very slowly then , Jane and her husband exchanged angry letters shortly after she left him for Edward . When John returned to London in late 1818 , he made no attempt to force Jane to return to him , although it was his legal right to do so .
Jane and Edward decided to leave London in 1819 after listening to Edward 's friend Thomas Medwin discuss his travels of Europe . They travelled to Geneva in September 1819 and stayed in a house that Medwin had found for them . By the time they arrived , Jane was four months pregnant . In February 1820 , she gave birth to their first child , Edward Medwin Williams . That summer , Jane became pregnant again . Medwin left Geneva in September 1820 to visit his cousin , Percy Shelley , in Pisa . Jane and Edward then travelled to France for several months , before joining Medwin and the Shelleys in Pisa in January 1821 .
= = = In Italy = = =
Jane and Edward enjoyed living in Italy and immediately got along well with Percy and Mary Shelley . Medwin soon left them to travel to Rome . Their second child , Jane Rosalind , was born in March 1821 . While they lived in Pisa the Shelleys and the Williamses often dined and went for walks together . Edward and Percy Shelley soon became close friends and often went boating , though this practice made their wives nervous . Percy Shelley often read his poetry to Edward , who was very impressed by its quality . Shelley also encouraged Edward to begin writing a play himself .
That summer , both couples moved into nearby summer homes . In November , they returned to Pisa and met Lord Byron , who had recently arrived there himself . The two couples later shared a house in a remote location near Lerici , where they were visited in early 1822 by Edward John Trelawny . Though they enjoyed each other 's company , the house was small and the arrangements led to numerous conflicts between the servants of each family .
= = Shelley 's infatuation = =
In June 1822 , Mary Shelley suffered a miscarriage that left her depressed and irritable . After the conflicts this caused in her marriage , Percy Shelley developed strong feelings for Jane . He was particularly taken by her musical gifts and skill as a housewife . Shelley saw Jane as an ideal or even utopian woman , the embodiment of the qualities that he had always sought in a woman . This attraction and the close quarters in which the couples lived caused what has been described as " an extraordinary and mounting tension within the isolated household " . Though she was flattered by the attention , Jane was careful not to reciprocate openly in order to avoid arousing her husband 's suspicions . She was successful in her attempts to prevent Edward from suspecting infidelity on her part .
= = = Poetry = = =
Shelley wrote eleven poems for Jane during that time . She served as the primary inspiration for the last poems that he wrote before his death . This did not bother Edward ; he was proud that his wife inspired such poetry . Some biographers of Shelley have maintained that Shelley 's feelings for Jane were strictly platonic , although different scholars have observed themes of frustrated sexual desires in Shelley 's poetry during this period . Other critics have noted that Shelley 's poems during this period struggle to define his feelings .
Having previously been drawn to other musical women , Shelley greatly appreciated her talents . Jane could skilfully play the flute , harp , and guitar . Shelley was particularly captivated by Jane 's singing voice , to the extent that some commentators have suggested it had a hypnotic effect on him . Shelley once purchased a guitar for Jane , and commemorated the gift in the poem " With a Guitar , to Jane " . In this poem , he ascribes to her voice the ability to alter the consciousnesses of her audience . Jane kept the guitar for her entire life and played it often . Shelley also purchased her a flageolet and wanted to give her a harp , but abandoned that plan due to its expense .
Shelley attempted to disguise his feelings for her in these poems because he expected that Edward and she would read them together . In some cases , Shelley addressed the poems that were inspired by his feelings for Jane to both Edward and Jane . After writing poems in which his affections were less disguised , such as " The Serpent is shut out from Paradise " , he hinted to Edward that he did not want Jane to see the poem . Shelley also used Edward as a stand @-@ in for himself , having Edward read poems to Jane that Shelley had filled with ambiguous pronouns and innuendos . During this time , Percy Shelley concealed many of his interactions with Jane from his wife Mary . Jane later passed on the poems that Shelley had given her to Thomas Medwin and Edward John Trelawny ; Trelawny later published them .
= = Return to England = =
In July 1822 , Edward Williams and Percy Shelley drowned when their boat sank during a storm while returning to Lerici from Pisa . Shortly before their deaths , Jane dreamed of floods and on one occasion thought that she had seen Shelley 's ghost through a window . After hearing of their deaths , Jane and Mary travelled back to Pisa for the funerals of their husbands ; Williams and Shelley were cremated on consecutive days in August 1822 . After Shelley 's cremation , Jane was forced to settle a dispute between Mary Shelley and Leigh Hunt over what to do with what they believed was the unburnt heart of Percy Shelley . Though Hunt had initially taken it from Shelley 's pyre , Mary insisted that he return it to her . Though Hunt was initially unwilling to do so , Jane later convinced him that it should be returned . Mary Shelley and Jane Williams briefly settled in Albaro , before proceeding to Genoa together . There they separated in September due to Jane 's desire to quickly return to England . Jane brought Edward 's ashes with her back to England .
Upon returning to England , Jane initially stayed with her elderly mother and often visited Vincent Novello and his family . Leigh Hunt was acquainted with Novello and had provided Jane with a letter of introduction . Novello enjoyed her company due to her excellent knowledge of music . When Edward 's stepmother learned that Jane had returned , she unsuccessfully attempted to gain control of Edward 's ashes and their children .
Though she initially contemplated returning to Italy , Jane remained in England , though she described it as a " vile country " . Part of the reason she disliked England was the climate , which she blamed for her poor health upon returning to England . Though her legal husband , John Edward Johnson , lived in London as well , Jane referred to herself as a widow during that period . While Jane was in Italy , John Johnson had also told people that he was widowed in order to freely attempt to find a new wife . Soon after her return to England , Jane met Thomas Jefferson Hogg , a lawyer who had been a longtime friend of Percy Shelley , after Mary suggested that Jane consult him about Edward 's estate . Hogg had been a schoolmate and a close friend of Percy Shelley , and was drawn to Jane immediately upon her return from Italy . Hogg immediately began pursuing her and in early 1823 they began regularly spending time together . In March 1823 , Jane moved out of her mother 's home into a home of her own due to renovations at her mother 's house . This allowed Hogg to visit her more freely . In the summer and early autumn of 1823 , however , Hogg left for northern England on business .
After Mary returned to England in 1823 , Jane and Mary initially remained close friends and lived together in Kentish Town . During that time , Jane helped introduce Mary into society .
= = Relationship with Hogg = =
Hogg 's father died in late 1823 . This removed one of the potential obstacles to him openly living with Jane , the possibility of his father disinheriting him . Jane was initially hesitant to pursue a relationship with Hogg , however . As a condition of her acceptance , she insisted that he qualify by taking a tour of Europe . He left England in August 1825 and returned nine months later . She moved into his house in April 1827 , and shortly after became pregnant . Few people in London knew that they were not married , with the exception of Hogg 's family and their close friends . Mary Shelley was particularly approving of their union .
In November 1827 , Jane gave birth to Mary Prudentia Hogg after a difficult pregnancy . Mary Prudentia only lived 18 months , however , dying in May 1829 . During Jane 's pregnancy , Mary Shelley learned that Jane had spoken openly of Percy Shelley 's attraction to her and coolness towards Mary late in his life . These revelations significantly hurt Mary 's feelings . Their friendship survived , however , and Mary Shelley was selected as the godmother of Jane 's daughter Prudentia Sarah Jefferson Hogg in 1836 .
Jane 's legal husband , who was still living in London , attempted to blackmail her in 1838 by publishing the details of her marital status in Barnard Gregory 's The Satirist . Johnson published the notice after learning that she was living with a Mr. Hogg . He was mistaken as to the identity of her lover , however , and attempted to blackmail James Hogg , a Member of Parliament for Beverly . After James Hogg prepared to bring a libel suit , Johnson quickly disappeared . Although one journalist initially planned to publish the correct identities of the parties involved , at Mary Shelley 's request Leigh Hunt convinced him not to publish the story . Johnson died in Hammersmith in 1840 , ensuring an end to the matter . Though they were now free to marry , Jane and Thomas declined to marry in order not to draw attention to the fact that they had been unmarried for so long .
When Jane Rosalind and Henry , Leigh Hunt 's son , became romantically involved , Jane strongly disapproved of the relationship . She sent Jane Rosalind to live with her old friend Claire Clairmont in France in an attempt to thwart the match . Clairmont , however , took Jane Rosalind 's side and sent her back to England to be with Henry . Jane then relented and allowed them to marry , which they did in 1842 . Jane 's disapproval of the match caused serious offence to Leigh Hunt and his family .
After Hogg 's father died , he had to opportunity to move into his family home north of London . Although he initially considered doing so , he chose to stay in London due to the expense that maintaining a large home would involve . Jane also enjoyed living in London , she visited with friends and often gardened with her husband in his later years . The family led a quiet and stable life together , though at times their finances were strained .
= = Widowhood = =
Thomas Jefferson Hogg died in 1862 . Though the bulk of Hogg 's estate was left to their daughter Prudentia , Jane was provided for in the will as well .
Though Jane never used her connection with Shelley to gain any publicity , she did entertain prominent admirers and biographers of Shelley , including George Eliot and William Michael Rossetti . In the years before Hogg 's death , a nephew of Jane 's , one of John Cleveland 's seven children , came to live with them after leaving the military due to an illness . Jane and her nephew , Harry Cleveland , became close friends and he began to run her household as she grew older . In her later years , Jane often read novels , played the piano , and spent time with Harry 's daughter and her grandchildren .
She lived a long life , and in her later years often wrote on census forms that she was born later than she actually was . Shortly before she died in 1884 , she suffered a stroke that left her deaf and bedridden . After her death , she was buried along with the ashes of Edward Williams next to Thomas Jefferson Hogg in Kensal Green Cemetery .
= Sand Point and Middle Hope =
Sand Point in Somerset , England , is the peninsula stretching out from Middle Hope , an 84 @.@ 1 @-@ hectare ( 208 @-@ acre ) biological and geological Site of Special Scientific Interest . It lies to the north of the village of Kewstoke , and the stretch of coastline called Sand Bay north of the town of Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . On a clear day it commands views over Flat Holm , of the Bristol Channel , South Wales , Clevedon , the Second Severn Crossing and the Severn Bridge . A line drawn between Sand Point and Lavernock Point in South Wales marks the lower limit of the Severn Estuary and the start of the Bristol Channel .
Middle Hope is a sequence of carboniferous limestone with unusual geological features including a Pleistocene @-@ aged fossil cliff and as a result has been designated as a regionally important geological site . The underlying geology and soil types support scarce plants such as the smallflower buttercup , honewort , Cheddar pink and Somerset hair grass . Human use of the sites is shown by a bowl barrow and disc barrow from late Neolithic or Bronze Age and the site of a likely motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castle . Woodspring Priory , a former Augustinian priory which was founded in the early 13th century , sits just inland of the rocky promontory . The priory and surrounding land is owned by the National Trust and is a popular place for walking .
= = Geology = =
At Middle Hope a sequence of carboniferous limestone is exposed , which includes thick volcanic tuffs and lavas , demonstrating Tournaisian carbonate sections . The site contains a Pleistocene @-@ aged fossil cliff and shore platform . These features have led to the designation of Middle Hope as a regionally important geological site ( RIGS ) .
The raised beach of wave @-@ cut platforms has been created by changes in sea level of the Bristol Channel since the Quaternary period . The arrangement of volcanic and sedimentary rocks , including the Black Rock Limestone , illustrates the events of 350 million years ago . The strata have been tilted and compressed during the variscan orogeny .
= = Flora = =
Among scarce plants found on Sand Point are smallflower buttercup , and honewort . The range of soils at the site support various flora and fauna . The calcareous grassland is dominated by Festuca species and Dactylis glomerata , while the scrub towards the west of the site is dominated by hawthorn ( Crataegus monogyna ) and blackthorn ( Prunus spinosa ) , while that to the east consists of common gorse ( Ulex europaeus ) and bramble ( Rubus fruticosus agg ) . Less common plants include the cheddar pink ( Dianthus gratianopolitanus ) and Somerset hair grass ( Koeleria vallesiana ) .
= = History = =
Evidence of early human occupation if provided by a bowl barrow and disc barrow from the late Neolithic or Bronze Age have been identified on the higher ground . The bowl barrow is 10 metres ( 33 ft ) in diameter and approximately 0 @.@ 5 metres ( 1 ft 8 in ) high . Slightly west of the bowl barrow is a disc barrow surrounded by a bank and ditch which enclose an area about 8 metres ( 26 ft ) across . These are situated at the highest point where the Ordnance Survey have constructed a triangulation station .
A motte @-@ and @-@ bailey castle may have been constructed after the Norman Conquest . The site is known as Castle Mound or Castle Batch and can be seen as a 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) high mound which is approximately 30 metres ( 98 ft ) in diameter and marked by a ditch on the landward eastern edge . The mound was damaged by the construction of a building during World War II . The medieval date for the construction is in doubt with some sources suggesting that the mound may have been a watchtower constructed in the 16th century . The walls of the sheep fold were built by prisoners from the Napoleonic Wars . Hope Cove on the northern coast had a reputation for smuggling as it was " well away from the men of HM Customs and Excise " .
Woodspring Priory was an Augustinian priory . It was founded by William de Courtney , in the early 13th century , and dedicated to Thomas Becket . The small community built a church and monastic lodgings during the next hundred years . They were Victorine Canons who were influenced by the Cistercians emphasis on manual labour and self @-@ sufficiency . As a result , the clerks who had taken holy orders worked on the farm , as well as providing clergy for surrounding churches . Despite endowments of land the priory was not wealthy until the 15th century when further building work , including the current priory church , infirmary and barn was undertaken . It was dissolved in 1536 and then owned by local noblemen and leased to local farmers . In 1969 the priory was taken over by the Landmark Trust who spent 20 years on restoration work , and since the 1990s have rented out the farmhouse as holiday accommodation . The surviving buildings include the priory church , which was a 15th @-@ century replacement for the earlier 13th century structure , infirmary , barn and 16th century prior 's lodging which was converted into a farmhouse . The whole site was arranged around a central cloister from which only the east wall and west wall of the chapter house remain , the sacristy , refectory , chapter house , lady chapel and parlour having been demolished .
Because of the biological and geological interest the site was designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest in 1952 . In 1968 the priory and adjoining land of Middle Hope was purchased by the National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty as part of Project Neptune .
During World War II weapons were tested at Sand Point , in association with the base at Birnbeck Pier which was commissioned as " HMS Birnbeck " by the Admiralty as part of the Department of Miscellaneous Weapons Development ( DMWD ) for research into new weapons . To support this buildings were constructed at St Thomas Head , east of Middle Hope . Some of these have since been removed and the site is now used by QinetiQ as an explosives and shock test facility .
= Drakengard 3 =
Drakengard 3 is an action role @-@ playing game developed by Access Games and published by Square Enix exclusively for the PlayStation 3 . The game was released in December 2013 in Japan and in May 2014 in North America and Europe . It is the third game in the Drakengard series and a prequel to the original game . The game , like the rest of the series , features a mixture of ground @-@ based hack @-@ and @-@ slash combat and aerial battles . The story focuses on Zero , a woman who can manipulate magic through song . Partnering with a dragon named Mikhail , Zero set out to kill her five sisters , who rule the world 's regions . As she travels , the player discovers the true reason behind Zero 's rampage .
The game , created to cater for hardcore role @-@ playing game audiences , was developed by the same team who created the original Drakengard and series spin @-@ off Nier , including producer Takamasa Shiba , director Taro Yoko and writer Sawako Natori . The music was composed by Keiichi Okabe , who also scored Nier . Unlike previous titles in the series , the team developed the game at Access Games , due to the company 's experience at developing action titles and the team 's wish to address criticisms laid at the gameplay of previous Drakengard games . Drakengard 3 received mixed to positive reviews and sales in Japan and mixed reviews in the west . The ground @-@ based gameplay and story were generally praised , while common criticisms included the dragon gameplay , graphics and multiple technical issues .
= = Gameplay = =
Drakengard 3 features hack @-@ and @-@ slash gameplay and aerial combat on a dragon , as with previous entries in the series . The player controls the main protagonist Zero during the entire campaign and for most levels is accompanied by up to two AI @-@ controlled companions . In ground @-@ based combat , Zero performs multiple attacks on various enemies . These can be combined into combos , which fill up Zero 's Tension Gauge . When the gauge is filled to any degree , Zero can temporarily enter Intoner Mode , a hyperactive state which enables her to move quickly and deal high damage to enemies while also making her immune to attack . As Zero levels up , weapons grow more powerful and Zero gains access to multiple weapon types as the game progresses . Each weapon type produces a different set of attacking moves . Unlike previous titles in the series , the player does not have to pause the games to switch weapons , instead being able to do it at any time without pausing .
Zero can switch between four weapon types : swords , spears , combat bracers and chakrams . Each weapon has a four @-@ level cap and can be leveled up either through combat or by spending money acquired during levels . Each weapon has different effects depending on enemy @-@ type and combat situation , with spears being useful against heavily @-@ armored or shielded enemies and swords being a default weapon . While exploring levels , Zero can collect items from chests and fallen enemies which earn money for buying potions , as well as buying and leveling weapons . Zero can also complete sidequests as the player progresses through the game : these sidequests place within areas of normal levels and limitations on the player 's abilities . The player 's performance during them earns special items and the number of items you earn increases with the number of enemies killed .
For aerial combat , Zero mounts her dragon Mikhail . The two main types of aerial combat are rail shooter @-@ style missions and free @-@ roaming combat which enables both aerial and ground @-@ based combat . Mikhail has multiple attack types at his disposal : while on the ground , after Zero has mounted , the dragon can perform a sweeping attack using his wings and snap at them . During combat in the air , Mikhail can breathe fire down onto the ground and at airborne enemies . Mikhail is fully controllable while in the air , flying through the environment and being able to evade enemy fire . Mikhail 's main attack , breathing fire , features a lock @-@ on feature which can take in multiple enemies . Mikhail can also enter Intoner Mode while Zero is mounted , which magnifies the amount of damage he can deal . During ground @-@ based missions , Zero can also call in Mikhail to deal damage to enemy units .
= = Story = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Drakengard 3 takes place roughly one hundred years before the events of Drakengard , acting as a prequel to the first two games in the series . Despite being a prequel , Drakengard 3 mostly follows separate timelines unrelated to the events of Drakengard . In earlier times , the land was ravaged by conflict between warlords . At the height of the carnage , five mysterious figures called Intoners appeared and using their ability to utilize magic through song , defeated the warlords and ended the conflict . Due to this , they become worshiped as deities and became rulers of various regions of the land . An unspecified time later , in the game 's present , the strongest Intoner , One , wishes to unite the five once again and bring stability to the land . The source of the Intoners ' power is an evil flower that saved Zero from death to use her as an instrument for mankind 's destruction . Zero was its original host and she now wishes to destroy all those affected by its power , herself and ' sisters ' spawned when Zero attempted suicide and ensure the safety of the world .
The player controls Zero ( ゼロ , Zero ) , the main protagonist and antihero , considered a traitor by the Intoners and their followers because of her mission to kill them . Aiding her on her quest is the dragon Mikhail ( ミハイル , Mihairu ) , who aids her and is her mount in aerial battle . The other five Intoners are : One ( ワン , Wan ) , the current ruler of the Intoners ; Two ( トウ , Tou ) , the more cheerful member of the group and ruler of the Country of Sand ; Three ( スリイ , Surii ) , ruler of the Country of Forest and an obsessive over dolls ; Four ( フォウ , Fou ) , ruler of the Country of Mountain and the only virgin of the group ; and Five ( ファイブ , Faibu ) , ruler of the Country of Sea and a woman consumed by greed for everything . Traveling with Zero on her quest are the disciples , a group who formerly served the Intoners and accompany Zero after their original mistresses are killed . They include : Cent ( セント , Sento ) , a dumb and overconfident man , as well as the lover of the Intoner Two ; Octa ( オクタ , Okuta ) , an old and cunning man obsessed with sex ; Decadus ( デカート , Decāto ) a gentlemanly warrior with a masochistic streak ; and Dito ( ディト , Dito ) , a sadistic young man . Each of the disciples helps the Intoner summon angels and daemons into battle . The game is narrated to the player by Accord ( アコール , Akōru ) , an android created by the " old world " to monitor and document all timelines .
= = = Plot = = =
Zero and her dragon Michael slaughter their way into the Cathedral City , the center of power for the Intoners . Zero 's attempt to kill them directly ends disastrously : she and Michael are gravely wounded by One 's own dragon , Gabriel . A year later , Zero and her dragon , now a childlike reincarnation named Mikhail , set off to try killing the Intoners again . They first travel to the Land of Seas to face Five : during the fight , Five is killed by her disciple Dito , whom Zero takes into her service . The group then journey to the Land of Mountains and face Four : after Four 's death , Zero recruits Decadus . They then proceed to the Land of Forests . There , Three 's disciple Octa attempts to betray his mistress , but she forces him to help her fight Zero . She is killed by Mikhail , who is then attacked and captured by daemons summoned by Two and Cent . Zero pursues them to the Land of Sand , freeing Mikhail from captivity and facing the two . Mikhail kills Two and Cent joins Zero . The group then fight their way into the Cathedral City , where Zero transforms the Disciples into their true dove forms , freeing them from their service to her . During her battle with One , Mikhail dies wounding Gabriel , allowing a distraught Zero to finish off Gabriel and One . Zero is then killed by a male clone of One , who decides to create a new religious order in memory of his " sister " .
After this , Accord tells of three alternate series of events or " branches " , caused by a group of singularities ( Zero , her sisters , and the disciples ) coming together . In the second branch , while in the Land of Forests and having already recruited Cent , Zero finds the surviving sisters being driven insane by the power of the flower : Three dies of unknown causes , causing her soldiers to go mad . Eventually , the group find One has been killed by a deranged Two . Brought back under her influence , Cent turns on the group , killing Octa and Dito . Two and Decadus kill each other , while Zero kills Cent : before dying , Two and Cent summon their angel Raphael , which poisons Mikhail before being killed . In order to save Mikhail , Zero activates the flower 's power and forms a " pact " , resurrecting him . In the third branch , after rescuing Mikhail from Two 's stronghold , the dragon is devolved back to his child form by Two 's powers . Upon arrival in the Cathedral City , the group faces Two , who destroys the four disciples when they kill her . Zero then faces One , who reveals that she knows the true nature of the Intoners and reveals the reason behind Zero 's partnership with Mikhail : once the other Intoners were dead , Mikhail was to kill Zero , destroying the flower 's power . Gabriel and Mikhail kill each other and Zero and One engage in an enraged battle . After killing One , Zero , still in shock from Mikhail 's death , sets off to try to find another dragon who can kill her . It is implied in Accord 's closing report that she fails .
In the fourth and final branch of Zero 's set of timelines , as she proceeds on her quest , she encounters each of her sisters possessed by the flower 's power , as well as interacting directly with Accord . In each battle with the sisters , the Disciples summon their angels and transform into doves until only Octa remains . In the Cathedral City , Zero and Octa face off against One while Mikhail challenges Gabriel . Octa sacrifices himself to restrain One . Finally , Accord decides to intervene and sacrifices herself so Zero can kill One , which in turn kills Gabriel . Upon absorbing the power of all five Intoners , Zero transforms into a stone monster and goes with Mikhail to another realm , where they engage in a rhythm game @-@ style battle . Upon winning , Mikhail destroys the monster and Accord 's voice declares that the flower 's evil has been sealed away , although there is still the possibility of it reappearing in another time and place . She also suspects that Zero might have survived . In a post @-@ credits scene , a new version of Accord replaces the one destroyed by Zero and many others join her in helping record world events . As they disperse , the new Accord speaks to the player , hoping to see them again and thanking them for playing , before the screen goes black .
= = Development = =
Drakengard 3 was conceived when Takamasa Shiba and Taro Yoko , the respective producer and director of the original game , met up years after Cavia , the company where they created the series , was absorbed into AQ Interactive . The two resurrected early plans to create a third entry in the series . As part of the brainstorming process , the company used fan questionnaires , from which the team learned that many wanted a dark story similar to Nier for the next entry in the series . Speaking about the creation of the game , Shiba said that Drakengard 3 was made partly because the company was making fewer single @-@ player RPG console games and he wished to capture the atmosphere of earlier days . Alongside that was Shiba 's ambition to show that the RPG fanbase was now a mainstream community that wanted a more hardcore gaming experience . The game was developed by Access Games , who were noted for the survival horror Deadly Premonition . Shiba noted that the company was " just really good at creating action games " , which would enable the team to address criticisms laid at the previous games in the series for their poor combat while still being able to craft a story true to the Drakengard series . By the time the game was unveiled in early 2013 , it was 60 % complete , and Yoko commented " It 's not Drakengard or Nier . If you 're expecting that , you 'll be disappointed . "
= = = World design = = =
Kimihiko Fujisaka , character designer for the previous entries in the series , reprised his role . In designing the characters , Fujisaka used the previous two games ' " Medieval Europe " inspiration for the enemies , while leaning towards more modern designs for the main characters . In addition to Fujisaka , actor Shinnosuke Ikehata , who had voiced key characters in previous games in the series , returned to do voice work , and writer Sawako Natori , who had worked on Drakengard , Drakengard 2 and Nier , returned to write the scenario with Yoko . The story was written to have " a good balance of darkness and humor " , according to Shiba : he said that there was " actually a good bit of [ darkness ] , in the in @-@ game dialogue for example . " The team did not want to turn it into a completely dark story , instead still having scenes that people could laugh at . Yoko did not want the emotions of the various characters to fall into simple stereotypes , or for there to be a simplistic take on the situation . He also wanted to create a strange " abnormal " picture for the players : the cited instance was the contrast between the fear and terror displayed by enemy soldiers and the often vulgar dialogue between Zero and her companions . He also stated that he went through a large part of the game 's development " half @-@ laughing " .
During the story development process , the team decided upon a female protagonist as the game 's lead , in contrast to the previous games which had featured male protagonists , along with a large number of other female characters : this was primarily because all other proposals had been rejected or scrapped . Many aspects of Zero 's design and abilities were intended to evoke the game 's gritty atmosphere , while the flower growing from her eye was almost cut when Shiba thought it would be too much of a risk for the series when coupled with the character 's gender . A couple of Yoko 's ideas that were cut out or rejected during development included a fully contemporary setting with a school @-@ girl protagonist , and calling the game Drakengard 4 instead of Drakengard 3 , with the story revolving around searching for the missing installment in the series . Yoko , Natori and supplementary writer Emi Nagashima were jointly responsible for creating the disciples ' personalities . Yoko wanted Nagashima to write Cent to be as much of an idiot as possible , while she received some negative feedback for her portrayal of Decadus despite her best efforts . Octa was the character Natori and Nagashima best understood , though Nagashima found it difficult writing his novella . While writing Mikhail 's dialogue , Natori was asked by Yoko to embody the good qualities of animals and children in him . Instead of being realistic , Natori borrowed elements from other fiction to create his personality , finding him the most fun to write . The dialogue between Zero and her disciples was written by Yoko to contrast in content with the violent combat . Elements of fourth @-@ wall breaking were included in the game , such as some of Zero 's dialogue or Accord 's actions during the final ending : this both acted as a callback to Drakengard , and to suggest that the real world was simply another branch of the Drakengard universe .
Fujisaka 's design for Zero was the first to be approved by Yoko . The other Intoners were designed fairly quickly after that : Yoko told Fujisaka to " think Puella Magi Madoka Magica " when designing them . Each character had different design themes : for example , Five 's was nudity and knitwear , Four 's was her being a female captain , and Two 's were underwear and " lolita " . Three was meant to have bangs covering her face and multiple hairpins , but this was dropped . The characters ' number @-@ based names and differing eye colors were meant to help players identify them , while aspects of Zero 's design were incorporated into the other Intoners to emphasize their connections . The Apostles were designed and approved quickly as they were not a high priority . They were designed around prime male archetypes : Cent , originally the group 's sadist , was the " pretty boy " , Octa was the " old man " , Decadus was the " middle @-@ aged man " , and Dito was the " little boy " .
= = = Music = = =
The game 's
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ed the game for its textures , graphics and character design , despite noting the developers ' attempts to lampoon gaming conventions . Technical issues such as frequent frame rate drops , an erratic camera and screen tearing were cited as general faults with the game .
= = = Game quotes = = =
= Slipknot ( band ) =
Slipknot is an American heavy metal band from Des Moines , Iowa . The band was founded in September 1995 by percussionist Shawn Crahan and bassist Paul Gray . After several lineup changes in its early years , the band settled on nine members for more than a decade : Corey Taylor , Mick Thomson , Jim Root , Paul Gray , Craig Jones , Sid Wilson , Shawn Crahan , Chris Fehn and Joey Jordison . Gray died on May 24 , 2010 , and was replaced from 2011 – 14 by former guitarist Donnie Steele . Jordison left the band on December 12 , 2013 . Steele left during the recording sessions for .5 : The Gray Chapter because he wanted to focus on his marriage . The band is now touring with replacement musicians Alessandro Venturella on bass and Jay Weinberg on drums . After the departure of Jordison , as of December 2015 the only founding member in the current lineup is percussionist Shawn Crahan ; the other remaining members of Slipknot have been members since the release of the band 's 1999 eponymous debut .
Slipknot is well known for its attention @-@ grabbing image , aggressive style of music , and energetic and chaotic live shows . The band rapidly rose to success following the release of their eponymous debut album in 1999 . The 2001 follow @-@ up album , Iowa , made the band more popular . After a brief hiatus , Slipknot returned in 2004 with Vol . 3 : ( The Subliminal Verses ) , before going on another hiatus and returning in 2008 with its fourth album , All Hope Is Gone , which debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 chart . After another long hiatus , Slipknot released its fifth studio album , .5 : The Gray Chapter , in 2014 . The band has released a live album titled 9 @.@ 0 : Live , a compilation album titled Antennas to Hell , and four live DVDs . In 2015 , Slipknot headlined the Download Festival in the UK for the third time .
= = History = =
= = = Early days = = =
In the years before Slipknot formed , a state of shifting band membership existed throughout the metal scene in Des Moines , Iowa . In 1991 , the biggest metal band in Des Moines was Atomic Opera , with Jim Root on guitar . Drummer Joey Jordison founded a thrash metal band called Modifidious , playing at a club called Runway . Modifidious opened for Atomic Opera on December 1 , 1991 , at the Runway , after which their guitarist left for the more successful Atomic Opera . Jordison replaced him with local guitarist Craig Jones . Drummer Shawn Crahan formed another Des Moines band called Heads on the Wall , playing funk metal cover songs at clubs and releasing a demo tape in July 1992 . A fourth Des Moines band called Vexx played death metal with Anders Colsefni on drums , Paul Gray on bass , and Josh Brainard on guitar and vocals . Colsefni later took over vocal duties , but Vexx never recorded . During this time , Crahan often went to the Runway on Sundays when the club opened to all ages , where he met other young musicians with whom he could jam . By March 1993 , Crahan was jamming with vocalist Colsefni , bassist Gray and guitarist Pat Neuwirth , writing and playing songs in Gray 's basement , discussing possible band names such as Pull My Finger , but never making a final decision . One of the songs they recorded was titled " Slipknot " ; another was titled " Painface " , which Colsefni later used to name his band Painface .
In 1993 , a new band called Inveigh Catharsis formed in Des Moines , with Gray on bass , Brainard on guitar and Colsefni on drums . Jordison jammed occasionally with this group . Brainard eventually left to join Jordison and Jones in Modifidious , participating in demo recordings at the end of ' 93 and early in ' 94 . During 1994 Modifidious sometimes played the same shows as Crahan 's Heads on the Wall band . Gray formed a death metal band called Body Pit , soon becoming popular in the local scene . Modifidious stopped playing in the wake of death metal 's increasing pull . Gray failed to get Jordison to join Body Pit , but soon after he recruited local guitar teacher Mick Thomson , the band broke up .
In September 1995 , Crahan and Gray started a band named the Pale Ones . The lineup was made up of friends who met through the local music scene , including vocalist Colsefni and guitarist Donnie Steele . Not long after their inception , Gray invited Jordison to a rehearsal because the band was interested in experimenting with additional drum elements . Jordison subsequently joined the band as their main drummer , moving Crahan to custom percussion . Furthermore , Colsefni also took up custom percussion while remaining the band 's vocalist . The band then decided to invite Brainard as their second guitarist , bringing their lineup to six members . On December 4 , the band made their live debut ; playing a benefit show using the name Meld .
Much of the band 's early development was retrospectively attributed to late @-@ night planning sessions between Gray , Crahan and Jordison at a Sinclair gas station where Jordison worked nights . It was there , in late 1995 , that Jordison suggested changing the band name to Slipknot after their song of the same name . In December , Slipknot began recording material at SR Audio , a studio in the band 's hometown . Without a recording budget , the band was forced to self @-@ finance the project , the costs of which came to an estimated $ 40 @,@ 000 . In February 1996 , guitarist Donnie Steele decided to leave Slipknot due to his Christian beliefs . When questioned in 1999 about Steele 's departure , Jordison explained : " We were prepared to keep him on , but he didn 't want to stay . " During the mixing stages of their project at SR Audio , Craig Jones was recruited as Steele 's replacement on guitar . However , throughout their time in the studio , the band were adding samples to their recordings but could not produce these sounds live . Subsequently , Jones became the band 's sampler and Mick Thomson was brought in as the replacement guitarist . After a complicated time with mixing and mastering , the band self @-@ released Mate . Feed . Kill . Repeat. on Halloween , October 31 , 1996 .
Distribution for the demo was initially left to the band and their producer Sean McMahon , before it was handed over to the distribution company Ismist in early 1997 . Slipknot received a small amount of airplay on local radio stations off the back of the demo . However , it did not lead to any kind of interest from record labels , so the band returned to the studio to develop new material . It was at this time that the band sought more melodic vocals for their music . As a result , Corey Taylor was recruited from fellow Des Moines band Stone Sour ; this moved Colsefni to backing vocals and percussion . While working in the studio , Slipknot continued to do local shows , during one of which in September 1997 , Colsefni announced on stage that he was leaving the band . The gap on percussion was filled by Greg Welts , who was affectionately known as " Cuddles . " In early 1998 , Slipknot produced a second demo featuring five tracks exclusively for record labels . The band began to receive a lot of attention from record labels , and in February 1998 , producer Ross Robinson offered to produce their debut album after attending rehearsals in Des Moines . Soon after , DJ Sid Wilson was recruited as the band 's ninth member after showing great interest and impressing band members . In late June , Slipknot received a $ 500 @,@ 000 , seven @-@ album deal , from Roadrunner Records ; the band signed the deal publicly on July 8 , 1998 . Two days prior to this , Welts was fired from the band , something which Slipknot refuse to comment on . Welts was replaced by Brandon Darner , who departed from the band shortly after joining .
= = = Slipknot and emergence ( 1998 – 2000 ) = = =
Chris Fehn was brought in to replace Darner on percussion before Slipknot traveled to Malibu , California , to work on their debut album in September 1998 . Partway through the recording process of the album , Slipknot returned to Des Moines for the Christmas period . During that period , guitarist Brainard decided to leave the band . Brainard said , " some decisions were made that I wasn 't particularly happy with " . Slipknot later recruited Jim Root to complete their lineup and the band returned to Malibu to continue work on the album . Work on the album concluded in early 1999 , allowing the band to go on their first tour as part of the Ozzfest lineup in 1999 . Ozzfest greatly increased Slipknot 's audience , furthering the band 's success with their self @-@ titled album that was released on June 29 , 1999 . Slipknot released its first home video Welcome to Our Neighborhood , which was directed by Thomas Mignone , and the singles " Wait and Bleed " and " Spit It Out " , which were also directed by Mignone . The singles received some airplay , but Slipknot quickly developed a large following , mainly from touring and word of mouth . The band toured several countries throughout 1999 and 2000 in support of the album . In early 2000 , Slipknot was certified platinum ; a first for an album released by Roadrunner Records .
= = = Iowa and hiatus ( 2001 – 03 ) = = =
Anticipation for Slipknot 's second album was intense . In early 2001 , the band began recording the second album at Sound City and Sound Image studios in Los Angeles . Around this time , conflicts arose between band members due to extensive touring and recording schedules . Recording of their second album ended in February 2001 and the band embarked on their Iowa World Tour . Entitled Iowa , Slipknot 's second album was released on August 28 , 2001 ; it peaked at number three on the Billboard album charts and at number one on the UK album chart . The album produced three singles ; " The Heretic Anthem " ( promotional single ) , " Left Behind " , and " My Plague " , which appeared on the soundtrack for the film Resident Evil . In 2002 , Slipknot appeared in Rollerball ( 2002 ) , performing the song " I Am Hated " in a scene . The release and intense promotion of the album resulted in sold @-@ out shows in large arenas in several countries .
In mid @-@ 2002 , Slipknot went on hiatus because of internal conflicts . This temporary split allowed several band members to focus on various side projects . Vocalist Taylor and guitarist Root revived their band Stone Sour , drummer Jordison created Murderdolls , percussionist Crahan founded To My Surprise and DJ Wilson went solo as DJ Starscream . For a while , the future of Slipknot was uncertain and there was much speculation about whether there would be a third album , or if the split would become permanent . Despite this , on November 22 , 2002 , Slipknot released their second DVD , Disasterpieces .
= = = Vol . 3 : ( The Subliminal Verses ) and second hiatus ( 2003 – 2007 ) = = =
After several delays , Slipknot moved into The Mansion in Los Angeles , California , in mid @-@ 2003 to work on their third album alongside producer Rick Rubin . By early 2004 , work on the album had finished and the band began The Subliminal Verses World Tour with their appearance on the Jägermeister Music Tour in March 2004 . Vol . 3 : ( The Subliminal Verses ) was released on May 24 , 2004 ; it peaked at number two on the Billboard album charts . The album produced six singles ; " Duality " , " Vermilion " , " Vermilion , Pt . 2 " , " Before I Forget " , " The Nameless " , and The Blister Exists . Slipknot recorded its first live album , 9 @.@ 0 : Live , while touring in support of the band 's third album . Released on November 1 , 2005 9 @.@ 0 : Live peaked at number 17 on the Billboard album charts . Touring in support of Vol . 3 : ( The Subliminal Verses ) continued through 2004 and up to the end of 2005 before Slipknot went on hiatus for the second time .
In 2005 , several members of Slipknot were involved in Roadrunner United : The All @-@ Star Sessions , an collaborative album recorded by artists signed to Roadrunner Records . 2006 saw Slipknot win their first Grammy Award , picking up the Best Metal Performance award for the single " Before I Forget " . On December 5 , 2006 , Slipknot released its third DVD Voliminal : Inside the Nine . While Slipknot was on hiatus , several band members again focused their attentions on side projects ; vocalist Taylor and guitarist Root returned to Stone Sour , drummer Jordison toured with several bands and produced 3 Inches of Blood 's third album Fire Up the Blades , Crahan founded Dirty Little Rabbits and Wilson returned as DJ Starscream once again .
= = = All Hope Is Gone , third hiatus and Gray 's death ( 2008 – 2010 ) = = =
Preparation for Slipknot 's fourth album began towards the end of 2007 ; work began at Sound Farm Studio in Jamaica , Iowa , with producer Dave Fortman in February 2008 . The album was finished in June , and the band the All Hope Is Gone World Tour on July 9 , 2008 . Slipknot 's fourth album , All Hope Is Gone , was released on August 20 , 2008 , debuting at number one on the Billboard albums chart . The album produced five singles ; " All Hope Is Gone " , " Psychosocial " , " Dead Memories " , " Sulfur " and " Snuff " . 2009 marked the 10th anniversary of Slipknot 's debut album ; to commemorate the event , the band released a special edition version of Slipknot on September 9 , 2009 . The band toured in support of the album throughout 2008 and continued until October 31 , 2009 , resulting in Slipknot 's third hiatus .
During the hiatus , several band members focused on respective side projects ; Taylor founded Junk Beer Kidnap Band and returned to Stone Sour with guitarist Root ; Crahan continued working with his band Dirty Little Rabbits ; and drummer Jordison returned with his band Murderdolls and became the new permanent drummer of Rob Zombie . Percussionist Fehn is now a full @-@ time bassist with metalcore band Will Haven and Sid Wilson founded the eponymous band Sid .
In 2010 , Gray was planning to tour with the supergroup , Hail ! , but on May 24 , 2010 , he was found dead in a Urbandale , Iowa hotel room . Circumstances surrounding his death at the time were not immediately known ; an autopsy suspected his death was not intentional but did not reveal the cause . The day after his death , the remaining eight members of the band held a live , unmasked , press conference alongside Gray 's widow and brother . On June 21 , the cause of death was confirmed as an accidental overdose of morphine and synthetic morphine substitute fentanyl .
The band was hesitant to comment on the future of Slipknot . The members made conflicting statements in interviews ; drummer Jordison told The Pulse of Radio " there is another Slipknot record already kinda in the making " . Vocalist Taylor told FMQB Productions ' he was " very conflicted about whether or not [ he wants ] to do anything with Slipknot " . The band released their fourth video album ( sic ) nesses on September 28 , 2010 ; it debuted at number one on the Billboard Top Music Video Charts . The DVD features Slipknot 's entire live performance at the 2009 Download Festival and a 45 @-@ minute film documenting their tour in support of All Hope Is Gone , and served as a tribute to Paul Gray .
= = = Return to the stage , Antennas to Hell and Knotfest ( 2010 – 2012 ) = = =
Regarding the continuation of Slipknot , Taylor told NME Gray would want them to continue and he felt they should but he was ambivalent about returning to the band . Slipknot returned to touring in 2011 , performing a small number of shows in Europe . They headlined the Sonisphere Festival and Rock in Rio alongside Iron Maiden and Metallica , and performed at Belgium 's Graspop Metal Meeting . Donnie Steele substituted for Gray in the concerts ; he was positioned behind Jordison and obscured from the audience 's view .
Slipknot also said the band would complete and release the band 's fifth studio album , and that there were no plans to replace Gray . Jordison said the writing process for the album had already begun and that he had written 17 songs . Slipknot performed at Mayhem Festival 2012 .
On May 29 , 2012 , Roadrunner Records posted a teaser video titled Antennas to Hell on its website . Later that day , on Twitter , Corey Taylor said Slipknot will release a greatest hits album on June 17 , 2012 . He also said the band was not yet recording new material but was putting together demos for a new album .
Slipknot 's first annual music festival , called Knotfest , was held on August 17 , 2012 , at Mid @-@ America Motorplex near Pacific Junction , Iowa , and on August 18 , 2012 , in Somerset , Wisconsin . Deftones , Lamb of God , Serj Tankian also performed at the festival . The festival shows also debuted a Slipknot museum . On 14 , June 2013 , Slipknot headlined the Download Festival for a second time . The band performed to roughly 90 @,@ 000 people and was twice forced to stop the set — once in the middle of a song — to allow the front barricade , which had split open under crowd pressure , to be repaired .
= = = Jordison 's departure , .5 : The Gray Chapter and new members ( 2013 – present ) = = =
Production of the band 's fifth album began in late 2013 . Taylor described the album as " very dark " and a cross between Iowa and Vol . 3 ( The Subliminal Verses ) . Guitarist Jim Root did not participate in Stone Sour 's January tour so he could write material for Slipknot .
On December 12 , 2013 , the band announced through its official website that Joey Jordison had left the band after 18 years , citing personal reasons . On his official Facebook page , Jordison later said he " did not quit Slipknot " and that he was " shocked " and " blindsided " by the news . Both Jordison and Slipknot independently promised to release further details about the split . Taylor said Jordison would not be appearing on the new album because he did not participate in any songwriting sessions before his departure .
In July 2014 , Slipknot began releasing teasers for the new album on the band 's website and social media using cryptic messages and gory imagery . " The Negative One " , the band 's first song in six years , was released on August 1 ; it was accompanied by a music video directed by Crahan that was released four days later . The video did not feature any band members . On August 24 , Slipknot released an official radio single titled " The Devil In I " , and the name of the upcoming album was announced as .5 : The Gray Chapter on iTunes , with an expected release date of October 28 . The release was later preponed to October 17 for the Netherlands and Australia , October 20 for the UK and October 21 worldwide .
Slipknot began touring North America in support of the album on October 25 at the second iteration of Knotfest . The tour dubbed the " Prepare for Hell " was co @-@ headlined by Korn with King 810 as support . The band also performed at 2015 's Soundwave festival in Australia . A bassist and drummer were brought in to replace Gray and Jordison respectively ; Crahan designing a mask that would differentiate them from the band . The official video for " The Devil In I " , featuring musicians wearing modified versions of the band 's old masks — with the exception of Taylor who wore a new mask — was released on September 12 . Fans speculated upon the identities of the drummer and bassist shown in the video but the band did not officially name them .
Taylor later said he was upset at the leak of the identity of the bassist , alleged to be Alessandro Venturella because of a unique tattoo on his hand . Root told Guitar World the drummer 's identity would not be released , and that the bassist and the drummer were not permanent members of the band . On December 3 , a former Slipknot road crew member posted a photograph of a touring band personnel list that confirmed bassist Alessandro Venturella and drummer Jay Weinberg were members of the tour . The new musicians had been viewed unfavorably by some of the band members ; Shawn Crahan told Kerrang ! magazine , " This is Slipknot , fuck both of those guys ... [ t ] hey 'll never be in the band . Never . " Taylor also said the two " got a crack at designing their own masks and they failed miserably " , and they were wearing masks given to them by the band .
" The Negative One " was nominated for the 2014 Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance at the 57th Grammy Awards .
On March 11 , 2015 , while the band was not touring , guitarist Mick Thomson was hospitalized after a drunken knife fight with his brother at Thomson 's home in Iowa . The pair sustained serious , but non life @-@ threatening , injuries . On August 2 , 2015 , during a concert in Hartford , Connecticut , the band was forced to stop performing after Venturella was suddenly rushed to hospital , after undergoing a medical emergency . After 20 minutes , singer Taylor told the audience the band would continue the concert , performing without Venturella . It was later discovered that Venturella had collapsed because of extreme dehydration . During the band 's following three concerts , Venturella played bass from backstage , returning to the stage on August 8 .
= = Style and lyrical themes = =
Slipknot 's music is influenced by many styles and bands including hard rock and heavy metal bands Kiss , Anthrax , Black Sabbath , Iron Maiden , Faith No More , Helmet , Tool , Slayer , Fear Factory , Skinny Puppy , Neurosis , Judas Priest , Metallica , Led Zeppelin and Beastie Boys . The band is regarded as a pioneer of the New Wave of American Heavy Metal ; its output has been compared to that of Pantera , Machine Head , Hatebreed , Life of Agony , and Prong , among others .
Slipknot is considered a nu metal band . The band 's members prefer to distance themselves musically from other nu metal bands such as Korn and Limp Bizkit . Slipknot describes its sound as " metal metal " and regards the link to nu metal as coincidental and a result of nu metal 's emergence being concurrent with that of Slipknot . The band 's sound typically features a heavily down @-@ tuned guitar setup , a large percussive section , samples , and turntables . Using a variety of vocal styles , the music typically features growled vocals , screaming , backing vocals , and occasional melodic singing . The band has continually experimented with its sound — most notably developing tracks led by acoustic guitars and melodic singing that first appeared on Vol . 3 ( The Subliminal Verses ) .
Slipknot 's lyrics are generally very aggressive ; they sometimes include profanity while exploring themes such as darkness , nihilism , anger , disaffection , love , misanthropy , and psychosis . They often draw upon topics including the music industry , politics , personal strife , and reflection , among others . Rick Anderson of Allmusic said , " those lyrics that are discernible are not generally quotable on a family website " . On Vol . 3 , Taylor deliberately avoided using profanity in response to claims he relied on it . The album All Hope is Gone saw a change to a standard metal style that includes elements of groove metal , death metal , and thrash metal . The band has also been considered alternative metal .
= = Legacy = =
Slipknot is known for its chaotic , energetic live shows that contributed to the band 's success . During performances , most of the band 's members headbang , stage dive , and fight . The band 's early performances included extreme acts such as stage dives from high balconies and band members setting each other on fire . In recent years , they tended to refrain from acts this extreme . Ex @-@ bassist Gray said this was due to receiving lawsuits and to avoid harming other people , and that it was a " better move " for the longevity of the band . Along with the energetic and unpredictable performances , Slipknot often use elaborate stage setups that use pyrotechnics , elevated stage areas , hydraulic drum risers , and computer screens . Reviewing a Slipknot performance , Alistair Lawrence of Kerrang ! said , " the choreographed chaos is too multi @-@ faceted to fully describe " . and NME described one Slipknot show as " a scene of chaos " .
= = Image and identities = =
The band is known for its attention @-@ grabbing image ; the members perform wearing unique , individual facemasks and matching uniforms — typically jumpsuits — while each member is typically assigned and referred to by number based on their role in the band ( # 0 through # 8 ) , although the latter practice has diminished following the death of Paul Gray .
The band has said the idea of wearing masks stemmed from a clown mask that Crahan took to rehearsals when the band first started . Crahan later became known for his clown masks , adopting the pseudonym " Shawn the Clown " . The concept developed ; by late 1997 , the band decided every band member would wear a unique mask and matching jumpsuit . Taylor said in 2002 , " it 's our way of becoming more intimate with the music . It 's a way for us to become unconscious of who we are and what we do outside of music . It 's a way for us to kind of crawl inside it and be able to use it . " The concept of wearing matching jumpsuits has been described as a response to commercialism in the music industry and led to the idea of assigning the band members numerical aliases . According to Taylor , " Originally , we were just going to wear the jumpsuits ... we figured we might as well take that further and number ourselves ... We were basically saying , ' Hey , we 're a product ! ' " .
During their careers , the members of Slipknot have developed their images , updating their uniforms and each member 's mask upon the release of each album . The appearance and style of the masks do not usually differ significantly between albums ; members typically maintain the established theme of their mask while adding new elements . Jordison , in an interview in 2004 , said the masks are updated to show growth within each individual . Slipknot 's members have worn special masks for specific occasions , most notably for the music video and live performances of " Vermilion " in 2004 and 2005 when they wore life masks made from casts of their own faces . In 2008 , the band wore a set of large masks titled " purgatory masks " during photograph shoots before the release of All Hope Is Gone ; in the music video for " Psychosocial " they are seen burning them . Shortly after its inception , Slipknot 's masks were homemade , but since 2000 they have been custom @-@ made by special effect artist and musician Screaming Mad George .
The band 's image has been the subject of much criticism and controversy , with critics generally accusing it of being a sales gimmick . The band 's members object to these claims ; according to them the masks are used to divert attention from themselves and put it on the music . Several band members have said wearing the masks helps to maintain privacy in their personal lives . During an interview in 2005 , percussionist Fehn said the masks were a " blessing " because they meant the members are not recognized in public . In 2012 , Slipknot released an app for iOS and Android called " Slipknot : Wear the Mask " , which invites fans to construct their own masks , defining the kind of Slipknot fans they are .
= = Clothing brand = =
The clothing line , ' Tattered and Torn ' , was launched by the band Slipknot in 2008 and runs as an imprint of Bravado , a company that runs the band 's merchandising . While the band recognize that their merchandise is their biggest revenue income , they insist Tattered and Torn is more than just band merchandising . Vocalist Corey Taylor said , " It 's a way for [ the fans ] to get cool clothing at affordable prices . " The first items from the clothing line went on sale in late July 2008 through Hot Topic stores across North America and the Hot Topic website . Currently the line is limited to shirts and hoodies but was expected to develop into a full @-@ range clothing line .
= = Controversies = =
Slipknot 's music and image have been the subject of many controversies throughout its career . The lyrical content of some of Slipknot 's songs has been linked to several violent and criminal incidents . In 2003 , two young killers blamed the lyrics of " Disasterpiece " for their crime . In 2006 , the lyrics of " Surfacing " were found at the site of a grave robbery .
In 2008 , Corey Taylor commented on a slashing incident at a South African school to which Slipknot was linked ; he said :
... obviously , I 'm disturbed by the fact that people were hurt and someone died , as far as my responsibility for that goes , it stops there , because I know our message is actually very positive ... there are always going to be mental disorders and people who cause violence for no other reason than the fact that they 're fucked up and lost .
The band 's image has also been the subject of several controversies . Slipknot had a longstanding feud with the band Mushroomhead which — along with their fans — said Slipknot " stole their image " . While Slipknot acknowledged their images had similarities , its members were not actively involved in the feud , saying the similarities were coincidental . Taylor said , " we both started at the same time — neither one of us knowing anything about each other " . Taylor also said that at a live show in Cleveland , Ohio , several Mushroomhead fans threw objects including a padlock at Slipknot and that when Slipknot 's set was finished , Mushroomhead , Machine Head , and Amen went into the crowd and " handled it right there " . In 2009 , Mushroomhead vocalist Waylon Reavis said his band 's members were no longer interested in feuding with Slipknot , saying , " they 're not the first masked band , we 're not , no one was " .
Slipknot 's 2005 lawsuit against Burger King said the company created the advertising @-@ based band Coq Roq to capitalize on Slipknot 's image . Burger King responded with a countersuit , saying many other bands , such as Mr. Bungle , Mushroomhead , Mudvayne , Kiss , Insane Clown Posse , and Gwar have used masks as part of their images . After negotiations , the advertising campaign and lawsuit were withdrawn .
= = Band members = =
Current members
( # 0 ) Sid Wilson – turntables , keyboards ( 1998 – present )
( # 3 ) Chris Fehn – custom percussion , backing vocals ( 1998 – present )
( # 4 ) Jim Root – guitars ( 1999 – present )
( # 5 ) Craig " 133 " Jones – samples , media , keyboards ( 1996 – present )
( # 6 ) Shawn " Clown " Crahan – custom percussion , backing vocals ( 1995 – present )
( # 7 ) Mick Thomson – guitars ( 1996 – present )
( # 8 ) Corey Taylor – vocals ( 1997 – present )
Alessandro Venturella – bass ( 2014 – present )
Jay Weinberg – drums ( 2014 – present )
Former members
Anders Colsefni – lead vocals , custom percussion ( 1995 – 1997 ) ; samples , programming ( 1996 ) ; custom percussion , backing vocals ( 1997 )
Josh Brainard – guitar , backing vocals ( 1995 – 1999 )
Greg Welts – custom percussion ( 1997 – 1998 )
Brandon Darner – custom percussion ( 1998 )
( # 2 ) Paul Gray – bass , backing vocals ( 1995 – died in 2010 )
( # 1 ) Joey Jordison – drums ( 1995 – 2013 )
Donnie Steele – guitar ( 1995 – 1996 ) ; bass ( 2011 – 2014 )
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Slipknot ( 1999 )
Iowa ( 2001 )
Vol . 3 : ( The Subliminal Verses ) ( 2004 )
All Hope Is Gone ( 2008 )
.5 : The Gray Chapter ( 2014 )
= = Awards = =
= = = RIAA certifications = = =
These statistics were compiled from the RIAA certification online database .
= = = Grammy Awards and Nominations = = =
Slipknot have been nominated for ten Grammy Awards and have won one .
= = Tours = =
= The Substitute ( Glee ) =
" The Substitute " is the seventh episode of the second season of the American television series Glee , and the twenty @-@ ninth episode overall . It was written by Ian Brennan , directed by Ryan Murphy , and premiered on Fox on November 16 , 2010 . The episode guest stars Gwyneth Paltrow as Holly Holliday , a substitute teacher who takes the place of glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) while he is ill . Cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) becomes principal of William McKinley High School , and glee club members Mercedes Jones ( Amber Riley ) and Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) experience tension in their friendship .
The episode features cover versions of six songs , which received mixed reviews from critics . While the Glee cover of Cee Lo Green 's " Forget You " and mash @-@ up of " Singin ' in the Rain " with Rihanna 's " Umbrella " attracted critical praise and charted both on the Billboard Hot 100 and internationally , the episode 's dance @-@ based performances were criticized for their choreography and strict adherence to the original versions . The episode was watched by 11 @.@ 70 million US viewers , and was the top scripted show among adults aged 18 – 49 for the week of broadcast .
Paltrow 's guest appearance attracted positive commentary , but the episode 's sub @-@ plots were less well received . Aly Semigran of MTV , Robert Canning of IGN and Entertainment Weekly 's Tim Stack all deemed the episode one of the best of the season . Time 's James Poniewozik felt that it was a relatively subdued , mediocre episode , and Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club found it to be an improvement on the previous two episodes , if not genuinely good . The National Alliance on Mental Illness criticized the episode for its depiction of bipolar disorder . Paltrow won the 2011 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series for her performance .
= = Plot = =
Cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) is appointed acting principal of William McKinley High School after having Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) infected with the flu . Glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) is also infected , and takes time off work to recover . He is cared for by his ex @-@ wife Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) , which leads to them sleeping together .
Glee club co @-@ captain Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) attempts to take over for Will , but this results in chaos . At the request of Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) , club lessons are instead covered by substitute teacher Holly Holliday ( Gwyneth Paltrow ) , whose unconventional methods include discussing Lindsay Lohan 's rehabilitation in Spanish , singing " Conjunction Junction " to her English class , and roleplaying as a bipolar Mary Todd Lincoln for the History class . When Holly first arrives at glee club rehearsal , she impresses the club with her rendition of Cee Lo Green 's " Forget You " . Rachel is annoyed and worries that Holly may be unable to sufficiently prepare them for the upcoming Sectionals competition . Holly later wins over Rachel by duetting with her on " Nowadays / Hot Honey Rag " from Chicago .
Kurt neglects his best friend Mercedes Jones ( Amber Riley ) in favor of his new friend Blaine Anderson ( Darren Criss ) . Mercedes is offended when Kurt tries to set her up on a date with a football player on the basis that they are both black , and feels left out when she accompanies Kurt and Blaine to dinner , where conversation is dominated by gay issues and icons . When Sue begins a healthy eating initiative and declares a ban on " Potater Tots " , Mercedes organizes a student protest and fills the tailpipe of Sue 's car with Tots , causing $ 17 @,@ 000 worth of damage .
Sue 's initiative proves popular with the students ' parents , and her appointment as principal is made permanent . She fires Will , who is later visited by Holly seeking advice . Holly feels out of her depth as a teacher , having enabled Mercedes ' behavior . She confesses that she originally took her work seriously , until a student ( Lindsay Sims @-@ Lewis ) punched her in the face , prompting her more laid @-@ back approach . Terri arrives while they are talking and is angered by Holly 's presence . Will asks her to leave , telling her that their reunion was a mistake and concluding their relationship for good .
Kurt confronts Mercedes , suggesting that she is substituting food for love and their friendship for a romantic relationship . Mercedes decides to talk to the student Kurt attempted to set her up with . As she departs , Kurt is approached by school bully Dave Karofsky ( Max Adler ) , who threatens to kill him if Kurt reveals his closeted homosexuality .
At the urging of the glee club members , Sue reinstates Will . He suggests a group performance of " Singin ' in the Rain " , but asks for Holly 's help to modernize it , resulting in a mash @-@ up with Rihanna 's " Umbrella " .
= = Production = =
Paltrow 's Glee appearance marked her first ever scripted @-@ series guest performance . The role of Holly was created for her by series creator Ryan Murphy , a personal friend who suggested that she showcase her vocal and dancing talent ahead of the December 2010 release of the film Country Strong , in which Paltrow plays a country singer . Upon announcing her casting in September 2010 , BBC News reported that she would appear in two episodes of the series . E ! Online 's Kristin dos Santos stated that Holly would serve as a love interest for Will , with Murphy later confirming that Holly 's appearance would create a love quadrangle between herself , Will , guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) and her boyfriend Carl Howell ( John Stamos ) . However , Fancast later reported that Paltrow 's guest @-@ arc had been reduced to a single episode , and neither Mays nor Stamos appear in " The Substitute " . Post @-@ broadcast , Murphy stated that both he and Paltrow hoped that she would appear on Glee again in the future , depending on the right storyline . In December 2010 , Paltrow confirmed that she would return to the series for another episode at a later date , and in January 2011 , Murphy confirmed her reappearance , this time as a sex education teacher planned for episodes 15 and 16 . Paltrow won the 2011 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series for her appearance in " The Substitute " .
" The Substitute " includes a fantasy sequence in which Will hallucinates the club members as kindergarten @-@ aged children . Child actors were hired to portray the characters ' younger selves , including Jake Vaughn and Lauren Boles as a young Finn and Rachel . The episode also features the return of Gilsig , following an absence spanning several episodes . The actress felt that Will 's illness allowed viewers to see the couple with their defences down for the first time , and that the addition of Holly highlighted a double standard in their relationship . She explained that while Terri is not " the most palatable person " , she is at least faithful to Will , while he has " a wandering eye " and treats Terri badly in " The Substitute " . Recurring characters in this episode include glee club members Mike Chang ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) and Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) , Principal Figgins , school bully Dave Karofsky , cheerleader Becky Jackson ( Lauren Potter ) , wrestler Lauren Zizes ( Ashley Fink ) and Kurt 's friend Blaine Anderson .
The episode features cover versions of six songs . Paltrow performs on four , which she recorded in a single afternoon . Her numbers include " Conjunction Junction " from Schoolhouse Rock ! , and a clean version of Cee Lo Green 's " Fuck You ! " entitled " Forget You " . The producers considered having Paltrow sing a Coldplay song , but decided to save the band 's work for a competition episode . Morrison and Shum , Jr. enact a frame @-@ by @-@ frame recreation of " Make ' Em Laugh " from the musical film Singin ' in the Rain . Paltrow and Michele duet on " Nowadays / Hot Honey Rag " from the musical Chicago , and the glee club with Morrison and Paltrow perform a mash @-@ up of " Singin ' in the Rain " with " Umbrella " by Rihanna featuring Jay @-@ Z. The staging of " Singin ' in the Rain / Umbrella " required the cast to spend twelve hours filming in a tank of water .
All of the songs performed , with the exception of " Conjunction Junction " , were released as singles , available for download , and " Forget You " is featured on the soundtrack album Glee : The Music , Volume 4 . " Forget You " and " Singing in the Rain / Umbrella " charted both on the Billboard Hot 100 and internationally . The former reached number 11 in the US and 12 in Canada , while the latter peaked at number 10 in Ireland . Green 's " Fuck You ! " entered the top ten of the Hot 100 for the first time following the Glee cover , with sales rising 94 % in a week .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
During its original broadcast , " The Substitute " was watched by 11 @.@ 70 million US viewers . It attained a 5 @.@ 0 / 14 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , making it the top @-@ rated show of the night amongst adults aged 18 – 49 . In the weekly program rankings , Glee was the top scripted show among adults 18 – 49 , and placed twentieth in overall viewers . Viewership and ratings both increased from the previous episode , " Never Been Kissed " , which was watched by 10 @.@ 99 million viewers and attained a 4 @.@ 6 / 13 rating / share . In Canada , viewership also improved on " Never Been Kissed " , with " The Substitute " drawing 2 @.@ 29 million viewers and ranking ninth for the week , up from 1 @.@ 97 million and twelfth for the previous episode . In Australia , the episode drew 1 @.@ 06 million viewers , making Glee the seventh most @-@ watched show of the night , and nineteenth of the week . Viewership declined from " Never Been Kissed " , which was watched by 1 @.@ 08 million viewers ; despite this , the series registered a rise from eighth and twenty @-@ seventh in the daily and weekly program rankings respectively . In the UK , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 55 million viewers — 2 @.@ 11 million on E4 , and 439 @,@ 000 on E4 + 1 — becoming the most @-@ watched show on cable for the week .
= = = Critical response = = =
The episode received mixed reviews from critics . Aly Semigran of MTV , Robert Canning of IGN and Entertainment Weekly 's Tim Stack all deemed it one of the best of the season , with Canning rating it an " incredible " 9 @.@ 5 / 10 , and Semigran stating that it contained all of the series ' best elements : " surprising musical numbers , with the right balance of humor and life lessons . " Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club found it to be an improvement on the previous two episodes , writing that if not genuinely good , " The Substitute " at least proved that Glee has not been entirely subsumed by its own hype . Time 's James Poniewozik felt that it was a relatively subdued , mediocre episode , which contained " a collection of good small moments " . Brett Berk of Vanity Fair criticized the focus it placed on the adult characters at the expense of the teenagers and the disregard for continuing plot strands in favor of a celebrity cameo , but concluded that " despite all that , some of it kind of worked . " The National Alliance on Mental Illness ( NAMI ) took exception to this episode , which , it stated , " mocked and trivialized bipolar disorder " during Paltrow 's history classroom scene , in which she role @-@ plays as Mary Todd Lincoln . NAMI encouraged people to contact Murphy and Fox TV to convey their disappointment with the scene .
Paltrow 's guest appearance attracted critical praise . Both Stack and E ! Online 's Kristin dos Santos called it Emmy @-@ worthy , with the former rating it amongst her best ever performances , and the latter stating that Holly received " some of Glee 's best @-@ ever one @-@ liners . VanDerWerff enjoyed her role , and wrote that Holly injected an effortless sense of fun , despite much of her plot being nonsensical . Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker praised Paltrow for being one of the first guest stars to perform well alongside Sue , and wrote that her classroom scenes made the episode " one in which the guest star both stood out and meshed with the cast " . The Atlantic 's Meghan Brown commented that Paltrow " brought a massive spark to what could have been a one @-@ note role " , and her Atlantic co @-@ author Kevin Fallon wrote that her energetic performance saved an episode that might have been " in shambles without her presence " . Canning stated that Paltrow 's casting could have been distracting , but instead she fit the role " seamlessly " , and CNN 's Lisa Respers France compared her performance favorably to Britney Spears 's cameo in the episode " Britney / Brittany " . Several critics stated that they enjoyed Paltrow 's appearance despite experiencing trepidation about it prior to broadcast . Berk found her " surprisingly great " , and Poniewozik ssid that while her casting was somewhat distracting , she was able to make Holly a sympathetic character without overdoing her neediness and commitment @-@ phobia . Jen Chaney of The Washington Post recommended a " lengthy moratorium " on internet criticism of Paltrow , suggesting that with her Glee appearance , her " mission to charm the American public may be complete " .
Critics were divided over the Schuester sub @-@ plot . Both Semigran and Poniewozik enjoyed Will 's characterization , with Poniewozik commenting that he became an " identifiable human " again , following a season throughout which his behavior has been erratic and unreliable . In contrast , VanDerWerff criticized the sub @-@ plot for ignoring Will 's culpability in the breakdown of his marriage , and expressed displeasure at his inconsistent characterization , deeming it one of the season 's biggest problems . Stack commented negatively on the return of Terri , finding her dislikeable and unnecessary , as Glee already has a villain in Sue .
The Mercedes storyline attracted criticism . Fallon took offence at Glee 's sole overweight black character turning into a " fried potato @-@ addicted junkie " , and both Berk and Stack commented that while they had hoped for Mercedes to receive a major storyline , they did not want it to be centered on her weight issues . Semigran called it " rather disposable " but appreciated the " silliness and levity " it introduced , and Respers France noted that she did not mind the storyline itself , but disliked Kurt lecturing his supposed best friend . VanDerWerff felt that the Tots plot was " one element too many " in what could have been a " pretty potent emotional storyline " , but praised the performances by Colfer and Riley . Stack appreciated their dinner with Blaine , finding it representative of what he enjoys about the show , commenting : " Last week , Kurt 's sexuality was the central emotional storyline of the episode , and this week it was played for laughs . Kurt 's character has to walk that fine line between being a role model and becoming too saintly . I think the writers are navigating that tightrope quite , quite well . "
= = = = Music = = = =
Musical performances also received mixed reviews . Anthony Benigno of the Daily News gave " Conjunction Junction " a grade of " A " ; he noted that ordinarily he would have declined to review it due to its short length , but said " what a glorious ten seconds it is " . Benigno and Poniewozik criticized the sanitization of " Forget You " , but while the latter found it inferior to the original version , the former preferred Paltrow 's deeper voice and graded the song " A " . Rolling Stone 's Erica Futterman felt the censorship of the song did not adversely affect its success , and deemed Paltrow 's rendition " charming and sassy " . Megan Vick of Billboard called it " the most exciting number " of the episode , and Stack went further in his praise : he bestowed a grade of " A + " and lauded it as " one of the most memorable and energetic Glee performances ever , thanks in no small part to Paltrow " . Green told MTV that he was flattered by the cover , particularly as he was not aware Paltrow would perform it when granting Glee clearance . He called her performance " great " , and commented that he had not been aware she was such an accomplished vocalist .
Benigno and Stack praised
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the choreography of " Make ' Em Laugh " , but both graded it lower than " Forget You " , at a " B " and " B + " respectively . Futterman called the recreation an " impressive feat " , but likened it to hallucinatory Britney Spears covers in the episode " Britney / Brittany " in that it " stands alone better than it fits into the plot . " Vick was critical of the performance , observing that Glee covers from musicals often introduce classic songs to viewers with a modern twist , an element which was absent in " Make ' Em Laugh " . The Chicago cover also left some critics wanting , and Futterman , The Wall Street Journal 's Raymund Flandez and The Atlantic 's Patrick Burns all found its choreography lacking . Fallon suggested that Glee should be wary of overusing recreations , having already done so in " The Power of Madonna " , " Britney / Brittany " and " The Rocky Horror Glee Show " , and VanDerWerff criticized the performances as " outright plagiarism , not homage " .
Benigno and Futterman compared " Singin ' in the Rain / Umbrella " favorably to mash @-@ ups performed in the preceding episode . Benigno graded it " B " , though he said that by using " Singin ' in the Rain " as the chorus , the song lacked catharsis , a sentiment echoed by Flandez , who praised the costumes , props and staging , but wished the rendition had had more " bite " and " attitude " . Futterman described it as a " buoyant and catchy homage to the old and the new [ that ] perfectly captures Glee 's musical spirit " . In contrast , Vick felt the song could not compare to the previous episode 's mash @-@ ups . She deemed the staging implausible , questioning how a glee club in financial difficulty could afford elaborate water features for a rehearsal number . Stack was willing to overlook such improbability ; he wrote that he loved the mash @-@ up and graded it an " A − " . Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times appreciated the choreography and the manner in which " Paltrow 's sassiness undercuts [ Morrison 's ] overripe sweetness " , and named it potentially her favorite group number of the season .
= Sherron Collins =
Sherron Marlon Collins ( born March 18 , 1987 ) is an American professional basketball player for the Windsor Express of the National Basketball League of Canada ( NBL ) . He formerly played for the Charlotte Bobcats of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . He has also played for the Texas Legends and Maine Red Claws of the NBA D @-@ League and Hacettepe Üniversitesi in the Turkish Basketball League . As an All @-@ American member of the Kansas Jayhawks men 's basketball team , he earned a national championship in the 2008 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , three Big 12 Men 's Basketball Tournament championships , and four consecutive Big 12 Conference regular season championships . He was regarded as one of the leaders of the team and was its captain during his senior year .
Collins grew up in Chicago where he was a multisport standout athlete at Crane High School . He was regarded as the second best point guard in the nation by Scout.com and was considered one of the two best class of 2006 basketball prospects in the state of Illinois ( along with Jon Scheyer ) .
Collins was a well @-@ decorated basketball player at Kansas . He was unanimously selected to the Big 12 All @-@ Freshman Team for the 2006 – 07 Kansas Jayhawks men 's basketball team . After leading the 2008 – 09 Kansas Jayhawks men 's basketball team to the Big 12 Conference regular season title , Collins was named to the 2009 first team All @-@ Big 12 team . That season , he was named a consensus second team 2009 NCAA Men 's Basketball All @-@ American . He was also a consensus first team 2010 NCAA Men 's Basketball All @-@ American as a senior and earned the Most Outstanding Player award while leading his team to the 2010 Big 12 Men 's Basketball Tournament championship . He was included on many of the watchlists for the most prestigious college basketball awards as both a junior and senior . Collins holds the school record for most consecutive free throws .
Following his senior season , Collins was eligible for the 2010 NBA Draft but went undrafted . Shortly after , he signed a free @-@ agent contract with the Charlotte Bobcats and participated in their summer camp . He represented them in the Orlando Summer League before being signed for the regular season . In October 2012 , he signed with the San Antonio Spurs , but he did not make their final roster .
= = Personal = =
Collins was born in Chicago , Illinois to Stacey Harris . While growing up in Chicago he overcame the adversity of a father who periodically spent time in jail as well as an environment filled with gang life . He lost his best friend to gunfire at the age of 16 . Collins had had two children by the time of his National Championship season : Sherron Jr. and Sherr 'mari Marlon Collins ( born April 6 , 2007 ; mother is Re 'Quiya Aguirre ) . In 2006 , he dealt with the death of his first born and the following year , he endured a sex scandal .
Growing up , Collins was very active playing several sports including football , basketball , and baseball . In 2002 , Collins began his high school career at Crane Tech Prep High School . During his time at Crane , Collins was a standout multi @-@ sport athlete , playing wide @-@ receiver / free safety on the football team and pitching for the baseball team . On the basketball court , Collins averaged 19 @.@ 8 points , 3 @.@ 1 rebounds and 5 @.@ 1 assists as a junior during the 2004 @-@ 05 season . During his senior season , he averaged 33 points , 8 rebounds and 6 assists for the Cougars . He was regarded as the number 2 Chicago metropolitan area and Illinois basketball prospect in the class of 2006 behind Jon Scheyer . As a result , he was named a McDonald 's All @-@ American as well as a third @-@ team Parade All @-@ American . He was selected as a First @-@ Team All @-@ State selection in 2006 . Additionally , Collins played in the Michael Jordan All @-@ American Classic in April 2006 . Scout.com ranked him as the number 2 point guard in the nation . He was the No. 21 @-@ ranked player in the class of 2006 and the No. 4 @-@ ranked point guard by Rivals.com. Collins helped guide Crane to the 2003 and 2005 conference and city championship titles . His best game was a 45 @-@ point performance against Whitney Young Magnet High School during his senior season . In 2009 , ESPN named Collins to the Illinois Prep All @-@ Decade Team .
= = College career = =
= = = Freshman season = = =
As a freshman , Collins was an honorable mention All @-@ Big 12 selection and a unanimous selection to the Big 12 All @-@ Rookie team . He averaged 22 @.@ 3 minutes and 9 @.@ 3 points per game . He led Kansas in scoring five times and in assists on 12 occasions . On January 15 , 2007 , Collins scored 23 points vs. Missouri . He scored 20 points at Kansas State on February 19 and he had 20 vs. Texas on March 11 in the 88 – 84 overtime 2007 Big 12 Men 's Basketball Tournament championship game victory . Collins was also a solid student earning Athletic Director 's and Big 12 Commissioner 's honor rolls in the spring of 2007 .
= = = Sophomore season = = =
In his second season with the Jayhawks , Collins won the 2008 Big 12 Sixth Man Award . For the week of March 12 , he earned Big 12 Player of the week . Collins helped the Jayhawks capture the 2008 national championship , averaging 8 @.@ 3 points and 3 @.@ 8 assists in the NCAA tournament . He made two key plays in the title game versus the Memphis Tigers , first stealing an inbound pass with under two minutes remaining in regulation and Kansas trailing by seven , then hitting a three to cut the deficit to four . Later , with seconds remaining in regulation and with Kansas trailing by three , he took the ball down the court following a Memphis free throw , barely escaping fouls , and passed the ball to teammate Mario Chalmers , who made a three @-@ pointer to tie the game with two seconds remaining . Kansas would go on to win in overtime . He missed six games due to a stress fracture of his foot . Following the season , he had arthroscopic surgery on his left knee .
= = = Junior season = = =
Collins was the top returning scorer for the 2008 – 09 Kansas Jayhawks men 's basketball team his junior year ; every starter from the previous year 's National Championship team graduated or departed for the NBA . Collins was on the early season Top 50 watchlist for the Naismith Award . He was also selected as being among the 17 Bob Cousy Award finalists , the Top 30 midseason Wooden Award candidates , the Top 30 midseason Naismith Award candidates and the Top 15 Oscar Robertson Trophy candidates . The team captain and vocal leader of the team , Collins was awarded the team 's Danny Manning MVP award with Cole Aldrich following the season . Collins led the 2008 – 09 Jayhawks in points , minutes , assists and free @-@ throw percentage . He led the team in scoring in 27 games , including the final 10 of the season . In the Big 12 , he ranked third in scoring and fourth in assists . Collins made 35 consecutive free @-@ throws over an eight @-@ game span from January 10 – February 2 to set KU 's all @-@ time record . Over the course of the season he was named Big 12 Player of the Week three times . He was a unanimous selection to the 2008 – 09 Big 12 All @-@ conference first team . He was a second @-@ team 2009 NCAA Men 's Basketball All @-@ American by the United States Basketball Writers Association ( USBW ) and the National Association of Basketball Coaches ( NABC ) and was a third @-@ team All America selection by the Associated Press and The Sporting News . On Monday , April 13 , Collins announced that he would return to KU for his senior season .
= = = Senior season = = =
After having been named a consensus second @-@ team All @-@ American selection the at the end of his junior year , he was a unanimous selection to the preseason All @-@ Big 12 first @-@ team . The 2009 @-@ 10 Kansas Jayhawks men 's basketball team were the preseason number @-@ one ranked team in the 2009 – 10 Big 12 Conference poll , marking the third time in Collins ' career the Jayhawks were preseason number one in conference . Collins was a preseason top 50 watchlist candidate for both the 2010 Naismith Award and the 2010 Wooden Award . As the season progressed , Collins was named to the Midseason top 30 candidates list for the Wooden Award , Midseason top 30 list for the Naismith Trophy , 20 finalists list for the 2010 Bob Cousy Award and the finalist list for the 2010 Oscar Robertson Trophy . At the end of the regular season , he was selected as a first @-@ team All @-@ Big 12 member by the league 's coaches . Then , he earned the Most Outstanding Player Award of the 2010 Big 12 Men 's Basketball Tournament after leading Kansas to the championship . Collins has been recognized as a first team 2010 NCAA Men 's Basketball All @-@ American by the USBW and NABC , making him a consensus first team selection . He was a second team selection by Associated Press , Fox Sports , The Sporting News , and Yahoo ! Sports . He was also included on the final 26 @-@ man ballot for the Wooden Award and subsequently selected to the ten @-@ man Wooden All @-@ American team as one of ten finalists for the award . At the end of the year he was recognized as the inaugural recipient of the Lute Olsen Award as National Player of the Year at the collegeinsider.com awards banquet . He was recognized along with Jon Scheyer , Scottie Reynolds , and Greivis Vasquez for the NABC Career Achievement Awards . Collins was awarded the 2010 Frances Pomeroy Naismith Award , which recognizes a seniors male basketball player 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) and shorter , who excel in both academics and athletics . He was one of five finalists flown out to Los Angeles for the announcement of the Wooden Award along with eventual winner Evan Turner , John Wall , Wesley Johnson and Da 'Sean Butler . Collins went undrafted in the 2010 NBA Draft .
= = = College stats = = =
= = Professional career = =
After going undrafted in the 2010 NBA draft , Collins joined the Charlotte Bobcats for the 2010 NBA Summer League . During the Orlando Summer League , he played four games , including a 32 @-@ point performance in his finale . On August 6 , 2010 , the Bobcats signed Collins to a two @-@ year deal . He made his NBA debut on November 3 , 2010 against the New Jersey Nets and posted two assists in four minutes . On December 4 , 2010 , he scored his first NBA points . On December 8 , 2010 , Collins was assigned to the Maine Red Claws of the NBA Development League . The Bobcats recalled Collins on December 21 , 2010 . That night , he played a career @-@ high 14 minutes , made his first three point shot , recorded his first two steals and scored five points for the first time in his career in a 99 – 81 loss to the Oklahoma City Thunder .
On February 24 , 2011 , Collins was waived by the Bobcats to create roster room following a trade between the Bobcats and Portland Trail Blazers . On March 18 , 2011 , it was reported that he signed contract with Lietuvos Rytas until the end of the season . However , a few days later , another player was reported to be the choice to fill the roster slot . In June , he signed with Quebradillas Pirates of the Baloncesto Superior Nacional , but he supposedly failed a physical and returned to the United States before appearing in a game for them .
In August 2011 , Collins signed with Hacettepe Universitesi of the Turkish Basketball League . He had been slated to play in Russia and Puerto Rico before signing in Turkey . In June 2012 , he was rehabilitating a knee injury with hopes of signing an NBA Summer League contract the following month .
On October 1 , 2012 , Collins signed with the San Antonio Spurs . However , he was later waived by the Spurs on October 5 , 2012 .
On April 3 , 2014 , Collins was acquired by the Texas Legends of the NBA Development League , where he spent the rest of the 2013 – 14 season . However , he did not appear in a game for the Legends .
On October 31 , 2015 , Collins returned to the Legends . He played in two games for the team before being waived on November 20 .
On January 21 , 2016 , Collins signed a contract to play with the Chicago Blues of the Midwest Professional Basketball Association . In March , he signed with the Windsor Express of the National Basketball League of Canada with no indication that he ever played for the Blues .
= = = NBA statistics = = =
= Forest cobra =
The forest cobra ( Naja melanoleuca ) , also called the black cobra and black and white @-@ lipped cobra , is an elapid native to Africa , mostly the central and western parts of the continent . It is the largest true cobra species with a length up to 3 @.@ 1 meters . Although it prefers lowland forest and moist savanna habitats , this cobra is highly adaptable and can be found in drier climates within its geographical range . It is a very capable swimmer and is often considered to be semi @-@ aquatic . The forest cobra is a generalist in its feeding habits , having a highly varied diet : anything from large insects to small mammals and other reptiles . This species is alert , nervous and is considered to be a very dangerous snake . When cornered or molested , it will assume the typical cobra warning posture by raising its fore body off the ground , spreading a narrow hood and hissing loudly . Bites to humans are less common than for other African cobras due to various factors , though a bite from this species is a life @-@ threatening emergency .
= = Etymology = =
The forest cobra is classified under the genus Naja of the family Elapidae . Naja melanoleuca was first described by American herpetologist Edward Hallowell in 1857 . The generic name Naja is a Latinisation of the Sanskrit word nāgá ( नाग ) meaning " cobra " . The specific epithet melanoleuca is Ancient Greek and means " of black and white " . The word melano is Greek for " black " , while leuca comes from the Ancient Greek word for " white " . This species is also known as the black cobra and black and white @-@ lipped cobra .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
The forest cobra is classified under the genus Naja of the family Elapidae . The genus was first described by Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti in 1768 . The species Naja melanoleuca was first described by Edward Hallowell in 1857 . The genus Naja was split into several subgenera based on various factors , including morphology , diet , and habitat . Naja melanoleuca is part of the subgenus Boulengerina , along with three other species : Naja annulata , Naja christyi , and Naja multifasciata . The subgenus is united by their restriction to central and west African forest and / or forest @-@ edge type habitat . They are also more aquatic and feed more on aquatic species . The species of the subgenus Boulengerina show great diversity in size , however , ranging from the forest cobra ( Naja melanoleuca ) which can attain lengths of 2 @.@ 7 metres ( 8 @.@ 9 feet ) to the burrowing cobra ( Naja multifasciata ) which doesn 't grow larger than 0 @.@ 8 metres ( 2 @.@ 6 feet ) in length . The below cladogram illustrates the taxonomy and relationships among species of Naja :
= = Description = =
The forest cobra is Africa 's largest cobra of the genus Naja and possibly the largest of all the true cobra ( Naja ) species in the world . The length of an average adult is 1 @.@ 4 to 2 @.@ 2 m ( 4 @.@ 6 to 7 @.@ 2 ft ) , but they may attain lengths of 2 @.@ 7 metres ( 8 @.@ 9 feet ) , and lengths up to 3 @.@ 1 metres ( 10 feet ) are also possible in rare cases . Males and females grow to be similar in length , as there is no sexual dimorphism within this species . The head of this snake is large , broad , flattened and is slightly distinct from the neck . It is a slightly depressed , tapered and moderately thick bodied snake with a slender tail that is medium in length . The body is compressed dorsoventrally ( where the dorsal upper scales and the ventral lower scales meet at either side of the body ) and sub @-@ cylindrical posteriorly ( the tail end of the body ) . The forest cobra has long cervical ribs capable of expansion to form a long , wedge shaped hood when threatened . The angle between the crown of the head and the side of the head between the eye , also known as the canthus is distinct , while the snout is rounded . Its eyes are large with round pupils .
= = = Scalation = = =
Like other snake species , the forest cobra has skin covered in scales . Snakes are entirely covered with scales or scutes of various shapes and sizes , known as snakeskin as a whole . Scales protect the body of the snake , aid it in locomotion , allow moisture to be retained within , and alter the surface characteristics such as roughness to aid in camouflage . The dorsal scales of the forest cobra are smooth , glossy and strongly oblique . The colour of this species is variable , with three main colour morphs . Those from the forest or forest fringe , from Sierra Leone east to western Kenya and south to Angola are glossy black , the chin , throat and anterior region of the belly are cream or white , with broad black cross @-@ bars and blotches . The sides of the head are strikingly marked with black and white , giving the impression of vertical black and white bars on the lips . The second colour morph , from the west African savanna , is banded black and yellow , with a black tail , the head is brownish @-@ yellow on top , the lips , chin and throat are yellow . The third colour morph , from the coastal plain of east Africa , south to KwaZulu @-@ Natal , inland to Zambia and southern Democratic Republic of Congo , is brownish or blackish @-@ brown above , paler below , the belly is yellow or cream , heavily speckled with brown or black , and specimens from the southern part of its range have black tails . Melanistic ( all black ) specimens have been documented from west Africa .
The head , body and tail scalation of the forest cobra :
= = = Venom = = =
The venom of this cobra is a postsynaptic neurotoxin and bites result in severe neurotoxicity . Ernst and Zug et al . 1996 list a value of 0 @.@ 225 mg / kg SC . According to Brown and Fry of the Australian Venom and Toxin Database , the murine intraperitoneal LD50 value is 0 @.@ 324 mg / kg . The average venom yield per bite is 571 mg and the maximum venom yield is 1102 mg . This snake can be highly dangerous due to the quantity of venom it can inject in a single bite and its aggressive nature when defending . Death can occur rapidly , within 30 to 120 minutes in severe cases of envenomation . Signs and symptoms of envenomation include ptosis , drowsiness , limb paralysis , hearing loss , inability to speak , dizziness , ataxia , shock , hypotension , abdominal pain , fever , pallor , and other neurological and respiratory symptoms .
The forest cobra is one of the least frequent causes of snake bite among the African cobras , largely due its forest @-@ dwelling habits but a bite by this species should be taken very seriously because it ranks as the 4th most venomous Naja ( True Cobra ) species . The symptomology is thought to be very similar to that of the Egyptian cobra ( Naja haje ) . Clinical experience with this species has been very sparse , and few recorded bites have been documented . Deaths from respiratory failure due to severe neurotoxicity have been reported , but most victims will survive if prompt administration of antivenom is undertaken as soon as clinical signs of envenomation have been noted . Rare cases of spontaneous recoveries without the use of specific antivenom have also been seen ; however , neglecting the use of antivenom places the patient at increased risk for major morbidity and mortality . If the snake becomes cornered or is agitated , it can quickly attack the aggressor , and because a large amount of venom is injected , a rapidly fatal outcome is possible . The mortality rate of an untreated bite is not exactly known but it is thought to be quite high . The forest cobra does not spit or spray its venom . This species is considered to be among the most intelligent of the African elapids by herpetologists .
Two cases from Liberia experienced severe neurological symptoms , including ptosis , nausea , vomiting , tachychardia , and respiratory distress . A child in Ghana died within 20 minutes after being bitten by a snake suspected to be from this species .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The forest cobra occurs mainly in western and central Africa . It is found from Senegal , Guinea @-@ Bissau , Guinea , southeastern Mali , Sierra Leone , Liberia , Côte d 'Ivoire , Burkina Faso , Ghana , Togo , Benin , Nigeria , Equatorial Guinea , Cameroon , and Gabon in western Africa to the Republic of Congo , the Democratic Republic of Congo , Central African Republic , and northern Angola in central Africa to western Kenya , Uganda , Rwanda , and Burundi in eastern Africa , and to fragmented parts of southern Africa , including the Natal .
A snake of forest or woodland , it is the only one of Africa 's cobras that will live in high forest . The forest cobras are snakes that are well adapted to many environments and the habitat of the forest cobra is strongly dependent on what part of its African range the snake originates from . Forest cobras originating in the southern African regions are typically found in savanna and grassland , but they can also be found in broken rock country . They are mainly found in the tropical and subtropical rainforest regions of west and central Africa . It also inhabits mangroves in western Africa . The banded form of forest cobra in west Africa lives in savanna and grassland ( but usually along streams ) and well vegetated areas , especially riverine forest , up to latitude 14 N. The species ' preferred habitat are lowland forest and moist savanna where it favours coastal thickets . This snake seems to be highly adaptable and will readily move into drier areas if it can . In western Kenya , the forest cobra has been found in wide stretched grassland areas . The population of forest cobras in Uganda are almost always found close to water . The brown colour phase occurs in coastal and high altitude forest , woodland and thicket , and grassland areas ( i.e. Nyanga , Zimbabwe ) . Due to its secretive habits , and fondness for living in holes , it often persists in quite well @-@ inhabited areas , common in and around many central African towns , even long after most vegetation has gone . They are also found on fruit plantations where they live in the trees . It occurs through a wide altitude range , from sea @-@ level to forested mountains at 2 @,@ 800 metres ( 9 @,@ 200 feet ) above sea @-@ level .
= = Behavior = =
The forest cobra is an agile , diurnal species that climbs well and is one of the most aquatic of the true cobras of the genus Naja . It is terrestrial , but it is fast , graceful climber , known to ascend trees to a height of 10 metres ( 33 feet ) or more . It is quick moving and alert . It swims well and readily takes to the water ; in some areas its main diet is fish and could be regarded as semi @-@ aquatic . Although it is active mostly during the day ( diurnal ) in uninhabited areas , it can also be active by night ( nocturnal ) where it goes into urban areas . When not active , it takes cover in holes , brush piles , hollow logs , among root clusters or in rock crevices , or in abandoned termite mounds at forest fringe or clearings . In certain areas , it hides along river banks , in overhanging root systems or bird holes , and in urban areas will hide in junk piles or unused buildings . When agitated , it rears up to a considerable height and spreads a long , narrow hood . It can strike quickly , to quite a long distance , and if molested and cornered , it will rush forward and make a determined effort to bite . It is an alert and agile species of cobra . Some authorities believe it is one of the most dangerous African snakes to be kept as many captive forest cobras are described to be particularly aggressive when handled . This species is not able to " spit " its venom .
= = = Diet = = =
Forest cobras will feed on a wide variety of prey , including amphibians , fish , other snakes , monitor lizards and other lizards , bird eggs , rodents , and other small mammals . It has been recorded as taking mudskippers , and in west Africa , one specimen had eaten a Gifford 's giant shrew , an insectivore with a smell so noxious , most other snakes would not touch it .
= = = Reproduction = = =
This is an oviparous species . In the summer , females will lay between 11 and 26 smooth white eggs , each roughly 30 to 60 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 4 inches ) . The eggs stick together in a bunch . The eggs are laid in hollow trees , termite mounds , holes in the ground or females will make their own nests . Before mating , a pair of will " dance " , raising their heads a foot or more off the ground and moving to and fro . This may continue for an hour before mating takes place , when the male presses his cloaca ( the chamber into which the reproductive , urinary , and intestinal canals empty ) against that of the female . Female forest cobras may stand guard and are irritable and aggressive during the breeding period . A female is liable to attack without provocation , with potentially fatal consequences for passers @-@ by if her nest is near a footpath . Hatchlings are born completely independent and are usually 22 to 25 centimetres ( 8 @.@ 7 to 9 @.@ 8 inches ) in length . Although some sources claim that hatchlings may measure up to 47 centimetres ( 19 inches ) Incubation period is anywhere from 55 to 70 days ( or over 80 days in one captive study ) at temperatures of 27 – 30 ° C ( 81 – 86 ° F ) . These snakes are known to have a long lifespan . One captive specimen lived for 28 years , which is the record for the longest lived venomous snake in captivity . Another specimen held at the Melbourne Zoo in Australia turned 35 on September 1 , 2014 .
= Acércate =
" Acércate " ( English : " Come Closer " ) is a song recorded by Puerto Rican reggaetón recording artist Ivy Queen and duo Wisin & Yandel for Queen 's seventh studio album Drama Queen ( 2010 ) . It was composed by Queen and Marcos Masis alongside the duo , while being produced by Luny Tunes and Tainy . Originally entitled " No Te Equivoques " , the song was leaked onto the Internet prior to the album 's release , which prompted Ivy Queen and Wisin & Yandel to re @-@ record the song .
Wisin & Yandel released a solo version of the song with lead vocals performed by them under the original title . While failing to chart on main Latin songs charts in Billboard magazine , it did manage to debut and peak at number sixteen on the Billboard Latin Rhythm Digital Songs chart , charting simultaneously with the lead single off the album " La Vida Es Así " which obtained the number two position . The song brings together the first studio album released by Ivy Queen in three years and first for Machete Music , after being with Univision Records since 2005 .
= = Background = =
After the success of her 2007 effort Sentimiento , which was certified Platinum by the United States Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , a substantial live album was distributed by Machete in 2008 . Subsequently , Queen signed a new record deal with the label in April 2010 , as they celebrated their fifth anniversary . The signing , described as a 360 deal , includes profit sharing in tours , sponsorships and merchandising . Ivy Queen was previously signed to a distribution deal with Univision Records , which in turn was acquired by Machete 's parent company Universal Music Latin Entertainment in 2008 .
President of Universal Music Latino and Machete , Walter Kolm , commented in a press release that : " It 's a privilege to have Ivy Queen apart of over artistic roster . Ivy is an extraordinary woman with incomparable talent , and she 's number one in her genre . We 're happy to be able to work with her on her new album as well as future projects " . " I 'm very proud to be a part of Machete Music . They are a young , vibrant company that has created a name for itself in Latin music in the United States and the world . They are a strong and important company that has been recognized for nurturing their artists ’ creative talents , " said Ivy Queen , regarding the partnership . Ivy Queen told Efe that the composition process started while she was heartbroken at home . Her emotions then burst out in the recording studio . She added the song is one of 26 songs she wrote during this period .
= = Music and lyrics = =
The song was composed by Queen , Marcos Masis , Juan Luis Morera Luna and Llandel Veguilla Malavé ; the duo known as Wisin & Yandel . Musically , it features minor key tonality and synthesizers . Production was handled by the Dominican @-@ born duo of Luny Tunes and Tainy . Frances Tirado from Primera Hora described the song as being pure reggaeton and as a song that brings out the figure in Ivy Queen . " Acércate " , along with the rest of the album , was recorded at Mas Flow Studios in Carolina , Puerto Rico . A version with lead male vocals by Wisin & Yandel without lead vocals from Ivy Queen remains unreleased , with a running time of two minutes and fifty @-@ three seconds . It too was produced by Luny Tunes and Tainy .
" Acércate " was leaked onto the Internet prior to the album 's release ; a first in Queen 's 15 @-@ year career . Originally entitled " No Te Equivoques " , it was re @-@ recorded in response to the infringement and included on the album retitled " Acércate " . Reflecting on the situation Queen stated : " Sometimes they try to hurt you are when you do well . I 'm proud and grateful that Wisin & Yandel have gone with me to the studio to record the song . We have good chemistry and friendship . We tried to change the song and lyrics , but with their agenda , which is tight , and mine too , we could not do it again . We have no idea who hacked , all the music was in a studio and to mobilize it to another was what someone did . " The collaboration stemmed from Queen 's previous collaboration with Wisin & Yandel on their seventh studio album La Revolución ( 2009 ) on " Perfecto " which also featured Yaviah .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Allmusic
Recording
Recorded at Mas Flow Studios in Carolina , Puerto Rico
Personnel
José Cotto — Mixing
Ivy Queen — Primary Artist , Composer
Marcos " Tainy " Masis — Composer , Producer
Francisco Saldaña — Composer
Luny Tunes — Producer
Wisin & Yandel — Composers , Featured Artist
= = Charts = =
While failing to chart on main Latin songs charts in Billboard magazine , it did manage to debut and peak at number sixteen on the Billboard Latin Rhythm Digital Songs chart , for the week of July 31 , 2010 . It charted simultaneously with the lead single " La Vida Es Así " , which was at number two on the chart .
= Frank Black ( character ) =
Frank Black is a fictional character in the crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . Black serves as the primary character of the series , which centers his investigation into unusual crimes as part of the private investigative organisation the Millennium Group . Black appeared in all but one of the series ' sixty @-@ seven episodes , with " Anamnesis " being the exception ; the character was portrayed by Lance Henriksen throughout the series .
The character of Black was conceived by series creator Chris Carter as a modern Western hero , and has been considered the main constant throughout the series ' changes in tone and direction . Henriksen was described by Carter as his " first and last " choice for the role , and has garnered critical acclaim for his portrayal , including three Golden Globe Award nominations .
= = Character arc = =
Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) started his career as an offender profiler for the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) , where his unusual gift for empathising with the killers he was investigating aided in their capture . However , Black retires when he finds that his family — wife Catherine ( Megan Gallagher ) and daughter Jordan ( Brittany Tiplady ) — are being threatened by an unknown stalker , who is mailing polaroid photographs of the family to Black . After retiring from the FBI , Black moves to Seattle , Washington , and begins to consult for the Millennium Group , a private investigative organisation that aid law enforcement in violent criminal cases .
Despite the change in career , the stalker ( Doug Hutchison ) catches up with Black , kidnapping Catherine . Black is able to track them down and rescue Catherine , stabbing the stalker to death in the process . Disturbed by both the abduction and Black 's rage , Catherine moves out of their family home with Jordan for a time . Before they can reconcile , Catherine dies in a virus outbreak orchestrated by the Millennium Group , who Black discovers are attempting to control the possibility of the end of the world at the turn of the millennium . Disgusted by the group 's motives and actions , Black breaks rank and returns to work with the FBI in order to take them down .
Working with his new partner Emma Hollis ( Klea Scott ) , Black finds himself struggling to combat the far @-@ reaching influence of the Millennium Group . Due to the workings of the Group , Black is framed for the death of a fellow agent , prompting his resignation from the FBI and fleeing Washington D.C. with Jordan ; likewise , Hollis is convinced to abandon Black and work with the Group . Several months later , Black is able to work with FBI agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) to foil a last @-@ ditch effort by the Group to bring about the end of the world ; vindicated , he reunites with Jordan after the case .
= = Conceptual history = =
Millennium 's creator Chris Carter conceived Frank Black 's character early in the series ' genesis , knowing that he wanted to build the show around a retired law enforcement agent ; the tone of Millennium came to Carter later in the process but shaped Black 's character . Carter saw Black as an archetypal Western hero , describing him as " self @-@ reliant , quiet , capable , dangerous " and comparing him to the title character of the 1953 film Shane . Actor William Hurt was considered for the role early in the conception of the series , although Carter denies that Hurt was seriously approached for the part , saying Henriksen was their " first and last choice " . David Nutter , a frequent director for the series , described Henriksen as an " everyman " who appears to have " seen hell , and has reached for heaven but not often had it " .
When Henriksen first received the script for " Pilot " , he was impressed with what he saw as " vivid and edgy " writing , but was incredulous as the possibility of it being a television script , having initially mistaken it for a feature film . He also held reservations about working on television , as he was primarily a known for acting in films . The initial casting of Henriksen was not well received by executives at Fox Broadcasting Company , who had envisioned the lead role being played by " someone hot and in his mid @-@ thirties , at worst " according to producer Ken Horton .
Producer John Peter Kousakis has noted that Black remained the main constant throughout the series , as each season featured a marked change in tone and plotting . Black appeared in every episode of the series bar one — the second season episode " Anamnesis " did not feature the character at all , focussing instead on another Millennium Group member . Henriksen used the break from production to take a trip to Hawaii . Following the cancellation of Millennium , character of Black — again portrayed by Henriksen — appeared in " Millennium " , an episode of The X @-@ Files which served as a crossover between the two programmes .
= = Reception = =
Henriksen 's portrayal of Black has been met with positive criticism . Henriksen was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Television Drama for each of the series ' three seasons , without winning . Henriksen 's first loss was to David Duchovny 's role as Fox Mulder in The X @-@ Files , followed by a loss to Anthony Edwards as ER 's Mark Greene , and finally coming in behind Dylan McDermott 's portrayal of Bobby Donnell in The Practice .
Writing for The A.V. Club , Zack Handlen noted that " Henriksen invests [ Black 's ] world @-@ weariness with a soothing , almost beautiful patience , and those few moments of delight he 's allowed on the show [ ... ] are sincere instead of cloying " . DVD Talk 's Randy Miller considered the character to have been " masterfully played " by Henriksen . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , felt that Henriksen " seiz [ ed ] the part with a confidence that makes him immediately a more credible character " than Fox Mulder and Dana Scully , the lead roles in Millennium 's sister show The X @-@ Files . Writing for Slant magazine , Keith Uhlich described Henriksen 's portrayal of Black as " the perfect actorly complement to Carter 's thematic obsessions " , calling the character a " mortal survivalist pushing ever @-@ forward , even in the face of the devil 's idle temptations " .
= Hail =
Hail is a form of solid precipitation . It is distinct from American sleet ( called ice pellets outside of the United States ) , though the two are often confused . It consists of balls or irregular lumps of ice , each of which is called a hailstone . Sleet ( ice pellets ) falls generally in cold weather while hail growth is greatly inhibited during cold surface temperatures .
Unlike graupel , which is made of rime , and ice pellets , which are smaller and translucent , hailstones consist mostly of water ice and measure between 5 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) and 15 centimetres ( 6 in ) in diameter . The METAR reporting code for hail 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 20 in ) or greater is GR , while smaller hailstones and graupel are coded GS .
Hail is possible within most thunderstorms as it is produced by cumulonimbi , and within 2 nautical miles ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) of the parent storm . Hail formation requires environments of strong , upward motion of air with the parent thunderstorm ( similar to tornadoes ) and lowered heights of the freezing level . In the mid @-@ latitudes , hail forms near the interiors of continents , while in the tropics , it tends to be confined to high elevations .
There are methods available to detect hail @-@ producing thunderstorms using weather satellites and weather radar imagery . Hailstones generally fall at higher speeds as they grow in size , though complicating factors such as melting , friction with air , wind , and interaction with rain and other hailstones can slow their descent through Earth 's atmosphere . Severe weather warnings are issued for hail when the stones reach a damaging size , as it can cause serious damage to human @-@ made structures and , most commonly , farmers ' crops .
= = Definition = =
Any thunderstorm which produces hail that reaches the ground is known as a hailstorm . Hail has a diameter of 5 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 20 in ) or more . Hailstones can grow to 15 centimetres ( 6 in ) and weigh more than 0 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 1 @.@ 1 lb ) .
Unlike ice pellets , hailstones are layered and can be irregular and clumped together . Hail is composed of transparent ice or alternating layers of transparent and translucent ice at least 1 millimetre ( 0 @.@ 039 in ) thick , which are deposited upon the hailstone as it travels through the cloud , suspended aloft by air with strong upward motion until its weight overcomes the updraft and falls to the ground . Although the diameter of hail is varied , in the United States , the average observation of damaging hail is between 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 in ) and golf ball @-@ sized ( 1 @.@ 75 in ) .
Stones larger than 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 80 in ) are usually considered large enough to cause damage . The Meteorological Service of Canada issues severe thunderstorm warnings when hail that size or above is expected . The US National Weather Service has a 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 in ) or greater in diameter threshold , effective January 2010 , an increase over the previous threshold of ¾ -inch hail . Other countries have different thresholds according local sensitivity to hail ; for instance grape growing areas could be adversely impacted by smaller hailstones . Hailstones can be very large or very small , depending on how strong the updraft is : weaker hailstorms produce smaller hailstones than stronger hailstorms ( such as supercells ) .
= = Formation = =
Hail forms in strong thunderstorm clouds , particularly those with intense updrafts , high liquid water content , great vertical extent , large water droplets , and where a good portion of the cloud layer is below freezing 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) . These types of strong updrafts can also indicate the presence of a tornado . The growth rate is maximized where air is near a temperature of − 13 ° C ( 9 ° F ) .
= = = Layer nature of the hailstones = = =
Like other precipitation in cumulonimbus clouds , hail begins as water droplets . As the droplets rise and the temperature goes below freezing , they become supercooled water and will freeze on contact with condensation nuclei . A cross @-@ section through a large hailstone shows an onion @-@ like structure . This means the hailstone is made of thick and translucent layers , alternating with layers that are thin , white and opaque . Former theory suggested that hailstones were subjected to multiple descents and ascents , falling into a zone of humidity and refreezing as they were uplifted . This up and down motion was thought to be responsible for the successive layers of the hailstone . New research , based on theory as well as field study , has shown this is not necessarily true .
The storm 's updraft , with upwardly directed wind speeds as high as 110 miles per hour ( 180 km / h ) , blows the forming hailstones up the cloud . As the hailstone ascends it passes into areas of the cloud where the concentration of humidity and supercooled water droplets varies . The hailstone ’ s growth rate changes depending on the variation in humidity and supercooled water droplets that it encounters . The accretion rate of these water droplets is another factor in the hailstone ’ s growth . When the hailstone moves into an area with a high concentration of water droplets , it captures the latter and acquires a translucent layer . Should the hailstone move into an area where mostly water vapour is available , it acquires a layer of opaque white ice .
Furthermore , the hailstone ’ s speed depends on its position in the cloud ’ s updraft and its mass . This determines the varying thicknesses of the layers of the hailstone . The accretion rate of supercooled water droplets onto the hailstone depends on the relative velocities between these water droplets and the hailstone itself . This means that generally the larger hailstones will form some distance from the stronger updraft where they can pass more time growing . As the hailstone grows it releases latent heat , which keeps its exterior in a liquid phase . Because it undergoes ' wet growth ' , the outer layer is sticky ( i.e. more adhesive ) , so a single hailstone may grow by collision with other smaller hailstones , forming a larger entity with an irregular shape .
The hailstone will keep rising in the thunderstorm until its mass can no longer be supported by the updraft . This may take at least 30 minutes based on the force of the updrafts in the hail @-@ producing thunderstorm , whose top is usually greater than 10 km high . It then falls toward the ground while continuing to grow , based on the same processes , until it leaves the cloud . It will later begin to melt as it passes into air above freezing temperature .
Thus , a unique trajectory in the thunderstorm is sufficient to explain the layer @-@ like structure of the hailstone . The only case in which multiple trajectories can be discussed is in a multicellular thunderstorm , where the hailstone may be ejected from the top of the " mother " cell and captured in the updraft of a more intense " daughter " cell . This , however , is an exceptional case .
= = = Factors favoring hail = = =
Hail is most common within continental interiors of the mid @-@ latitudes , as hail formation is considerably more likely when the freezing level is below the altitude of 11 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 400 m ) . Movement of dry air into strong thunderstorms over continents can increase the frequency of hail by promoting evaporational cooling which lowers the freezing level of thunderstorm clouds giving hail a larger volume to grow in . Accordingly , hail is less common in the tropics despite a much higher frequency of thunderstorms than in the mid @-@ latitudes because the atmosphere over the tropics tends to be warmer over a much greater altitude . Hail in the tropics occurs mainly at higher elevations .
Hail growth becomes vanishingly small when air temperatures fall below − 30 ° C ( − 22 ° F ) as supercooled water droplets become rare at these temperatures . Around thunderstorms , hail is most likely within the cloud at elevations above 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 100 m ) . Between 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) and 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 100 m ) , 60 percent of hail is still within the thunderstorm , though 40 percent now lies within the clear air under the anvil . Below 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) , hail is equally distributed in and around a thunderstorm to a distance of 2 nautical miles ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) .
= = Climatology = =
Hail occurs most frequently within continental interiors at mid @-@ latitudes and is less common in the tropics , despite a much higher frequency of thunderstorms than in the mid @-@ latitudes . Hail is also much more common along mountain ranges because mountains force horizontal winds upwards ( known as orographic lifting ) , thereby intensifying the updrafts within thunderstorms and making hail more likely . The higher elevations also result in there being less time available for hail to melt before reaching the ground . One of the more common regions for large hail is across mountainous northern India , which reported one of the highest hail @-@ related death tolls on record in 1888 . China also experiences significant hailstorms . Central Europe and southern Australia also experience a lot of hailstorms . Popular regions for hailstorms are southern and western Germany , northern and eastern France and southern and eastern Benelux . In south @-@ eastern Europe , Croatia and Serbia experience frequent occurrences of hail .
In North America , hail is most common in the area where Colorado , Nebraska , and Wyoming meet , known as " Hail Alley " . Hail in this region occurs between the months of March and October during the afternoon and evening hours , with the bulk of the occurrences from May through September . Cheyenne , Wyoming is North America 's most hail @-@ prone city with an average of nine to ten hailstorms per season .
= = Short @-@ term detection = =
Weather radar is a very useful tool to detect the presence of hail @-@ producing thunderstorms . However , radar data has to be complemented by a knowledge of current atmospheric conditions which can allow one to determine if the current atmosphere is conducive to hail development .
Modern radar scans many angles around the site . Reflectivity values at multiple angles above ground level in a storm are proportional to the precipitation rate at those levels . Summing reflectivities in the Vertically Integrated Liquid or VIL , gives the liquid water content in the cloud . Research shows that hail development in the upper levels of the storm is related to the evolution of VIL . VIL divided by the vertical extent of the storm , called VIL density , has a relationship with hail size , although this varies with atmospheric conditions and therefore is not highly accurate . Traditionally , hail size and probability can be estimated from radar data by computer using algorithms based on this research . Some algorithms include the height of the freezing level to estimate the melting of the hailstone and what would be left on the ground .
Certain patterns of reflectivity are important clues for the meteorologist as well . The three body scatter spike is an example . This is the result of energy from the radar hitting hail and being deflected to the ground , where they deflect back to the hail and then to the radar . The energy took more time to go from the hail to the ground and back , as opposed to the energy that went direct from the hail to the radar , and the echo is further away from the radar than the actual location of the hail on the same radial path , forming a cone of weaker reflectivities .
More recently , the polarization properties of weather radar returns have been analyzed to differentiate between hail and heavy rain . The use of differential reflectivity ( <formula> ) , in combination with horizontal reflectivity ( <formula> ) has led to a variety of hail classification algorithms . Visible satellite imagery is beginning to be used to detect hail , but false alarm rates remain high using this method .
= = Size and terminal velocity = =
The size of hailstones is best determined by measuring their diameter with a ruler . In the absence of a ruler , hailstone size is often visually estimated by comparing its size to that of known objects , such as coins . Using the objects such as hen 's eggs , peas , and marbles for comparing hailstone sizes is imprecise , due to their varied dimensions . The UK organisation , TORRO , also scales for both hailstones and hailstorms . When observed at an airport , METAR code is used within a surface weather observation which relates to the size of the hailstone . Within METAR code , GR is used to indicate larger hail , of a diameter of at least 0 @.@ 25 inches ( 6 @.@ 4 mm ) . GR is derived from the French word grêle . Smaller @-@ sized hail , as well as snow pellets , use the coding of GS , which is short for the French word grésil .
= = = Hail records = = =
Megacryometeors , large rocks of ice that are not associated with thunderstorms , are not officially recognized by the World Meteorological Organization as " hail , " which are aggregations of ice associated with thunderstorms , and therefore records of extreme characteristics of megacryometeors are not given as hail records .
Heaviest : 1 @.@ 02 kg ( 2 @.@ 25 lb ) ; Gopalganj District , Bangladesh , 14 April 1986 .
Largest diameter officially measured : 7 @.@ 9 inches ( 20 cm ) diameter , 18 @.@ 622 inches ( 47 @.@ 3 cm ) circumference ; Vivian , South Dakota , 23 July 2010 .
Largest circumference officially measured : 18 @.@ 74 inches ( 47 @.@ 6 cm ) circumference , 7 @.@ 0 inches ( 17 @.@ 8 cm ) diameter ; Aurora , Nebraska , 22 June 2003 .
Terminal velocity of hail , or the speed at which hail is falling when it strikes the ground , varies . It is estimated that a hailstone of 1 centimetre ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) in diameter falls at a rate of 9 metres per second ( 20 mph ) , while stones the size of 8 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter fall at a rate of 48 metres per second ( 110 mph ) . Hailstone velocity is dependent on the size of the stone , friction with air it is falling through , the motion of wind it is falling through , collisions with raindrops or other hailstones , and melting as the stones fall through a warmer atmosphere . As hail stones are not perfect spheres it is difficult to calculate their speed accurately .
= = Hazards = =
Hail can cause serious damage , notably to automobiles ,
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aircraft , skylights , glass @-@ roofed structures , livestock , and most commonly , farmers ' crops . Hail damage to roofs often goes unnoticed until further structural damage is seen , such as leaks or cracks . It is hardest to recognize hail damage on shingled roofs and flat roofs , but all roofs have their own hail damage detection problems . Metal roofs are fairly resistant to hail damage , but may accumulate cosmetic damage in the form of dents and damaged coatings .
Hail is one of the most significant thunderstorm hazards to aircraft . When hailstones exceed 0 @.@ 5 inches ( 13 mm ) in diameter , planes can be seriously damaged within seconds . The hailstones accumulating on the ground can also be hazardous to landing aircraft . Hail is also a common nuisance to drivers of automobiles , severely denting the vehicle and cracking or even shattering windshields and windows . Wheat , corn , soybeans , and tobacco are the most sensitive crops to hail damage . Hail is one of Canada 's most expensive hazards . Rarely , massive hailstones have been known to cause concussions or fatal head trauma . Hailstorms have been the cause of costly and deadly events throughout history . One of the earliest known incidents occurred around the 9th century in Roopkund , Uttarakhand , India , where 200 to 600 nomads seem to have died of injuries from hail the size of cricket balls . The largest hailstone in terms of diameter and weight ever recorded in the United States fell on July 23 , 2010 in Vivian , South Dakota ; it measured 7 @.@ 9 inches ( 20 cm ) in diameter and 18 @.@ 62 inches ( 47 @.@ 3 cm ) in circumference , weighing in at 1 @.@ 94 pounds ( 0 @.@ 88 kg ) . This broke the previous record for diameter set by a hailstone 7 inches diameter and 18 @.@ 74 inches circumference ( still the greatest circumference hailstone ) which fell in Aurora , Nebraska in the United States on June 22 , 2003 , as well as the record for weight , set by a hailstone of 1 @.@ 67 pounds ( 0 @.@ 76 kg ) that fell in Coffeyville , Kansas in 1970 .
= = Accumulations = =
Narrow zones where hail accumulates on the ground in association with thunderstorm activity are known as hail streaks or hail swaths , which can be detectable by satellite after the storms pass by . Hailstorms normally last from a few minutes up to 15 minutes in duration . Accumulating hail storms can blanket the ground with over 2 inches ( 5 @.@ 1 cm ) of hail , cause thousands to lose power , and bring down many trees . Flash flooding and mudslides within areas of steep terrain can be a concern with accumulating hail .
Depths of up to 18 in ( 0 @.@ 46 m ) have been reported . A landscape covered in accumulated hail generally resembles one covered in accumulated snow and any significant accumulation of hail has the same restrictive effects as snow accumulation , albeit over a smaller area , on transport and infrastructure . Accumulated hail can also cause flooding by blocking drains , and hail can be carried in the floodwater , turning into a snow @-@ like slush which is deposited at lower elevations .
On somewhat rare occasions , a thunderstorm can become stationary or nearly so while prolifically producing hail and significant depths of accumulation do occur ; this tends to happen in mountainous areas , such as the July 29 , 2010 case of a foot of hail accumulation in Boulder County , Colorado . On June 5 , 2015 , hail up to four feet deep fell on one city block in Denver , Colorado . The hailstones , described as between the size of bumble bees and ping pong balls , were accompanied by rain and high winds . The hail fell in only the one area , leaving the surrounding area untouched . It fell for one and a half hours between 10 p.m. and 11 : 30 p.m. A meteorologist for the National Weather Service in Boulder said , " It 's a very interesting phenomenon . We saw the storm stall . It produced copious amounts of hail in one small area . It 's a meteorological thing . " Tractors used to clear the area filled more than 30 dump @-@ truck loads of hail .
Research focused on four individual days that accumulated more than 5 @.@ 9 inches ( 15 cm ) of hail in 30 minutes on the Colorado front range has shown that these events share similar patterns in observed synoptic weather , radar , and lightning characteristics , suggesting the possibility of predicting these events prior to their occurrence . A fundamental problem in continuing research in this area is that , unlike hail diameter , hail depth is not commonly reported . The lack of data leaves researchers and forecasters in the dark when trying to verify operational methods . A cooperative effort between the University of Colorado and the National Weather Service , for the summer of 2016 , is in progress . The joint project 's goal is to enlist the help of the general public to develop a database of hail accumulation depths .
= = Suppression and prevention = =
During the Middle Ages , people in Europe used to ring church bells and fire cannons to try to prevent hail , and the subsequent damage to crops . Updated versions of this approach are available as modern hail cannons . Cloud seeding after World War II was done to eliminate the hail threat , particularly across the Soviet Union – where it was claimed a 70 to 98 percent reduction in crop damage from hail storms was achieved by deploying silver iodide in clouds using rockets and artillery shells . Hail suppression programs have been undertaken by 15 countries between 1965 and 2005 .
= Roderigo Lopez =
Roderigo Lopez ( also called Ruy Lopes , Ruy Lopez or Roger Lopez ; c . 1517 – 7 June 1594 ) served as physician @-@ in @-@ chief to Queen Elizabeth I of England from 1581 until his death by execution , having been found guilty of plotting to poison her . A Portuguese converso or New Christian of Jewish ancestry , he is the only royal doctor in English history to have been executed , and may have inspired the character of Shylock in Shakespeare 's The Merchant of Venice , which was written within four years of his death .
The son of a Portuguese royal physician of Jewish descent , Lopez was raised a Catholic and educated at the University of Coimbra . Amid the Portuguese Inquisition he was accused of secretly practising Judaism , and compelled to leave the country . He settled in London in 1559 , joined the Church of England and became house physician at St Bartholomew 's Hospital . Gaining a reputation as a careful and skilled physician , he acquired several powerful clients , including the Earl of Leicester and Sir Francis Walsingham , and eventually the Queen of England herself .
The Earl of Essex accused Lopez of conspiring to poison the Queen by in January 1594 . Insisting his innocence , the doctor was convicted of high treason in February and hanged , drawn and quartered in June , reportedly after averring from the scaffold that " he loved the Queen as well as he loved Jesus Christ " — a statement that , from a man of Jewish background , prompted mocking laughter from the crowd . Elizabeth 's three @-@ month delay signing Lopez 's death warrant is sometimes interpreted as evidence that she doubted the case against him . In any case she returned almost all of his estate to his widow and children .
= = Early life and family = =
Roderigo ( or Rodrigo ) Lopez was born into a family of Jewish origin in Portugal around 1517 . His father , António Lopes , was physician to King John III of Portugal , and had been baptised into the Roman Catholic Church under coercion in 1497 . Lopez was baptised and raised in the Catholic faith as a converso or New Christian , and educated at the University of Coimbra . He received a BA degree under the name Ruy Lopes on 7 February 1540 , then an MA on 4 December 1541 ; he enrolled for a medical course on 23 December that year . Records do not survive regarding his doctorate , but according to his biographer Edgar Samuel it is probable that he received it in 1544 .
Amid the Portuguese Inquisition , Lopez was alleged to be a Crypto @-@ Jew or marrano — one of Jewish descent who professed the Christian faith , but secretly adhered to the Judaism of his ancestors — and was compelled to leave Portugal . He settled in England in 1559 , anglicising his first name as " Roger " , and successfully resumed his practice as a doctor in London . He joined the Church of England . He soon became the house physician at St Bartholomew 's Hospital in Smithfield . A colleague there , the surgeon William Clowes , noted in 1591 that " Lopez showed himself to be both careful and very skilful ... in his counsel in dieting , purging and bleeding . "
Around 1563 Lopez married Sarah Anes ( b . 1550 ) , the eldest daughter of another New Christian refugee from the Portuguese Inquisition , the merchant Dunstan Anes , who had settled in London in 1540 . According to Samuel , both the Anes and Lopez households secretly practised Judaism , which was then illegal in England , while outwardly conforming as Anglicans . Other scholars are ambivalent on the matter ; Lopez would always insist that he was a Christian . Roderigo and Sarah had four sons and two daughters , of whom at least the eldest five — Ellyn ( Elinor ) , Ambrose , Douglas , William and Ann — were baptised within the hospital precincts at St Bartholomew @-@ the @-@ Less between 1564 and 1579 . Lopez 's brother Lewis lived with them in Holborn ; a second brother , Diego Lopes Aleman , became a merchant in Antwerp and Venice .
= = Royal physician = =
Lopez developed a large practice among powerful people , including Robert Dudley , Earl of Leicester and the principal secretary Sir Francis Walsingham , and in 1581 he was made physician @-@ in @-@ chief to Queen Elizabeth I of England and her household , with a life pension of £ 50 per year . In June 1584 , Elizabeth granted him a monopoly on the importation of aniseed and sumac to England for ten years ; this was renewed in January 1593 . In 1588 he was given land and tithes in Worcestershire belonging to the Bishop of Worcester Edmund Freke . Gabriel Harvey , an English scholar of the era , remarked on Lopez 's rise on the title page of a book he owned , Judaeorum Medicastrorum calumnias :
Doctor Lopus , the Queenes physitian , is descended of Jewes : but himselfe A Christian , & Portugall . He none of the learnedest , or expertest physitians in ye Court : but one , that maketh as great account of himself , as the best : & by a kind of Jewish practis , hath growen to much wealth , & sum reputation : aswell with ye Queen herselfe as with sum of ye greatest Lordes , & Ladyes .
There were sections of English society at the time that believed there to be a plot , orchestrated by Catholics and carried out by Jewish physicians , to poison patients . Converso doctors in Iberia were similarly often accused of murdering their patients or attempting to poison them . In 1584 , an anonymous Catholic pamphlet denouncing the Earl of Leicester suggested that " Lopez the Jewe " was one of the earl 's agents " for poysoning & for the arte of destroying children in women 's bellies " .
Fluent in five languages , Lopez was involved in diplomatic intrigue , as many Christians of Jewish origin were at this time . Amid England 's war with Spain in the 1580s , Lopez became an important member of a circle of Portuguese exiles in England , and the Queen 's intermediary with the Portuguese pretender Dom António , Prior of Crato , who was staying near Windsor Castle . Lopez supported Dom António , but in 1586 one of the pretender 's entourage , António da Veiga , wrote to the Spanish Ambassador in Paris , Don Bernardino de Mendoza , claiming that he could persuade Lopez to poison Dom António . The Spanish did not act on this idea .
In 1590 , Lopez approached Mendoza , possibly on Walsingham 's behalf , with the intention of opening peace negotiations . The Spanish gave Manuel de Andrada , Lopez 's intermediary , a jewelled ring worth £ 100 as a gift for Lopez 's daughter . After Walsingham 's death in 1591 , Lopez continued exchanging letters with Spanish officials without the English government 's knowledge or authority . There is no surviving evidence to suggest that Lopez conspired against England or Elizabeth personally , but these Spanish connections would come back to punish him — according to Samuel , " Lopez had acted stupidly and dishonestly " .
= = Trial and execution = =
By the early 1590s , Lopez was wealthy and generally respected . He owned a comfortable house in Holborn and had his youngest son Anthony enrolled at Winchester College . He incurred the fury of one of his former patients , Queen Elizabeth 's favourite Robert Devereux , Earl of Essex , when he described to Dom António and the Spanish statesman Antonio Pérez occasions on which he had treated Essex for venereal diseases . Learning of this from Perez , Essex began to assemble evidence implicating Lopez as some sort of fifth columnist in the pay of King Philip II of Spain . The Lord High Treasurer Lord Burghley initially thought Essex 's allegations against Lopez absurd ; the Queen herself also rebuked Essex .
Late in 1593 , Essex discovered a secret correspondence between Estevão Ferreira da Gama , one of Dom António 's former supporters , and officials in the Spanish Netherlands , and had a messenger , Manuel Luis Tinoco , arrested . Lopez 's courier Gomez d 'Avila , a London @-@ based Portuguese New Christian , was also arrested . Both implicated Lopez during interrogation . On 28 January 1594 Essex wrote to Anthony Bacon of " a most dangerous and desperate treason " , the target of which was Queen Elizabeth : " The executioner should have been Dr Lopus . The manner by poison . " Parallels were drawn with a letter written by Andrada to Burghley in 1591 , in which reference was made to a plot whereby the King of Spain would deploy " three Portuguese to kill her Majesty and three more to kill the King of France " . Tinoco was tortured and Ferreira da Gama threatened with torture until they confessed along the lines Essex suspected ; Ferreira da Gama , asked if Lopez might have been willing to poison the Queen , replied in the affirmative . Lopez was arrested and held first at Essex House , then the Tower of London . He confessed when threatened with torture , but promptly recanted this statement .
Revelations regarding Lopez 's secret correspondence with Spanish officials did not help his case , particularly when it emerged that he had given the Spanish information about the English court , and apparently donated money to a secret synagogue in Antwerp . Burghley and the spymaster William Wade were soon " ready to believe the worst " , to quote Samuel . Lopez , Ferreira da Gama and Tinoco were tried by a commission headed by Essex at Guildhall on 28 February 1594 . Lopez insisted that he was innocent . The prosecutor , Sir Edward Coke , denounced the doctor as " a perjured , murdering villain and a Jewish doctor worse than Judas himself ... [ not ] a new Christian ... [ but ] a very Jew " . The three were convicted of high treason and sentenced to death .
The Queen waited over three months before signing the death warrant ; this delay is sometimes interpreted as evidence that the Queen doubted the case against her doctor . Lopez , Ferreira da Gama and Tinoco were hanged , drawn and quartered at Tyburn on 7 June 1594 . Lopez insisted to the end that he was innocent and that his professed Christian faith was genuine . He fell into a state of depression , but on the scaffold gathered his resolve and , according to the 16th @-@ century historian William Camden , declared that " he loved the Queen as well as he loved Jesus Christ " . The crowd roared with derision and laughter , taking this , from a man of Jewish background , for a thinly veiled confession .
Lopez 's property was forfeited on his attainder . His widow Sarah petitioned the Queen to be allowed to keep his estate ; the Queen kept the ring given to Lopez 's daughter by the Spanish , but returned the rest . Elizabeth also granted £ 30 per year to Anthony Lopez to support him at Winchester . A letter written by the Spanish diplomat Count Gondomar to King Philip III of Spain a decade after the trial seems to indicate that Lopez and Ferreira da Gama had been unjustly convicted , and that there had been no plot involving the Portuguese doctor : " the King our master [ Philip II ] had never conceived nor approved such measures ... the Count of Fuentes neither received nor gave such an order , moreover it is understood that Dr Lopez never passed through his thoughts , because he was a friend of the Queen and a bad Christian . " Lopez remains the only royal physician executed in English history .
= = Possible literary legacy = =
Some historians and literary critics consider Lopez and his trial to have been an influence on William Shakespeare 's The Merchant of Venice ( written c . 1596 – 98 ) , specifically as a prototype for the play 's principal antagonist Shylock , a Venetian Jewish moneylender who hates Christians . The Lopez case prompted a revival of Christopher Marlowe 's play The Jew of Malta ( c . 1589 – 90 ) , which according to Elizabeth Lane Furdell began rehearsals in London the same day Lopez was taken to Essex House . There is a mention of Lopez in Marlowe 's Doctor Faustus ( c . 1592 ) , comparing him to the title character : " Doctor Lopus was never such a doctor ! " This was probably added after Marlowe 's death in 1593 .
= Systemin =
Systemin is a plant peptide hormone involved in the wound response in the Solanaceae family . It was the first plant hormone that was proven to be a peptide having been isolated from tomato leaves in 1991 by a group led by Clarence A. Ryan . Since then other peptides , with similar functions have been identified in tomato and outside of the Solanaceae . Hydroxyproline @-@ rich glycopeptides were found in tobacco in 2001 and AtPEPs ( Arabidopsis thaliana Plant Elicitor Peptides ) were found in Arabidopsis thaliana in 2006 . Their precursors are found both in the cytoplasm and cell walls of plant cells , upon insect damage , the precursors are processed to produce one or more mature peptides . The receptor for systemin was first thought to be the same as the brassinolide receptor but this is now uncertain . The signal transduction processes that occur after the peptides bind are similar to the cytokine @-@ mediated inflammatory immune response in animals . Early experiments showed that systemin travelled around the plant after insects had damaged the plant , activating systemic acquired resistance , now it is thought that it increases the production of jasmonic acid causing the same result . The main function of systemins is to coordinate defensive responses against insect herbivores but they also affect plant development . Systemin induces the production of protease inhibitors which protect against insect herbivores , other peptides activate defensins and modify root growth . They have also been shown to affect plants ' responses to salt stress and UV radiation . AtPEPs have been shown to affect resistance against oomycetes and may allow A. thaliana to distinguish between different pathogens . In Nicotiana attenuata , some of the peptides have stopped being involved in defensive roles and instead affect flower morphology .
= = Discovery and structure = =
In 1991 a research group led by Clarence A. Ryan , isolated an 18 amino acid polypeptide from tomato leaves that induced the production of protease inhibitor proteins ( PIs ) in response to wounding . Experiments using synthetic radio @-@ labelled forms of the polypeptide demonstrated that it was able to travel systemically through the plant and induce PI production in unwounded leaves . Because of the systemic nature of the wounding signal , it was named systemin , it was the first polypeptide found to function as a hormone in plants. mRNA encoding for systemin is found in all tissues of the plant except the roots . Later studies identified homologs of tomato systemin in other members of the Solanaceae including potato , black nightshade and bell pepper . Systemins have only been identified in the Solaneae subtribe of the Solanaceae , but other members of the family , such as tobacco , also respond to wounding by systemically producing protease inhibitors .
= = = Peptides with similar functions = = =
In 2001 , biologically active hydroxyproline @-@ rich glycopeptides were isolated from tobacco which activated the production of protease inhibitors in a similar way to systemin in tomatoes . Although they are structurally unrelated to systemins , their similar function resulted in them being named hydroxyproline @-@ rich systemins ( HypSys ) . Following the initial discovery other HypSys peptides were found in tomato , Petunia and black nightshade . In 2007 , HypSys were found outside the Solanaceae , in sweet potato ( Ipomoea batatas ) and sequence analysis identified HypSys analogs in poplar ( Populus trichocarpa ) and coffee ( Coffea canephora ) . Systemins are highly conserved between species , whereas HypSys are more divergent but all contain a conserved proline or hydroxyproline @-@ rich central domain .
In 2006 , AtPEP1 , a 23 amino acid polypeptide was isolated from Arabidopsis thaliana , which was found to activate components of the innate immune response . Unlike HypSys , AtPEP1 is not post @-@ translationally modified by hydroxylation or glycosylation . Six paralogs of the precursor have been identified in A. thaliana as well as orthologs in grape , rice , maize , wheat , barley , canola , soybean , medicago and poplar , although the activity of these orthologs has not been tested in assays . The predicted structures of the paralogs of AtPEP1 are varied within A. thaliana but all contain a SSGR / KxGxxN sequence motif . The orthologs identified in other species are more varied but still contain components of the sequence motif .
= = Localisation and precursors = =
Systemin and AtPEP1 are found in the cell cytosol . The precursor to tomato systemin is transcribed as a 200 amino acid polypeptide . It does not contain a putative signal sequence suggesting that it is synthesised on free ribosomes in the cytosol . The precursor to AtPEP1 is a 92 amino acid polypeptide and also lacks a signal sequence . In tomato , mRNA encoding the precursor for systemin is present at very low levels in unwounded leaves but accumulates upon wounding , particularly in the cells surrounding the sieve elements of the phloem in vascular bundles of mid veins . The precursor accumulates exclusively in the phloem parenchyma cells of leaves in tomato after wounding . The precursor to potato systemin is also localised in a similar manner suggesting it is under the same cell @-@ type @-@ specific regulation in both species .
HypSys are localised in the cell wall . The precursor for tobacco HypSys is transcribed as a 165 amino acid polypeptide which has no structural homology to the precursor for systemin in tomato . The structural properties of HypSys , containing hydroxyproline and being glycosylated , indicate that they are synthesised through the secretory system . The precursor to HypSys in tomato is a 146 amino acid polypeptide , exclusively synthesised within the vascular bundles of leaves and petioles associated with parenchyma cells of phloem bundles . Unlike systemin , it is primarily associated with the cell wall . The precursors to HypSys appear to represent a distinct subfamily of hydroxyproline @-@ rich proteins found in cell walls . Upon wounding it is thought that a protease from the cytosol , the cell wall matrix , or the pathogen , processes the precursor producing active HypSys peptides .
= = = Processing of precursors = = =
The precursors for systemin and AtPEP1 are both processed to yield one active peptide from the C @-@ terminus of the precursor . It has been speculated that ProAtPEP1 is processed by CONSTITUTIVE DISEASE RESISTANCE 1 , an apoplastic aspartic protease . The precursors to HypSys are processed into more than one active peptide . In tobacco , it is processed into two peptides , in petunia into three , and in sweet potato , possibly into six . At 291 amino acids long , the precursor to HypSys in sweet potato is the longest precursor described . The production of multiple signalling peptides from one precursor is a common feature found in animals .
= = Receptors = =
Exceedingly small amounts of tomato systemin are active , femto @-@ molar concentrations of the peptide are sufficient to elicit a response at the whole plant level , making it one of the most potent gene activators identified . A receptor for tomato systemin was identified as a 160KDa leucine @-@ rich repeat receptor like kinase ( LRR @-@ RLK ) , SR160 . After being isolated it was found that was very similar in structure to BRI1 from A. thaliana , the receptor that brassinolides bind to on the cell membrane . This was the first receptor which was found to be able to bind both a steroid and a peptide ligand and also to be involved in both defensive and developmental responses . Recent studies have found that the initial conclusion that BRI1 is the receptor for tomato systemin may be incorrect . In cu3 mutants of tomato , a null allele with a stop codon present in the extracellular LRR domain of BRI1 prevents the receptor from being localised correctly and it also lacks the kinase domain , required for signalling . These mutants are insensitive to brassinolide yet still respond to tomato systemin by producing protease inhibitors and causing an alkalisation response . This led Holton et al. to suggest that there is another mechanism by which systemin is perceived . Further investigation showed that binding of systemin to BRI1 does not cause the receptor to become phosphorylated , as when brassinolides bind , suggesting that it does not transduce a signal . When BRI1 is silenced in tomato , the plants have a similar phenotype to cu3 mutants yet are still able to respond normally to systemin , strengthening the view that BRI1 is not the systemin receptor .
In 1994 , tomato systemin was found to bind to a 50KDa protein in the cell membrane of tomato . The protein has a structure similar to proteases of the Kex2p @-@ like prohormone convertases . This led Schaller and Ryan to suggest that it is not a receptor , but instead is involved in the processing of ProSys into the active form , or the degradation of Sys . Synthetic forms of tomato systemin , with substituted amino acids at the predicted dibasic cleavage site , remained stable in cell cultures for longer than the native form . Later studies have noted that the enzymes responsible for processing ProSys remain unidentified . No further research has been reported on the 50KDa protein to date , and the gene has not been identified .
No receptors for HypSys have so far been reported , but it is thought that they are perceived on the cell membrane by a LRR @-@ RLK .
The receptor for AtPep1 has been identified as a 170KDa LRR @-@ RLK and has been named AtPEPR1 . AtPep1 is active at 0 @.@ 1 nano @-@ molar ( nM ) concentrations and the receptor saturates at 1nM . An analysis of the structure of the AtPEPR1 receptor has shown that it is a member of the LRR XI subfamily of LRR @-@ RLKs in A. thaliana which includes the receptor for another peptide hormone CLAVATA3 . Transforming tobacco cell cultures with AtPEPR1 allowed them to respond to AtPep1 in an alkalisation assay , whereas normal tobacco did not show such a response . BRI1 @-@ associated receptor kinase 1 ( BAK1 ) is an LRR @-@ RLK found in A. thaliana , which has been proposed to function as an adaptor protein that is required for the proper functioning of other RLKs . Yeast two @-@ hybrid assays have shown that AtPEPR1 and its closest analog , AtPEPR2 , interact with BAK1 .
= = Signal transduction = =
Although the receptors for systemins and HypSys remain poorly understood , we have a better understanding of the signal transduction that occurs once the peptide had bound to its receptor . Jasmonic acid is an essential , albeit late component , in the systemin and wound @-@ signalling pathways . In tomato , the signal is transduced from the receptor by mitogen @-@ activated protein kinases ( MAPKs ) . Cosilencing of two MAPKs , MPK1 and MPK2 , in tomato compromised their defence response against insect larvae compared to wild type plants . Cosilencing these genes also decreased production of jasmonic acid and of jasmonic acid @-@ dependent defence genes . Applying methyl jasmonate to cosilenced plants rescued them , indicating that jasmonates are the signal responsible for causing changes in gene expression . The alkalisation of the apoplast is a downstream effect of signalling processing by MAPKs . Applying fusicoccin , which activates the H + ATPase inhibited by systemin , along with systemin still activates MAPKs , even though the pH of the apoplast does not change .
Within minutes of systemin perception , the cytosolic Ca2 + concentration increases , and linolenic acid is released from cell membranes after a phospholipase has been activated . Linolenic acid is then converted to jasmonic acid via the octadecanoid pathway and jasmonic acid activates defensive genes . Production of methyl jasmonate is induced by systemins and also upregulates systemin precursor genes creating a feedback loop , amplifying the defensive signal . Methyl jasmonate is volatile and can therefore activate systemic acquired resistance in neighbouring plants , preparing their defences for attack . These signalling events are analogous to the cytokine @-@ mediated inflammatory immune response in animals . When the inflammatory response is activated in animals , MAPKs are activated which in turn activate phospholipases . Lipids in the membrane are converted to arachidonic acid and then to prostaglandins , which are analogs of jasmonic acid . Both pathways can be inhibited by suramin .
Early experiments with radiolabelled systemin in tomato demonstrated that it is transported through the phloem sap in tomato plants and was therefore thought to be the systemic signal that activated systemic acquired resistance . This view was challenged by grafting experiments which showed that mutants deficient in jasmonic acid biosynthesis and perception were unable to activate systemic acquired resistance . It is now thought that jasmonic acid is the systemic signal and that systemin upregulates the pathways for jasmonic acid synthesis .
= = Functions = =
= = = Defence = = =
Systemin plays a critical role in defence signalling in tomato . It promotes the synthesis of over 20 defence @-@ related proteins , mainly antinutritional proteins , signaling pathway proteins and proteases . The over @-@ expression of the prosystemin resulted in a significant decrease of the larvae damage , indicating that a high level of constitutive protection is superior to an inducible defence mechanism . However , the continuous activation of prosystemin is costly , affecting the growth , the physiology and the reproductive success of tomato plants . When systemin was silenced , production of protease inhibitors in tomato was severely impaired and larvae feeding on the plants grew three times as fast . HypSys caused similar changes in gene expression in tobacco , for example polyphenol oxidase activity increased tenfold in tobacco leaves and protease inhibitors caused a 30 % decrease in chymotrypsin activity within three days of wounding . When HypSys was over @-@ expressed in tobacco , larvae feeding on transgenic plants weighed half as much after ten days feeding , as those feeding on normal plants . The concentration of hydrogen peroxide increased in the vasculature tissues when the production of systemin , HypSys or AtPep1 is induced , this may also be involved in initiating systemic acquired resistance .
Tomato plants over @-@ expressing systemin also accumulated HypSys but did not if the systemin precursor was silenced , indicating that in tomato , HypSys is controlled by systemin . Each of the three HypSys peptides in tomato is able to activate the synthesis and accumulation of protease inhibitors . When HypSys is silenced the production of protease inhibitors induced by wounding is halved compared to wild type plants indicating that both systemin and HypSys are required for a strong defence response against herbivores in tomato .
When applied through cut petioles in Petunia , HypSys did not induce the production of protease inhibitors , but instead increased expression of defensin , a gene which produces a protein that inserts into microbial membranes , forming a pore . Defensin expression is also induced by AtPEP1 .
Tomato plants over @-@ expressing systemin produced more volatile organic compounds ( VOCs ) than normal plants and parasitoid wasps found them more attractive . Systemin also upregulates the expression of genes involved in the production of biologically active VOCs . Such a response is crucial if antinutritional defences are to be effective , since without predators , developing insects would consume more plant material while completing their development . It is likely that VOC production is upregulated through different pathways , including oxylipin pathway that synthesises jasmonic acid aldehydes and alcohols that function in wound healing .
Different AtPeps may allow A. thaliana to distinguish between different pathogens . When inoculated with a fungus , oomycete and a bacterium , the increases in AtPep expression varied depending on the pathogen . A. thaliana overexpressing AtProPep1 was more resistant to the oomycete Phythium irregulare .
Silencing systemin did not affect the ability of black nightshade to resist herbivory and , when competing against normal plants , silenced plants produced more above @-@ ground biomass and berries . Upon herbivory , systemin was down @-@ regulated in black nightshade in contrast to the other peptides which are up @-@ regulated after herbivory . By contrast HypSys were up @-@ regulated and activated the synthesis of protease inhibitors . The down @-@ regulation of systemin was associated with increased root mass but did not decrease shoot mass , demonstrating that systemin can cause developmental changes as a result of herbivory , allowing the plant to tolerate , rather than directly resist attack . Tomato roots were also affected by tomato systemin , with root growth increasing at high tomato systemin concentrations . By allocating more resources to the roots , plants under attack are thought to store carbon and then use it to re @-@ grow when the attack ends . Overexpressing AtPEP1 also increased root and shoot biomass in A. thaliana .
= = = Abiotic stress resistance = = =
Overexpression of systemin and HypSys has been found to improve plants ' tolerance to abiotic stress , including salt stress and UV radiation . When prosystemin was over @-@ expressed in tomato , transgenic plants had lower stomatal conductance than normal plants . When grown in salt solutions , transgenic plants had higher stomatal conductances , lower leaf concentrations of abscisic acid and proline and a higher biomass . These findings suggest that systemin either allowed the plants to adapt to salt stress more efficiently or that they perceived a less stressful environment . Similarly , wounded tomato plants were less susceptible to salt stress than unwounded plants . This may be because wounding decreases the growth of the plant and therefore slows the uptake of toxic ions into the roots . An analysis of salt @-@ induced changes in gene expression found that the differences measured between the transgenic and normal plants could not be accounted for by changes in conventional salt stress @-@ induced pathways . Instead Orsini et al. suggested that the activation of the jasmonic acid pathway determines a physiological state that not only directs resources towards the production of compounds active against pests , but also pre @-@ adapts plants to minimize water loss . These effects are achieved by negatively regulating the production of hormones and metabolites that will force plants to invest additional resources to counteract water loss , a secondary effect of herbivores .
Plants grown under UVB light are more resistant to insect herbivory compared with plants grown under filters that exclude the radiation . When tomato plants are exposed to a pulse of UVB radiation and then weakly wounded , PIs accumulate throughout the plant . By themselves , neither the radiation nor weak wounding is sufficient to induce systemic PI accumulation . Tomato cell cultures respond similarly , with systemin and UVB acting together to activate MAPKs . Short pulses of UVB also cause alkalisation of the culturing medium .
= = = Development = = =
In Nicotiana attenuata HypSys is known to not be involved in defence against insect herbivores . Silencing and over @-@ expression of HypSys does not affect the feeding performance of larvae compared to normal plants . Berger silenced HypSys and found that it caused changes in flower morphology which reduced the efficiency of self @-@ pollination . The flowers had pistils that protruded beyond their anthers , a similar phenotype to CORONATINE @-@ INSENSITIVE1 @-@ silenced plants which lack a jasmonate receptor . Measurement of jasmonate levels in the flowers revealed that they were lower than in normal plants . The authors suggested that HypSys peptides in N. attenuata have diversified from their function as defence related peptides to being involved in controlling flower morphology . The signalling processes remain similar however , being mediated through jasmonates .
Systemin also increases root growth in Solanum pimpinellifolium suggesting that it may also play some role in plant development .
= Radical Dreamers =
Radical Dreamers : Nusumenai Hōseki ( Japanese : ラジカル ・ ドリーマーズ -盗めない宝石- , lit . " Radical Dreamers : The Unstealable Jewel " ) is a Japanese video game developed by Square in 1996 for the Satellaview add @-@ on for the Super Famicom . It is a text @-@ based visual novel in which the player takes the role of Serge , a young adventurer accompanied by Kid , a teen @-@ aged thief , and Gil , a mysterious masked magician .
The game belongs to the Chrono series and is a gaiden , or side story , to the 1995 game Chrono Trigger . It was released to complement its predecessor 's plot , and later served as inspiration for Chrono Cross . It features text @-@ based gameplay with minimal graphics and sound effects , and was scored by composer Yasunori Mitsuda . Unlike many Satellaview titles , Radical Dreamers was not designed to lock after a certain number of playthroughs , so players owning an 8M Memory Pack onto which the game was downloaded can still play today .
Square tried to integrate Radical Dreamers into the Japanese PlayStation port of Chrono Trigger as an Easter egg . Writer and director Masato Kato halted this and other releases , unhappy with the quality of his work . Though the game was never officially released abroad , ROM hackers completed an English fan translation in 2003 .
= = Gameplay = =
Gameplay consists of word @-@ based scenarios presented to the player through the narration of the main character , Serge . As the narrative progresses , the game presents a list of possible actions and the player must choose his or her course . Depending on the choices made , the player may enter a new area , be presented with a new situation or character , or have to choose again if the previous selection was incorrect . In combat with enemies , the player must select from options such as " Fight " , " Magic " , " Run " , and often more complex situational commands like " Run my knife into the goblin 's chest ! " or " Quickly slash at its hand ! " . Some decisions must be made before an invisible timer runs out ; in combat , hesitation results in injury or death . Serge 's health is tracked by an invisible point count , restored by various events ( such as finding a potion ) . The game also tracks Kid 's affection for Serge , influenced by battles and scripted events . Her feelings determine whether Serge survives the story 's climactic fight .
Radical Dreamers features minimal graphics and animation ; most areas are rendered with dim , static backgrounds . The game also uses atmospheric music and sounds . Like other Chrono games , Radical Dreamers contains a variant of New Game + mode . Only one scenario is available on the first play @-@ through ; after finishing it and obtaining one of three possible endings , players can explore six others . These later stories often feature comical situations or allusions to Chrono Trigger .
= = Characters and story = =
Radical Dreamers features three protagonists — Serge , Kid , and Magil — who seek out treasure as venturesome , reputable thieves . The young adult narrator , Serge , is a drifting musician who met Kid by chance three years ago in a remote town . Serge enjoys adventure with a carefree attitude . Kid , only sixteen years old , is a renowned professional thief with a reputation for boisterous behavior . Possessing a turbulent history , Kid dubiously fancies herself as a kind of Robin Hood . Magil is an enigmatic , handsome masked man skilled in magic who rarely speaks and can fade into shadow at will . Crowned by flowing , blue hair , Magil accompanied Kid well before Serge joined the group . They seek the Frozen Flame , a mythic artifact capable of granting any wish . It is hidden in Viper Manor — the home of a terrible and powerful aristocrat named Lynx , who gained control of the estate after usurping power from and killing the Acacia Dragoons , a familial unit of warriors .
Following Kid , the group infiltrates Viper Manor on the night of a full moon . While sneaking through the corridors , they battle goblins and other creatures of legend while unraveling the history of the manor and its occupants . Magil explains that the Frozen Flame is a fragment of the massive , extraterrestrial creature known as Lavos , splintered off when Lavos impacted the planet in prehistory and burrowed to its core . The thieves locate Lynx and the Frozen Flame deep within an underground ruin of the Kingdom of Zeal — an ancient , airborne civilization destroyed after it awakened Lavos in search of immortality . Serge discovers that Kid is an orphan , hoping to exact revenge upon Lynx for killing her caretaker , Lucca . Kid attempted to find Lynx in her childhood after Lucca 's death , but was stopped and saved from certain defeat by Magil , who accompanied her thereafter .
The trio battle Lynx for the Frozen Flame , and Lynx gains the upper hand after trapping Magil with a powerful spell . He plans to acquire Kid 's special gift from Lucca — a Time Egg , or Chrono Trigger . With a Time Egg and the Frozen Flame , Lynx boasts that he shall achieve control over time . Kid lunges at him , but Lynx easily parries her attack and wounds her . She desperately removes the Chrono Trigger from her back pocket . The Trigger shatters and causes a localized temporal distortion , leading Serge to see various scenes in history . Kid learns of her heritage as princess Schala of Zeal , a meek girl who was coerced to help awaken Lavos with her magical power . As Zeal collapsed , Schala was wracked with anguish and guilt for her role in the incident . Nearby in the Ocean Palace , the Frozen Flame felt her grief and changed her to a baby , sending her to the modern era where Lucca found her . It is also circumstantially revealed that Magil is in fact Magus , Schala 's wayward brother who searched for her after battling Lavos in Chrono Trigger . Once the distortion subsides , an army from Porre — a large nation in search of the Frozen Flame — storms the mansion . Lynx withdraws as Kid , Serge , and Magil flee . Kid tells Serge that she is aware of her true origin , and knowing that is a treasure which cannot be stolen . She bids him goodbye before disappearing into the darkness with Magil .
Other scenarios are available after players complete the first . These include both humorous and serious variations of the main plot .
" Magil : Caught Between Love and Adventure " – Magil is actually a lifelong friend of Riddel who courts her . When the manor is alerted to his presence , Magil throws Riddel over his shoulder and dashes off into the morning sun as her proud father Lynx tearily bids goodbye .
" Kid and the Sunflower " – Kid insults a lecherous sunflower who transforms her into a malicious monster . Serge must kiss her to change her back , or use a special dagger to take her soul at risk of his own soul 's capture . Three endings are available .
" SuperXtreme Alphacosmos Police Case EX Ultra " – Magil is a space cop searching for Lynx , secretly a green Martian creature with tentacles . Magil 's rock guitar forces Lynx out of hiding , and Serge assaults him with a Martian Forest League Concealed Lesser Armament Bunny .
" Homecoming : Shea 's Light " – Kid learns that Lynx and her caretaker Shea are trapped in a magical seal as part of Lynx 's effort to escape a spirit prison . Shea selflessly instructs Magil to destroy the Frozen Flame , killing Lynx forever .
" The Enigmatic Gigaweapon : Paradise X " – Serge finds an odd crystal inhabited by an entity named Gange , who tests his strength with gladiatorial combat . Using Gange 's Paradise X mecha , Serge and Gange challenge Mecha @-@ Lynx for the Frozen Flame .
" The Shadow Realm and the Goddess of Death " – Kid accidentally summons Lilith , the Goddess of Death . She tries to take Kid 's soul , but Magil intervenes . The outcome is slightly affected by Kid 's affection for Serge .
= = Development = =
Masato Kato wrote Radical Dreamers after Chrono Trigger 's release , feeling that Trigger concluded with " unfinished business " . He composed the main story and drafted the concepts for the sub @-@ scenarios , leaving them to be completed by his peers . He allowed Makoto Shimamoto to write the entire " Kid and the Sunflower " segment , later joking that he " avoided having any part in that episode , " while Miwa Shoda was in charge of the " Shadow Realm and the Goddess of Death " segment . According to scenario writer Daisuke Fukugawa ( responsible for the game 's " The Enigmatic Gigaweapon : Paradise X " subplot ) , the game 's graphical content pushed the Satellaview 's technical limits , requiring developers to redraw prerendered models until functional gameplay could be ensured . Kato remarked that his " savage feelings " from Chrono Trigger 's hectic development manifested in Kid 's " unusually nihilistic attitude " . He explained his approach towards the project in 1999 :
... due to the fact that this was a text @-@ based game , the contents of the game ended up being rather serious and emotional . The game itself was a real life @-@ or @-@ death kind of survival adventure game . I think there was a feeling somewhere deep in my heart that said , ' I wanna try making a horror game ! ' But soon after that , they came out with Biohazard , so I quickly got over that phase ( laughs ) .
... the comical sub @-@ scenarios were written to be extremely comical beyond any measurement , so I think it sorta ' balances out ... But I can say that since this game wasn 't expected to be widely sold on the market , and also since there wasn 't any profit on our part , there was a feeling that I wanted to make this game out of my sole interest . In a way , I think that ' Radical ' helped me to find my own path ... But then again , I guess you could say that I strayed away from the paths of normal people .
Kato 's team completed Radical Dreamers in only three months under a rushed production schedule , prompting him to label the game " unfinished " in an interview for the Ultimania Chrono Cross guide . Kato regretted that the schedule hampered the quality of his work , and explained that the connections to Chrono Trigger were evoked towards the end of the project :
When I originally started working on Radical Dreamers , I never thought that it would have such an ending . We only had three months for development , and I was just making up the story while inputting data . When I finally realized the connection of the identities of Kid and Magil near the final stage of development , I even amazed myself , saying , ' So , that 's who they were ! ? ' ( laughs ) Also , since there were issues with the media , the connections between Radical Dreamers and Chrono Trigger were intentionally left blurred in the background so that it 'd only be recognizable by those who would understand .
= = = Music = = =
The music of Radical Dreamers was written by composer Yasunori Mitsuda , who scored Chrono Trigger and later Chrono Cross . The soundtrack includes several ambient pieces , including the sound of water running in a fountain and wind accompanied by strings . Players can listen to the game 's songs by accessing a hidden menu in the " Gil : Caught Between Love and Adventure " scenario . Several themes and musical patterns were later adapted for Chrono Cross on the suggestion of director Masato Kato ; many appear unchanged except for new instrumentation .
= = Fan translation = =
In April 2003 , the ROM hacking group Demiforce released a fan translation rendering Radical Dreamers in English . The patch works by modifying the ROM image of Dreamers used for playing console @-@ based video games on personal computers through emulation . The ability to save games was not enabled with the first patch , and some minor typos were left in , later remedied by successive releases . On Christmas Day 2005 , Demiforce and Radical R released the final version ( 1 @.@ 4 ) of the translation , which fixed remaining minor bugs . The French team Terminus Traduction made a French translation patch soon after . Masato Kato did not perceive significant demand to include Radical Dreamers as a bonus with the release of Chrono Trigger DS , and omitted it to preserve continuity between Trigger and Cross . He expressed concern in 2009 over re @-@ releasing Radical Dreamers " as @-@ is " , citing a need to revise the work .
A reviewer for Home of the Underdogs lauded the game 's excellent writing and the " superb " English translation patch , noting that the " interesting plot " would appeal to fantasy fans if they could stomach the limited interactivity . Having never played a Chrono game prior , the reviewer stated , " I was still able to follow the story and be drawn into the world of colorful characters . " While praising the replay value afforded by the extra scenarios , the critic derided the random battles of Radical Dreamers , writing that " RPG @-@ style random combat doesn 't translate well to [ a ] text @-@ only medium . " The website awarded Dreamers " Top Dog " status , and the game maintains a voter score of 8 @.@ 95 out of 10 .
Radical Dreamers preceded Chrono Cross , a full role @-@ playing video game sequel to Chrono Trigger . Masato Kato cited the desire to " redo Radical Dreamers properly " as the genesis of Cross , attributing the latter 's serious atmosphere to the influence of Dreamers . Kato 's desire to finish the story of the characters Kid and Serge principally shaped the plot of Cross . Chrono Cross borrowed certain thematic elements , story points , characters , music , and objects introduced in Radical Dreamers — including the infiltration of Viper Manor , the Frozen Flame , the name Radical Dreamers for Kid 's thievery , and the characters of Kid , Lynx , and Serge ( who became a non @-@ speaking protagonist ) . Though these characters and items were not presented in the same context , their general traits survived the transition . Gil , confirmed by Kato to be Magus , was also going to be featured in Chrono Cross . This idea was scrapped due to difficulties in representing the story of Magus among the game 's numerous other characters ; the unrelated , enigmatic magician Guile was created instead . Since the release of Chrono Cross , Radical Dreamers is considered an alternate continuity of the Chrono series . Chrono Cross addressed this through an easter egg hinting that Radical Dreamers took place in a different dimension . In the English version of Chrono Cross , this easter egg refers to Gil as " Magil " . Kato intended Dreamers and Cross to prompt players to pursue their personal dreams in life .
= Ruth Martin ( Lassie ) =
Not to be confused with Ruth Martin ( Neighbours ) , or Ruth Martin ( All My Children )
Ruth Martin is a fictional character on the long @-@ running television series Lassie ( 1954 – 1973 ) . She was briefly played by Cloris Leachman before June Lockhart stepped into the role . The character makes her first appearance mid @-@ fourth season ( 1957 ) and her last in the first episode of the eleventh season ( 1964 ) ; she appears in 208 episodes in total .
Ruth is married to Paul Martin , an agricultural school graduate and a farmer . The couple buys a small farm and adopt Timmy , a foster child living on the farm . Ruth is portrayed as a practical , competent woman , a loving wife and mother , and an active community member .
In 1957 , Cloris Leachman joined the cast as Ruth but eventually her feuds with co @-@ stars , her unwillingness to sign a contract , and other troubles forced show producer Jack Wrather to fire her at the close of the season 's filming . June Lockhart replaced her at the top of the 1958 season and remained in the role until the cancellation of her character in the first episode of the 1964 season .
Lockhart appeared as Ruth Martin in Campbell 's Soup commercials , a feature film edited from a multi @-@ part episode of the television show , and show @-@ related merchandise such as Whitman novels and Dell comic books . The actress received an Emmy nomination for her performance in the role in 1959 .
= = Role = =
Ruth Martin is the wife of Paul Martin , a young agriculture college graduate and farmer . At the start of the series , the couple buys a small weatherbeaten farm on the outskirts of fictional Calverton from war @-@ widowed Ellen Miller . The two adopt Timmy , a foster child living on the farm ; and his companion , a rough collie called Lassie .
Throughout the series , Ruth performs housewifely chores such as cooking meals , ironing and mending , hanging laundry and baking cakes . She milks the cow , gathers eggs , drives about the county in the pickup truck , and participates in Sunday school carnivals , community square dances , and her son 's cub scout troop . When her husband is out of the county on business , Ruth manages the farm with the occasional help of neighbor Cully Wilson .
Ruth 's housekeeping is sometimes interrupted by Timmy 's adventures . She helps him rescue a child trapped in a culvert rapidly filling with flood water , assists him in his 4 @-@ H projects , pitches a tent for their overnight accommodation at a Coon Dog Race , and flies into the Canadian wilderness when Timmy and Lassie are swept away in a hot air balloon . Marital affection between Ruth and her husband is only represented through brief kisses and hugs . The role ends when Ruth and Paul emigrate to Australia where Paul will teach agriculture , leaving Lassie with neighbor Cully Wilson . Timmy was reclaimed by the County and eventually adopted by a family named McCullough and began using his middle name , Steven . Ruth and Timmy ( Steven ) are reunited 25 years later in the seventh episode of the first season of the syndicated television show The New Lassie , entitled " Roots " .
= = Portrayal = =
Ruth Martin portrayer June Lockhart joked with co @-@ star Hugh Reilly that she had been married to him longer than to any of her real husbands and commented after leaving the show , " In six sexless years of playing a country wife and mother , I was hardly ever allowed to kiss Hugh Reilly on the cheek . "
In a conversation with John Barron of the New York Times in 2004 , Lockhart was asked what Lassie was all about and why it remains something of a magical memory for those who were children in the 1950s and 1960s . She responded , " This was a fairy tale about people on a farm in which the dog solves all the problems in 22 minutes , in time for the last commercial . Often , if the scene had gone well , and maybe we hadn 't gotten the dialogue quite right , if the dog was right , they 'd print it . "
= = Production details = =
= = = Creation = = =
Lassie debuted September 1954 in the Sunday 7 : 00 P.M. time slot . Former Broadway star Jan Clayton portrayed Ellen Miller , a war @-@ widow living on a farm with her young son Jeff ( Tommy Rettig ) , and her father @-@ in @-@ law ( George Cleveland ) . The show was an instant hit , winning the Best Children 's program Emmy in 1955 and receiving a host of additional honors .
As the 1957 season approached , Rettig wanted to leave the show and Clayton considered returning to her roots in musical theater . Producers planned to ease their characters out of the show while introducing new ones . Six @-@ year @-@ old Jon Provost was hired to play Timmy , a foster child living on the farm . Rettig hoped the plot would be restructured to allow his departure , but producers were content with the status quo , the show was more popular than ever , and it was hoped Rettig and Clayton would reconsider .
Producers were forced to overhaul the show when actor George Cleveland died suddenly on July 17 , 1957 . The plot was revised with new characters Ruth and Paul Martin buying the Miller farm , and becoming foster parents to Timmy and Lassie . Ellen and Jeff were written out of the show .
= = = Casting = = =
= = = = Cloris Leachman = = = =
With the new storyline ready , Cloris Leachman was quickly hired to play Ruth Martin . As the season 's filming progressed , Leachman tired of playing a farm woman . She wouldn 't sign a contract , and refused to do PR for the show 's sponsor , Campbell 's Soup , telling the company , " I make my own soup . I don 't eat yours . " Audiences found Leachman and co @-@ star Jon Shepodd as Paul Martin " too stiff " . The two worked adult glances and touches such as holding hands , hugs , pecks on the lips into their on @-@ screen performances in order to give their characters more depth . Toward the end of the season , George Chandler was hired to play a grandfatherly character and to bring some warmth to the show , but Leachman was soon feuding with him ; their disagreements appeared in the gossip columns . With ratings plummeting and public resentment aroused , show owner Jack Wrather summarily fired Leachman and Shepodd in February 1958 when filming for the 1957 – 1958 season was completed .
= = = = June Lockhart = = = =
Wanting to protect his $ 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 investment , Wrather began a search at once for two new stars to fill the roles of Ruth and Paul Martin . Casting Paul involved a good deal of effort , but Hugh Reilly , a Broadway actor with a reputation for being a solid and cooperative performer , was signed . Actress June Lockhart , who had appeared in the second of MGM 's popular Lassie films ( Son of Lassie ) , had been considered for the role of Ruth Martin before Leachman was signed . Lockhart however was working in New York at the time and declined the role . Eight months later , she had moved back to California and was working on both coasts . Once again , she was offered the role , but , stipulating she only would be interested in a one year commitment , producers were forced to decline . Then she reconsidered :
... I thought about what I had been offered and I said to myself , " What am I being so damn grand about ? I have two children to support , the part they want me to play has a lot of dignity , the show is already on the air , I wouldn 't have to film a pilot , and they have a sponsor . This is really a great gift that has been offered me . I 'd be stupid not to at least look into it . "
Lockhart was finally hired to play Ruth Martin and debuted with Reilly in the opener of the fifth season , " The Storm " ( 1958 ) . No explanation was offered the audience regarding the new faces on the show . In order to protect the All @-@ American perception of the show and its sponsor , Campbell 's Soup , the producers wrote long clauses into cast contracts fobidding them from appearing in anything that would damage their wholesome image .
In 1963 , the multi @-@ part episode " The Journey " was filmed in the High Sierra and later edited into a feature film called Lassie 's Great Adventure . The plot follows Timmy and Lassie as they are swept away in a carnival hot air balloon . Ruth and Paul fly into the wilderness to be at hand when Timmy is found . The episode was the only episode filmed in color during the Ruth Martin seasons . Ratings skyrocketed .
= = = Cancellation = = =
As filming for the 1964 season approached , fourteen @-@ year @-@ old Jon Provost chose not renew his contract . Stars Lockhart and Reilly were fired . With only Provost and the producers knowing the real reason for the changes , the press was told the show had done all the " boy and his dog " stories possible , but Lockhart speculated that Provost 's mother wanted too much money. and Reilly later stated that the producers ' decision was based upon trading four advanced salaries for future star Robert Bray 's starting salary . Lockhart loved her role as " Lassie 's mother " , but accepted her fate , telling columnist Bob Thomas :
It was an actor 's dream -- steady work , excellent pay , a wonderful cast and crew , and a chance to do a good scene now and then ... Now I 'm ready to go back playing all those tramps and neurotic and alcoholic women . They 're good fun , but motherhood pays off better in the long run .
In " The Wayfarers " , the first @-@ part of the three @-@ part 1964 season opener , producers shipped Ruth and her family off to Australia where Paul would teach agriculture . Lassie was forced to remain in the States due to Australia 's strict quarantine regulations and would become the companion animal of Corey Stuart , a forestry service worker . Lockhart commented , " We were supposed to go over there so that Paul could show the Australians how to grow things . We hadn 't had a successful bean crop in six seasons . What could they possibly learn from us ? "
The actress later recalled :
Back then I didn 't realize the power of my character . I didn 't realize the image I had created and what it meant to so many people . Ruth was so underwritten , so what I was able to bring to it was what made it special to me . The looks , the affection , the pats on the head , the tone and inflection . I got to bring that to her character , and that was all I thought there was . I didn 't know what was being received on the other side of the screen .
Lockhart joked with Reilly that she had been married to him longer than to any of her real husbands and commented after leaving the show , " In six sexless years of playing a country wife and mother , I was hardly ever allowed to kiss Hugh Reilly on the cheek . "
According to one writer , " the character who really held the series and the family together was the mother " . In commenting on her Ruth Martin character , Lockhart said , " Without a doubt it was the mother who ran the farm . Mother was the strong one . She was certainly a liberated woman who didn 't take any guff off anyone . "
= = = Reprise = = =
Lockhart and Provost reprised their Lassie roles in " Roots " , the seventh episode of the syndicated television show , The New Lassie . After the episode , Ruth disappeared and was never mentioned again . In " Roots " , the viewer learns Ruth and Paul never properly adopted Timmy , and he was forced to remain in the States while his parents emigrated to Australia . Timmy was then adopted by a family called the McCulloughs .
= = Reception = =
= = = Merchandising = = =
Adventure Books , Golden Books , coloring books , puzzles , Halloween costumes , and other items were all manufactured around the show . Ruth Martin appeared in several Lassie Dell comic books as well as in Whitman novels , and a Whitman punch out book . Ruth Martin appeared in television ads for Campbell 's Soup .
= = = Ratings = = =
In its seventeen @-@ year run on CBS , Lassie placed first in its Sunday 7 : 00 p.m. EST time slot . The highest rankings in the Nielsen ratings for Lassie were the Martin family years : # 24 in 1957 , # 22 in 1958 , # 15 in 1959 , # 15 in 1961 , # 21 in 1962 , # 13 in 1963 , and # 17 in 1964 . The only year the show did not climb into the top twenty @-@ five was 1960 , when it ran opposite Walt Disney Presents on ABC and Shirley Temple Theatre on NBC . With the departure of the Martin family in the eleventh season , the show began a steady decline in ratings .
= = = Nominations and honors = = =
June Lockhart received a Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 6362 Hollywood Boulevard for her television work . The actress also received a 1959 Emmy Award nomination for Best Actress in a Leading Role ( Continuing Character ) in a Dramatic Series for Lassie .
= High @-@ pressure area =
A high @-@ pressure area , high or anticyclone is a region where the atmospheric pressure at the surface of the planet is greater than its surrounding environment .
Winds within high @-@ pressure areas flow outward from the higher pressure areas near their centers towards the lower pressure areas further from their centers . Gravity adds to the forces causing this general movement , because the higher pressure compresses the column of air near the center of the area into greater density – and so greater weight compared to lower pressure , lower density , and lower weight of the air outside the center .
However , because the planet is rotating underneath the atmosphere , and frictional forces arise as the planetary surface drags some atmosphere with it , the air flow from center to periphery is not direct , but is twisted due to the Coriolis effect , or the merely apparent force that arise when the observer is in a rotating frame of reference . Viewed from above this twist in wind direction is in the same direction as the rotation of the planet .
The strongest high @-@ pressure areas are associated with cold air masses which push away out of polar regions during the winter when there is less sun to warm neighboring regions . These Highs change character and weaken once they move further over relatively warmer water bodies .
Somewhat weaker but more common are high @-@ pressure areas caused by atmospheric subsidence , that is , areas where large masses of cooler drier air descend from an elevation of 8 to 15 km after the lower temperatures have precipitated out the lighter water vapor . ( H2O is about half of the molecular weight of the other two main constituents of the atmosphere — Oxygen , O2 , and Nitrogen , N2 . )
Many of the features of Highs may be understood in context of middle- or meso @-@ scale and relatively enduring dynamics of a planet 's atmospheric circulation . For example , massive atmospheric subsidences occur as part of the descending branches of Ferrel cells and Hadley cells . Hadley cells help form the subtropical ridge , steer tropical waves and tropical cyclones across the ocean and is strongest during the summer . The subtropical ridge also helps form most of the world 's deserts .
On English @-@ language weather maps , high @-@ pressure centers are identified by the letter H. Weather maps in other languages may use different letters or symbols .
= = Wind circulation in the northern and southern hemispheres = =
The direction of wind flow around an atmospheric high @-@ pressure area and a low @-@ pressure area , as seen from above , depends on the hemisphere .
The scientific terms in English used to describe the weather systems generated by highs and lows were introduced in the mid @-@ 1800s , mostly by the British . The scientific theories which explain the general phenomena originated about two centuries earlier .
The term Cyclone was coined by Henry Piddington of the British East India Company to describe an especially destructive storm in Mauritius , during February 1845 . A cyclone forms around a low @-@ pressure area . Anticyclone , the term for the kind of weather around a high @-@ pressure area , was coined in 1877 by Francis Galton to indicate an area whose winds revolved in the opposite direction of a cyclone . In British English , the opposite direction of clockwise is referred to as anticlockwise , making the label anticyclones a logical extension .
A simple rule of thumb is that for high @-@ pressure areas , where generally air flows from the center outward , the coriolis force given by the earth 's rotation to the air circulation is in the opposite direction of earth 's apparent rotation if viewed from above the hemisphere 's pole . So , both the earth and winds around a low @-@ pressure area rotate counter @
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World Cross Country Championships . He is a three @-@ time Olympian ( 2004 , 2008 and 2012 ) .
In 2009 Zersenay became only the second man ( after Paul Tergat ) to win three World Championship medals over three different surfaces in the same year : winning World Cross Country bronze , 10 @,@ 000 metres World Championship silver on the track , and gold in road running at the World Half Marathon Championships . He is a popular public figure in his home country ; 2500 guests attended his wedding to Merhawit Solomon , which was broadcast live on Eritrean television . His brother , Kidane Tadese , is also a professional distance runner .
= = Career = =
= = = Early life = = =
Zersenay Tadese was born in Adi Bana , Eritrea , and had a peaceful , rural upbringing with his six siblings , largely avoiding the troubles of the Eritrean War of Independence . He became interested in cycling in his teenage years and , after winning a number of races , he set his sights upon becoming a professional cyclist in Europe . However , the races of 30 – 50 km fell short of the distances needed to compete on the European circuit and he was ill @-@ prepared for a transition to top @-@ level cycling .
He was a relative late @-@ comer to competitive running : in his late teens , scouts from a local athletics club suggested that his cycling stamina might translate to running and invited him to compete . He won the race and was spurred on by the victory to start taking the sport seriously and focus on running . Zersenay was adamant that his early years in cycling had given him a firm foundation for endurance running .
His first foray into the international athletics circuit came in 2002 , when he attended the 2002 IAAF World Cross Country Championships in Dublin . Although he was wearing ill @-@ fitting shoes and was somewhat puzzled at hearing a starting gun for the first time , he managed to finish in 30th place with a time of 36 minutes and 37 seconds . However , he remained some distance off the winner Kenenisa Bekele . He competed at his first IAAF World Half Marathon Championships in May of that year , finishing just outside the top twenty runners with a time of 1 : 03 : 05 . He competed on the track at the African Athletics Championships , taking sixth place in the 10 @,@ 000 metres race in Radès , Tunisia , rounding off a modest debut year .
The 2003 season saw Zersenay establish himself as an emerging force in cross country : he broke into the top ten at the 2003 IAAF World Cross Country Championships , and finished in the top three in all of his six races in Europe that winter . A 5000 metres win at the KBC Night of Athletics brought Zersenay an Eritrean record of 13 : 11 @.@ 07 , and a place at the IAAF World Championships in Athletics . At the 2003 World Championships , he improved his record further to 13 : 05 @.@ 57 and finished in eighth place in the 5000 metres final . More improvements came at the World Half Marathon Championships in Vilamoura , Portugal , where he recorded a personal best of 1 : 01 : 26 to finish in seventh position .
= = = Olympic medallist = = =
The 2004 season represented a breakthrough for Zersenay and he established himself as a serious contender in distance running . He signed a contract with Adidas Spain and brought the team victory at the European Clubs ' Cross Country Cup in February . The following month he bettered his previous showings at the World Cross Country Championships with a sixth @-@ place finish . With the help of team mates Yonas Kifle and Tesfayohannes Mesfen , among others , he took Eritrea to third position in the team competition – the first time the country had reached the podium at a world cross country event . Two months later he finished second in the 10 km Great Manchester Run ; his time of 27 : 59 was five seconds behind winner Craig Mottram . He took to the track in June at a meeting in Gavà , Spain , and recorded another national record , this time in the 10 @,@ 000 m with a time of 27 : 32 @.@ 61 .
The peak of his season came at the 2004 Athens Olympics , where he became the first person in Eritrean sporting history to win an Olympic medal . Zersenay took the bronze in the 10 @,@ 000 metres at the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens , Greece behind Kenenisa Bekele , and Sileshi Sihine . His performance of 27 : 22 @.@ 57 represented a dramatic improvement as he had beaten his previous best by ten seconds , despite unfavourably hot conditions . Zersenay refused to politicise his medal win behind his Ethiopian counterparts , stating : " we have always been friends with the Ethiopians . Now we are a nation ... I can say I am very happy . " The Eritrean @-@ born runner Meb Keflezighi , representing the United States , won silver in the marathon a few days later , highlighting the country 's improving standards . Zersenay finished his first Olympics by reaching another event final : he took seventh place in the men 's 5000 metres race , confirming his position as a world @-@ class runner .
He opened 2005 with a second win in the European Clubs ' Cross Country Cup . He won his first World Cross Country Championship medal soon after , finishing second to Bekele to take silver at the 2005 edition . On the track , he recorded a 5000 m personal best of at the Qatar Grand Prix in Doha , and qualified to compete at the World Championships in both the 5000 and 10 @,@ 000 m . At the 2005 World Championships , he broke the national record in the 10 @,@ 000 m final , but his time of 27 : 12 @.@ 82 was only enough for sixth . The 5000 m final held little reprieve for the Eritrean as he finished in second last position . He ended the season on a positive note , however , improving his 10 @,@ 000 m best to 27 : 04 @.@ 70 at the Memorial Van Damme , and winning the Great North Run with a world best time of 59 : 05 – which was only his second outing over the half marathon distance .
= = = Road and cross country world champion = = =
Zersenay failed to make the podium for a second time at the 2006 World Cross Country Championships , but his fourth @-@ place finish headed the Eritrean team towards silver medal in the team competition . The following month , Zersenay overcame both Fabiano Joseph and Boniface Kiprop to win the Great Manchester Run . He sprinted to the line with a finishing time of 27 : 36 ; an Eritrean record and the second fastest that year . In August that year , he significantly improved his 10 @,@ 000 m best at Memorial Van Damme ; his time of 26 : 37 @.@ 25 knocked almost thirty seconds off his previous mark , but he still finished behind the emerging Micah Kogo who ran the tenth fastest ever time . A new best of 59 : 16 by Zersenay at the Rotterdam Half Marathon equalled Samuel Wanjiru 's course record and boded well for the upcoming championship race .
He scored a striking victory at the 2006 IAAF World Road Running Championships in Debrecen , Hungary , finishing the 20 km race in 56 : 01 – a time which was second only to Haile Gebrselassie 's world record and was forty seconds faster than the silver medallist Robert Kipchumba . It was first time that an Eritrean had won a major world title in sport . As Zersenay did not possess a strong sprint finish ( crucial for success on the track ) commentators suggested that a move to the marathon distance seemed an obvious career progression , but he downplayed the idea , stating that he would not change distances in the near future . He closed the season with a run at the New Year 's Eve 10 km road race : the San Silvestre Vallecana in Madrid . Zersenay and Eliud Kipchoge were awarded the same time of 26 : 54 , but Kipchoge was announced as the race winner . Although this was faster than Haile Gebrselassie 's world record of 27 : 02 at the time , it was not ratifiable as the runners benefited from the race 's downhill circuit .
The 2007 season brought Zersenay his greatest medal haul , as he succeeded on grass , track and road . For the first time in his career he overcame all opposition , including five @-@ time champion Kenenisa Bekele , to become the 2007 World Cross Country Champion . The hot conditions in Mombasa forced a number of runners out of the race , but Zersenay maintained his pace to finish over twenty seconds ahead of the next runner . At the Cáceres Half Marathon , he stated his intention to try for the world record and , although he won the race , poor pacing left him some distance from a record time . He returned to the Great Manchester Run and again improved his best , recording 27 : 24 , but this was not enough to beat Micah Kogo who won in a UK all @-@ comers record time . He competed at the Prefontaine Classic for the first time , and set a two miles best of 8 : 19 @.@ 34 , although he was some distance behind winner Craig Mottram .
The 2007 All @-@ Africa Games represented a double landmark victory for Zersenay : he became the first Eritrean medallist in the competition 's history , and won his first ever gold medal on the track , sealing victory in the 10 @,@ 000 m final with a Games record time of 27 : 00 @.@ 30 . The following month he competed at the 2007 World Championships in Athletics , and he edged closer to a podium finish – he led the 10 @,@ 000 m race up to the 8 km mark , setting a fast pace , but ultimately ended up in fourth position . Preparing for the road championships that year , he ran the 10 @-@ mile Dam tot Damloop race in September and won in 45 : 51 ( the world 's fastest that season ) , finishing some distance ahead of runners up Bernard Kipyego and James Rotich . Zersenay emphasised his position as one of the world 's most dominant half marathon runners with a second victory at the 2007 IAAF World Road Running Championships in Udine , Italy . Although he was close to world record pace at the 15 km point , he slowed behind the leading pack of Makau Musyoki , Evans Kiprop Cheruiyot and Deriba Merga . In the final kilometre , he burst away to take the lead and the gold medal , setting a national and championship record time of 58 : 59 in the process . Following these achievements , a medical team did a study of his running economy and found him to be one of the most efficient runners ever to be tested .
= = = World Half Marathon champion = = =
Bekele was keen to regain his cross country title from Zersenay and the 2008 cross country season was a competitive one . At the Great Edinburgh International Cross Country race , Zersenay was pipped by the Ethiopian at the line , finishing just one second behind . The following month , Zersenay beat Eliud Kipchoge to win the Cinque Mulini race in the buildup to the 2008 IAAF World Cross Country Championships . On the day of the Championship race in Edinburgh , Scotland , Zersenay took the lead early on and set a strong pace at the mid @-@ race point . However , near the finish Bekele and Kenyan Leonard Komon surged ahead to leave Zersenay as the bronze medallist .
A win at the World 10K Bangalore , where he beat Moses Kipsiro in 27 : 51 , was the highlight of a low @-@ key build up to the 2008 Beijing Olympics . In August , Zersenay was among some forty runners competing for the medals in the 10 @,@ 000 metres Olympic final . Zersenay 's brother , Kidane , was also competing and he led for most of first half of what was a quick race . Zersenay Tadese had the lead at the 7 – 8000 m mark but Bekele and Sihine sprinted into first and second . Although Zersenay 's time almost equalled the previous Olympic record for the event , he ended up one second behind Kenyans Moses Masai and Micah Kogo , taking fifth place overall .
After the Olympics , Zersenay returned to Eritrea and trained for one month to prepare for the 2008 World Half Marathon Championships in Rio de Janeiro . He won his third consecutive title over the half marathon distance with ease , taking the lead early on and beating the second @-@ placed Patrick Makau Musyoki by almost two minutes . His success caused much celebration in his home country , so much so that the President of Eritrea greeted him at the airport upon his return . With a strong history in the half marathon , Zersenay announced he would try the full marathon distance the following season .
Zersenay took third place at the 2009 IAAF World Cross Country Championships in a closely contested race , finishing just behind a resurgent Gebregziabher Gebremariam and Ugandan runner Moses Kipsiro . He competed in his first ever full @-@ length marathon in April , signing up for the London Marathon . His first appearance over the distance was much anticipated following his cross country and track success , but he could not finish the race , pulling out around the 35 km mark .
He rebounded , however , taking silver in the 10 @,@ 000 metres at the 2009 World Championships in Athletics , finishing behind Kenenisa Bekele . Zersenay had led for a large part of the race , setting a fast pace , but he was beaten to the gold by Bekele 's sprint finish . Following this , he won his third World Half Marathon title , setting a Championship record of 59 : 35 and also winning a silver medal with Eritrea in the team competition . The gold medal over the half marathon distance made him the second runner ever to win a World Championship medal in cross country , track and road racing all in the same year , a feat achieved previously by only Paul Tergat .
= = = Half marathon world record = = =
Zersenay 's first road race of 2010 was the Lisbon Half Marathon . The organisers had modified the course and assembled a field of fast runners in order to facilitate a quick race . Despite the top five athletes all running personal best times , Zersenay was alone at the very front from 10 km onwards . He fell four seconds short of the 15 km world record , but significantly revised Haile Gebrselassie 's four @-@ year @-@ old 20 km world mark to 55 : 21 , beating it by almost half a minute . Samuel Wanjiru 's half marathon world record was next to fall as Zersenay crossed the line at 58 : 23 minutes , a clear ten seconds ahead of the previous mark .
He managed to finish his first full @-@ marathon at the 2010 London Marathon , although his time of 2 : 12 : 03 for seventh place was not as strong a transition as expected . He made his first appearance at the Giro di Castelbuono in Sicily in July and , although he described the course as " very hard " , he won the race ahead of Samuel Wanjiru . He attempted for yet another title at the 2010 IAAF World Half Marathon Championships , but Wilson Kiprop brought an end to his four @-@ year reign – the Eritrean took the silver medal , labouring towards the end and pulling up in injured at the line . He was still suffering from the injury at the San Silvestre Vallecana some two months later , although he managed to beat Ayad Lamdassem to win the race .
He was at full strength at the 2011 Lisbon Half Marathon : he missed his world record mark but ran the second fastest of all @-@ time ( 58 : 30 minutes ) . In the outdoor track season he ran 26 : 51 @.@ 09 minutes for the 10 @,@ 000 m at the Prefontaine Classic and came close to a personal best with a win at the Barcelona Meeting with a time of 12 : 59 @.@ 32 minutes . Making his fourth consecutive appearance in the event , he took fourth place in the men 's 10 @,@ 000 m at the 2011 World Championships in Athletics . He ended the year with road wins at the Porto Half Marathon and the São Silvestre de Luanda , setting course records of 59 : 30 minutes and 27 : 44 minutes , respectively .
At the 2012 World 's Best 10K he came third , beaten by Sammy Kitwara and Vincent Chepkok . He won the Lisbon Half Marathon for the third straight year , but was slower than previous times ( 59 : 34 ) due to warm conditions and having the flu . A run at the 2012 London Marathon saw him perform better than he did in 2010 , but he lost touch with the leading pack after the half @-@ way point and came fourteenth with a time of 2 : 10 : 41 hours . He was chosen as Eritrea 's flag bearer at the 2012 London Olympics and ran in the 10 @,@ 000 metres final . He set the pace early on in the race but was defeated in the sprint finish , finishing in sixth place some three seconds behind the winner Mo Farah . After the Olympics he ran at the 2012 World Half Marathon Championships . He dominated the race from just beyond the 5 km point , and won it convincingly in a time of 1 : 00 : 19 hours , 32 seconds ahead of the runner @-@ up , Deressa Chimsa . Only two weeks later he entered the Great Birmingham Run , but he appeared tired and finished third in a race where the top three all dipped under Haile Gebrselassie 's course record .
= = = 2013 – 14 seasons = = =
Zersenay managed only seventh at the World 's Best 10K in February but returned to the top of the podium in his speciality at the Prague Half Marathon , edging out his training partner Amanuel Mesel with a time of 60 : 10 . He clocked another win over the distance at the Gifu Seiryu Half Marathon , beating the defending champion Martin Mathathi and setting a course record of 60 : 31 minutes . In October , he attempted to run the Chicago Marathon , but dropped out shortly after the halfway point . He did not compete again until February 2014 , when he won at the small Cáceres cross country in Spain .
= = Personal life = =
A quietly spoken athlete , he frequently states that his victories are a tribute to his country . Eritrea is one of Africa 's newest and least populous countries , and Zersenay 's achievements on the world athletics stage have made him one of the country 's most identifiable sportsmen . He is a popular public figure in his home country ; 2500 guests attended his wedding to Merhawit Solomon , which was broadcast live on Eritrean television . His brother , Kidane Tadese , is also a professional distance runner who has competed at the World Cross Country Championships and the 2008 Summer Olympics .
= = Personal bests = =
All information taken from IAAF profile .
= = Major competition record = =
= Teesside EfW plant =
Teesside Energy from Waste plant ( also known as Teesside WTE power station or Haverton Hill incinerator ) is a municipal waste incinerator and waste @-@ to @-@ energy power station , which provides 29 @.@ 2 megawatts ( MW ) of electricity for the National Grid by burning 390 @,@ 000 tonnes of household and commercial waste a year . It is located on the River Tees at Haverton Hill , east of Billingham in North East England . Operated by SITA UK since its conception , the plant replaced the Portrack Incinerator and opened in 1998 .
The station is one of the most modern incinerators operating in England ; it is noted for its innovative operation . In 2009 , an extension was completed at the station , with the construction of an extra furnace line and a rail head . This increased the capacities of the plant from 19 @.@ 2 MW and 250 @,@ 000 tonnes of waste per year to its current levels . The plant initially burned only waste from Teesside , but this was extended to include Northumberland with the 2009 extension . A second plant , the North East Energy Recovery Centre ( NEERC ) , has planning permission to be built on land adjacent to the current plant . If built , this will extend the plant 's catchment to include waste from south Tyne and Wear .
= = History = =
= = = Replacement for Portrack = = =
See also Portrack Incinerator
Between 1975 and 1996 , the Portrack Incinerator on the River Tees burned 200 @,@ 000 tonnes of Teesside 's waste every year , generating 20 megawatts of electricity in doing so . In November 1996 , the plant was closed down after it failed to meet emission regulations ; it was then demolished in stages between 1998 and 2000 . Following the closure of the Portrack plant , a new facility to burn Teesside 's refuse was constructed . Teesside Energy from Waste plant was opened in May 1998 as a collaboration between SITA UK ( the station 's operator ) and the local authorities of Stockton @-@ on @-@ Tees , Middlesbrough , Hartlepool and Redcar & Cleveland .
= = = Third incineration line = = =
In December 2006 , SITA UK signed a 28 @-@ year private finance initiative contract worth £ 70 million with Northumberland County Council , to provide them with waste management services and to reduce the county 's reliance upon landfill . This included the construction of an extra incineration line at the Teesside plant . Civil construction of the extension began in April 2007 , with heavy erection beginning that November . Von Roll was the general contractor for the entire extension . In May 2009 , the third line , which cost £ 70 million to build , was brought into operation . It was officially opened on 8 October 2009 by former MP Hilary Armstrong , SITA UK Chief Executive David Palmer @-@ Jones , and Northumberland County Councillor Jeff Reid . At various times , between 60 and 100 people were employed in building the third line , and an additional 20 full @-@ time jobs were created for its operation once open . Built on time and within budget , the extension surpassed expectations in its first year of operation . A year after the opening of the third line , only a fifth of the amount of waste that was being sent to landfill in Northumberland prior to its opening was still being sent there .
= = Design and specification = =
The plant is a large metal @-@ clad building . The metal is finished in the colour ' Goosewing Grey ' , accented in ' Solent Blue ' and ' Petra Red ' . The plant 's clean , clear lines and colours are said to " contrast favourably " with the nearby industrial buildings .
Until 2009 , the station had two operating furnace lines , which together were capable of burning a total of 250 @,@ 000 tonnes of waste per year , and generated 20 MW of electricity . However , in May 2009 a third line was brought into operation . The plant currently burns 360 @,@ 000 tonnes of waste a year and generates 29 @.@ 2 MW of electricity . This is enough electricity to power 60 @,@ 000 homes .
The original plant uses Babcock & Wilcox Volund boilers to provide steam for a single Ansaldo turbo generator rated at 19 @.@ 2 MW . The third line uses a Von Roll Inova reciprocating grate to burn the waste , and generates electricity using a single Von Roll Inova three @-@ pass steam generator , rated at 10 MW .
= = Operations = =
The station operates constantly , burning municipal household waste from the local councils of Stockton @-@ on @-@ Tees , Hartlepool , Middlesbrough , Redcar & Cleveland , North Tyneside and Northumberland . When there is a shortfall in household waste , non @-@ hazardous industrial and commercial waste are used to make up capacity . The station burns only residual waste , which is material left over after recycling . The incinerator operates 24 hours a day , seven days a week .
Waste is delivered to the station by road , using up to 100 waste collection vehicles . Up to 2 @,@ 800 tonnes of waste a week or as much as 1 @,@ 000 tonnes of waste a day , can be delivered at the plant . A rail head was also built on the railway sidings adjacent to the site in 2009 . This allows for waste to be delivered to the plant by rail , rather than just by road . This is more sustainable as it reduces the amount of traffic on local roads . In December 2011 , it was announced that the rail head would be used to receive up 500 @,@ 000 tonnes of residual waste per year from Merseyside via a rail waste transfer facility at Knowley Industrial Park , Kirby , in a contract worth £ 400 million .
Waste arriving at the plant is checked in and weighed , before being delivered to the plant 's reception hall . The large reception hall allows the vehicles to dump their waste safely . Air for the combustion of the waste later in the plant is drawn from the reception hall so that odour and dust doesn 't pollute the building 's surroundings . From the hall waste is tipped into a large concrete bunker . Here the feedstock is homogenefied by a crane operator , who mixes and removes unsuitable waste . A grab crane then manoeuvers waste from the bunker to the hoppers that feed the furnace . This crane is operated from a control room . This room also monitors the equipment in the plant , the combustion gases and maximises the efficiency of the plant .
From the hoppers , the waste falls onto the furnace @-@ charging chute and from there onto the incinerating grate . Here it is burned at a temperature in excess of 1 @,@ 200 ° C. This heat is then converted into super heated steam through the plant 's boilers . This in turn powers steam turbines , much in the same way as a conventional thermal power station . Electricity is generated at 11 kilovolts . After exiting the turbines , the steam is condensed back to water . For the original two incinerating lines use river water from the Tees as a cooling medium , whereas in the third line , water is condensed through air cooled condenser . The cooled water is treated and reused in the boilers .
Gases from the furnace are cleaned using selective non @-@ catalytic reduction ( SNCR ) , spray absorbers and active carbon injection . These processes remove nitrogen oxides , acidic gasses , dioxins and heavy metals from the plants emissions . The remaining gases are passed through fine @-@ fabric bag filters to remove and solid particles , before it is released from the chimney . Each incineration line has its own independent stack in the chimney , and the flue gases are continuously monitored before being released . This information is relayed to the control room . The remaining fly ash from the filters contains particles from the incineration , lime from the spray absorbers , salt and carbon dust , and so is stored in a sealed silo until it is taken from the site for disposal . Incinerator bottom ash left on the incineration grate after the burning is moved by converyor to a bunker . Whilst on the conveyor , a magnet removes ferrous metal from the ash for recycling . The remaining ash is then used as an aggregate in the construction industry .
A recycling centre operates next to the plant , which opened in December 2001 . In 2006 a composting facility was opened .
= = Environmental impact = =
Waste to energy plants are strictly monitored , and the plant has achieved various ISO external certificates . The plant is seen to be at the forefront of sustainable energy production and waste disposal . The plant not only reduces the amount of waste sent to landfill , but displaces the burning of depleting fossil fuels , and makes significant contributions to meeting the North East region 's waste recovery and recycling targets .
= = The future : North East Energy Recovery Centre = =
In 2008 , it was announced SITA had plans to build another EfW plant adjacent to the current one , named the North East Energy Recovery Centre ( NEERC ) . SITA UK began consulting key partners , stakeholders and local residents on these plans in April 2008 , before submitting a formal planning application that summer . Permission for the plant 's construction was granted on 15 October 2008 . On 17 September 2010 , it was announced that SITA had signed a contract with the South Tyne and Wear Waste Management Partnership for their waste to be burned at NEERC once the plant was completed . Construction is expected to begin in early 2011 , in time for a 2013 completion date .
NEERC is expected to be capable of handling up to 190 @,@ 000 tonnes of waste per year . This waste will be burned to generate electricity for the National Grid and cogenerate to provide heat for local industries in the form of steam . NEERC will have two processing lines , capable of generating 21 MW of electricity , enough to provide for 37 @,@ 500 homes . This means that over the two facilities , 640 @,@ 000 tonnes of waste will be burned annually , and over 50 MW of electricity generated . This would make Teesside the largest operational EfW centre in the UK outside London . The plant will be a mirror image of the current one , and will create 160 jobs ; 25 in South Tyne and Wear , 100 in the construction of the plant , and the rest once the plant is operational .
In August 2010 , SITA teamed up with Sembcorp UK to build another waste @-@ to @-@ energy facility in the Teesside region . Wilton 11 on the Wilton International complex is to burn a further 400 @,@ 000 tonnes of waste in the region whilst generating 35 MW of electricity . The plant is expected to be operational by 2015 .
= Secret trusts in English law =
In English law , secret trusts are a class of trust defined as an arrangement between a testator and a trustee , made to come into force after death , that aims to benefit a person without having been written in a formal will . The property is given to the trustee in the will , and he would then be expected to pass it on to the real beneficiary . For these to be valid , the person seeking to enforce the trust must prove that the testator intended to form a trust , that this intention was communicated to the trustee , and that the trustee accepted his office . There are two types of secret trust — fully secret and half @-@ secret . A fully secret trust is one with no mention in the will whatsoever . In the case of a half @-@ secret trust , the face of the will names the trustee as trustee , but does not give the trust 's terms , including the beneficiary . The most important difference lies in communication of the trust : the terms of a half @-@ secret trust must be communicated to the trustee before the execution of the will , whereas in the case of a fully secret trust the terms may be communicated after the execution of the will , as long as this is before the testator 's death .
Secret trusts do not comply with the formality requirements ( such as witnessing ) laid down in the Wills Act 1837 . Despite this , the courts have chosen to uphold them as valid . Although various justifications have been given for this , they are generally categorised as either based on preventing fraud , or as regarding secret trusts as outside ( dehors ) the operation of the Wills Act . The first is considered the traditional approach – if the courts do not recognise secret trusts , the trustee given the property in the will would be able to keep it for himself , committing fraud . The fraud theory utilises the equitable maxim that " equity will not allow a statute to be used as a cloak for fraud " . A more modern view is that secret trusts exist outside the will altogether , and thus do not have to comply with it . Accepting this theory would undermine the operation of the Wills Act , since the Wills Act is designed to cover all testamentary dispositions . To avoid this problem , one approach has been to reclassify the secret trust as inter vivos ( " between the living " ) but this creates other problems . There have also been attempts to conclude that half @-@ secret trusts rest on a different basis to fully secret trusts , although this has been disapproved by the House of Lords , primarily on practical grounds .
This debate is also of importance when classifying the trust as either constructive or express , a matter of considerable debate . On one view , if the traditional theory is correct , secret trusts are created by the courts , and are thus constructive ; if the more modern view is correct , the trusts exist without the court 's permission , and are express trusts . However , a secret trust does not have to obey the separate formalities of the Law of Property Act 1925 , even when it concerns land and one solution to this problem is to consider them constructive . Some commentators believe that half @-@ secret trusts may fall into a different category to fully secret trusts in this regard .
= = Definition = =
A secret trust is an arrangement between a testator and a trustee to benefit a person without having to specify that person in a will . The trustee is transferred property under the terms of the will which he or she then holds on trust for others .
The courts recognise two forms of secret trust . Fully secret trusts are trusts not referred to at all on the face of the will . Instead , an agreement made between the testator and trustees elsewhere . The trustee will instead be named only a beneficiary . In the case of a half @-@ secret trust , the fact that the beneficiary holds as trustee only is declared on the face of the will , but not the other terms of the trust .
Alastair Hudson , Professor of Equity and Law at Queen Mary , University of London , suggests the potential for a third class of secret trust . This is where the dying person is encouraged not to make a will so that his property passes to the next @-@ of @-@ kin , on the agreement that the next @-@ of @-@ kin give effect to his wishes via a secret trust . If this is the case , the next @-@ of @-@ kin would be obliged to hold the property on trust and fulfil the dying person 's wishes .
A secret trust must be contrasted with merely placing a moral obligation upon the beneficiary to deal with the legacy in particular way ( as in Re Snowden ) and must impose a binding obligation , without discretion to act within its terms or not .
= = Justification = =
The secret trust has proved difficult to reconcile these trusts with Section 9 of the Wills Act 1837 , which provides that a will is only valid when :
( a ) it is in writing , and signed by the testator , or by some other person in his presence and by his direction ; and
( b ) it appears that the testator intended by his signature to give effect to the will ; and
( c ) the signature is made or acknowledged by the testator in the presence of two or more witnesses present at the same time ; and
( d ) each witness either -
( i ) attests and signs the will ; or
( ii ) acknowledges his signature , in the presence of the testator ( but not necessarily in the presence of any other witnesses ) .
As such , such trusts are not enforceable because they are invalid . Equity has been willing to accept their validity in the common law to prevent the trustee committing fraud and keeping the property ; justifications for this acceptance are debated .
In practical terms , there are several reasons why admitting the language of fraud to justify a fully secret trust , but not a half @-@ secret trust , would be sub @-@ optimal . This is considered one principal reason why the court in Blackwell v Blackwell established that both types of secret trust shared a single justification . A half @-@ secret trust appears closer to fulfilling the formality requirements as laid down in the Wills Act , so the conclusion that it is less likely to be enforced seems contradictory . Also , such a rule would encourage fully secret trusts , with a wider possibility for fraud . It would also spark considerable litigation on whether a particular clause resulted in a fully secret or half @-@ secret trust . Thus it may be argued that despite the difficulties , a half @-@ secret trust should be enforced if fully secret trusts are .
= = = Fraud theory = = =
The secret trust was originally conceived to prevent fraud enabled by statute or the common law , in line with the equitable maxim that " equity will not allow a statute to be used as a cloak for fraud " . The " fraud " referred to is the denial of the existence of the trust by the intended trustee of the will , thus allowing him to apply it for his own purposes . Thus in McCormick v Grogan , Lord Westbury justified secret trusts , saying :
the court has , from a very early period , decided that even an Act of Parliament shall not be used as an instrument as fraud ; and that equity will fasten on the individual who gets a title under that Act , and impose upon him a personal obligation , because he applies the Act as an instrument for accomplishing a fraud . In this way , a court of equity has dealt with the Statute of Frauds , and in this manner , also , it deals with the Statute of Wills .
There have been two grounds on which this rule has been based . The narrower ground is that the trustee should be debarred from denying the existence of the trust because of his wrongful conduct at the time he made the undertaking , as identified by Lord Westbury in McCormick v Grogan . The wider ground extends to attempting to renege on the promise made during the testator 's lifetime , even when his intention at the time of making the promise may have been to fulfill the testator 's wishes . The wider ground appears to have been adopted by the Court of Appeal in Bannister v Bannister . D. R. Hodge has argued that " acceptance of the narrower view would not only impose upon a person seeking to establish a secret trust the heavy onus of showing at what point of time the secret trustee decided to resile from his promise , but would also make the validity of the secret trust dependent upon what is in fact an irrelevant consideration " .
Since allowing the trustee of the will to retain the property is at the heart of the " fraud " , it is not clear why courts have considered the appropriate remedy to recognise a trust on behalf of others , rather than a resulting trust in favour of the estate ( the residuary legatee ) . To this it has been argued that , since the testator is dead , a resulting trust is often fatal to the beneficiary 's claims since the testator is not in a position to attempt again . Having admitted external evidence to establish the trust exists , any claim that the formality requirement is further weakened by enforcing the trust is not strong . A resulting trust would be a result not party intended . The enforcement of the secret trust as a response to perceived fraud also opens the door to a further form of deceit , whereby the trustee funnels the trust monies to the wrong beneficiary . If considered significant , this might , however , be countered with a higher evidential burden when establishing the identity of the secret beneficiary .
Two further problems are apparent when considering the fraud theory in the context of half @-@ secret trusts . Since the will mentions the trust , it is impossible for the trustee to deny the existence of the trust . Whether or not the intended beneficiaries can be ascertained , the trustee cannot benefit personally and his possibility for fraud ( under any meaning ) seems small . Indeed , it appears to create an alternative route : the trustee may bring false oral testimony in favour of a third party who was not the intended beneficiary , a party that cannot benefit if the law did not uphold half @-@ secret trusts . Secondly , a half @-@ secret trust ought to fail for uncertainty , being a trust with no terms , with a resulting trust to the residuary legatee . Those in favour of its enforcement must therefore displace this resulting trust , and the " fraud " theory seems insufficient to do so , since there is not potential for fraud and no conduct on the part of the trustee to warrant it . The deceased 's intended disposition remains imperfectly constituted and the intended beneficiary 's claim is thus weaker than the residuary legatee 's . Whilst one response has been to suggest that whether a resulting trust or enforcement of the secret trust is most appropriate remedy is a question for the courts , subsequent cases have typically defined the automatic resulting trust , as in this case , as operating as a matter of law and not a question for the courts .
Alastair Hudson has also argued that the fraud argument is significantly flawed . The theory suggests that liability for the property comes about from fraud ; in fact , liability comes about as soon as the trustee accepts the property to hold on trust , and so the fraud theory is not necessary to bind the trustee 's hands .
Based on the fraud theory , secret trusts are sometimes classified as constructive trusts ; the reason they do not have to follow the Wills Act 1837 is because they are created by the courts .
= = = " Outside ( dehors ) the will " theory = = =
A more modern argument is that secret trusts are independent and operate outside the will . This would mean that the trust is not testamentary in nature but falls within the ordinary equitable jurisdiction of the court . The trust was created by the donor and trustee during the donor 's life , and simply not constituted until his death ; it does not have to follow the Wills Act , because it was not created by a will . This view was expressed by Megarry VC in Re Snowden , where he said " The whole basis of secret trusts ... is that they operate outside the will , changing nothing that is written in it , and allowing it to operate according to its tenor , but then fastening a trust on to the property in the hands of the recipient " . This suggests that secret trusts are not constructive trusts but rather express trusts .
It has been suggested that the dehors theory is based on a misunderstanding of the operation of the Wills Act . In particular , whilst the term " will " is commonly used to refer to a specific document , the WIlls Act is designed to cover all documents that are to take effect after the testator 's death . Indeed , the formality requirements of the Wills Act created the need for a single document , like the one commonly referred to . Therefore to refer to an arrangement as outside the Wills Act because it is not in the single document commonly referred to is incorrect . The response has been to view the secret trust as a disposition inter vivos ( " between the living " ) rather than testamentary in nature . Although the testator is unlikely to consider the trust having come into existence at the time of the execution of the will , whether a disposition is inter vivos is a question for the courts . However , other types of inter vivos trust are incapable of binding after @-@ acquired property or operating so as to automatically bind such property as and when it is received . No separate declaration of trust is required in the case of property acquired after the execution of a will for it to form part of a secret trust . Looking at the definition of a " testamentary disposition " as applied in other sorts of cases is inconclusive .
= = Classification = =
Whether secret trusts are express or constructive trusts is unclear . Snell 's Equity includes them in its section on express trusts , as does Underhill and Hayton , although both opine that they are better classified as constructive .
53 ( 1 ) ( b ) of the Law of Property Act 1925 requires that " a declaration of trust respecting any land or any interest therein must be manifested and proved by some writing signed by some person who is able to declare such trust or by his will " . Constructive trusts are removed from the operation of this section by section 53 ( 2 ) . Two cases , Re Baillie and Ottaway v Norman , have concerned secret trusts over land . In neither case were the formality requirements of 53 ( 1 ) ( b ) met , but neither judgment considered why 53 ( 1 ) ( b ) did not apply . This has been used to support the theory that secret trusts are constructive . However , an express trust may still be exempted from the requirements of 53 ( 1 ) ( b ) by a separate application of the maxim " equity will not allow a statute to be used as a cloak for fraud " – the fraud would be for the trustee to deny the existence of the secret trust , but this time the statute concerned would be the Law of Property Act , a line of reasoning dependent upon the case of Rochefoucauld v Boustead .
Some authors place fully secret and half @-@ secret trusts in different categories , including Alastair Hudson and Lionel Astor Sheridan . To this it has been argued that , if the " outside the will " theory is the true basis for the secret trust , whether the mention of the existence of the trust on the face of the will should affect its nature . In Hudson 's opinion , fully secret trusts are constructive trusts , because they exist to prevent fraud . Half @-@ secret trusts are not , because their mention in wills makes fraud unlikely ; they are instead express trusts . The House of Lords in Blackwell v Blackwell , however , considered the half @-@ secret trust to have the same basis as the fully secret trust .
= = Fully secret trusts = =
Fully secret trusts are awkward because of the lack of evidence pertaining to their existence and terms . In Ottaway v Norman , Brightman J set out the test for proving the existence of a fully secret trust . This is :
It will be convenient to call the person on whom such a trust is imposed the ' primary donee ' , and the beneficiary under that trust the ' secondary donee ' . The essential elements which must be proved to exist are : ( i ) the intention of the testator to subject the primary donee to an obligation in favour of the secondary donee ; ( ii ) communication of that intention to the primary donee ; and ( iii ) the acceptance of that obligation by the primary donee either expressly or by acquiescence . It is immaterial whether these elements precede or succeed the will of the donor .
For a fully secret trust to be valid , therefore , it must be proved that there was intention , that this was communicated to the trustee , and that the trustee accepted his obligations . Intention is one of the three certainties , and applies to fully secret trusts in the same way as it does to other express trusts .
The second requirement is that both the secret trust and its terms are communicated to the trustee . This may be done after the writing of the will , as long as it is prior to death ; without it , the secret trust is void . Exactly what must be communicated depends on the nature of the property and trust ; if there are multiple beneficiaries for example , this will need to be communicated . In Re Boyes , Kay J came to the conclusion that communication requires allowing the trustee the chance to refuse his office ; as such , it cannot be done after death . Lastly , the office of trustee must be accepted by the trustee . The two ways this can be done were laid out by Wood VC in Wallgrave v Tebbs , when he said :
Where a person , knowing that a testator is making a disposition in his favour intends it to be applied for purposes other than his own benefit , either expressly promises , or by silence implies , that he will carry on the testator 's intention into effect , and the property is left to him upon the faith of that promise or understanding , it is in effect a case of trust " .
Acceptance , therefore , can be communicated in one of two ways ; either by the trustee directly stating his acceptance , or by implying it through not declining .
If a secret trust cannot be established , the beneficiary will hold outright . If a secret trust can be shown , but not its terms ( or communication post @-@ dated the testator 's death ) , then the would @-@ be trustee will hold on resulting trust for the testator 's estate .
= = Half @-@ secret trusts = =
With a half @-@ secret trust , the fact that the beneficiary of the will holds as trustee only is declared on the face of the will , but not the other terms of the trust . This must go further than the mere " hope " that the beneficiary ( again I believe this should read " trustee " - the beneficiary is the passive party to a trust ) of the will will act in accordance with its terms . The requirements for a half @-@ secret trust to be valid are similar to those for fully secret trusts , and were laid out in Blackwell v Blackwell , where a testator gave five trustees pieces of property , instructing them ( in the will ) to hold on to this property as they had been asked . Prior to the testator 's death , the trustees had all been told what to do with the property . Lord Sumner said that :
The necessary elements [ to create a half @-@ secret trust ] , on which the question turns , are intention , communication and acquiescence . The testator intends his absolute gift to be employed as he and not as the donee desires ; he tells the proposed donee of this intention and , either by express promise or by the tacit promise , which is satisfied by acquiescence , the proposed donee encourages him to bequeath the money on the faith that his intention will be carried out .
The most important distinction between half @-@ secret and fully secret trusts concerns the communication of the terms of the trust . Communication must be either at or before the execution of the will , in contrast to fully secret trusts , when it may postdate the will so long as it predates the death of the testator . In Blackwell , Viscount Sumner said that : " [ a ] testator cannot reserve to himself a power of making future unwitnessed dispositions by merely naming a trustee and leaving the purposes of the trust to be supplied afterwards " , a passage given its traditional interpretation in cases such as Re Keen , becoming a " cornerstone " of the what has become known as the ' prior acceptance rule ' . Although that interpretation has been confirmed as the law in further cases , it has been argued by Professor John Mee that Viscount Sumner was instead merely reconfirming the general principle that acceptance by the trustee ( whether of a half @-@ secret or fully secret trust ) must take place within the testator 's lifetime . Mee favours the law in Ireland , that no prior acceptance rule exists and therefore the law regarding acceptance is the same between half @-@ secret and fully secret trusts . Acceptance of the half @-@ secret trust is again similar to fully secret trusts ; it can be communicated either directly , or tacitly .
The failure of a half @-@ secret trust , such as where the beneficiaries of the trust cannot be shown , or communication is not at or before the execution of the will .
= = Practice = =
There are a variety of practical rules in these trusts ' use , which span both fully secret and half @-@ secret trusts . If a testator alters the terms of the trust or the trust property , he must inform the intended trustee ; if not , as in Re Colin Cooper , the trustee will be permitted to keep the newly added property . Where the trustees are co @-@ owners of the property , informing them of the trust 's terms or amendments becomes complicated . If they hold the property as tenants @-@ in @-@ common , only those tenants who were informed of the trust are bound to follow it . Where they hold the property as joint tenants , they are all bound by the trust if even one tenant accepts it before the execution of the will . Where they hold the property as joint tenants and some accept it , but only after the execution of the will , only those who accepted it are bound . This area has been called " rather illogical " .
The result of the emergence of the " outside the will " theory has been seen with respect to witnesses to the will . Section 15 of the Wills Act states that any person " [ attesting ] the execution of any will to whom or to whose wife or husband any beneficial [ legacy ] ... shall be thereby given or made , such [ legacy ] ... shall , so far only as concerns such person attesting the execution of such will , or the wife or husband of such person , or any person claiming under such person or wife or husband , be utterly null and void " . In Re Young , an attesting witness was the beneficiary of a secret trust . The court decided that " the Wills Act 1837 had nothing to do with it " and the secret trust valid . The effect of the Wills Act 1968 has been to allow the trustee of a half @-@ secret trust to attest the will and this may also apply to the fully secret trust .
Where a beneficiary under a secret trust predeceases the testator , his or her personal representative will inherit instead , as in Re Gardner . If the gift had been made directly as part of testator 's will it would have lapsed and formed part of his or her residuary estate by the beneficiary 's death , but since he or she inherits as a result of a separate secret trust that rule does not apply . Where the trustee of a secret trust predeceases the testator , or renounces his trusteeship before the death of the testator , the position of the secret trust in unclear . In the case of a half @-@ secret trust , the trust ought to be good on the basis that " equity will not allow a trust to fail for want of a trustee " . Of a fully secret trust , it was indicated by Lord Buckmaster in Blackwell v Blackwell that such a trust might not fail : " the [ trustee- ] legatee might defeat the whole purpose by renouncing the legacy ... I entertain no doubt that the Court , having once admitted the evidence of the trust , would interfere to prevent its defeat . " Against this , it has been argued that the arrangement is the result of a personal obligation as thus fails if renounced or if the trustee predeceases the testator .
Evidential issues also exist . Because secret trusts are by definition secret , they are difficult to prove in court . The parol evidence rule states that where there is written evidence , oral testimony cannot be introduced to the court if it contradicts that evidence . Since secret trusts are oral and normally exist outside of the will ( a written document ) this causes problems . In Re Keen , the issue came up , and the Court of Appeal decided that the parol evidence rule extended to secret trusts , and such trusts could not be enforced if they contradicted written documents . More generally , the problem is proving that the testator intended to create a trust . As in McCormic v Grogan , the standard is high ; the person trying to enforce the trust must show " most clearly and distinctly " that it exists .
= Willie Nelson =
Willie Hugh Nelson ( born April 29 , 1933 ) is an American musician , singer , songwriter , author , poet , actor , and activist . The critical success of the album Shotgun Willie ( 1973 ) , combined with the critical and commercial success of Red Headed Stranger ( 1975 ) and Stardust ( 1978 ) , made Nelson one of the most recognized artists in country music . He was one of the main figures of outlaw country , a subgenre of country music that developed in the late 1960s as a reaction to the conservative restrictions of the Nashville sound . Nelson has acted in over 30 films , co @-@ authored several books , and has been involved in activism for the use of biofuels and the legalization of marijuana .
Born during the Great Depression , and raised by his grandparents , Nelson wrote his first song at age seven and joined his first band at ten . During high school , he toured locally with the Bohemian Polka as their lead singer and guitar player . After graduating from high school in 1950 , he joined the Air Force but was later discharged due to back problems . After his return , Nelson attended Baylor University for two years but dropped out because he was succeeding in music . During this time , he worked as a disc jockey in Texas radio stations and a singer in Honky @-@ tonks . Nelson moved to Vancouver , Washington , where he wrote " Family Bible " and recorded the song " Lumberjack " in 1956 . In 1958 , he moved to Houston , Texas after signing a contract with D Records . He sang at the Esquire Ballroom weekly and he worked as a disk jockey . During that time , he wrote songs that would become country standards , including " Funny How Time Slips Away " , " Hello Walls " , " Pretty Paper " , and " Crazy " . In 1960 he moved to Nashville , Tennessee , and later signed a publishing contract with Pamper Music which allowed him to join Ray Price 's band as a bassist . In 1962 , he recorded his first album , ... And Then I Wrote . Due to this success , Nelson signed in 1964 with RCA Victor and joined the Grand Ole Opry the following year . After mid @-@ chart hits in the late 1960s and the early 1970s , Nelson retired in 1972 and moved to Austin , Texas . The ongoing music scene of Austin motivated Nelson to return from retirement , performing frequently at the Armadillo World Headquarters .
In 1973 , after signing with Atlantic Records , Nelson turned to outlaw country , including albums such as Shotgun Willie and Phases and Stages . In 1975 , he switched to Columbia Records , where he recorded the critically acclaimed album , Red Headed Stranger . The same year , he recorded another outlaw country album , Wanted ! The Outlaws , along with Waylon Jennings , Jessi Colter , and Tompall Glaser . During the mid @-@ 1980s , while creating hit albums like Honeysuckle Rose and recording hit songs like " On the Road Again " , " To All the Girls I 've Loved Before " , and " Pancho and Lefty " , he joined the country supergroup The Highwaymen , along with fellow singers Johnny Cash , Waylon Jennings , and Kris Kristofferson .
In 1990 , Nelson 's assets were seized by the Internal Revenue Service , which claimed that he owed US $ 32 million . The difficulty of paying his outstanding debt was aggravated by weak investments he had made during the 1980s . In 1992 , Nelson released The IRS Tapes : Who 'll Buy My Memories ? , the profits of the double album , destined to the IRS , and the auction of Nelson 's assets cleared his debt . During the 1990s and 2000s , Nelson continued touring extensively , and released albums every year . Reviews ranged from positive to mixed . He explored genres such as reggae , blues , jazz , and folk . Nelson made his first movie appearance in the 1979 film The Electric Horseman , followed by other appearances in movies and on television . Nelson is a major liberal activist and the co @-@ chair of the advisory board of the National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws , which is in favor of marijuana legalization . On the environmental front , Nelson owns the bio @-@ diesel brand Willie Nelson Biodiesel , which is made from vegetable oil . Nelson is also the honorary chairman of the Advisory Board of the Texas Music Project , the official music charity of the state of Texas .
= = Early life = =
Willie Nelson was born in Abbott , Texas on April 29 , 1933 , during the Great Depression , to Myrle Marie ( née Greenhaw ) and Ira Doyle Nelson . He was born on April 29 , but his birth was recorded by doctor F. D. Sims on April 30 . He was named Willie by his cousin Mildred , who also chose Hugh as his middle name , in honor of her recently deceased younger brother . Nelson 's ancestry includes Cherokee , English , and Irish . His parents moved from Arkansas in 1929 , to look for work . Nelson 's grandfather , William , worked as a blacksmith , while his father worked as a mechanic .
His mother left soon after he was born , and his father remarried and also moved away , leaving Willie and his sister Bobbie to be raised by their grandparents . The Nelsons , who taught singing back in Arkansas , started their grandchildren in music . Nelson 's grandfather bought him a guitar when he was six , and taught him a few chords , and with his sister Bobbie , he sang gospel songs in the local church . He wrote his first song at age seven , and when he was nine , played guitar for the local band Bohemian Polka . During the summer , the family picked cotton along with other citizens of Abbott . Nelson disliked picking cotton , so he earned money by singing in dance halls , taverns , and honky tonks from age 13 , and continuing through high school . Nelson 's musical influences were Hank Williams , Bob Wills , Lefty Frizzell , Ray Price , Ernest Tubb , Hank Snow , Django Reinhardt , Frank Sinatra and Louis Armstrong .
Nelson attended Abbott High School , where he was a halfback on the football team , guard on the basketball team and shortstop in baseball . He also raised pigs for the Future Farmers of America organization . While still at school he sang and played guitar in The Texans , a band formed by his sister 's husband , Bud Fletcher . The band played in honky tonks , and also had a Sunday morning spot at KHBR in Hillsboro , Texas . Meanwhile , Nelson had a short stint as a relief phone operator in Abbott , followed by a job as a tree trimmer for the local electrical company , as well as pawn shop employee . After leaving school , in 1950 , he joined the United States Air Force for eight to nine months .
Upon his return , in 1952 , he married Martha Matthews , and from 1954 to 1956 studied agriculture at Baylor University . Nelson joined the Tau Kappa Epsilon fraternity , but dropped out to pursue a career in music . He worked as a bouncer for a nightclub , as a partsman in an autohouse , saddle maker , tree trimmer again and as an oilfield worker . He later joined Johnny Bush 's band . Nelson moved with his family to Pleasanton , Texas , where he auditioned for a disc jockey job in KBOP . The owner of the station , Dr. Ben Parker , gave Nelson the job despite his lack of experience working on radio . With the equipment of the station , Nelson made his first two recordings in 1955 : " The Storm Has Just Begun " and " When
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Twenty20 match , Kieswetter only scored four runs , but he was England 's top @-@ scorer in the first ODI match , with 61 runs , and was described as " England 's most impressive batsman " . He struck another half @-@ century in the fourth match of the series : he scored 72 not out as England won by ten wickets . A week later , playing for Somerset against Nottinghamshire , he scored the highest score of his first @-@ class career , accumulating 164 runs as part of a 290 @-@ run partnership with James Hildreth .
Kieswetter remained England wicket @-@ keeper for the T20I and ODI matches against India late in the season . In the T20I , Jos Buttler , his fellow Somerset wicket @-@ keeper , made his debut , albeit as a specialist batsman ; Jonny Bairstow , the Yorkshire wicket @-@ keeper , made his debut in the final ODI in a similar role . In that series , Kieswetter struggled against the moving ball in English conditions ; he was praised , however , for his attacking batting , including 46 runs from 25 balls in the second match . Based on the number of appearances that he made for England , Kieswetter was awarded an incremental contract by the England and Wales Cricket Board ( ECB ) in September 2011 . During England 's subsequent 5 – 0 ODI series loss in India , described by the Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack 's Stephen Brenkley as " a tour too far for England " , Kieswetter was the only England batsman to maintain a strike rate above 100 . He scored one half @-@ century during the tour , and was included in the England Lions squad that toured Sri Lanka three months later .
= = = End of international career = = =
Playing for the Lions , Kieswetter moved into the middle @-@ order , rather than opening the batting ; this was intended to prepare him for a similar switch with the senior England team to allow Kevin Pietersen to open . He scored a century and a half @-@ century to help England win the series 3 – 2 , though he was outperformed by Buttler . In early 2012 , playing against Pakistan in the United Arab Emirates , Kieswetter only batted twice in the ODI series , and was praised for his 43 @-@ run contribution in the fourth match , though George Dobell of ESPNcricinfo identified his wicket @-@ keeping as " still not as polished as he would like " . Although Kieswetter dropped down the order in ODIs , he retained his place opening the batting in T20Is . In contrast to the 2010 World Twenty20 , when the England players were told to attack bat selflessly , in 2012 the team was instructed to avoid losing early wickets , and Kieswetter struggled to adapt his game to score low @-@ risk singles and rotate the strike . During the 2012 ICC World Twenty20 , he lost his place in England 's T20I team after a match against New Zealand in which he scored four runs from fourteen balls . That was the final international Twenty20 match of his career . In his 25 matches , he scored 526 runs at an average of 21 @.@ 91 and a strike rate of 111 @.@ 91 . Despite his struggles in international cricket , Kieswetter had a successful season with Somerset ; he scored 848 first @-@ class runs at an average of just over 60 , including a century against Warwickshire and one for the Lions against Australia A.
The following year , Kieswetter retained his place in the ODI team for the tour of India , although ESPNcricinfo 's Alex Winter suggested that it might be due to " England 's desire to protect the workload of their players ahead of back @-@ to @-@ back Ashes series . " Winter 's colleague , Dobell , described the England ODI wicket @-@ keeper position as one of England 's key areas requiring resolution , citing both Bairstow and Buttler as candidates to take over , as well as the possibility of Matt Prior , the England Test wicket @-@ keeper , reclaiming the role . Kieswetter played the first three ODIs of the series , scoring 24 not out , 18 and 0 before he was dropped and replaced by Buttler . Dobell described Kieswetter as " perhaps ... a little unfortunate " , but cited his inability to adjust his game and the number of balls he blocked as the reasons for his removal . He played 46 ODIs , scoring 1 @,@ 054 runs at an average of 30 @.@ 11 .
= = Later domestic career = =
The competition between Kieswetter and Buttler for England 's one @-@ day wicket @-@ keeping role also caused conflict at Somerset for the 2013 season : both players wanted to fulfil the role for the county . Kieswetter began the season as the wicket @-@ keeper in the County Championship , but broke his thumb during the third match of the season , which kept him out of action for six weeks . Kieswetter had a particularly strong Twenty20 season , finishing as the leading run @-@ scorer in the 2013 Friends Life t20 with 517 runs , including five half @-@ centuries . He scored a late @-@ season century against Warwickshire in the County Championship , but in a season in which Somerset struggled against relegation , he scored a relatively modest 606 first @-@ class runs at an average of 31 @.@ 89 . At the end of the season , Buttler , whose contract with Somerset had expired , announced that he was joining Lancashire , leaving Kieswetter as the clear first @-@ choice wicket @-@ keeper at Somerset .
Kieswetter signed with the Brisbane Heat for the 2013 – 14 Big Bash League , During the tournament , he scored 192 runs from eight matches including two half @-@ centuries . He entered the 2014 Indian Premier League auction , but remained unsold , to the relief of the director of cricket at Somerset , David Nosworthy . He was called up as a late replacement for the injured Luke Wright for England 's squad in the 2014 ICC World Twenty20 , but was not selected to play . He began the 2014 season positively for Somerset , particularly in the Twenty20 competition , in which he scored six half @-@ centuries in ten innings , averaging just under 50 .
= = Injury and retirement = =
On 12 July 2014 , Kieswetter suffered a broken nose and fractured cheek bone while batting for Somerset against Northamptonshire in a County Championship match . The bowler , David Willey , delivered a short @-@ pitched bouncer which went through the gap between the grille and the visor on Kieswetter 's helmet and struck him in the face . The injuries were initially described by Somerset 's chairman , Andy Nash , as " serious but non @-@ career threatening " . He underwent facial surgery , and suffered from double vision for a while after . He returned to the Somerset side before the end of the 2014 season and scored a half @-@ century in his first match back , against Middlesex , though he admitted that his vision was still not fully recovered . Kieswetter signed for the South African franchise Warriors as their overseas player to play in the Ram Slam T20 Challenge for the 2014 – 15 season . He played all ten matches for the Warriors , scoring 199 runs at an average of 22 @.@ 11 , including two half @-@ centuries .
On 10 December 2014 , despite having been named in England 's 30 @-@ man provisional 2015 Cricket World Cup squad , Kieswetter revealed that he was still suffering vision problems . He announced that he would not play in the 2015 season and would seek further treatment . The following June , he announced his retirement from professional cricket , saying that , although he was still capable of playing , he could not play to the standard he wanted ; " In the end I just thought , there are too many mediocre players in county cricket – and good luck to them – but I don 't want to be another one . " He finished his career with similar statistics in first @-@ class and List A cricket ; in both he averaged just under 40 and had scored eleven centuries . In Twenty20 cricket , his highest score was 89 not out , and he averaged just over 30 . In an interview with ESPNcricinfo shortly after his retirement , Kieswetter said that he would be interested in working in the media , perhaps as part of a commentary team for Twenty20 matches .
= = Playing style = =
Kieswetter 's confident and attacking batting style was compared to that of Kevin Pietersen , another England batsman of South African origin . Although Kieswetter favoured the off @-@ side , he was also strong behind square on both sides , and stood with a typical South African stance , his bat held high . He was generally more highly regarded for his batting than his wicket @-@ keeping , often drawing criticism for the quality of his glovework . For a couple of matches during 2012 , he was used as an off spin bowler by Somerset , collecting three wickets .
Somerset experimented with Kieswetter throughout the order , trying to find the most effective place for him . He began as a middle @-@ order batsman , but by the end of the 2007 season , although he remained in the middle @-@ order in first @-@ class cricket , Kieswetter regularly found himself opening the batting alongside Marcus Trescothick in one @-@ day cricket , a role he would also take up in opening six matches of the 2009 Twenty20 Cup , although he later dropped back into the middle order to improve the balance of the side . On his international call @-@ up , England chose to utilise Kieswetter as an opening batsman . He was selected " because of his proven ability to pierce the field in the Powerplay overs , particularly with his booming drives up and over the covers . " He later moved down the order for England to accommodate Kevin Pietersen as opener .
= John Nutter =
John Robert William Nutter ( born 13 June 1982 ) is a former professional footballer who played for Wycombe Wanderers , Aldershot Town , Grays Athletic , Stevenage Borough , Gillingham , Lincoln City and Woking as a defender .
Nutter began his career at Blackburn Rovers ' youth academy in 1998 , spending two years on the books with the club before being released . In early 2001 , he joined Wycombe Wanderers , and later signed for Aldershot Town in May 2001 . He enjoyed a promotion with Aldershot during the 2002 – 03 campaign , helping the club secure the Isthmian League Premier Division title . During his time at Aldershot , Nutter spent time out on loan at St Albans City and Gravesend & Northfleet respectively .
Nutter then enjoyed a fruitful two @-@ year spell at Grays Athletic , and was part of the side that won the Conference South title , as well as two FA Trophy successes . In May 2006 , he signed for Stevenage Borough , and again tasted FA Trophy success during the 2006 – 07 season . Nutter moved back into the Football League in November 2007 , signing for Gillingham . He spent three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half seasons there , with the club moving between League One and League Two during his tenure . He was released when his contract expired at the end of the 2010 – 11 campaign , subsequently signing for Lincoln City of the Conference National in July 2011 . He was loaned out to Woking in November 2012 , a move that was later made permanent in January 2013 .
Nutter decided to retire from playing football at the end of the 2014 – 15 season so he could focus on his career as a teacher of Physical Education at a school .
= = Club career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Nutter began his career on the books at Blackburn Rovers ' youth academy , joining the club 's YTS programme in 1998 at the age of 16 , before later becoming a first @-@ year scholar . During his time at Blackburn , he was part of the side that won the Under 17s Academy Cup as they beat Manchester City in the final . He was released by Blackburn in 2000 , and was subsequently signed by Wycombe Wanderers in the early part of 2001 . Nutter made one first @-@ team appearance for the club , making his Football League debut in the club 's 3 – 2 away defeat to Peterborough United on 24 February 2001 . He was also part of the squad that travelled to the FA Cup semi @-@ final against Liverpool at Villa Park , although did not feature . His time at Wycombe was hampered by an ankle injury , which resulted in " limited opportunities " . He subsequently left Wycombe at the end of the 2000 – 01 season .
In May 2001 , Nutter joined Aldershot Town , then of the Isthmian League Premier Division . He made his debut in Aldershot 's 3 – 1 home victory over Enfield on 18 August 2001 , and scored his first goal for the club shortly after in a 2 – 1 away win over Heybridge Swifts . Nutter made 19 appearances for Aldershot during the 2001 – 02 season , scoring twice . He also made eight appearances for divisional rivals St Albans City during a two @-@ month loan spell . Nutter remained at Aldershot the following season , making sporadic appearances throughout the campaign . He spent a month on loan at Conference National side Gravesend & Northfleet in November 2002 , making four appearances . During the campaign , he scored three times in 21 appearances for Aldershot , in a season that saw the club earn promotion to the Conference National after winning the Isthmian League Premier Division . Nutter featured regularly during Aldershot 's return to the highest tier of non @-@ League football , making 28 appearances in all competitions and netting once in a 4 – 2 away victory over Bishop 's Stortford in the FA Trophy in January 2004 . Aldershot narrowly missed out on back @-@ to @-@ back promotions , losing on penalties in the play @-@ off final to Shrewsbury Town . Although Nutter did not play in the final , he did feature in both legs of the semi @-@ final as Aldershot defeated Hereford United on penalties . During his three years at Aldershot , Nutter made 68 appearances in league , FA Cup and FA Trophy fixtures , scoring six times .
= = = Grays Athletic = = =
Ahead of the 2004 – 05 season , in July 2004 , Nutter signed for Conference South side Grays Athletic , managed by Mark Stimson . He made his Grays debut on the opening day of the season , playing the first 57 minutes in a 1 – 1 away draw against Hayes on 14 August 2004 . Three days later , he scored his only goal of the season as Grays beat Redbridge comfortably at the New Recreation Ground . In Nutter 's first season with Grays , the club secured the Conference South title in comprehensive fashion , winning the division by 23 points . During the same season , Grays also won the FA Trophy , beating Hucknall Town on penalties in the final at Villa Park , with Nutter playing the whole match . As a result of Grays ' promotion , the 2005 – 06 season gave Nutter another opportunity to play in the Conference National . He was almost ever @-@ present during yet another successful season for the Essex club , with Grays finishing third in the league . His only goal of the season came in the Conference play @-@ off semi @-@ final second leg , as Grays eventually lost to Halifax Town 5 – 4 on aggregate . Shortly after the play @-@ off defeat , Nutter was part of the side that secured back @-@ to @-@ back FA Trophy titles courtesy of a 2 – 0 win against Woking at Upton Park . It was to be Nutter 's last game for the club . On securing successive FA Trophy victories with Grays , Nutter stated — " The FA Trophy wins for Grays Athletic were great , a fantastic achievement for the club , we had some terrific players at the time " .
= = = Stevenage Borough = = =
With his Grays contract expiring in May 2006 , Nutter opted to sign for Conference National side Stevenage Borough at the end of the month . He joined on a free transfer and on a two @-@ year contract . The move reunited him with Stimson , who made Nutter his first signing following his switch from Grays to Stevenage . Nutter revealed that he had rejected the offer of a contract extension at Grays , as well as an offer from Peterborough United . He made his Stevenage debut against Altrincham on 12 August 2006 , playing the whole match in a 2 – 1 away defeat . Nutter scored his first goal for Stevenage in a 3 – 2 home win against Woking on 3 October 2006 , a late penalty to restore parity in the match , before Stevenage went on to score a winner in injury @-@ time . He went on to score further penalties in home victories against Gravesend & Northfleet and Cambridge United , and also scored against Burton Albion with a long @-@ range drive in a 2 – 1 win . He added to his most fruitful season in front of goal by scoring twice in April 2007 , both from the penalty spot , against Forest Green Rovers and Rushden & Diamonds respectively . He was ever @-@ present during his first season with the club , playing in all 46 leagues matches , as well as making a further ten appearances in cup competitions , scoring six times . Nutter was part of the squad that reached the FA Trophy final in May 2007 , the first competitive match at the new Wembley Stadium . He played the whole match in Stevenage 's 3 – 2 win over Kidderminster Harriers , a game in which Stevenage trailed by two goals , meaning he had won the FA Trophy for three successive years .
Nutter scored his first goal of the 2007 – 08 season in Stevenage 's 3 – 0 home victory over Weymouth in August 2007 , scoring a free kick that found the top corner of the goal . He was part of the defence that broke a club record and equalled a Conference National record when Stevenage went eight games without conceding a goal , spanning from August to October 2007 . Following the departure of manager Mark Stimson to Gillingham in November 2007 , it was revealed that Stevenage rejected several offers for Nutter from Gillingham . He remained at Stevenage for a further three weeks ; his last game for the club a 3 – 2 home loss to Halifax Town . He scored eight times in 73 appearances for the club in all competitions .
= = = Gillingham = = =
Later that month , Nutter joined Gillingham , along with Stevenage midfielder Adam Miller , for a combined fee of £ 65 @,@ 000 . The move was initially on loan until January 2008 , when the deal was made permanent . He made his debut for Gillingham in a 1 – 1 home draw with Southend United on 26 December 2007 , playing the whole match . Nutter went on to make 25 appearances for the club during the second half of the 2007 – 08 campaign , a season that witnessed Gillingham suffer relegation to League Two . He scored one goal during the campaign , netting in a 1 – 1 draw against Bristol Rovers at the Memorial Stadium in April 2008 . The 2008 – 09 campaign brought about Nutter 's first full season at Gillingham . He had been joined by former Stevenage players Barry Fuller , Alan Julian , and Stuart Lewis , as well as Dennis Oli , who he played alongside at Grays . Nutter made 54 appearances during the campaign , a season in which Gillingham earned promotion back to League One following a 1 – 0 win over Shrewsbury Town in the play @-@ off final at Wembley Stadium in May 2009 . Although he failed to find the scoresheet during the successful campaign , he did provide the assist for eleven goals . The promotion meant that it was the third of Nutter 's career , having also tasted league success at Aldershot and Grays .
Nutter started in the club 's first game of the 2009 – 10 season ; as Gillingham marked their return to the third tier of English football with a 5 – 0 victory over Swindon Town at Priestfield . He scored his only goal of the campaign , the second of his Gillingham career , in a 3 – 1 win over bottom @-@ placed Stockport County in December 2009 , marking his 100th appearance for the club with an " angled volley " that beat Owain Fôn Williams in the Stockport goal . Gillingham were relegated at the end of the season , finishing in 21st place . A 3 – 0 away loss to one of Nutter 's former employers , Wycombe Wanderers , cemented their fate . Nutter made 41 appearances during the campaign . Stimson left the club by mutual consent days after the Wycombe match , and was replaced by Andy Hessenthaler . This meant that Nutter would be playing under a manager other than Stimson for the first time in six years ( aside from a three @-@ week spell under Peter Taylor at Stevenage ) . Nutter 's contract was extended for a further year in June 2010 after he had " played sufficient games last season to trigger a new deal " . During the campaign , Nutter received the first red card of his career in a 2 – 0 home defeat to Dover Athletic in the FA Cup , earning the dismissal for a " professional foul " . He made 37 appearances during the 2010 – 11 season , scoring once , as Gillingham narrowly missed out on a play @-@ off position . In May 2011 , Nutter left Gillingham when his contract expired at the end of the month . During his three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year spell with the Kent side , he made 157 appearances and scored three goals .
= = = Lincoln City = = =
Nutter joined Conference National side Lincoln City on a free transfer in July 2011 . Signing a two @-@ year deal with Lincoln , Nutter stated — " I think it will benefit me to have a fresh start , play in front of new people and show what I can do . I feel I 'm better than this level but I 've got to show that and we have to show that as a team " . His Lincoln debut came on the opening day of the 2011 – 12 season , playing the whole match as Lincoln twice squandered a lead to draw 2 – 2 with Southport at Haig Avenue . He scored his first goal for the club in November 2011 , netting Lincoln 's third with a shot from outside the area in a 3 – 0 home win over Ebbsfleet United . Nutter would add to his goal tally once more during the campaign when he scored a 20 @-@ yard free @-@ kick in an important 2 – 0 win against relegation rivals Newport County on 24 March 2012 . Nutter played in all 51 of Lincoln 's matches during the season , with the club struggling to adapt during their first season back in non @-@ league , finishing just above the relegation places .
He was made club captain ahead of the 2012 – 13 season , and continued to play regularly during the early months of the new campaign . He opened his goalscoring account courtesy of free @-@ kick in a 3 – 3 home draw against Stockport County in October 2012 . Shortly after , Nutter admitted that his family struggled relocating to Lincolnshire , and a move down south was a much more suitable location given his personal circumstances . He scored three times in 66 appearances for Lincoln . On his time at Lincoln , Nutter stated — " Lincoln is a really nice , friendly club with very patient and loyal supporters . But with my personal circumstances , it was time to move on – I wish them well " .
= = = Woking = = =
In November 2012 , he joined fellow Conference National side Woking on a two @-@ month loan deal . He made his first appearance for Woking two days after signing , playing the whole match in a 2 – 1 loss to Alfreton Town at Kingfield , and went on to make a further four appearances during the loan agreement . He briefly returned to Lincoln , before it was agreed that he would leave the club by mutual consent at the end of 2012 . Nutter subsequently signed for Woking on a permanent basis on 6 January 2013 .
= = International career = =
Nutter has played for the England C team , who represent England at non @-@ league level . He has also made several appearances for the England futsal side .
= = Style of play = =
Nutter predominantly played as a left @-@ sided full @-@ back , although he did play on the left wing in the early stages of his career . He was left @-@ footed . Gillingham manager Mark Stimson described him as " an attacking full @-@ back with plenty of technical ability " , and stated that Nutter would " offer plenty of width down the left hand side " , in @-@ turn being " a constant attacking threat " . He expressed a passion to pass the ball along the floor , and always prefers to pass the ball out as opposed to hitting it long . Talking about his time at Stevenage , Nutter stated he would like to be remembered as a player " who tried to play football the right way , passing the ball , technically good to watch and an honest player " .
He also provided an attacking outlet from set @-@ pieces . Throughout his career , Nutter scored from several long @-@ range free @-@ kicks , and also regularly took corner kicks . During his time at Stevenage , he was the club 's penalty taker , and scored six out of seven penalties .
= = Personal life = =
Nutter is married to Hayley and has two sons , Walter and Benedict . He has a brother and a sister . His brother , Tom , has played football for Burnham and Beaconsfield SYCOB , and won a number of awards during a four @-@ year stint in America playing for West Texas A & M University .
He has stated that his closest friend in football is Adam Miller , who he played alongside at Stevenage and Gillingham . John is now a teacher at a school in Berkshire , teaching Physical Education to pupils at a Preparatory school .
= = Honours = =
Isthmian League Premier Division : 2002 – 03
FA Trophy : 2004 – 05 , 2005 – 06 , 2006 – 07
Conference South : 2004 – 05
League Two play @-@ offs : 2008 – 09
= = Career statistics = =
As of matches played 21 March 2015 .
= William Goebel =
William Justus Goebel ( January 4 , 1856 – February 3 , 1900 ) was an American politician who served as the 34th Governor of Kentucky for four days in 1900 after having been mortally wounded by an assassin the day before he was sworn in . Goebel remains the only state governor in the United States to be assassinated while in office .
A skilled politician , Goebel was well able to broker deals with fellow lawmakers , and equally able and willing to break the deals if a better deal came along . His tendency to use the state 's political machinery to advance his personal agenda earned him the nicknames " Boss Bill " , " the Kenton King " , " Kenton Czar " , " King William I " , and " William the Conqueror " .
Goebel 's abrasive personality made him many political enemies , but his championing of populist causes , like railroad regulation , also won him many friends . This conflict of opinions came to a head in the Kentucky gubernatorial election of 1899 . Goebel , a Democrat , divided his party with self @-@ serving political tactics at a time when Kentucky Republicans were finally gaining strength , having elected the party 's first governor four years previously . These dynamics led to a close contest between Goebel and William S. Taylor . In the politically chaotic climate that resulted , Goebel was assassinated . Everyone charged in connection with the murder was either acquitted or pardoned , and the identity of his assassin remains uncertain .
= = Early life = =
Wilhelm Justus Goebel was born January 4 , 1856 , in Albany Township , Bradford County , Pennsylvania , the son of Wilhelm and Augusta ( Groenkle ) Goebel , immigrants from Hanover , Germany . The first of four children , he was born two months premature and weighed less than three pounds . His father served as a private in Company B , 82nd Pennsylvania Infantry Regiment during the American Civil War , and Goebel 's mother raised her children alone , teaching them much about their German heritage . Wilhelm spoke only German until the age of six , but embraced the culture of his birth country as well , adopting the English spelling of his name .
Discharged from the army in 1863 , Goebel 's father moved his family to Covington , Kentucky . William attended school in Covington and was then apprenticed to a jeweler in Cincinnati , Ohio . After a brief time at Hollingsworth Business College , he became an apprentice in the law firm of John W. Stevenson , who had served as governor of Kentucky from 1871 to 1877 . Goebel eventually became Stevenson 's partner and executor of his estate . Goebel graduated from Cincinnati Law School in 1877 , then enrolled at Kenyon College in Gambier , Ohio , but withdrew to support his family on the death of his father . Goebel was in private practice for several years , before partnering with Kentucky state representative John G. Carlisle for five years . He then rejoined Stevenson in Covington as a partner .
= = Personal characteristics = =
Goebel was never known as a particularly genial person in public . He belonged to few social organizations , and greeted none but his closest friends with a smile or handshake . He was rarely linked romantically with a woman , and is the only governor of Kentucky who never married . His physical features bespoke his taciturn nature . Journalist Irvin S. Cobb remarked that Goebel 's appearance was " reptilian " , while others commented on his contemptuous lips , sharp nose , and humorless eyes . Neither was Goebel a gifted public speaker , eschewing flowery imagery and relying on his deep , powerful voice and forceful delivery to drive home his points .
While lacking in the social qualities common to politicians , one characteristic served Goebel well in the political arena – his intellect . Goebel was well @-@ read , and supporters and opponents both conceded that his mental prowess was impressive . Cobb concluded that he had never been more impressed with a man 's intellect than he had been with Goebel 's .
= = Political career = =
In 1887 , James W. Bryan vacated his seat in the Kentucky Senate to pursue the office of lieutenant governor . Goebel decided to seek election to the vacant seat representing the Covington area . His platform of railroad regulation and championing labor causes , combined with the influence of Stevenson , his former partner , should have given Goebel an easy victory , but this was not to be . A third political party , the Union Labor party , had risen to power in the area with a platform similar to Goebel 's . However , while Goebel had to stick close to his allies in the Democratic party , the Union Labor party courted the votes of both Democrats and Republicans , and made the election close – decided in Goebel 's favor by a mere fifty @-@ six votes .
With only the two years remaining in former senator Bryan 's term to distinguish himself before a re @-@ election bid , Goebel took aim at a large and popular target : the Louisville and Nashville Railroad . A proposal from pro @-@ railroad legislators in the Kentucky House of Representatives to abolish Kentucky 's Railroad Commission was passed and sent to the Senate . Senator Cassius M. Clay responded by proposing a committee to investigate lobbying by the railroad industry . Goebel served on the committee , which uncovered significant violations by the railroad lobby . Goebel also helped defeat the bill to abolish the Railroad Commission in the Senate . These actions made him a hero in his district . He ran for a full term as senator unopposed in 1889 , and won another term in 1893 by a three @-@ to @-@ one margin over his Republican opponent .
In 1890 , Goebel was a delegate to Kentucky 's fourth constitutional convention , which produced the current Kentucky Constitution . Despite the high honor of being chosen as a delegate , Goebel showed little interest in participating in the process of creating a new constitution . The convention was in session for 250 days ; Goebel was present for just 100 of them . He did , however , successfully secure the inclusion of the Railroad Commission in the new constitution . As a constitutional entity , the Commission could only be abolished by an amendment ratified by popular vote . This would effectively protect the Commission from ever being unilaterally dismantled by the General Assembly .
= = = Duel with John Sanford = = =
In 1895 , Goebel engaged in what many observers considered a duel with John Lawrence Sanford . Sanford , a former Confederate general staff officer turned banker , had clashed with Goebel before . Goebel 's successful campaign to remove tolls from some of Kentucky 's turnpikes had cost Sanford a good deal of money . It was widely believed that Sanford later blocked Goebel 's appointment to the Kentucky Court of Appeals , then the highest court in the state . In response to this , Goebel had written an article in a local newspaper referring to Sanford as " Gonorrhea John " .
The duel occurred as Goebel and two of his acquaintances went to cash a check in Covington . Goebel suggested they avoid Sanford 's bank , but Sanford , standing outside the bank , engaged the trio in conversation before they could cross the street to another bank . As Sanford greeted Goebel 's friends , he offered his left hand , his right remaining on a pistol in his pocket . Goebel , noticing this and being likewise armed , clutched the revolver in his own pocket . Sanford asked Goebel , " I understand that you assume authorship of that article ? " ; " I do " , replied Goebel . Witnesses agree that both men fired at each other , but none was sure who fired first . Goebel was uninjured , the bullet passing through his coat and ripping his trousers ; Sanford was struck in the head and died five hours later . Goebel was acquitted , pleading self @-@ defense , but the incident would haunt his political career . The acquittal was also significant because of prohibitions against duelling in the Kentucky Constitution . If Goebel had been convicted , he would have been ineligible to hold any public office .
= = = Goebel Election Law = = =
Democrats , who controlled the General Assembly , felt that county election commissioners had been unjust in selecting local election officials , and that this injustice had contributed to the election of Republican governor William O. Bradley in 1895 and Republican president William McKinley in 1896 . Goebel proposed a bill , known as the " Goebel Election Law " , which passed along sharp party lines and over Governor Bradley 's veto , created a three @-@ member state election commission , appointed by the General Assembly , to select county election commissioners . This system proved to be just as manipulable as the one it replaced , allowing the Democratically controlled General Assembly to appoint fellow Democrats to the election commission .
Many voters decried the bill as a self @-@ serving attempt by Goebel to increase his political power , and the election board remained a controversial issue until its abolition in a special session of the legislature in 1900 . Despite rising to the office of President Pro Tempore in 1896 , Goebel became the subject of much opposition from constituencies of both parties in Kentucky after the passage of the law .
= = = Gubernatorial election of 1899 = = =
Three men sought the Democratic nomination for governor at the 1899 party convention in Louisville – Goebel , Wat Hardin , and William J. Stone . When Hardin appeared to be the front @-@ runner for the nomination , Stone and Goebel agreed to work together against him . Stone 's supporters would back whomever Goebel picked to preside over the convention . In exchange , half the delegates from Louisville , who were pledged to Goebel , would vote to nominate Stone for governor . Goebel would then drop out of the race , but would name many of the other officials on the ticket . As word of the plan spread , Hardin dropped out of the race , believing he would be beaten by the Stone – Goebel alliance .
Goebel took a calculated risk by breaking the agreement once his choice was installed as presiding officer . Hardin , seeing that Stone had been betrayed and hoping he might now be able to secure the nomination , re @-@ entered the contest . Several chaotic ballots resulted in no clear majority for anyone , and Goebel 's hand @-@ picked chairman announced the man with the lowest vote total in the next canvass would be dropped . It turned out to be Stone . This put Stone 's backers in a difficult position . They were forced to choose between Hardin , who was seen as a pawn of the railroads , or Goebel , who had turned against their man . Enough of them sided with Goebel to give him the nomination . Goebel 's tactics , while not illegal , were unpopular and divided the party . A disgruntled faction calling themselves the " Honest Election Democrats " held a separate convention in Lexington and nominated John Y. Brown for governor .
Republican William S. Taylor defeated both Democratic candidates in the general election , but his margin over Goebel was only 2 @,@ 383 votes . Democrats in the General Assembly began making accusations of voting irregularities in some counties , but in a surprise decision , the Board of Elections created by the Goebel Election Law and manned by three hand @-@ picked Goebel Democrats , ruled 2 – 1 that the disputed ballots should count , saying the law gave them no legal power to reverse the official county results and that under the Kentucky Constitution the power to review the election lay in the General Assembly . The Assembly then invalidated enough Republican ballots to give the election to Goebel . The Assembly 's Republican minority was incensed , as were voters in traditionally Republican districts . For several days , the state hovered on the brink of a possible civil war .
= = Assassination and aftermath = =
While the election results remained in dispute , Goebel , despite being warned of a rumored assassination plot against him , walked flanked by two bodyguards to the Old State Capitol on the morning of January 30 , 1900 . Reports conflict about what happened , but some five or six shots were fired from the nearby State Building , one striking Goebel in the chest and wounding him seriously . Taylor , serving as governor pending a final decision on the election , called out the militia and ordered the General Assembly into a special session , not in Frankfort , but in London , Kentucky , a Republican area . The Republican minority obeyed the call and went to London . Democrats resisted the move , many going instead to Louisville . Both groups claimed authority , but the Republicans were too few to muster a quorum .
The day after being shot , the dying Goebel was sworn in as governor . In his only act , Goebel signed a proclamation to dissolve the militia called up by Taylor , which was ignored by the militia 's Republican commander . Despite the care of 18 physicians , Goebel died the afternoon of February 3 , 1900 . Journalists recalled his last words as " Tell my friends to be brave , fearless , and loyal to the common people . " Skeptic Irvin S. Cobb uncovered another story from some in the room at the time . On having eaten his last meal , the governor supposedly remarked " Doc , that was a damned bad oyster . " In respect of Goebel 's displeasure with the Louisville and Nashville Railroad , the governor 's body was transported not by the L & N direct line , but circuitously from his hometown of Covington north across the Ohio River to Cincinnati , and then south to Frankfort on the Queen and Crescent Railroad .
= = = Resolution of the election = = =
With Goebel dead , tensions began to ease . The idea of Goebel 's lieutenant governor , J. C. W. Beckham , as governor was more palatable to much of the opposition than civil war in the state , though many of them may have preferred war to a Goebel governorship . After a lengthy meeting , a bipartisan compromise was drafted which would have ended the matter . The terms called for Republican recognition of Goebel 's rightful election ( and Beckham 's subsequent right to govern ) . Republicans would also remove the militia from Frankfort . Democrats would , in turn , extend immunity to any Republican official found to have ties to the assassination , stop contesting elections for other state offices , and work to pass a nonpartisan election reform bill . The agreement needed only Taylor 's signature to become effective . Unwilling to relinquish his office , Taylor balked .
Compromise having been exhausted , both sides agreed to litigate the matter . The Kentucky Court of Appeals found that the General Assembly had acted legally in declaring Goebel the winner of the election . That decision was appealed to the Supreme Court of the United States . Arguments were presented in the case ( Taylor v. Beckham ) on April 30 , 1900 , and on May 21 , the justices decided 8 – 1 not to hear the case , allowing the Court of Appeals ' decision to stand . The lone dissension was that of Associate Justice John Marshall Harlan , a Kentucky native. and member of the Republican Party ( United States ) .
= = = Trials and investigations = = =
During the ensuing assassination investigation , suspicion naturally focused on deposed governor Taylor , who fled to Indianapolis , Indiana under the looming threat of indictment . The governor of Indiana refused to extradite Taylor , and he was thus never questioned about his knowledge of the plot to kill Goebel . Taylor became a successful lawyer in Indiana , and was pardoned in 1909 by Beckham 's successor , Republican Augustus E. Willson .
Sixteen people , including Taylor , were eventually indicted in the assassination of Governor Goebel . Three accepted immunity from prosecution in exchange for testimony . Only five ever went to trial , two of those being acquitted . Convictions were handed down against Taylor 's Secretary of State Caleb Powers , Henry Youtsey , and Jim Howard . The prosecution charged that Powers was the mastermind , having a political opponent killed so that his boss , Governor Taylor , could stay in office . Youtsey was an alleged intermediary , and Howard , who was said to have been in Frankfort to seek a pardon from Taylor for the killing of a man in a family feud , was accused of being the actual assassin .
The trials were fraught with irregularities . All three judges were pro @-@ Goebel Democrats , and at one point the juror pool of 368 people was found to have only eight Republicans . Republican appeals courts overturned Powers ' and Howard 's convictions , though Powers was tried three more times , resulting in two convictions and a hung jury and Howard was tried and convicted twice more . Both men were pardoned in 1908 by Governor Augustus E. Willson .
Youtsey , who received a life sentence , did not appeal , but after two years in prison , he turned state 's evidence . In Howard 's second trial , Youtsey claimed that ex @-@ governor Taylor had discussed an assassination plot with Youtsey and Howard . He backed the prosecution 's claims that Taylor and Powers worked out the details , he acted as an intermediary , and Howard fired the shot . On cross examination , the defense pointed out contradictions in the details of Youtsey 's story , but Howard was still convicted . Youtsey was paroled in 1916 and was pardoned in 1919 by Democratic governor James D. Black .
Most historians agree that the assassin of Governor Goebel will never be conclusively identified .
= = Legacy = =
Goebel Avenue in Elkton , Kentucky and Goebel Park in Covington , Kentucky are named in honor of the late governor .
= Octopussy and The Living Daylights =
Octopussy and The Living Daylights ( sometimes published as Octopussy ) is the fourteenth and final James Bond book written by Ian Fleming in the Bond series . The book is a collection of short stories published posthumously in the United Kingdom by Jonathan Cape on 23 June 1966 .
The book originally contained just two stories , " Octopussy " and " The Living Daylights " , with subsequent editions also carrying firstly " The Property of a Lady " and then " 007 in New York " . The stories were first published in different publications , with " Octopussy " first serialised in the Daily Express in October 1965 . " The Living Daylights " had first appeared in The Sunday Times on 4 February 1962 ; " The Property of a Lady " was published in November 1963 in a Sotheby 's publication , The Ivory Hammer , whilst " 007 in New York " first appeared in the New York Herald Tribune in October 1963 .
The two original stories , " Octopussy " and " The Living Daylights " , were both adapted for publication in comic strip format in the Daily Express in 1966 – 1967 . Elements from the stories have also been used in the Eon Productions Bond films . The first , Octopussy , starring Roger Moore as James Bond , was released in 1983 as the thirteenth film in the series and provided the back story for the film Octopussy 's family , while " The Property of a Lady " was more closely adapted for an auction sequence in the film . The Living Daylights , released in 1987 , was the fifteenth Bond film produced by Eon and starred Timothy Dalton in his first appearance as Bond .
= = Plots = =
= = = " Octopussy " = = =
The Secret Service operative James Bond , code name 007 , is assigned to apprehend a hero of the Second World War implicated in a murder involving a cache of Nazi gold . Bond appears briefly in this story , which is told mostly in flashback and from the point of view of Major Dexter Smythe , the villain . Bond chooses not to take Smythe into custody immediately , but Smythe 's guilt drives him to commit suicide by allowing a scorpion fish to sting him and his " pet " Blue @-@ ringed octopus to attack him , bringing on a fatal heart attack .
= = = " The Living Daylights " = = =
An unusually morose James Bond is assigned sniper duty to help British agent 272 escape from East Berlin . Bond 's duty is to prevent a top KGB assassin codenamed " Trigger " from killing 272 by eliminating the sniper . Bond waits for three nights for the agent to come over no man 's land and notices a female orchestra arriving and leaving for practice each night ; a beautiful , blonde cellist catches his eye while he waits . When he sees the agent start making his way over the broken ground , he sees the Russian sniper take up position and realises it is the cellist : a split second decision sees Bond deciding instead to shoot the butt of her rifle , preventing her from making the kill . The mission , while successful , is also considered a failure due to Bond 's last @-@ second decision , and it ends with Bond hoping that M fires him for it .
= = = " The Property of a Lady " = = =
Bond investigates a Secret Service employee , Maria Freudenstein , who is a double agent about to be paid by her Russian keepers by auctioning the " Emerald Sphere " , crafted by Peter Carl Fabergé , at Sotheby 's in her name . The Russians have sent the Resident Director of the KGB in London to attend the auction and underbid for the item to push the price to the necessary value to pay for her services as a double agent . Bond attends the auction in hopes of spotting this man ; after he does so , the man is expelled from London as persona non grata .
= = = " 007 in New York " = = =
A brief tale in which Bond muses about New York City and his favourite recipe for scrambled eggs , during a quick mission to the titular city to warn a female MI6 employee that her new boyfriend is a KGB agent . It is notable for including a rare humorous conclusion and for its mention of Solange , a young lady of Bond 's intimate acquaintance who works in a shop , Abercrombie 's , " appropriately employed in their Indoor Games Department " .
= = Characters and themes = =
Author of the " continuation " Bond stories , Raymond Benson , noted that in " The Living Daylights " Bond 's thoughts on killing are examined once again , showing that although 007 did not like doing it , he considered that he must as part of his duty to complete an assignment . Once the mission is completed , with Bond deliberately not killing the assassin , there is an attitude of complacency with Bond shrugging off his colleague 's complaints about the incident . Academic Jeremy Black sees the colleague , the officious Captain Spender , as the antithesis of Bond and an echo of Colonel Schreiber , the head of security at Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe ( SHAPE ) , who appeared in " From a View to a Kill " .
In the act of not killing the assassin , the theme of disobedience is raised in " The Living Daylights " , with Bond calling what he has to do " murder " and subsequently dismissing his actions by saying " with any luck it will cost me my Double @-@ 0 number " . Raymond Benson considered " Octopussy " to be a morality tale , with greed bringing repercussions years later to the main protagonist , Dexter Smythe .
= = Background = =
On the morning of 12 August 1964 , Fleming died of a heart attack ; eight months later , The Man with the Golden Gun was published . The rights to Fleming 's works were held by Glidrose Productions ( now Ian Fleming Publications ) and it was decided by the company that two short stories , " Octopussy " and " The Living Daylights " , would be published in 1966 .
= = = " Octopussy " = = =
The story " Octopussy " was written in early 1962 at Fleming 's Goldeneye estate in Jamaica . The story is told in the manner of " Quantum of Solace " , with Bond as catalyst for story told in flashback , rather than as a main character for action . The topics chosen for Fleming were familiar ground for him to cover , with hidden gold , tropical fish and the wartime exploits of commandos all coming from elements of his past . Also from the past , or from his acquaintance , were other references used in the story and Miscellaneous Objectives Bureau was a fictional version of Fleming 's 30 AU unit . One of Fleming 's neighbours in Jamaica , and later his lover , was Blanche Blackwell , mother of Chris Blackwell of Island Records . Fleming had previously used Blackwell 's name as the guano @-@ collecting ship in Dr. No , calling it Blanche . Blackwell had given Fleming a coracle called Octopussy , the name of which Fleming used for the story . Octopussy was posthumously serialised in the Daily Express newspaper , 4 – 8 October 1965 .
= = = " The Living Daylights " = = =
Fleming originally titled " The Living Daylights " as " Trigger Finger " , although when it first appeared , in the The Sunday Times colour supplement of 4 February 1962 , it was under the title of " Berlin Escape " . It was also published in June 1962 issue of the American magazine Argosy under the same name . For The Sunday Times , Fleming had commissioned Graham Sutherland to undertake the artwork to accompany the piece , at a cost of 100 guineas , although the artwork wasn 't used in the published edition .
As background research to the story , Fleming corresponded with Captain E.K. Le Mesurier , secretary of the National Rifle Association at Bisley for information and to correct some of the more specialist areas of knowledge required for sniper shooting . Part of the background to the plot , of using the noise of the orchestra to cover the crossing over no man 's land , was inspired by Pat Reid 's escape from Colditz prisoner of war camp , with two escapers having to run across a courtyard under the cover of the noise from an orchestra . The conductor of the Colditz orchestra was Douglas Bader , who played golf with Fleming on a number of occasions . The assassin , Trigger , was partly based on Amaryllis Fleming , Ian 's half @-@ sister , a concert cellist with blonde hair , and Fleming managed to get a passing reference to her in the story , saying : " Of course Suggia had managed to look elegant , as did that girl Amaryllis somebody . "
= = = " Property of a Lady " = = =
" Property of a Lady " , which was written in early 1963 , was commissioned by Sotheby 's for use in their annual journal , The Ivory Hammer , and was published in November 1963 and later in Playboy ; Sotheby 's chairman Peter Wilson is mentioned by name in the story . Fleming was so unhappy with the final piece he wrote to Wilson and refused payment for something he considered so lacklustre .
= = = " 007 in New York " = = =
In 1959 Fleming was commissioned by The Sunday Times to write a series of articles based on world cities , material for which later was collected into a book entitled Thrilling Cities ; whilst travelling through New York for material , Fleming wrote " 007 in New York " from Bond 's point of view . " 007 in New York " was originally titled " Reflections in a Carey Cadillac " and it contains a recipe for scrambled eggs which came from May Maxwell , the housekeeper to friend Ivar Bryce who gave her name to Bond 's own housekeeper , May . The story was first published in the New York Herald Tribune in October 1963 as " Agent 007 in New York " , but was subsequently renamed as " 007 in New York " for the 1964 US editions of Thrilling Cities .
= = Release and reception = =
Octopussy and The Living Daylights was published in Britain on 23 June 1966 by Jonathan Cape and cost 10s.6d. The hardback edition of the book contained only the two stories mentioned in the title , although when the paperbacks editions were published , " The Property of a Lady " was also included . Once again artist Richard Chopping provided the cover art , although his fee rose once again , to 350 guineas . The book was published in US by New American Library with illustrations from Paul Bacon . By 2002 , " 007 in New York " had been added to the book by Penguin Books .
= = = Reviews = = =
Philip Larkin wrote in The Spectator that " I am not surprised that Fleming preferred to write novels . James Bond , unlike Sherlock Holmes , does not fit snugly into the short story length : there is something grandiose and intercontinental about his adventures that require elbow room and such examples of the form as we have tend to be eccentric or muted . These are no exception . " The critic for The Times Literary Supplement wrote that the book was " slight and predictable , and usual sex and violence yield to a plausible use of ballistics and marine biology " . Writing in The Listener , Anthony Burgess thought that " in their fascinated poring on things ... remind us that the stuff of the anti @-@ novel needn 't necessarily spring from a thought @-@ out aesthetic " , going on to note that " it is the mastery of the world that gives Fleming his peculiar literary niche " . On a personal note , Burgess added " I admired all the Bond books and I 'm sorry there 'll be no more . A sad farewell to Fleming " .
= = Adaptations = =
Comic strip adaptation ( 1966 – 1967 )
Two of the short stories were adapted for publication in comic strip format , which were published daily in the Daily Express newspaper and syndicated worldwide . " The Living Daylights " ran from 12 September to 12 November 1966 , adapted by Jim Lawrence and illustrated by Yaroslav Horak ; the same pair also worked on " Octopussy " , which ran from 14 November 1966 to 27 May 1967 . The story lines for the strips were altered from the original Fleming version to ensure that they contained a glamorous reason for being Bond involved and to include Bond in action . The strips were reprinted by Titan Books in 1988 and then again in The James Bond Omnibus Vol . 2 , published in 2011 .
Octopussy ( 1983 )
In 1983 Eon Productions loosely adapted elements of two of the stories , " Octopussy " and " The Property of a Lady " for the thirteenth film in their Bond series , starring Roger Moore as Bond . " Octopussy " provided the title of the film and the background for the character Octopussy , the daughter of a character Bond had allowed to commit suicide , rather than face the shame of arrest and imprisonment . The film also used the plot device of auctioning of a Fabergé egg at Sotheby 's from " The Property of a Lady " and , as with the story , the auction item was described as being the same " property of a lady " .
The Living Daylights ( 1987 )
In 1987 Eon used the plot of " The Living Daylights " , almost unchanged , for a section of their 1987 film of the same name . The film starred Timothy Dalton in his first role as Bond , whilst the character of Trigger became that of cello player Kara Milovy .
Casino Royale ( 2006 )
In 2006 Eon used the plot of Fleming 's first novel , Casino Royale , for its 21st film of the same name . However , a main character was named Solange , after the woman featured in " 007 in New York . "
Quantum of Solace ( 2008 )
In 2008 Eon used the basic premise from the short story " 007 in New York " as part of the film Quantum of Solace , in which Bond warns a female intelligence employee that her boyfriend is an enemy agent .
Spectre ( 2015 )
In Spectre , Hans Oberhauser , a background character in " Octopussy " is revealed to be the father of Ernst Stavro Blofeld and a former caretaker of Bond in his youth . In the film it is stated that Blofeld killed Oberhauser because he felt that Oberhauser loved Bond more than him , his own son .
= The Dragon 's Call =
" The Dragon 's Call " is the first episode of the first series of the British fantasy @-@ adventure family television series Merlin . Written by Julian Jones and directed by James Hawes , the episode was first broadcast on BBC One on 20 September 2008 .
The episode tells the arrival of Merlin ( Colin Morgan ) as a young man in Camelot , where magic is banned by King Uther Pendragon ( Anthony Head ) . Taken under the wing of Camelot 's physician , Gaius ( Richard Wilson ) , he is warned that he must keep his innate magical ability a secret . In Camelot , he meets Uther 's heir , the arrogant Prince Arthur ( Bradley James ) , as well as Lady Morgana ( Katie McGrath ) and her handmaid , Guinevere ( Angel Coulby ) . As a witch ( Eve Myles ) plans revenge on the King 's heir for the execution of her son , Merlin is informed by a cryptic dragon ( John Hurt ) that his destiny is to protect Arthur .
Merlin was conceived by Julian Murphy and Johnny Capps to be an origin story for the characters of the Arthurian legends , with family @-@ centered entertainment . Young actors with little experience were cast as the four lead characters , while better @-@ known actors were cast in supporting roles . Many of the scenes in Camelot were filmed in France , at the Château de Pierrefonds , while the rest was filmed in England and Wales . Special effects were done by The Mill , who had the task of creating the talking dragon . " The Dragon 's Call " was watched by 7 @.@ 15 million viewers in the UK and 6 @.@ 3 million in the US on NBC . Critical reception was mixed , with some feeling the show had promise but lacked imagination , and the actual plot of " The Dragon 's Call " was deemed slight .
= = Plot = =
Merlin ( Colin Morgan ) , a young sorcerer , arrives in Camelot just in time to witness the execution of Thomas Collins , a man accused of sorcery , by the order of King Uther Pendragon ( Anthony Head ) , who has banned the practice of magic in his kingdom on pain of death . As soon as the man is beheaded , Uther declares to the watching crowd that he shall throw a festival to celebrate twenty years since he wiped out magic and magicians from the kingdom . When he finishes his announcements , a hideous old hag , Thomas ' mother Mary ( Eve Myles ) , swears revenge for the murder of her son , " a son for a son ! " , before vanishing to avoid arrest . The King 's ward , Morgana ( Katie McGrath ) , warns that Uther may be making enemies through his hatred and radical methods of wiping out magic .
Merlin reports to Camelot 's physician Gaius ( Richard Wilson ) and saves the old man 's life when he falls from a balcony by magically moving a mattress to cushion his fall . Though initially denying his abilities , Merlin later admits that he has had magical powers since birth , which Gaius warns him to keep secret . Reading a letter from Merlin 's mother , Gaius realises that the boy was sent to Camelot for protection . Meanwhile , in the forest outside Camelot , Mary kills Lady Helen ( Myles ) , a singer who is to perform at Uther 's court , with a poppet . Mary assumes Helen 's appearance using an enchantment , though her true hideous appearance can still be seen in her reflection ( like in mirrors or water ) .
Outside , Merlin stands up for a servant who is being bullied by his master , but as the master turns out to be the King 's spoiled son , Arthur ( Bradley James ) , Merlin is imprisoned . For the second night in a row , he hears a voice calling his name . Gaius frees him the next morning , though Merlin has to spend time in the stocks . There he meets Morgana 's handmaiden Guinevere or " Gwen " ( Angel Coulby ) , who commends him for being brave . Merlin confronts Arthur after being released , who tricks him into a fight with maces . Merlin keeps Arthur away using magic , which is met with ridicule by Gaius . Hearing the same voice calling his name that night , Merlin follows it to a cave where a dragon ( John Hurt ) informs him that he is destined to protect Arthur with his powers .
Gaius instructs Merlin to deliver elixirs to Morgana and Lady Helen ; in the latter 's room he finds the poppet , but bluffs his way out of discovery . Later , Helen kills a handmaiden who glimpses her true form in a mirror . At the feast , Mary sings an enchantment as Lady Helen , causing all the guests to fall asleep . Merlin , realising what is going on , covers his ears . Mary attempts to kill Arthur , but Merlin drops a chandelier on her with magic before she releases the dagger . As she has stopped singing , the enchantment is lifted and her true appearance is revealed . In a last effort she throws the dagger at Arthur , but Merlin slows time to pull him out of the way . Mary dies from her injuries , having failed in her attempt to avenge her son . Uther rewards Merlin by making him Arthur 's servant , though neither boy is thrilled with the idea . The next day , Gaius gives Merlin a book on magic , under condition that he keep it hidden .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and development = = =
Merlin was conceived by Shine Television producers Julian Murphy and Johnny Capps , who had worked together on Hex , a fantasy series produced by Shine for Sky One . The two had enjoyed presenting a " high @-@ concept " show , and wished to do more . The BBC had been interested in broadcasting a drama based on the character of Merlin for some time ; a little over a year before the Shine series was initiated , writer and producer Chris Chibnall had been developing a project aimed at a BBC One Sunday night slot , which was ultimately not commissioned . The programme was intended for family entertainment and designed to appeal to a wide audience .
As the Arthurian legends do not reflect genuine historical events , not being set in any one singular period in time , the show 's creators were more interested in conveying a world that felt " real " . Not constrained by historical accuracy , they had many opportunities to build the world in which they set their series ; for example , tomatoes were included despite being absent from Europe in the Medieval era , and there was never a dragon in the earliest texts involving Merlin . The series was intended to have an " epic scale " that would have a wide " cross @-@ generational " appeal ; films such as Raiders of the Lost Ark were cited as inspiration . Despite this , the creators strived to have smaller moments that the audience could relate to and comedy to lighten the darker tone . A fairy @-@ tale aspect was also incorporated - highlighted in " The Dragon 's Call " with the singing and cobwebs - to set the programme apart from others . Beauty and the Beast was an inspiration in this respect . Merlin was also influenced by the US show Smallville , about the early years of Superman ; Murphy and Capps said that Smallville helped provide the idea of a " Camelot that existed before its golden age " . The creators wanted to show Merlin , Arthur , Gwen and Morgana in their youth , " before they were famous " . Murphy and Capps intended for the four young characters and situations to be relatable to young viewers . They also put the characters in unusual positions with respect to their later , well @-@ known roles to make the audience wonder how they would reach those roles ; for example , Guinevere , the future Queen of Camelot and wife of Arthur , is a servant with a romantic interest in Merlin . Looking back at " The Dragon 's Call " , Murphy and Capps felt that it had so much to introduce in terms of world and characters that there was not enough of the main plot of the episode .
= = = Casting = = =
The producers were aware that they would be casting young actors with little experience in film and television . Hundreds were seen for the part of Merlin , with the part going to 22 @-@ year @-@ old Colin Morgan , whom Murphy and
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Capps felt possessed a broad acting range with good comedic timing and wonder , and who they felt would most importantly be likable to the audience . Bradley James was cast as Prince Arthur , whom the producers saw as a " medieval Prince Harry " . They felt that James ' sense of comedy balanced the fact that the character was intended to first appear acting like an " idiot " . Murphy and Capps had previously worked with James on a pilot , and kept him in the " back of [ their ] minds " when casting Arthur . Katie McGrath and Angel Coulby , who play Morgana and Gwen respectively , also had little previous professional acting experience . Despite this , it was noted that all four young actors took to their jobs maturely and with energy .
The series also incorporates more experienced and well @-@ known actors . Richard Wilson was cast as Gaius , who was conceived to have a dysfunctional father / son relationship with Merlin . Murphy and Capps had worked with Wilson before and considered him a broad actor with a " warmth " and " humanity " that would fit the character . The voice of the Great Dragon was given to John Hurt ; he was offered the part , though the producers did not expect him to accept . The role of King Uther went to veteran actor Anthony Head , who was best known for his role as Rupert Giles in Buffy the Vampire Slayer . Head had been one of the first choices for the part ; Murphy and Capps felt that he was good with " high @-@ concept " worlds . Murphy and Capps had also previously worked with Caroline Faber , who briefly appears as Merlin 's mother . The two liked her sense of humanity , though her scene — where Gaius reads her letter — was almost cut from " The Dragon 's Call " . Eve Myles guest stars in " The Dragon 's Call " as the villain Mary Collins and her host body Lady Helen . Murphy and Capps remarked that Myles gave a " big " but " truthful " performance , and really " embraced " being a villain . Myles sang during the filming of the climax , though her voice was replaced with a real operatic soprano in post @-@ production . Composer Rob Lane was given little time to complete the song and , though he was given Old English texts , the lyrics do not make actual sense .
= = = Filming = = =
Merlin began production in March 2008 ; as many as three episodes were filmed at a time , and not necessarily in the correct order . Many scenes in Camelot were filmed in France at the Château de Pierrefonds , which was hand @-@ picked by the production team . Castles in England had been looked at , but they were often in ruins and would require more computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) effects in post @-@ production . A medieval @-@ era road was built around Pierrefonds for some scenes to give the sense of a town , as the castle was in isolation . The execution scene was one of the first major scenes shot . As the production team had to be able to work with French extras , a bilingual crew was required . The cell Merlin is imprisoned in and the banquet hall at the end were both filmed in English stately homes , with real medieval architecture . Other studio filming took place in Wales . The scene at the camp where Lady Helen stays had to be reshot because the tent was seen as " too Monty Python " and distracting .
Myles ' Mary Collins prosthetic took six hours to accomplish , and the shot where she morphs into the younger Lady Helen took seven hours to complete because it required three stages of make @-@ up . Her first performance at the beheading scene was met with applause by the extras ; Head requested that he redo his part of the scene because he felt that it was not good enough . Gaius ' fall from the balcony was done by a stuntman and filmed with a high @-@ speed camera . The mattress that Merlin magically moves across the floor was achieved with rigging it up to hidden wires and pulleys under the set . The knives Arthur throws were actually shot out of a nitrogen gun ; James did throw them in a separate shot , but against a cloth that he still missed . Fake fruit was made for the stocks scene , but it was deemed too fake @-@ looking and was replaced with real tomatoes . The mace fight was originally filmed with plastic maces , but they were not believable as they did not have enough weight . The scene was then shot with real steel maces ; it was one of the most complex and hardest scenes to execute . The climax , where the guests all fall asleep and are covered by cobwebs , took many days to complete . The chandelier falling was also considered difficult .
CGI special effects for the series were provided by The Mill . The production team wanted a talking dragon , but they were worried about the lip sync and did not think it would be believable until they saw the first test . The Mill created a software that would read Hurt 's facial muscles and incorporated it into the animation . Another concern was that the eyes would not convey the character , but this was corrected by the final version . Additional sound effects , such as the clanging chain , were added to give the creature weight . The knife Mary throws at Arthur was also completely CGI , though the shot of it hitting the chair was real .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Dragon 's Call " was first broadcast on BBC One in the United Kingdom on 20 September 2008 . Overnight ratings showed that the episode had been wached by 6 @.@ 65 million viewers live , a 30 % audience share , placing Merlin second for the night behind ITV 's The X @-@ Factor . The episode received a final rating of 7 @.@ 15 million viewers , the sixth most @-@ watched programme of the week on BBC One .
In the United States , " The Dragon 's Call " was aired back @-@ to @-@ back with the following episode " Valiant " on 21 June 2009 on network station NBC , the first time since 1978 's The New Avengers that a British programme was picked up by one of the U.S. ' s four major terrestrial networks , rather than cable . The premiere was watched by an average 5 @.@ 2 million viewers , with an average of 6 @.@ 3 million during the slot for " The Dragon 's Call " .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The premiere of Merlin received generally mixed reviews . Sam Wollaston of The Guardian was optimistic towards the programme , despite the violent content . He wrote that " Morgan is a very likable young Merlin " and the show " looks splendid — colourful , exciting , and yes , magic " . Daniel Martin of the same paper felt that the series had potential , though " The Dragon 's Call " had " awful dialogue " and was " a flimsy caper memorable only for centring around the wonderful big @-@ eyed Eve Myles " . The Hollywood Reporter reviewer Randee Dawn felt that it would " hurt [ the ] eyes " of those who were familiar with the Arthurian legends , but " for those new to the legend , this is a fresh , and delightfully color @-@ blind , approach to the tale " . Alessandra Stanley , reviewing for The New York Times , was pleased with the diversity of the cast and the chemistry between Morgan and James , though she felt it " would be better if its creators had taken more liberties and shown more imagination in coloring in the background of their young hero 's world " .
Metro gave the episode three out of five stars , writing that " Colin Morgan makes a likeable boy wizard but there ’ s a bit too much formula – and not in the magical sense " . The review described the episode as a " test of patience " due to Merlin 's inability to use magic and the " hideously jaunty , distinctly non @-@ medieval soundtrack " . Tom Shales of The Washington Post criticised the " sluggish pace " of the premiere , noting that the episode was only " brightened " by the dragon , though similar creatures were common in the genre and it " lacks personality as well as panache " . Shales felt that the series took " the stuff of legend and imagination and makes it dry and commonplace " . Den of Geek reviewer Mark Pickavance felt that the episode was " uneven and often very stilted " , and failed at introducing both the characters and telling the story of the first meeting of Arthur and Merlin . He was displeased with the deviation from established mythology and the lapses in logic . The Times 's AA Gill described Merlin as " bland " , writing that it was for " a large untapped audience that yearns for Abercrombie & Fitch drama " . Hermione Eyre of The Independent called it " horrible " , disliking the " modern " feeling , the " awful " make @-@ up , and commented that " Guinevere looks like a supply teacher " .
= Hero of the Russian Federation =
Hero of the Russian Federation ( Russian : Герой Российской Федерации ) is the highest honorary title of the Russian Federation . A person that has been bestown this title also receives a Gold Star medal , an insignia of honor that identifies recipients .
The title is awarded to persons for " service to the Russian state and nation , usually connected with a heroic feat of valor " . The title is bestowed by decree of the president of the Russian Federation . Russian citizenship or being in the service of the Russian state is not obligatory .
The title was established in 1992 , and has been awarded more than 970 times since then , including more than 440 times posthumously .
= = History = =
The title " Hero of Russia " is a successor to Hero of the Soviet Union ( Russian : Герой Советского Союза ) , which was established by Resolution of the Central Executive Committee of the Soviet Union of May 5 , 1934 . The corresponding Gold Star is derived from the Soviet design , created by architect Miron Merzhanov and approved by Decree of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of August 1 , 1939 .
Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 , Russian Federation under president Boris Yeltsin retained a modified award by Law of the Russian Federation № 2553 @-@ 1 of March 20 , 1992 . Article 71 of the Constitution of Russia permits titles , orders and medals to be presented by the government , and Article 89 gives the Russian president power to create state awards . This is the highest honour that can be presented by the Russian president to a citizen .
= = Statute = =
The title of Hero of the Russian Federation can be awarded for a heroic deed in the service of the state . It can be awarded to both civilian and military personnel . The title can also be awarded posthumously if the heroic act costs the recipient his or her life . The President of the Russian Federation is the main conferring authority of the award .
The insignia of Hero of the Russian Federation is worn on the left side of the chest above all other medals and decorations . Its medal is always worn in full size , there is no ribbon bar or rosette that can be worn in its lieu . When Soviet titles , such as Hero of the Soviet Union or Hero of Socialist Labour are worn together with the medal of the Russian title , the latter has precedence .
= = Description = =
The insignia of the title of " Hero of the Russian Federation " is also called the " Gold Star " medal ( Russian : медаль « Золотая Звезда » ) , its design is similar to the Soviet variant .
The " Gold Star " medal is a gold five @-@ pointed star with smooth 15mm dihedral rays on the obverse . The otherwise plain reverse bears the prominent relief inscription in 2mm high letters " HERO OF RUSSIA " ( Russian : " ГЕРОЙ РОССИИ " ) at its center , in the upper portion , the award serial number in 1mm high numbers .
The insignia is secured to a standard Russian square mount by a ring through the suspension loop . The mount is covered by a silk moiré tricolour ribbon of white , blue and red .
= = Recipients = =
The majority of the early recipients of the title fell into two categories : participants in the Chechnya conflicts or cosmonauts . On some occasions , the person who was awarded the title was killed while in the course of duty , such as Major Denis Vetchinov , who was killed early in the 2008 South Ossetia War . This includes those killed in battle as well as assassinated government officials . An example of such a recipient was Akhmad Kadyrov , the former governor of Chechnya . The pro @-@ Moscow leader was killed in a bomb attack during the 2004 Victory Day parade in the Chechen capital of Grozny . Several days after Akhmad was killed , President Vladimir Putin awarded him the title . Some time after the incident , Putin awarded Kadyrov 's son , Ramzan , the same title for his work in Chechnya .
All Russian cosmonauts are awarded the title of Hero of the Russian Federation following their voyage into space ; some may already have earned it , for example for long service as a test pilot . Cosmonauts are also awarded the title Pilot @-@ Cosmonaut of the Russian Federation . Some recipients of the title , such as Sergei Krikalev , had also received the Soviet hero title , along with the Order of Lenin . Most of the cosmonaut double heroes were awarded the Hero of the Soviet Union and Hero of Russia titles " for successful realization of flight and the courage and heroism shown . "
Outside of those two groups , athletes and other civilian and military officials have also received the title . Notable examples include :
Submarine captain Gennady Lyachin , of the Kursk , which sank after an explosion in 2000 . Due to his heroism during the explosion and his attempts at preserving the lives of the crew , Lyachin was posthumously awarded the title , and the members of his crew were awarded with the Order of Courage .
Athlete Larisa Lazutina was presented with the title for various medals won at the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano , Japan .
Alexander Karelin was awarded for his recognition as the greatest wrestler of all time ( from antiquity to the present day ) . He was a Greco @-@ Roman wrestler in the Olympics , and in his career he won 887 bouts and lost only 2 times . His losses are controversial because commentators believe they were caused by trivial rule changes , not a bona fide athletic defeat .
Arktika 2007 expedition members Anatoly Sagalevich , Yevgeny Chernyaev and Artur Chilingarov , who , on January 10 , 2008 , performed the first ever descent to the ocean bottom at the North Pole . Awarded the title " for courage and heroism showed in extremal conditions and successful completion of High @-@ Latitude Arctic Deep @-@ Water Expedition . "
Weapons designer Mikhail T. Kalashnikov , designer of the AK @-@ 47 assault rifle and PK machine gun . He received the honor on his 90th birthday , November 10 , 2009 .
The medal has been awarded posthumously approximately 340 times , primarily to people involved in the first and second wars in Chechnya . One of the more recent posthumous awards was made by President Dmitry Medvedev to Evgeny Chernyshov , the chief of the Moscow fire department on March 24 , 2010 . Chernyshov died March 20 , 2010 saving others ' lives .
= Oxford Circus tube station =
Oxford Circus is a London Underground station serving Oxford Circus at the junction of Regent Street and Oxford Street , with entrances on all four corners of the intersection . The station is an interchange between the Bakerloo , Central and Victoria lines . It is the busiest station in the United Kingdom , with 98 @.@ 51 million entries and exits in 2014 . On the Central line it is between Bond Street and Tottenham Court Road , on the Bakerloo line it is between Regent 's Park and Piccadilly Circus , and on the Victoria line it is between Green Park and Warren Street . The station is in Travelcard Zone 1 .
The Central line station opened on 30 July 1900 , and the Bakerloo line station on 10 March 1906 . Both are Grade II listed . The station was rebuilt in 1912 to relieve congestion . Further congestion led to another reconstruction in 1923 . Numerous improvements were made as part of the New Works Programme and as a flood protection measure . To accommodate additional passengers on the Victoria line , a new ticket hall was built . The Victoria line station opened on 7 March 1969 , including cross @-@ platform interchange with the Bakerloo line .
= = History = =
= = = Central line = = =
In the 1890s , the Central London Railway ( CLR ) published a notice of a private bill that would be presented to Parliament for the 1890 parliamentary session . The bill planned an underground route between Shepherd 's Bush and Cornhill ( now Bank station ) . These plans were accepted by both Houses of Parliament on 5 August 1891 .
The CLR employed the engineers James Henry Greathead , Sir John Fowler , and Sir Benjamin Baker to design the railway . The official opening of the CLR ( now the Central line ) by the Prince of Wales took place on 27 June 1900 ; it was opened to the public on 30 July . Oxford Circus station opened as part of the first section of the line , between Shepherd 's Bush and Bank . As part of the 1935 — 40 New Works Programme , the misaligned tunnels of the central section on the Central line that slowed running speeds were corrected and the platforms lengthened to accommodate longer trains .
= = = Bakerloo line = = =
In November 1891 , notice was given of a private bill that would be presented to Parliament for the construction of the Baker Street and Waterloo Railway ( BS & WR , now the Bakerloo line ) . The railway was planned to run entirely underground from Marylebone to Elephant & Castle via Baker Street and Waterloo . The route was approved in 1900 . Construction commenced in August 1898 under the direction of Sir Benjamin Baker , W.R. Galbraith and R.F. Church . The works were carried out by Perry & Company of Tregedar Works , Bow . Oxford Circus was altered below ground following a Board of Trade inspection ; at the end of 1905 , the first test trains began running . The official opening of the BS & WR by Sir Edwin Cornwall took place on 10 March 1906 . The first section of the BS & WR was between Baker Street and Lambeth North .
= = = Victoria line = = =
A proposal for a new underground railway running from Victoria to Walthamstow was first proposed by a Working Party set up by the British Transport Commission in 1948 , though that largely followed a 1946 plan for an East Croydon to Finsbury Park line . A route was approved in 1955 with future extensions to be decided later , though funding for the construction was not approved by the government until 1962 . Construction began in 1962 on the initial Walthamstow to Victoria section . The Victoria line platforms opened on 7 March 1969 . The station opened as part of a second extension from Warren Street to Victoria . Cross @-@ platform interchange between the Bakerloo and Victoria lines was provided by constructing the Victoria line platforms parallel to the Bakerloo ones .
= = = Incidents and accidents = = =
On 23 November 1984 , during renovation works , the station suffered a severe fire which burned out the northbound Victoria line platform . It is believed that the fire was caused by smoking materials being pushed through a ventilation grille into a storeroom where they set several materials on fire . This caused the Victoria line between Warren Street and Victoria to be suspended until 18 December the same year . This incident also led to a smoking ban being introduced on trains in July 1984 .
On 3 March 1997 , a train derailment caused the northbound Bakerloo line service between Oxford Circus and Piccadilly Circus to be suspended for 12 days .
= = Station building = =
= = = Bakerloo and Central lines = = =
The CLR and BSWR had separate surface buildings and lift shafts . The station buildings , which remain today as exits from the station , were built on very confined plots on either side of Argyll Street on the south side of Oxford Street , just east of the circus itself . The stations as originally built were entirely separate , but connecting passages were soon provided at platform level . The surviving Central London Railway building to the east of Argyll Street is the best surviving example of stations designed by Harry Bell Measures , and the Bakerloo line building to the west is a classic Leslie Green structure . Both are Grade II listed since 20 July 2011 .
Almost from the outset , overcrowding has been a constant problem , and there have been numerous improvements to the facilities and below @-@ ground arrangements to deal with this . After much discussion between the then two separate operators , a major reconstruction began in 1912 . This entailed a new ticket hall , serving both lines , being built in the basement of the Bakerloo station , with the Bakerloo lifts removed and new deep @-@ level escalators opened down to the Bakerloo line level . Access to the CLR was by way of existing deep @-@ level subways . The new works came into use on 9 May 1914 with the CLR lifts still available for passengers . By 1923 even this rearrangement was unable to cope , so a second rebuilding began . This involved a second set of escalators being built directly down to the Central line and the CLR station building becoming exit @-@ only . On 2 October 1928 , a third escalator leading to the Bakerloo platforms was opened . Unusually , lifts came back into prominence at an Underground station when , in 1942 , a set of high @-@ speed lifts came into use , largely used as an exit route from the Central line platforms directly to the Argyll Street exit building .
The station was closed between 31 August and 20 November 1939 to facilitate flood protection works for the preparation of The Second World War . Although street access was closed , trains still called , and interchange between the Bakerloo and Central lines was still possible within the station .
= = = Victoria line = = =
To handle the additional Victoria line passenger loads , a new ticket hall was constructed directly under the road junction . To excavate the new ticket hall below the roadway , traffic was diverted for five years ( August 1963 to Easter 1968 ) onto a temporary bridge @-@ like structure known as the " umbrella " covering the Regent Street / Oxford Street intersection . Service tunnels were constructed to carry water mains and telecom cables past the new ticket hall . Construction of the Victoria line station tunnels with their platforms , the new escalator shafts and the linking passages to the Central line platforms was carried out from access shafts sunk from nearby Cavendish Square , Upper Regent Street and Argyll Street . With the additional escalators in place , a new one @-@ way circulation scheme was introduced and the remaining lifts were removed .
= = The station today = =
In 2007 the station underwent a major modernisation , removing the murals installed on the Central and Bakerloo line platforms in the 1980s and replacing them with plain white tiles , in a style similar to those used when the station opened in 1900 . One 1980s mural remains on one of the platforms . The Central line platform works were substantially complete and a new Station Operations Room at top level opened . This enabled the entire CCTV system to be switched over to new recordable digital technology . The original motifs designed by Hans Unger on the Victoria line platforms were restored .
Oxford Circus station has 14 escalators . Major escalator refurbishment took place in 2010 – 11 . Platform humps were also installed at the station to provide step @-@ free access to trains . The Victoria line humps resemble in form the Harrington Hump .
= = Services and connections = =
= = = Services = = =
= = = = Bakerloo line = = = =
On this line , it is between Regent 's Park and Piccadilly Circus stations . Trains generally run every 4 – 9 minutes between 06 : 17 and 00 : 15 in both directions , a little less frequently than the Central and Victoria lines .
= = = = Central line = = = =
On this line , the station is between Bond Street and Tottenham Court Road stations . The typical off @-@ peak service in trains per hour ( tph ) is as follows :
9tph eastbound to Epping
6tph eastbound to Hainault
3tph eastbound to Loughton
3tph eastbound to Woodford via Hainault
3tph eastbound to Newbury Park
9tph westbound to West Ruislip
9tph westbound to Ealing Broadway
3tph westbound to Northolt
3tph westbound to White City
= = = = Victoria line = = = =
On this line , the station is located between Warren Street and Green Park . The typical off @-@ peak service in trains per hour ( tph ) is :
12 tph northbound to Seven Sisters
9 tph northbound to Walthamstow Central
21 tph southbound to Brixton
= = = Connections = = =
London Bus routes 3 , 6 , 7 , 10 , 12 , 13 , 23 , 25 , 55 , 73 , 88 , 94 , 98 , 137 , 139 , 159 , 189 , 390 , 453 and C2 , and night routes N3 , N7 , N8 , N13 , N18 , N55 , N73 , N98 , N109 , N113 , N136 , N137 and N207 serve the station . Additionally , bus routes 6 , 10 , 12 , 23 , 25 , 88 , 94 , 139 , 159 , 189 , 390 , 453 and C2 provide a 24 @-@ hour bus service .
= = Nearby attractions = =
All Souls Church , Langham Place
BBC Broadcasting House
Carnaby Street
Langham Hotel
London College of Fashion , John Princes Street
London Palladium , Argyll Street
Oxford Street
Regent Street
St George 's , Hanover Square
= I Know What You 'll Do Next Summer =
" I Know What You 'll Do Next Summer " is the eighteenth episode of the third season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , and the 62nd episode overall . Written by Jonathan Moskin and David Mulei and directed by Nick Marck , the episode premiered on The CW on May 15 , 2007 . The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a college student while moonlighting as a private detective .
In this episode , when a Hearst student and former child soldier in Uganda named Apollo ( Nelsan Ellis ) publishes a memoir , Veronica receives a phone call from a man claiming to be his father . Meanwhile , Logan ( Jason Dohring ) and Dick ( Ryan Hansen ) plan to go on a surfing vacation in the summer , coming into conflict with several people . In addition , Piz ( Chris Lowell ) must decide between two summer internships .
" I Know What You 'll Do Next Summer " incorporates the organization Invisible Children , Inc. into its storyline and includes a public service announcement for the group at the end of the episode . Hansen and Bell are celebrity supporters of the organization , and series creator Rob Thomas was inspired to devote an episode to the subject of child soldiers when Hansen gave him a book about Uganda the previous Christmas . In its original broadcast , the episode received 2 @.@ 10 million viewers and generally positive reviews from television critics , with many praising the character development of Dick and the case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week .
= = Synopsis = =
Veronica and Piz hang out at her house . Keith ( Enrico Colantoni ) tests Veronica on her upcoming private investigator exam , and Piz states that he is interviewing a former child soldier , Apollo , and Hearst student for his radio show . Keith informs his deputies that a robbery wave has been occurring . Piz interviews the student before telling Veronica that he has been offered an internship by Pitchfork Media . Veronica receives a 95 % on the PI exam before being called by a man stating that Apollo is his son . Keith speaks to a suspect in some of the robberies and discovers that he is connected to the Fitzpatricks . Logan meets Parker ’ s ( Julie Gonzalo ) parents , who are very uptight . Veronica speaks to Apollo , posing as a reporter for the school newspaper , finding that Apollo ’ s mother ’ s handwriting is very similar to the letter his father claimed to have from his mother .
Logan tells Parker that he will not be seeing her in the summer because he will be on a surfing trip with Dick . Mac ( Tina Majorino ) and Max ( Adam Rose ) spend all their time together . Piz tells Veronica about another internship in Neptune , but she dodges his attempts to ask which one he should take . Keith meets Liam Fitzpatrick ( Rod Rowland ) , who states that the robberies will not stop . Apollo learns that Veronica was not assigned by the school paper , and Veronica tells him the truth , but he refuses a paternity test . Some people begin to grow dissatisfied with Keith ’ s handling of the robberies , while Apollo ’ s father claimant appears in Neptune . Veronica searches for Apollo , learning from his former roommate that Apollo did not actually write the book , and he was never a child soldier . However , Wallace ( Percy Daggs III ) urges her not to expose him as a hoax , as his book as actually helping charities that aid child soldiers .
Apollo tells Veronica that he actually does want the paternity test . Dick ’ s father , who was involved in a corporate crime , appears and berates him for going on the surfing trip in the summer . Apollo takes the paternity test , but the father doesn ’ t appear . However , Apollo informs Veronica that he actually was a child soldier , enlisting his former roommate to tell her that he wasn ’ t so that he could ensure his father was genuinely loving . The only reason the father did not show up to the paternity test was that he was detained for having the wrong license plates . Apollo and the father meet at the Sheriff ’ s office , where they have an emotional reunion . Dick angrily confronts his father , but the next time he is seen , he calls off his trip with Logan . Logan tells Parker this news , and she is disappointed .
= = Production = =
" I Know What You 'll Do Next Summer " was written by Jonathan Moskin and David Mulei and directed by Nick Marck , marking Moskin 's third and final writing credit , Mulei 's second and final writing credit , and Marck 's tenth and final directing credit . The episode contains several references to the charity Invisible Children , Inc . , which aims to increase awareness for the use of child soldiers in the Lord 's Resistance Army in Uganda . The episode also ends with a public service announcement delivered by Jason Dohring , Kristen Bell and Ryan Hansen out @-@ of @-@ character . Bell is an active supporter of the organization , while Hansen is the brother @-@ in @-@ law of founder Jason Russell .
Series creator Rob Thomas was initially worried about including the reunion between Apollo and Kizza because he thought that such scenes did not play to his strengths as a storyteller . However , he was pleased with the result because of the two actors ' performances . The two performers had never met each other prior to this scene , and they were filming within four minutes of setup time . One quip by Vinnie ( Ken Marino ) about the office 's secretaries was a callback to a similar joke in " Of Vice and Men " . Thomas was inspired to focus an episode on a former Ugandan child soldier by two incidents . The first was when he was initially informed about the situation by a former student of his mother 's , while at Christmas the previous year , Hansen had given books about Ugandan child soldiers to all the writers . In the episode , Apollo is scheduled to appear on The Oprah Winfrey Show ; Oprah 's Book Club was discussing a book about a child soldier at the time , but this was a coincidence . In the episode , Piz states that he has been given an internship with Pitchfork Media at their headquarters in New York City ; however , the location is incorrect .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original broadcast , " I Know What You 'll Do Next Summer " received 2 @.@ 10 million viewers , ranking 87th of 90 in the weekly rankings . This was an increase in roughly 250 @,@ 000 viewers from the previous episode , " Debasement Tapes " , which earned 1 @.@ 85 million viewers .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received generally positive reviews from television critics , many of whom praised the case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week and the character development of Dick Casablancas . Eric Goldman of IGN graded the episode an 8 @.@ 8 out of 10 , indicating that it was " great " . He lauded the episode 's handling of its political subject matter and the return of older storylines . He argued that " I Know What You 'll Do Next Summer " used its political message much better than " Un @-@ American Graffiti " , which aired two weeks prior ; he thought that this episode 's story made its political message more subtle than the previous episode . The reviewer also enjoyed the development of Dick 's character that occurred with the return of his father , stating that the scene in which Dick yelled at his father " an excellent moment that helped bring a lot of new shading to the funny , but usually one @-@ note character . " Keith 's storyline was another center of praise , with the reviewer stating that he thought the Fitzpatricks ' plot line had been too rushed earlier in the season . Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly was generally positive as well , noting the romantic uncertainty between Veronica and Piz , Logan and Parker , and Mac and Max , drawing parallels between this aspect of the episode and the series ' uncertain future . In addition , the reviewer thought highly of Dick 's confrontation with his father and the case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week . Television Without Pity graded the episode a " B + " .
In a review written during the success of the film campaign Kony 2012 on the internet , Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club thought that he found himself frequently comparing the episode 's treatment of child soldiers with the discussion of Invisible Children at the time . " This isn 't a bad thing . It 's a representation of how television , like any art form , can have multiple meanings , which evolve over time . " However , the reviewer knew that Apollo was not going to be a fraud given the cast members ' support of the organization . The reviewer also praised Hansen 's reaction to his father 's return . Kelly West of Cinema Blend wrote that " tonight 's episode of ' Veronica Mars ' was a cornucopia of emotions . "
= Live While We 're Young =
" Live While We 're Young " is a song by English @-@ Irish boy band One Direction , released as the lead single from their second studio album , Take Me Home ( 2012 ) . Written by Savan Kotecha and its producers , Rami Yacoub and Carl Falk , the number was released by Syco Records on 28 September 2012 . Falk , Kotecha , and Yacoub had collaboratively helmed One Direction 's previous hits , " What Makes You Beautiful " and " One Thing " . The track is an uptempo , upbeat bubblegum pop song which features rock undertones , vocal harmonies , hand claps , prominent electric guitar riffs , and repetitive synthesizers . The chorus of the song is predominantly featured alongside the bridge , and is backed by wordless chants . Its opening guitar riff bears similarities with The Clash 's 1982 single , " Should I Stay or Should I Go " .
The track received mostly positive reviews from critics , who centred on its omnipresence and jubilant nature . The only negative feedback the song got was centered on the lyrics , which were interpreted as a thinly veiled euphemism for sexual intercourse . A commercial success , the song became a top ten hit in fifteen countries , while reaching the top of the charts in New Zealand and Ireland . In the United States , " Live While We 're Young " debuted at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , marking the second @-@ highest bow among all UK acts , outpaced only by Elton John 's number one arrival with " Candle in the Wind 1997 " .
Following an unauthorized internet leak , the accompanying music video was officially released on 20 September 2012 , four days earlier than the intended release date . Directed by Vaughan Arnell , the clip , which has a camping festival theme , was generally well received by critics , who commended its carefree nature . Upon release , it broke the Vevo record for having the most views in a 24 @-@ hour period with 8 @.@ 24 million , besting the previous record which had been set by Justin Bieber 's " Boyfriend " ( 8 @.@ 00 million ) . Bieber subsequently regained the record with his music video for " Beauty and a Beat " ( 10 @.@ 6 million ) . One Direction performed " Live While We 're Young " on televised programs and during their two major concert tours : Take Me Home Tour ( 2013 ) and Where We Are Tour ( 2014 ) . The track was featured in a Pepsi television commercial for the United States and was performed on an episode of Glee . This song is the first track on Now 45 .
= = Background and release = =
" Live While We 're Young " was written by Rami Yacoub , Carl Falk , and Savan Kotecha , and was produced by Yacoub and Falk . The trio had collaboratively helmed One Direction 's previous hits , " What Makes You Beautiful " and " One Thing " . In early 2012 , the group confirmed a follow @-@ up release for their debut album , Up All Night ( 2011 ) , was in development . " In the summer , we ’ re going to get back and start a new record . We want to bring out a record nearly every year , every year and a half , " member Niall Horan said , revealing they were arranging " meetings and stuff with different writers and producers . " The band began recording the album in May 2012 , in Stockholm , Sweden , at Kinglet Studios — " Live While We 're Young " is a result of those recording sessions . In June 2012 , Horan spoke to MTV News , elaborating that the lead single would probably be released in September 2012 .
The band confirmed the single by uploading a video to YouTube on 23 August 2012 . Globally , the song was made available for pre @-@ order at 24 : 00 GMT on 24 August , through the iTunes Store , while excluding , Canada , Japan , and the United States . The artwork was revealed on 14 September . Jocelyn Vena of MTV News described it as portraying " the fivesome enjoying the outdoors during a camping trip , goofing off outside a tent . " On 28 September , Sony Music Entertainment released it digitally in Australia , New Zealand , and most of Europe . It impacted the United Kingdom on 30 September , while in the United States it was released on 1 October . Due to a processing error , the US iTunes Store was selling the track for 99 cents — instead of the general $ 1 @.@ 29 . Label sources indicated the initial price was a mistake , but could not be corrected until midday 1 October . By the afternoon , the price had changed from 99 cents to $ 1 @.@ 29 .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Live While We 're Young " is an uptempo , upbeat bubblegum pop song which features rock undertones , vocal harmonies , hand claps , prominent electric guitar riffs , and repetitive synthesizers , reminiscent of the musical structures of their debut album . The opening guitar riff has been noted as similar to that of The Clash song " Should I Stay or Should I Go " ( 1982 ) . According to Alexis Petridis of The Guardian , the guitar is played thrice between the riff with the plectrum stroking the strings , while it is pressed . One note in the chord is changed , which Petridis surmised was probably to avoid paying any royalty to the Clash . Sam Lansky of Idolator noted that the song is musically similar to their breakthrough hit " What Makes You Beautiful " . In contrast to One Direction 's previous singles , the lead vocals are predominantly sung by Zayn Malik .
According to the digital sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , One Direction 's vocal range in the song span from the note of D4 to A5 . Written in the key of D major , the song is set in common time with a fast @-@ paced tempo of 126 beats per minute . The song follows a basic sequence of D – G – D – G – D – A as its chord progression . The chorus of the song is predominantly featured alongside the bridge , is backed by wordless chants , and encompasses the lines : " Let ’ s go crazy , crazy , crazy till we see the sun / I know we only met but let ’ s pretend it ’ s love / And never , never , never stop for anyone / Tonight let ’ s get some , and live while we ’ re young . " Several critics commonly concurred that the song 's lyrics interpret a thinly veiled euphemism for sexual intercourse . Kotecha quipped in a September 2012 interview with Sugarscape :
" The whole idea is that you have that nostalgic night out , so people who are older can listen to it too . None of us are naive enough not to know what kids do . It ’ s important not to patronise the youth of today , we ’ re not gonna be writing about ‘ oh let ’ s just hold hands for a while ’ you know ? They need their music to connect . A lot of songs are about sex and you have to be realistic about it . "
= = Critical response = =
Robert Copsey of Digital Spy gave " Live While We 're Young " four out of five stars and wrote , " it 's little different from what we 've heard before — but when you 're the world 's biggest boyband , it 's no bad thing . " Mikael Wood of the Los Angeles Times summarised it as a " characteristically peppy piece of high @-@ gloss party pop . " Lansky praised its effectiveness and thought it was " perfectly tailored to top the charts . " Andrew Unterberger of Popdust acknowledged that " the song is smart to swipe the guitar @-@ only opening pattern from The Clash 's " Should I Stay or Should I Go ? " — akin to " What Makes You Beautiful " lifting the " Summer Nights " beginning — calling on pop history to get you excited for the song before you even really realise why . " Unterberger further highlighted the small lyrical plays for conveying " an incredible amount of urgency and fun without much clunky verbage [ sic ] , making singing along something of an inevitability . " A writer for The Huffington Post asserted that the song delivers for fans of their debut album : " a poppy , energetic , happy @-@ go @-@ lucky track . "
Sylvie Lesas of Evigshed Magazine gave it a rating of five out of five stars , called it " upbeat , fun and very fresh " , and proclaimed that " radios are going to love it . " Chris Younie of 4Music called it " insanely catchy " , lauding its production for combining a " simple " guitar riff with an " anthemic feel @-@ good chorus " . Alexandra Capotorto of PopCrush rated it four stars out of five , deeming it memorable and " irresistible " for any demographic . Vena opined that the " bit cheeky " song perfectly embodies a " joie de vivre message . " MSN Music 's Tina Hart concluded , " It 's fun , pure unadulterated pop and I like it . " Writing for The Vancouver Sun , Leah Collins quipped that even though the song lifts its main riff from a The Clash song , " this tune is as yummy and bubble @-@ gummy as anything " on One Direction 's debut studio album Up All Night ( 2011 ) . Newsday 's Glenn Gamboa acknowledged that the song is even more omnipresent than the band 's previous hits combined .
In a detailed review , HitFix 's Melina Newman denounced its lyrical content : " Even though they never are so blatant about it that booty call subtext can 't go right over their tween audience 's head , there 's no mistaking lines like “ if we get together , don ’ t let the pictures ever leave your phone ” for anyone who 's 13 or up . The lyrics are unwieldy and uncouth . That 's what happens when you 're not a boy , but not yet a man : One Direction can 't go straight from the G @-@ rated sweetness of “ What Makes You Beautiful ” to something akin to Enrique Iglesias 's " Tonight , I ’ m F * * * * * * You , " so instead they ’ re stuck with this in between clumsiness that the not @-@ so @-@ little girls will understand . " Grady Smith of Entertainment Weekly characterised it as " not @-@ so @-@ innocent " and a " party jam " . Jason Lipshutz of Billboard felt that its sexual suggestive lyricism " arrives too soon after the more accomplished puppy @-@ love odes of previous hits " What Makes You Beautiful " and " One Thing " to further the conversation . "
= = Commercial performance = =
" Live While We 're Young " debuted on the Irish Singles Chart at number one on 4 October 2012 , becoming One Direction 's fourth top ten appearance and their second chart @-@ topper in Ireland . In the United Kingdom , the single became One Direction 's fourth UK Singles Chart top ten hit in twelve months , entering at number three on 7 October 2012 . Elsewhere in Europe , the song became a top ten hit in Austria , Belgium ( Flanders ) , Czech Republic , Denmark , Hungary , Italy , the Netherlands , Spain , and Switzerland . It was certified gold by both the Federation of the Italian Music Industry ( FIMI ) and IFPI Denmark , denoting collective shipments of 30 @,@ 000 . Additionally , it attained top forty positions in European territories such as Belgium ( Wallonia ) , France , Germany , Sweden , and Slovakia . The single debuted at number two on the Australian Singles Chart dated 14 October 2012 , with first @-@ week sales of 58 @,@ 659 copies . The single marks the group 's highest peaking song in Australia , passing up the number @-@ three peak of " One Thing " , and their third top ten hit . The track was certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of 140 @,@ 000 copies . The track made its New Zealand Singles Chart debut at number one on 8 October 2012 , marking the group 's first number @-@ one hit , and their second top five charting song in New Zealand . " Live While We 're Young " has received a platinum certification from Recorded Music NZ ( RMNZ ) , indicating sales of 15 @,@ 000 copies . After three days of digital availability , the song made its Canadian Hot 100 debut at number 78 on 4 October 2012 . It surged to its peak position of number two the following week , recording the highest number of digital downloads in the tracking week for a song in Canada .
In the United States , One Direction made US chart history by achieving the biggest opening one @-@ week sales figure for a song by a non @-@ US artist ever ; the track entered the Digital Songs chart at number one on 10 October 2012 , selling 341 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . Additionally , it was the first time since January 2012 , when Adele 's " Set Fire to the Rain " was the top seller that a single by a British act had led that list and its weekly sales is also the highest by a British act since another Adele track " Rolling in the Deep " , sold 353 @,@ 000 units in a week in May 2011 . The single 's opening sales is also the third biggest debut ever for a download by a group , surpassed by the arrivals of Maroon 5 's 2012 single " Payphone " ( 493 @,@ 000 ) , and The Black Eyed Peas ' 2009 single " Boom Boom Pow " ( 465 @,@ 000 ) . " Live While We 're Young " debuted at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , marking the highest bow by a British group and the second @-@ highest debut among all UK acts , outpaced only by Elton John 's number one arrival in 1997 with " Candle in the Wind 1997 " . In addition , that tracking week marked the first time two UK artists have simultaneously started in the Billboard Hot 100 top ten , as Adele 's " Skyfall " debuted at number eight . Billboard correspondent Keith Caufield noted its " huge sales " spurred its high entry on the Billboard Hot 100 , which blends sales , airplay and streaming data . " Live While We 're Young " also became the act 's highest peaking single , passing up the number @-@ four peak of " What Makes You Beautiful " . In the week ending 20 January 2013 , the song topped the one million mark in US sales . Likewise , the song was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on 23 January 2013 , and it has sold 1 @,@ 248 @,@ 000 copies in the US as of November 2013 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Live While We 're Young " was directed by Vaughan Arnell . On 24 August 2012 , One Direction announced that an accompanying music video for " Live While We 're Young " was filmed at a " secret place . " Afterwards it was confirmed that this place was Tunbridge Wells , Kent , England . In August 2012 , images of the shoot leaked on to the internet , which featured members of One Direction along with a group of people having a party in a pool . According to a MTV News article published on 14 September 2012 , the video would feature a " summer music festival vibe " with the group " getting wet and wild , acting silly with props and getting soaked by water guns . " The official video was initially due to premier on 24 September 2012 . However , a poor quality version of the music video leaked online on 20 September 2012 : the same day it was officially published on One Direction 's Vevo channel on YouTube . In regard , the group released a statement : " We wanted our fans to see the video and hear the single in the proper way so we 've moved the premiere to tonight . We 're really excited about LWWY , we 've worked really hard on it and we can 't wait for everyone to see and hear it later today ! "
The video begins with One Direction waking up in a tent . Outside , Payne starts singing the opening lines , as others are seen playing guitars sitting on hay bales in a camp setting . Subsequent scenes inter cut featuring One Direction performing the song at the camp setting in a circle , on an open field , driving a car , and at a lake where members of the group play in plastic bubbles and boats . As it turns to nighttime , the camp is the main setting ; they conduct a football match and afterwards a pool party . The video ends with One Direction looking at the camera , with Malik singing the last line . Throughout the video , teenage boys and girls are showing with the band .
Upon release , the video broke the Vevo record for having the most views in a 24 @-@ hour period with 8 @.@ 24 million views , besting the previous record which had been set by Justin Bieber 's " Boyfriend " ( 8 @.@ 00 million ) . Bieber regained the record with the release of the music video for " Beauty and a Beat " ( 10 @.@ 6 million ) on 12 October 2012 . It received positive reviews from music critics , who generally complimented its carefree , jubilant nature . Smith quipped that it has " notable moments , " which he cited , " glowstick campfire dances , inflatable pool splashing , four wheeler racing , and an unfortunate blonde streak in Zayn [ Malik ] ' s hair . " The Hollywood Reporter writer Sophie A. Schillaci called it " fun @-@ filled " , and concluded that the video perfectly accompanies the track 's lyricism . Lansky called the " high quality " clip " fairly standard 1D fare " , elaborating : " the boys get up to some teenage shenanigans and , well , live while they ’ re young . When their festivities culminate in a pool party that reads more like a wet t @-@ shirt contest than anything else , it 's abundantly clear that 1D knows their audience . " The Huffington Post characterised it as an " epic summer adventure " , assessing : " from a camping trip to the ultimate beach party , complete with a shirtless Niall [ Horan ] and inflatable banana . " Collins described it as featuring the group " doing what they do best — scampering , singing , scampering some more . " ITN 's Lindsay Brown viewed the video as " wholesome " , showing them " having some good old fashioned fun . " Fuse editor Nicole James praised the apparent recurring trend of " how the group isn 't afraid to make fun of themselves . " James elaborated : " If it were any other boy band acting out the Monkees @-@ inspired hijinks in 1D 's new video " Live While We 're Young , " it would likely come off as super cheesy . But for these five guys , their sense of comfortable self @-@ awareness really comes through . " As of May 2016 , the video has over 460 million views.The music video also looks like similar to Big Time Rush 's song " Windows Down " music video
= = Live performances and usage in media = =
One Direction performed the track along with songs of their debut album at the 2012 BBC Radio 1 Teen Awards ( 7 October ) . The group performed " Live While We 're Young " on The X Factor Italy ( 1 November ) and on the The X Factor Sweden ( 2 November ) . They also performed " Live While We 're Young " and " Little Things " on The X Factor USA ( 8 November ) . The band performed the track alongside " What Makes You Beautiful " , " Little Things " , and " Kiss You " on The Today Show at the Rockefeller Center ( 13 November
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and came to Tulsidas in the morning to ask who the two guards were . Believing that the two guards could be none other than Rama and Lakshmana , Tulsidas was aggrieved to know that they were guarding his home at night . He sent the manuscript of Ramcahritmanas to his friend Rai Todar Mal , the finance minister of Akbar , and donated all his money . The thieves were reformed and became devotees of Rama .
= = = = Last compositions = = = =
Around Vikram 1664 ( 1607 CE ) , Tulsidas was afflicted by acute pain all over his body , especially in his arms . He then composed the Hanuman Bahuk , where he describes his bodily pain and suffering in several stanzas . He was relieved of his pain after this composition . Later he was also afflicted by Bartod boils ( Hindi : बरतोड ़ , furuncles caused by pulling out of the hair ) , which may have been the cause of his death .
The Vinaypatrika is considered as the last compositions of Tulsidas , believed to be written when Kali Yuga started troubling him . In this work of 279 stanzas , he beseeches Rama to give him Bhakti ( " devotion " ) , and to accept his petition . Tulsidas attests in the last stanza of Vinaypatrika that Rama himself signed the manuscript of the work . The 45th stanza of the Vinaypatrika is sung as the evening Aarti by many Hindus .
= = = Death = = =
Tulsidas died at the Assi Ghat on the bank of the river Ganga in the Shraavan ( July – August ) month of the year Vikram 1680 ( 1623 CE ) . Like the year of his birth , traditional accounts and biographers do not agree on the exact date of his death . Different sources give the date as the third day of the bright half , seventh day of the bright half , or the third day of the dark half .
= = Works = =
Twelve works are widely considered by biographers to be written by Tulsidas , six major works and six minor works . Based on the language of the works , they have been classified into two groups as follows –
Awadhi works – Ramcharitmanas , Ramlala Nahachhu , Barvai Ramayan , Parvati Mangal , Janaki Mangal and Ramagya Prashna .
Braja works – Krishna Gitavali , Gitavali , sahitya ratna , Dohavali , Vairagya Sandipani and Vinaya Patrika .
Besides these twelve works , four more works are popularly believed to be composed by Tulsidas which include Hanuman Chalisa , Hanuman Ashtak , Hanuman Bahuk and Tulsi Satsai .
= = = Ramcharitmanas = = =
Ramacharitamanas ( रामचरितमानस , 1574 – 1576 ) , " The Mānasa lake brimming over with the exploits of Lord Rāma " is an Awadhi rendering of the Ramayana narrative . It is the longest and earliest work of Tulsidas , and draws from various sources including the Ramayana of Valmiki , the Adhyatma Ramayana , the Prasannaraghava and Hanuman Nataka . The work consists of around 12 @,@ 800 lines divided into 1073 stanzas , which are groups of Chaupais separated by Dohas or Sorthas . It is divided into seven books ( Kands ) like the Ramayana of Valmiki , and is around one @-@ third of the size of Valmiki 's Ramayana . The work is composed in 18 metres which include ten Sanskrit metres ( Anushtup , Shardulvikridit , Vasantatilaka , Vamshashta , Upajati , Pramanika , Malini , Sragdhara , Rathoddhata and Bhujangaprayata ) and eight Prakrit metres ( Soratha , Doha , Chaupai , Harigitika , Tribhangi , Chaupaiya , Trotaka and Tomara ) . It is popularly referred to as Tulsikrit Ramayana , literally The Ramayana composed by Tulsidas . The work has been acclaimed as " the living sum of Indian culture " , " the tallest tree in the magic garden of medieval Indian poesy " , " the greatest book of all devotional literature " , " the Bible of Northern India " , and " the best and most trustworthy guide to the popular living faith of its people . "
Several manuscripts of the Ramcharitmanas are claimed to have been written down by Tulsidas himself . Grierson wrote in the late nineteenth century , two copies of the epic were said to have existed in the poet 's own handwriting . One manuscript was kept at Rajapur , of which only the Ayodhyakand is left now , which bears marks of water . A legend goes that the manuscript was stolen and thrown into Yamuna river when the thief was being pursued , and only the second book of the epic could be rescued . Grierson wrote that the other copy was at Malihabad in Lucknow district , of which only one leaf was missing . Another manuscript of the Ayodhyakanda claimed to be in the poet 's own hand exists at Soron in Etah district , one of the places claimed to be Tulsidas ' birthplace . One manuscript of Balakanda , dated Samvat 1661 , nineteen years before the poet 's death , claimed to be corrected by Tulsidas , is at Ayodhya . Some other ancient manuscripts are found in Varanasi , including one in possession of the Maharaja of Benares that was written in Vikram 1704 ( 1647 ) , twenty @-@ four years after the death of Tulsidas .
= = = Other major works = = =
The five major works of Tulsidas apart from Ramcharitmanas include –
Dohavali ( दोहावली , 1581 ) , literally Collection of Dohas , is a work consisting of 573 miscellaneous Doha and Sortha verses mainly in Braja with some verses in Awadhi . The verses are aphorisms on topics related to tact , political wisdom , righteousness and the purpose of life . 85 Dohas from this work are also found in the Ramcharitmanas , 35 in Ramagya Prashna , two in Vairagya Sandipani and some in Rama Satsai , another work of 700 Dohas attributed to Tulsidas .
sahitya ratna or ratna Ramayan ( 1608 – 1614 ) , literally Collection of Kavittas , is a Braja rendering of the Ramayana , composed entirely in metres of the Kavitta family – Kavitta , Savaiya , Ghanakshari and Chhappaya . It consists of 325 verses including 183 verses in the Uttarkand . Like the Ramcharitmanas , it is divided into seven Kands or books and many episodes in this work are different from the Ramcharitmanas .
Gitavali ( गीतावली ) , literally Collection of Songs , is a Braja rendering of the Ramayana in songs . All the verses are set to Ragas of Hindustani classical music and are suitable for singing . It consists of 328 songs divided into seven Kands or books . Many episodes of the Ramayana are elaborated while many others are abridged .
Krishna Gitavali or Krishnavali ( कृष ् णगीतावली , 1607 ) , literally Collection of Songs to Krishna , is a collection of 61 songs in honour of Krishna in Braja . There are 32 songs devoted to the childhood sports ( Balalila ) and Rasa Lila of Krishna , 27 songs form the dialogue between Krishna and Uddhava , and two songs describe the episode of disrobing of Draupadi .
Vinaya Patrika ( विनयपत ् रिका ) , literally Petition of Humility , is a Braja work consisting of 279 stanzas or hymns . The stanzas form a petition in the court of Rama asking for Bhakti . It is considered to be the second best work of Tulsidas after the Ramcharitmanas , and is regarded as important from the viewpoints of philosophy , erudition , and eulogistic and poetic style of Tulsidas . The first 43 hymns are addressed to various deities and Rama 's courtiers and attendants , and remaining are addressed to Rama .
= = = Minor works = = =
Minor works of Tulsidas include –
Barvai Ramayana ( बरवै रामायण , 1612 ) , literally The Ramayana in Barvai metre , is an abridged rendering of the Ramayana in Awadhi . The works consists of 69 verses composed in the Barvai metre , and is divided into seven Kands or books . The work is based on a psychological framework .
Parvati Mangal ( पार ् वती मंगल ) , literally The marriage of Parvati , is an Awadhi work of 164 verses describing the penance of Parvati and the marriage of Parvati and Shiva . It consists of 148 verses in the Sohar metre and 16 verses in the Harigitika metre .
Janaki Mangal ( जानकी मंगल ) , literally The marriage of Sita , is an Awadhi work of 216 verses describing the episode of marriage of Sita and Rama from the Ramayana . The work includes 192 verses in the Hamsagati metre and 24 verses in the Harigitika metres . The narrative differs from the Ramcharitmanas at several places .
Ramalala Nahachhu ( रामलला नहछू ) , literally The Nahachhu ceremony of the child Rama , is an Awadhi work of 20 verses composed in the Sohar metre . The Nahachhu ceremony involves cutting the nails of the feet before the Hindu Samskaras ( rituals ) of Chudakarana , Upanayana , Vedarambha , Samavartana or Vivaha . In the work , events take place in the city of Ayodhya , so it is considered to describe the Nahachhu before Upanayana , Vedarambha and Samavartana .
Ramagya Prashna ( रामाज ् ञा प ् रश ् न ) , literally Querying the Will of Rama , is an Awadhi work related to both Ramayana and Jyotisha ( astrology ) . It consists of seven Kands or books , each of which is divided into seven Saptakas or Septets of seven Dohas each . Thus it contains 343 Dohas in all . The work narrates the Ramayana non @-@ sequentially , and gives a method to look up the Shakuna ( omen or portent ) for astrological predictions .
Vairagya Sandipini ( वैराग ् य संदीपनी , 1612 ) , literally Kindling of Detachment , is a philosophical work of 60 verses in Braja which describe the state of Jnana ( realisation ) and Vairagya ( dispassion ) , the nature and greatness of saints , and moral conduct . It consists of 46 Dohas , 2 Sorathas and 12 Chaupai metres .
= = = Popularly attributed works = = =
The following four works are popularly attributed to Tulsidas –
Hanuman Chalisa ( हनुमान चालीसा ) , literally , Forty Verses to Hanuman , is an Awadhi work of 40 Chaupais and two Dohas in obeisance to Hanuman . Popular belief holds the work to be authored by Tulsidas , and it contains his signature , though some authors do not think the work was written by him . It is one of the most read short religious texts in northern India , and is recited by millions of Hindus on Tuesdays and Saturdays . It is believed to have been uttered by Tulsidas in a state of Samadhi at the Kumbh Mela in Haridwar .
Sankatmochan Hanumanashtak ( संकटमोचन हनुमानाष ् टक ) , literally Eight verses for Hanuman , the Remover of Afflictions , is an Awadhi work of eight verses in the Mattagajendra metre , devoted to Hanuman . It is believed to have been composed by Tulsidas on the occasion of the founding of the Sankatmochan Temple in Varanasi . The work is usually published along with Hanuman Chalisa .
Hanuman Bahuka ( हनुमान बाहुक ) , literally The Arm of Hanuman , is a Braja work of 44 verses believed to have been composed by Tulsidas when he suffered acute pain in his arms at an advanced age . Tulsidas describes the pain in his arms and also prays to Hanuman for freedom from the suffering . The work has two , one , five and 36 verses respectively in the Chhappaya , Jhulna , Savaiya and Ghanakshari metre .
Tulsi Satsai ( तुलसी सतसई ) , literally Seven Hundred Verses by Tulsidas , is a work in both Awadhi and Braja and contains 747 Dohas divided in seven Sargas or cantos . The verses are same as those in Dohavali and Ramagya Prashna but the order is different .
= = Doctrine = =
The philosophy and principles of Tulsidas are found across his works , and are especially outlined in the dialogue between Kakbhushundi and Garuda in the Uttar Kand of the Ramcharitmanas . Tulsidas ' doctrine has been described as an assimilation and reconciliation of the diverse tenets and cultures of Hinduism . At the beginning of the Ramcharitmanas , Tulsidas says that his work is in accordance with various scriptures – the Puranas , Vedas , Upavedas , Tantra and Smriti . Ram Chandra Shukla in his critical work Hindi Sahitya Ka Itihaas elaborates on Tulsidas ' Lokmangal as the doctrine for social upliftment which made this great poet immortal and comparable to any other world littérateur .
= = = Nirguna and Saguna Brahman = = =
As per Tulsidas , the Nirguna Brahman ( quality @-@ less impersonal absolute ) and Saguna Brahman ( personal God with qualities ) are one and the same . Both , Saguna ( qualified Brahman ) and Aguna ( or Nirguna - unqualified Brahman ) are Akath ( unspeakable ) , Agaadh ( unfathomable ) , Anaadi ( without beginning , in existence since eternity ) and Anupa ( without parallel ) ( अगुन सगुन दुइ ब ् रह ् म सरूपा । अकथ अगाध अनादि अनूपा ॥ ) . It is the devotion ( Bhakti ) of the devotee that forces the Nirguna Brahman which is quality @-@ less , formless , invisible and unborn , to become Saguna Brahman with qualities . Tulsidas gives the example of water , snow and hail to explain this – the substance is the same in all three , but the same formless water solidifies to become hail or a mountain of snow – both of which have a form . Tulsidas also gives the simile of a lake – the Nirguna Brahman is like the lake with just water , while the Saguna Brahman is a lake resplendent with blooming lotuses . In the Uttar Kand of Ramcharitmanas , Tulsidas describes in detail a debate between Kakbhushundi and Lomasa about whether God is Nirguna ( as argued by Lomasa adhering to monism ) or Saguna ( as argued by Kakbhushundi adhering to dualism ) . Kakbhushundi repeatedly refutes all the arguments of Lomasa , to the point when Lomasa becomes angry and curses Kakbhushundi to be a crow . Lomasa repents later when Kakbhushundi happily accepts the curse but refuses to give up the Bhakti of Rama , the Saguna Brahman . Though Tulsidas holds both aspects of God to be equal , he favours the qualified Saguna aspect and the devotees of the highest category in the Ramcharitmanas repeatedly ask for the qualified Saguna aspect of Rama to dwell in their mind . Some authors contend from a few couplets in Ramcharitmanas and Vinay Patrika that Tulsidas has vigorously contradicted the denial of Avatar by Kabir . In several of his works , Kabir had said that the actual Rama is not the son of Dasharatha . In the Balkand of Ramcharitmanas , Shiva tells Parvati – those who say that the Rama whom the Vedas sing of and whom the sages contemplate on is different from the Rama of Raghu 's race are possessed by the devil of delusion and do not know the difference between truth and falsehood . However , such allusions are based on interpretations of the text and do not hold much water when considered in the context of Ramcharitmanas . Tulsidas , in none of his works , has ever mentioned Kabir .
= = = The name of Rama = = =
At the beginning of the Ramcharitmanas , there is a section devoted to the veneration of the name of Rama . As per Tulsidas , repeating the name of Rama is the only means to attain God in the Kali age where the means suited for other ages like meditation , Karma , and Puja are ineffective . He says in Kavitavali that his own redemption is because of the power , glory and majesty of the name of Rama . In a couplet in the Gitavali , Tulsidas says that wishing for liberation without refuge in the name of Rama is like wishing to climb to the sky by holding on to the falling rain . In his view , the name of Rama is greater than both Nirguna and Saguna aspects of God – it controls both of them and is illuminates both like a bilingual interpreter . In a verse in the Dohavali , Tulsidas says that the Nirguna Brahman resides in his heart , the Saguna Brahman resides in his eyes and the name of Rama resides on his tongue , as if a radiant gemstone is kept between the lower and upper halves of a golden casket . He holds that Rama is superior to all other names of God , and argues that ra and ma being are the only two consonants that are written above all other consonants in the conjunct form in Sanskrit because they are the two sounds in the word Rama .
= = = Rama as Brahman = = =
At several places in Tulsidas ' works , Rama is seen to be the higher than Vishnu and not as an avatar of Vishnu , which is the general portrayal of Rama .
In the episode of the delusion of Sati in Ramcharitmanas , Sati sees many a Shiva , Brahma and Vishnu serving Rama and bowing at his feet . When Manu and Shatarupa perform penance , they crave to see that Supreme Lord " from a part of whose being emanate a number of Shivas , Brahmas and Vishnus . " Brahma , Vishnu and Shiva come to them many times tempting them with a boon , but Manu and Shatarupa do not stop their penance . They are finally satisfied only by the appearance of Rama , on whose left side is Sita , from a part of whom are born " countless Lakshmis , Umas ( Parvatis ) and Brahmanis ( Sarasvatis ) . " In the episode of marriage of Sita and Rama in Balkand , the trio of Brahma , Vishnu and Shiva is present – Brahma is astounded as he finds nowhere anything that is his own handiwork , while Vishnu is enchanted with Lakhmi on seeing Rama . In the Sundarkand , Hanuman tells Ravana that Brahma , Vishnu and Shiva can create , preserve and destroy by the might of Rama . In the Lankakand , Tulsidas presents the universe as the cosmic form of Rama , in which Shiva is the consciousness , Brahma is the reason and Vishnu is his intelligence . As per Tulsidas , Rama is not only an avatar , but also the source of avatars – Krishna is also an Avatar of Rama . Thus , Tulsidas clearly considers Rama as supreme brahman and not an avatar of Vishnu .
In the opinion of Urvashi Soorati , the Rama of Tulsidas is an amalgamation of Vishnu who takes avatars , Vishnu in the abode of Ksheera Sagara , Brahman and the Para manifestation of the Pancharatra . Macfie concludes that Tulsidas makes a " double claim " , i.e. Rama is an incarnation of both Vishnu and Brahman . In the words of Lutgendorf , Tulsidas ' Rama is at once " Valmiki 's exemplary prince , the cosmic Vishnu of Puranas , and the transcendent brahman of the Advaitins . "
= = = Vedanta , World and Maya = = =
In the Sundarkand of Ramcharitmanas , Tulsidas says that Rama is knowable by Vedanta .
As per Tulsidas , Rama is the efficient and material cause ( Nimitta and Upadana ) of the world , which is real since Rama is real . In several verses of the Ramcharitmanas , Tulsidas says that the animate and inanimate world is a manifestation of Rama , and the universe is the cosmic form of Rama . Authors interpret these verses to mean that the world is real according to Tulsidas , in keeping with the Vishishtadvaita philosophy of Ramanuja . However , at some places in the Ramcharitmanas and Kavitavali , Tulsidas compares the world to a night or a dream and says it is Mithya ( false or unreal ) . Some commentators interpret these verses to mean that in Tulsidas ' opinion the world is unreal as per the Vivartavada doctrine of Adi Shankara , while some others interpret them to mean that the world is transient yet real as per the Satkhyativada doctrine of Ramananda . Uday Bhanu Singh concludes that in Tulsidas ' view , the world is essentially the form of Rama and appears to be different from Rama due to Maya . Its visible form is transient , which is what Tulsidas means by Mithya .
In the Vinayapatrika , Tulsidas says that the world in itself is neither true ( Satya ) , nor false ( Asatya ) , nor both true and false together ( Satyasatya ) – one who casts aside all these three illusions , knows oneself . This has been interpreted to mean that as per Tulsidas , the entire world is a Lila of Rama . At the beginning of the Ramcharitmanas , Tulsidas performs Samasti Vandana ( obeisance to all beings ) in which he bows down to the world also , saying it is " pervaded by " or " born out of " Sita and Rama . As per some verses in Ramcharitmanas and Vinaypatrika , when a Jiva ( living being ) knows the Self , Maya and Rama , it sees the world as being pervaded by Rama .
In the Balkand episode of the marriage of the princes of Ayodhya with the princesses of Mithila , Tulsidas presents a metaphor in which the four brides are compared with the four states of consciousness – the waking state ( Jagrat ) , sleep with dreams ( Swapna ) , dreamless sleep ( Sushupti ) and the fourth self @-@ conscious state ( Turiya ) . The four grooms are compared with the presiding divinity ( Vibhu ) of the four states – Vishva , Taijasa , Prajna and Brahman . Tulsidas says as the four states of consciousness with their presiding divinities reside in the mind of a Jiva , so the four brides with their grooms are resplendent in the same pavilion .
Tulsidas identifies Maya with Sita , the inseparable energy of Rama which takes avatar along with Rama . In his view , Maya is of two types – Vidya and Avidya . Vidya Maya is the cause of creation and the liberation of Jiva . Avidya Maya is the cause of illusion and bondage of the Jiva . The entire world is under the control of Maya . Maya is essentially the same but the two divisions are made for cognitive purposes , this view of Tulsidas is in accordance with Vaishnava teachers of Vedanta .
= = = Views on other Hindu deities = = =
As per Tulsidas , there is no incompatibility between devotion to Rama and attachment to Shiva . Tulsidas equates the Guru as an incarnation of Shiva , and a considerable part of the Balkand of Ramcharitmanas is devoted to the narrative of Shiva including the abandonment of Sati , the penance of Parvati , the burning of Kamadeva and the marriage of Parvati and Shiva . In addition , Tulsidas venerates the whole Hindu pantheon . The Ramcharitmanas begins with reverence of Ganesh , Sarasvati , Parvati , Shiva , the Guru , Valmiki and Hanuman . At the beginning of the Vinayapatrika , he bows to Ganesh , Surya , Shiva , Devi , Ganga , Yamuna , Varanasi and Chitrakoot , asking them for devotion towards Rama .
= = = Bhakti = = =
The practical end of all his writings is to inculcate bhakti addressed to Rama as the greatest means of salvation and emancipation from the chain of births and deaths , a salvation which is as free and open to men of the lowest caste as to Brahmins .
= = Critical reception = =
From his time , Tulsidas has been acclaimed by Indian and Western scholars alike for his poetry and his impact on the Hindu society . Tulsidas mentions in his work Kavitavali that he was considered a great sage in the world . Madhusūdana Sarasvatī , one of the most acclaimed philosophers of the Advaita Vedanta tradition based in Varanasi and the composer of Advaitasiddhi , was a contemporary of Tulsidas . On reading the Ramcharitmanas , he was astonished and composed the following Sanskrit verse in praise of the epic and the composer .
Surdas , a devotee of Krishna and a contemporary of Tulsidas , called Tulsidas as Sant Shiromani ( the highest jewel among holy men ) in an eight @-@ line verse extolling Ramcharitmanas and Tulsidas . Abdur Rahim Khankhana , famous Muslim poet who was one of the Navaratnas ( nine @-@ gems ) in the court of the Mughal emperor Akbar , was a personal friend of Tulsidas . Rahim composed the following couplet describing the Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas –
The historian Vincent Smith , the author of a biography of Tulsidas ' contemporary Akbar , called Tulsidas the greatest man of his age in India and greater than even Akbar himself . The Indologist and linguist Sir George Grierson called Tulsidas " the greatest leader of the people after the Buddha " and " the greatest of Indian authors of modern times " ; and the epic Ramcharitmanas " worthy of the greatest poet of any age . " The work Ramcharitmanas has been called " the Bible of North India " by both nineteenth century Indologists including Ralph Griffith , who translated the four Vedas and Valmiki 's Ramayana into English , and modern writers . Mahatma Gandhi held Tulsidas in high esteem and regarded the Ramcharitmanas as the " greatest book in all devotional literature " . The Hindi poet Suryakant Tripathi ' Nirala ' called Tulsidas " the most fragrant branch of flowers in the garden of the world 's poetry , blossoming in the creeper of Hindi " . Nirala considered Tulsidas to be a greater poet than Rabindranath Tagore , and in the same league as Kalidasa , Vyasa , Valmiki , Homer , Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and William Shakespeare . Hindi litterateur Hazari Prasad Dwivedi wrote that Tulsidas established a " sovereign rule on the kingdom of Dharma in northern India " , which was comparable to the impact of Buddha . Edmour J. Babineau , author of the book Love and God and Social Duty in Ramacaritmanasa , says that if Tulsidas was born in Europe or the Americas , he would be considered a greater personality than William Shakespeare . In the words of the archaeologist F. R. Allchin , who translated Vinaypatrika and Kavitavali into English , " for people of a large part of North India Tulsidas claims reverence comparable to that accorded to Luther as translator of the Bible into the native German " . Allchin also mentions that the work Ramcharitmanas has been compared to not only the Ramayana of Valmiki , but the Vedas themselves , the Bhagavad Gita , the Kuran and the Bible . Ernest Wood in his work An Englishman Defends Mother India considered the Ramcharitmanas to be " superior to the best books of the Latin and Greek languages . " Tulsidas is also referred to as Bhaktaśiromaṇi , meaning the highest jewel among devotees .
Specifically about his poetry , Tulsidas has been called the " emperor of the metaphor " and one who excels in similes by several critics . The Hindi poet Ayodhyasingh Upadhyay ' Hariaudh ' said of Tulsidas –
The Hindi poetess Mahadevi Verma said commenting on Tulsidas that in the turbulent Middle Ages , India got light from Tulsidas . She further went on to say that the Indian society as it exists today is an edifice built by Tulsidas , and the Rama as we know today is the Rama of Tulsidas .
= Non @-@ intervention in the Spanish Civil War =
During the Spanish Civil War , several countries followed a principle of non @-@ intervention , to avoid any potential escalation and possible expansion of the war to other nations , which would result in the signing of the Non @-@ Intervention Agreement in August 1936 and the setting up of the Non @-@ Intervention Committee , which first met in September . Primarily arranged by the French and British governments , important members of the committee also included the Soviet Union , Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany . Ultimately , the committee had the support of 24 nations .
A plan to control materials coming into the country was put forward in early 1937 , effectively subjecting the Spanish Republic to international isolation , but was mocked by German and Italian decisive and immediate support for the rebel faction . The subject of volunteers was also much discussed , with little result ; although agreements were signed late on in the war , these were made outside the Committee . Efforts to stem the flow of war materials to Spain were largely unsuccessful , with foreign involvement in the Spanish Civil War proving instrumental to its outcome . Nazi Germany , Italy , and the Soviet Union consistently broke the agreement they had signed , France occasionally so . Britain remained largely faithful to it .
= = Non @-@ Intervention Agreement = =
Non @-@ intervention , and with it the Non @-@ Intervention Agreement , had been proposed in a joint diplomatic initiative by the governments of France and the United Kingdom . It was part of a policy of appeasement , aimed at preventing a proxy war – with Italy and Nazi Germany supporting Franco 's Nationalist Coalition right at the onset of the conflict and the Soviet Union supporting the Republican faction four months later – from escalating into a major pan @-@ European conflict .
On 3 August 1936 , Charles de Chambrun , French ambassador to Italy , presented the French government 's non @-@ intervention plan ; Galeazzo Ciano promised to study it . The British , however , accepted the plan in principle immediately . The following day , it was put to Konstantin von Neurath , the foreign minister of Nazi Germany by André François @-@ Poncet . The German position was that such a declaration was not needed , but discussions could be held on preventing the spread of the war to the rest of Europe , so long as the USSR was present . It was mentioned at the meeting of the French with Neurath that both countries were already supplying the parties in the war , France the Republicans and Germany the Nationalists . A similar approach was made by the French to the Soviet Union . On 6 August , Ciano confirmed Italian support in principle . Despite a Pravda claim that 12 @,@ 145 @,@ 000 roubles had already been sent by Russian workers to Spain , the Soviet government similarly agreed in principle , so long as Portugal was included , and so long as Germany and Italy stopped aid immediately .
On 7 August 1936 , France unilaterally declared non @-@ intervention . Draft declarations had been put to the German and Italian governments . Such a declaration had already been accepted by the United Kingdom , Belgium , the Netherlands , Poland , Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union , which renounced all traffic in war material , direct or indirect . The Portuguese Foreign Minister , Armindo Monteiro , was also asked to accept , but held his hand . An ultimatum was put to Yvon Delbos by the British : halt French exports to Spain , or Britain would not be obliged to act under the Treaty of Locarno if Germany invaded ; on 9 August , exports were duly suspended . However , collections for food , clothing and medical supplies to the Spanish Republicans continued . On 9 August , the Germans informed the British that ' no war materials had been sent from Germany and none will ' , which was blatantly false . During the blockade of the Strait of Gibraltar by the Spanish Republican Navy one German Junkers was captured when it came down in Republican territory , and explained as ' merely a transport aircraft ' . Its release would be required before Germany signed the Non @-@ Intervention Pact . Portugal accepted the pact on 13 August , unless her border was threatened by the war .
There was popular support in both countries for the plan , although whilst in the United Kingdom the socialist Labour Party was strongly in favour , the political left in France wanted to directly aid the Republicans . The Labour Party would reject non @-@ intervention in October 1937 . The British Trades Union Congress was split . A report called the ' Commission of Inquiry into Alleged Breaches of the Non @-@ Intervention Agreement in Spain ' was drawn up in London , sponsored by Comintern , and headed by respectable figures . Both the British and French governments were aware of the First World War . France was reliant on British support in general . Léon Blum , the French prime minister , believed that support for the Republic would have led to a fascist takeover in France and ultimately no change in Spain .
On 5 August 1936 , the United States had made it known that it would follow a policy of non @-@ intervention , but did not announce it officially . This isolationism on the Spanish war would later be identified as disastrous by Under @-@ Secretary of State Sumner Welles . Five days later , the Glenn L. Martin Company enquired whether the government would allow the sale of eight bombers to the Spanish Republican Air Force ; the response was negative . It also confirmed it would not take part in several mediation attempts , including one by the Organization of American States . Mexico soon became the first nation to openly support the Republicans . On 15 August , the United Kingdom banned exports of war material to Spain . Neurath also agreed to the pact , and suggested that volunteers ( many of whom would eventually form the International Brigades ) be included . Italy similarly agreed , signing on 21 August after a determined diplomatic offensive by Britain and France . Although a surprising reversal of views , it has been put down to the growing belief that countries could not abide by the agreement anyway . Admiral Raeder urged the German government either to back the Nationalists more completely , and bring Europe to the brink of war , or to abandon them . On the 24th , Germany signed .
The Soviet Union was keen not to be left out . On 23 August 1936 , it agreed to the Non @-@ Intervention Agreement , and this was followed by a decree from Stalin banning exports of war material to Spain , thereby bringing the USSR into line with the Western Powers . Soviet foreign policy considered collective security against German fascism a priority and the Comintern had agreed a similar approach in 1934 . It walked a thin line between pleasing France and not being seen to hinder the World revolution and communist ideals . This was also the time of the first significant trials of the Old Bolsheviks in Russia . Soviet press and opposition groups were entirely against non @-@ intervention ; Soviet actions could hardly have been further from the goal of spreading the revolution .
It was at this point that the Non @-@ Intervention Committee was created to uphold the agreement , but the double @-@ dealing of the USSR and Germany had already become apparent . It also removed the need for a declaration of neutrality ( which would have granted the Nationalists and Republicans control over neutrals in the areas they controlled ) , and had little legal standing . In Britain , part of the reasoning was based on an exaggerated belief in Germany 's and Italy 's preparedness for war .
= = Non @-@ Intervention Committee = =
The ostensible purpose of the Non @-@ Intervention Committee ( 1936 – 1939 ) was to prevent personnel and matériel reaching the warring parties of the Spanish Civil War , as with the Non @-@ Intervention Agreement .
The Committee first met in London on 9 September 1936 and was attended by representatives of solely European countries , and did not include Switzerland ( whose policy of neutrality prohibited even inter @-@ governmental action ) . It was chaired by the British W. S. Morrison . The meeting was concerned mostly with procedure only . Charles Corbin represented the French , Italy by Dino Grandi , and the Soviets by Ivan Maisky . Germany was represented by Ribbentrop ( with Otto Christian Archibald von Bismarck as deputy ) but left the running to Grandi , although they found working with him difficult ; Portugal , whose presence had been a Soviet requirement , was not represented . There was little hope in the committee , since the British and French would have been aware of the continued shipment of arms to the Nationalists from Italy and Germany . Britain protested twice to the Italians , once in response to Italian aircraft landing in Majorca , the other pre @-@ emptively over any significant change in the Mediterranean . Stanley Baldwin , British prime minister , and Blum attempted to halt global exports to Spain , believing it in Europe 's best interests . Soviet aid to the Republic was threatened in the Committee . It began once it was clear the Non @-@ Intervention Agreement was not preventing Italian and German aid to the Nationalists .
The second meeting took place on 14 September 1936 . It established a subcommittee to be attended by representatives of Belgium , Britain , Czechoslovakia , France , Germany , Italy , the Soviet Union and Sweden , to deal with the day @-@ to @-@ day running of non @-@ intervention . Among them , though , the United Kingdom , France , Germany and Italy dominated , perhaps worryingly so . Soviet non @-@ military aid was revived , but not military aid . Meanwhile , the 1936 meeting of the League of Nations began , beset not only with the Spanish problem , but also with the review of the Abyssinia Crisis . It was much weakened , but still spoke out in favour of worldwide peace . There , Anthony Eden convinced Monteiro to have Portugal join the Non @-@ Intervention Committee . Álvarez del Vayo spoke out against the Non @-@ Intervention Agreement , claiming it put the rebel Nationalists on the same footing as the Republican government ; that as the official government , the Republic had the right to buy arms . On 28 September , Portugal was represented on the Committee for the first time ; the Earl of Plymouth replaced W.S. Morrison as British representative . Conservative , he often adjourned meetings – to the benefit of the Italians and Germans – and the Committee was accused of an anti @-@ Soviet bias . In Geneva , Maxim Litvinov once again confirmed Soviet support , based on the suggestion it would avoid war . However , the Soviet government remained hostile to the idea , and supported Álvarez 's view that non @-@ intervention was illegal .
On 12 November 1936 , significant changes were put in place to the functioning of the committee , with the ratification of plans to post observers to Spanish frontiers and ports to prevent breaches of the agreement . This had been delayed by Italian and German demands that air transport be included , which was perhaps a delaying tactic given the impossibility to doing so effectively . Russian military aid now being transported to Spain did not go unnoticed . France and Britain became split on whether to recognise Franco 's forces as a belligerent as the British wanted , or to fail to do as the French wanted . On 18 November , this was subsumed by the news that the Italian and German governments had recognised the Nationalists as the true government of Spain . A British bill preventing exports of arms to Spain by British ships from anywhere was signed . Yvon Delbos requested mediation ; at the same time , the Republic appealed to the Council of the League of Nations for assistance . Franklin Roosevelt , also approached , ruled out US interference with the words ' [ there should be ] no expectation that the United States would ever again send troops or warships or floods of munitions and money to Europe ' . On 4 December , France and Britain approached Italy , Germany , Russia and Portugal to request mediation . An armistice would be called , a commission sent to Spain , and , after a plebiscite , a government featuring those uninvolved in the war ( such as Salvador de Madariaga ) would be established . The considerable number of German soldiers in Spain – at least 5 @,@ 000 – was now clear , but Italy and Germany were opposed to isolated discussion of the matter .
On 10 December 1936 , Álvarez put the Republic 's case to the League of Nations , further demanding that the League condemn Italy 's and Germany 's decision to recognise the Nationalists . He pointed to the risk of the Spanish war spreading , and suggested that the Non @-@ Intervention Committee was ineffective . This charge was denied by Lord Cranborne and Édouard Viénot , the British and French representatives respectively , who appealed to the League to endorse the mediation plan . The League condemned intervention , urged its council 's members to support non @-@ intervention , and commended mediation . It then closed discussion on Spain , leaving it to the Committee . The mediation plan , however , was soon dropped . Britain and France continued to consider , and put forward , plans to prevent foreign volunteers , outside of the Committee .
On 6 January 1937 , the first opportunity after the winter break , both houses of Congress in the United States passed a resolution banning the export of arms to Spain . Those in opposition to the bill , including American socialists , communists and many liberals , suggested that the export of arms to Germany and Italy should be halted also under the Neutrality Act of 1935 , since foreign intervention constituted a state of war in Spain . Cordell Hull , continued to doubt the extent of German and Italian operations , despite evidence to the contrary . The Soviets met the request to ban volunteers on 27 December , Portugal on 5 January , and Germany and Italy on 7 January . Adolf Hitler authored the German declaration . On 10 January , a further request that volunteering be made a crime was made by Britain and France to Germany . There continued Germany uneasiness about the scale , limitations and outcomes of intervention in Spain . On 20 January , Italy put a moratorium on volunteers , and on the 25 January Germany and Italy agreed to support limitations to prevent volunteers , believing that supplies to the Nationalists were now sufficient . In that meeting , both the Germans and Italian spoke as if their men in Spain were genuine volunteers . The Spanish Civil War ( Non @-@ Intervention ) Act , 1937 was signed into law on 24 February by the Irish , and provided penalties for exporters of war material , and for service in the military forces of a belligerent , and restricted travel to Spain . Soviet war aid continued to reach Spain through the Mediterranean . However , Britain , France , Germany , Italy and Russia continued to believe a European war was not in their best interests ; non @-@ intervention , however , would have left both sides with the possibility of defeat , which Germany , Italy and Russia in particular were keen to avoid .
= = = Control plan = = =
Observers were posted to Spanish ports and borders , and both Ribbentrop and Grandi were told to agree to the plan , significant shipments already having taken place . Portugal would not accept observers , although it did agree to personnel attached to the British Embassy in Lisbon . The cost of the scheme was put at £ 898 @,@ 000 ; Britain , France , Germany , Italy and Russia would each pay 16 % ; the other 20 % would be met by the other 22 countries . Zones of patrol were assigned to each of the four nations ; an International Board was set up to administer the scheme . The setting up of the scheme took until April . For the Republicans , this seemed like adding insult to injury – the wholesale transfer of arms to the Nationalists would now be policed by the very countries supplying them . Despite accusations that 60 @,@ 000 Italians were now in Spain , and Grandi 's announcement that he hoped no Italian volunteer would leave until the war was over , the German delegation appears to have hoped the control plan was effective . There were Italian assurances that Italy would not break up non @-@ intervention .
In May 1937 , the Committee noted two attacks on the patrol 's ships in the Balearic islands by Spanish Republican Air Force aircraft , the first on the Italian cruiser Barletta and the second on German pocket battleship Deutschland . It iterated calls for the withdrawal of volunteers from Spain , condemned the bombing of open towns , and showed approval of humanitarian work . Germany and Italy said they would withdrawn from the Committee , and from the patrols , unless it could be guaranteed there would be no further attacks . Early June saw the return of Germany and Italy to the committee and patrols . Italian reticence of operations in Spain , however , was dropped . By contrast , it continued to be a crime in Germany to mention German operations . Following attacks ( attributed to Republicans by Germany , but denied ) on the German cruiser Leipzig on 15 and 18 June , Germany and Italy once again withdrew from patrols , but not from the Committee . This prompted the Portuguese government to remove British observers on the Spain – Portugal border .
Discussions about patrols remained complicated . Britain and France offered to replace Germany and Italy in patrols of their sections , but the latter powers believed these patrols would be too partial . Germany and Italy requested that land controls be kept , and belligerent rights be given to the Nationalists , so that rights of search could be used by both the Republicans and Nationalists to replace naval patrols . The French considered abandoning border controls , or perhaps leaving non @-@ intervention . However , the French were reliant on the British , who wished to continue with patrols . Britain and France thus continued to labour over non @-@ intervention ; whilst they judged it effective , some 42 ships were estimated to have escaped inspection between April and the end of July . The air route had not been covered . The Nationalists ' debt to Germany reached 150 million Reichmarks . On 9 July , the Dutch Ambassador suggested that Britain draft a compromise . Lord Plymouth did , called the ' compromise plan for the control of non @-@ intervention ' . Naval patrols would be replaced by observers
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her albums , she was offered and later received lessons from Dame Malvina Major .
= = = International success = = =
Westenra 's albums were successful in New Zealand , but she was not well known worldwide until she signed a contract with Decca Records and recorded Pure , a CD of classical , light pop , and traditional Māori songs . Decca 's British president was also impressed with her voice when they signed her to the label , saying that she was " captivated by the beauty and expressiveness of her voice . " Pure enjoyed record success : it became the fastest @-@ selling international debut album in the history of the UK classical chart , with 19 @,@ 068 copies purchased in its first week alone , quickly reached No. 1 on the British charts , and entered the UK Pop Chart at # 8 . Over two million copies of Pure have been sold to date . In New Zealand , Pure has been certified 12x platinum , making her the best @-@ selling artist , regardless of genre , in the country 's history .
Pure 's success ensured that Decca would take Westenra seriously . Some of her fame today can be directly attributed to the way in which Decca promoted her . Although the traditional audience of classical crossover music is adult women , they also promoted her music to children and teenagers . Westenra recorded the end @-@ title song for Disney 's movie Mulan II . They also featured her in the national Radio Disney music education tour for middle @-@ school students .
On 24 August 2003 , Westenra performed on the stage with opera tenor José Carreras and Bryn Terfel in front of the capacity crowd of 10 @,@ 000 people from Faenol Festival in Wales .
Decca has also promoted Westenra on television . She took her first acting role on the US programme American Dreams ( " Charade " ) , where she played guitar and sang " Who Painted the Moon Black ? " . While she was being promoted in Los Angeles , Marc Johnston , senior VP / GM for the Universal Classics Group , said , " When she was out there , people were giving her scripts to read , and she had a few rather impromptu auditions . So some film and TV roles are currently in the works . " In 2005 , she was featured in the song " Bridal Ballad " recorded for the movie The Merchant of Venice . In 2006 , she was featured on the motion picture soundtrack for The New World with the song " Listen to the Wind " .
Westenra was the 2004 Vodafone New Zealand Music Awards winner of " Highest Selling New Zealand Album " and " International Achievement Award " . On 20 February 2004 , Prime Minister Helen Clark awarded her for being the first New Zealand artist to receive the tenfold platinum status in the New Zealand market , where she held the number one artist position for 18 weeks . She has won two Japanese Grammies for her work ( Song of the Year , " Amazing Grace " and Album of the Year , Pure ) . Her version of Amazing Grace was used as the theme song for the popular Japanese drama , Shiroi Kyoto ( The White Tower ) . Hayley met the cast of the series during a promotional tour of Japan in October 2003 .
Also in 2004 , she began her world tour of New Zealand , Australia , Japan , USA and Britain , performing in a concert in November for Her Majesty The Queen , the Prime Minister Tony Blair , The Prince of Wales , Colin Powell , Condoleezza Rice and the President at the time George W. Bush . In her autobiography , she remembered feeling more nervous in an audition where she sight read to Andrew Lloyd Webber an unreleased piece that he had written . On 28 July 2004 , Westenra and American tenor James Doing staged Wisconsin concert with Wisconsin Chamber Orchestra and broadcast by Wisconsin Public Television . She concluded 2004 with a Christmas tour of the East Coast of the United States as guest soloist with the Boston Pops Orchestra .
In 2004 , Westenra was recorded a live DVD , Hayley Westenra : Live from New Zealand , featured duet with baritone Teddy Tahu Rhodes and soprano Sophie Westenra in St. James Theatre . David Horn , the producer of her live TV special , which aired on PBS ' Great Performances , said , " Her singing is so gorgeous , it 's reminiscent of the great boy @-@ soprano sound of Anglican church choirs . "
In 2005 , she released a new album , Odyssey . A mix of classical , pop , Celtic , and new @-@ age music , she co @-@ wrote and arranged some of the tracks on the album , which was released in the United States on 18 October 2005 . A more recent version of Odyssey containing several recordings not on the original album was released in the United Kingdom on 10 April 2006 , her 19th birthday . On 18 December 2005 , she made an appearance on Kurt Browning 's programme Gotta Skate , in which she performed with Andrea Bocelli .
Westenra spent the first half of 2006 performing as a supporting act for the pop @-@ opera quartet Il Divo on a worldwide tour , though in March she performed solo concerts in the US as well . That tour officially ended in June , but was then extended by six performances . She then held several concerts in the UK and Germany through the end of the northern summer . On 5 September 2006 , Westenra was named as one of the ten outstanding young people in the world by the Junior Chamber International , becoming the first New Zealander so honoured .
On 13 November 2006 she participated in the dedication of the New Zealand War Memorial in London . Three of Westenra 's great @-@ uncles served in World War II ; one was killed .
After releasing Pure , Westenra and her family moved to London . She continues to reside in a central London flat , even though her family subsequently returned home to Christchurch . Although she spent most of 2006 touring , she did visit them when her schedule allowed .
In August 2006 , Westenra joined Celtic Woman and is featured on their second major DVD / CD album , Celtic Woman : A New Journey , which was released 30 January 2007 and immediately hit the Billboard Top 200 music chart at # 4 . She toured with the group in the United States in 2007 , with scheduled appearances in 88 venues across the country ; the tour ended in June . During this time , Hayley alternated with Méav Ní Mhaolchatha , who had recently returned from maternity leave , to maintain a five @-@ member line @-@ up . She also got along well with another member , Chloë Agnew , who was at the time only 17 years old .
In 2006 as a part of theCanterbury Festival ( 27 Oct ) , Westenra performed a concert with tenor Alfie Boe in Canterbury Cathedral .
Westenra 's third international album , Treasure , was released on 26 February 2007 in the UK . All the songs on this CD were chosen by Westenra , who gave her record company " no say in the matter . I basically didn 't let them in on what I was recording until the last minute so they had no choice . I didn 't give them much room to disagree . " Tracks on this album include " E Pari Ra " , " One Fine Day " , " Let Me Lie " , " Danny Boy " , and " Abide with Me " . Westenra co @-@ wrote four of the fifteen tracks , and the album also features singer Humphrey Berney . The US / Australia / NZ edition followed in March under the name Celtic Treasure . Westenra dedicated the album to her grandmother , Shirley Ireland . Inside the sleeve of the British edition , she wrote " I come from a musical family , and one with a real sense of history . My forefathers were on the maiden voyage from Ireland to Christchurch , New Zealand in 1850 – there 's even a commemoration plaque in Cathedral Square , Christchurch , which bears the name Westenra . My grandmother used to sit me on her knee and sing songs like Danny Boy from as early as I can remember . A singer herself in her earlier years , she has always been a never @-@ ending source of songs . It 's this legacy of music that she 's been passing down to me since my childhood , and it 's many of these beautiful old songs that I 've explored here on my album . "
On the day before St. Patrick 's Day 2007 , she performed as part of Celtic Woman for President George W. Bush at the White House . She had plans to present the president with a petition to place a mandatory carbon cap on the United States . The goal of the petition was compliance with the commitment made by President Bill Clinton in previous years to follow the Kyoto Protocol . However , she was not able to present the petition because the president was rushed away after the concert , due to security concerns .
On 6 May 2007 , Westenra was invited to the Crystal Cathedral as a guest performing " Abide with Me " on the Hour of Power , an American Christian television program . She had performed there twice before , the first time singing " Amazing Grace " and the second time " I Say Grace " .
Westenra starred as Maria in the 2007 recording of West Side Story , which was released on 30 July . On 28 July , she starred in Woburn LIVE 2007 , where she performed a selection of the music of West Side Story with the other recording artists , including Vittorio Grigolo , from the 2007 release .
In 2007 , Hayley 's vocals were featured in the soundtracks of the movie Flood and the television series , Jekyll , composed by Debbie Wiseman , in the UK .
In Nov 2007 , Hayley Westenra successfully staged Japan " treasure " concert tour in Fukuoka , Sapporo , Tokyo , Sendai , Nagoya , Osaka , Yokohama , Hiroshima .
In June 2008 , Hayley released an album for Japan , called Hayley Sings Japanese Songs . The songs include popular Japanese songs sung in English , and some in Japanese . Amazing Grace is performed as a duet with the late Minako Honda , in English and Japanese . A second Japanese album , Hayley Sings Japanese Songs 2 , was released in March 2009 , with a " mother " theme . All of the songs are about her gratefulness to her mother . She wrote , This album is dedicated to my loving mother ... thank you . On 7 August , Westenra performed solo and duet with Dame Malvina Major at St James 's Church , Piccadilly among ChristChurch Cathedral Choir 2008 UK Tour . On 17 August , Westenra participated in the tribute concert Lyrics by Don Black , which was held at the London Palladium and featured performances of Black 's songs by a selection of guest artists . She sang the duet Amigos Para Siempre , the score of which was written by Andrew Lloyd Webber , with Jonathan Ansell . The evening , hosted by Michael Parkinson was recorded by BBC Radio 2 Friday Night is Music Night and broadcast on 22 August 2008 .
The song " Prayer " , composed by Secret Garden and performed by Westenra , is featured in the Nintendo Wii videogame Endless Ocean as well as its advertising . Westenra also contributed several other songs , including her rendition of the Māori folk song " Pokarekare Ana " .
On 1 October 2008 , Westenra recorded as solo vocals in the CD " Different Voices " composed and conducted by Debbie Wiseman and the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra , with narration by Stephen Fry and lyrics written by Don Black . On 8 November , Westenra performed at the Festival of Remembrance at the Royal Albert Hall , singing Today Won 't Come Again , written by Geoff Stevens and Don Black , with English tenor Jonathan Ansell , and accompanied Ansell on Here 's to the Heroes , by Black and John Barry , when returning soldiers proceeded into the auditorium . On 30 November , Westenra was presented by Elaine Paige with the Variety Club Showbiz Awards 2008 Classical Performer of the Year for raising money to help sick , disabled and disadvantaged children and young people .
On 16 July 2009 , she performed at the Opening Ceremony of the World Games 2009 in Kaohsiung , Taiwan before 45 @,@ 000 stadium audiences and numerous worldwide TV audiences . She sang several songs including Amazing Grace , The Prayer in English & Italian with Russell Watson , Pokarekare Ana in Māori with Russell Watson , We Are The Champions with other stars , Japanese translated song Nada Sousou ( Tears For You ) and ' The Moon Represents My Heart ( 月亮代表我的心 ) in Mandarin Chinese with SuJianXin . On 29 August , Westenra led the traditional singing of Abide with Me at the Rugby League Challenge Cup final at Wembley Stadium .
On 7 November 2009 , Hayley performed at the Festival of Remembrance , singing We 'll Meet Again , made famous by Dame Vera Lynn during WWII , at the Royal Albert Hall . During the performance , an old recording of Lynn performing the song was played behind on the big screen . Lynn was present , as well as Her Majesty the Queen .
On 5 February 2010 , Westenra performed " Silent Night " on the soundtrack of Nativity ! Later that year , on 30 October , Westenra staged a recital at the Shanghai Grand Theatre with international backing musicians in an east Asian concert tour . On 13 November , Westenra performed at the Festival of Remembrance , singing " For the Fallen " , a poem by Laurence Binyon set to music by Karl Jenkins . It is featured on the special 10th anniversary edition of Karl Jenkins ' The Armed Man : A Mass for Peace .
Westenra 's face adorns publicity for the southwest London rugby union club Quintin RFC .
In the spring and summer of 2010 , Hayley began working with film composer Ennio Morricone for a collaboration on her album Paradiso . The album featured new songs written by Morricone , as well as some of his best known film compositions of the last 50 years . Hayley recorded the album with Morricone 's orchestra in Rome during the summer 2010 .
In April 2011 , Westenra was invited as a guest performer to Mario Frangoulis TV concert in Greek . On May , Westenra was a guest performer on Italian tenor Andrea Bocelli 's The Magic of Love Asian concert tour , Westenra and Bocelli collaborated on one of Westenra 's albums Odyssey and live performances before . On Memorial Day , 29 May , Hayley was invited to perform for the annual PBS special , the National Memorial Day Concert live in Washington , DC . She performed the song Pie Jesu following the emotional story of a woman who had never met her father , who died in the Vietnam War , but got to know him many years later through a soldier who had fought alongside him . On 9 July , Westenra was invited as a guest performer to Joseph Calleja 's annual concert in Malta . On 22 July , Westenra was among artists performing with the BBC Concert Orchestra in an American West @-@ themed show from a BBC radio concert programme Friday Night is Music Night . On 24 July , Westenra staged the 61st King 's Lynn Festival concert with Daniel Boys and performed classical repertoire including new songs from Paradiso . On 27 July , Kiwi songbird Hayley Westenra has been announced as the voice of UK broadcaster ITV 's coverage of this year 's Rugby World Cup , with her special version of World in Union . On October , Songs of Praise broadcast " Whispers in a Dream " and " Amazing Grace " performed by Westenra in Salisbury Cathedral . On 23 , Westenra performed the New Zealand national anthem " God Defend New Zealand " at Eden Park in Auckland before the final of the 2011 Rugby World Cup , and also performed the traditional New Zealand song " Now Is the Hour " to bring the event to a close . On 31 , Westenra was featured on André Rieu classical music album And the Waltz Goes On with the only vocal track " Dreaming of New Zealand " .
On 12 March 2012 , Westenra attended a reception for celebrating the achievements of inspirational women today the event held by the Duchess of Cornwall to mark Commonwealth Day . On 16 March , Westenra was invited to perform and make the presentation to the winner of a Korean live TV show _ Operastar . On 22 April 2012 , Westenra staged debut concert at the Koncerthuset in Copenhagen . On 28 April , Westenra Performed with Chinese tenor DinYi and NieJianHua on the 2nd Beijing International Film Festival symphony concert at Olympic Green accompanying by Royal Philharmonic Orchestra . In May 2012 , Westenra was featured with Laura Wright and Alfie Boe on a souvenir album " Gary Barlow & The Commonwealth Band " for celebrating Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II . On 14 June , Westenra staged a concert with RTÉ Concert Orchestra and David Brophy at National Concert Hall in Dublin . On 21 June , Westenra performed at Greek tenor Mario Frangoulis ' Boston Symphony Hall concert accompanying by Boston Pops Orchestra . On November , Westenra was a guest performer on the David Foster & Friends ' Far East tour . She was also a special guest in Korea 's Opera Star final singing two songs " Lascia Ch 'io Pianga " in her solo and " You Raise Me Up " with Park Gi Yeong and Son Ho Yeong .
On April 2013 , Westenra staged a Far East tour in Taipei , Tainan , Kaohsiung and performed with Chinese tenor DinYi in Beijing .
On 30 November and 1 December 2013 , Westenra staged concert with City Chamber Orchestra of Hong Kong , Hong Kong Welsh Male Voice Choir and the Hong Kong Treble Choir in Hong Kong .
On 29 April 2014 , Westenra was one of the performers at Classic FM Live in Royal Albert Hall London .
= = Philanthropy and charity = =
Westenra is active in contributing to charities around the world .
On 26 November 2003 , Westenra performed " Pokarekare Ana " and " Amazing Grace " on the 75th Anniversary of the Royal Variety Performance show in the presence of Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip on behalf of the Entertainment Artistes ' Benevolent Fund .
Westenra is the second youngest UNICEF Ambassador to date , behind Selena Gomez . In 2005 , Westenra visited Ghana to publicise her project , " Bikes for Ghana " , and actively helped with fundraising to purchase bicycles for young girls , allowing them to get to their schools from outlying surrounding areas . When she was later interviewed about this charity work , she had this to say , " I met girls who had been given bikes and I could see how much it meant to them . We wanted to borrow one just for a photo and they wouldn 't let them go ; they were really reluctant " .
In 2006 , A new Hybrid Tea Rose was named in honour of Hayley Westenra to raise charity funds for UNICEF . The Hayley Westenra Rose won the 2010 Rose of the Year Award and also the best Hybrid Tea Rose Award . In June , She appeared at a fundraiser for UK charity Act Against Bullying .
On 8 June 2007 , Westenra performed in a fundraising concert for Bikes for Ghana at the Victoria Hall in Stoke @-@ on @-@ Trent . On 24 February , Westenra took part in the HemiHelp " Children helping Children " concert at the Cadogan Hall , Sloan Square London in front of 900 people , including HRH Princess Alexandra the charity 's patron .
In 2008 , Westenra was selected by the New Zealand Society to receive the Global Kiwis Young Achiever Award for remarkable achievement in her field of endeavour on a global scale . She has also received numerous awards for her contributions to music , both in New Zealand and elsewhere .
On 25 June 2008 , Westenra is the ambassador for Classic FM 's charity Music Makers . Hayley says of the partnership " I am thrilled to be the first official charity Ambassador for Classic FM Music Makers . I have seen first hand the power which music can have in changing people 's lives , and I can 't wait to help all I can . " Over the next few months Hayley will be visiting some of the music therapy and education projects across the UK , which Music Makers funds ... In September , she visited Ghana again on behalf of UNICEF . She was working on raising funds for one of her favourite projects in Ghana , to install playgrounds for children , with rides that harness " kid power " to drive pumps used for providing clean drinking water from wells in that country . Hundreds of thousands of children have been poisoned by contaminated drinking water in Ghana , and this project is a focus of Hayley 's .
On 4 September 2008 , Hayley Westenra became a patron of Royal New Zealand Air Force . In Oct , Forces songbird Hayley Westenra help launch the Poppy Appeal with British Armed Forces in Iraq . In Oct , Forces songbird Hayley Westenra and tenor Jonathan Ansell took to the streets to sell poppies at Waterloo Station to support the Royal British Legion . On 12 Nov , Westenra performed " River of Dreams " , duet " Today Won 't Come Again " with tenor Jonathan Ansell in the Royal Albert Hall for the Annual Festival of Remembrance and was broadcast by the BBC . In November , she was named " classical performer of the year " at the Variety Club 's annual awards in London .
She has also been the ambassador for Save the Children in Hong Kong . More recently , she took part in a breast cancer awareness campaign in New Zealand . One of the other charities that she helps is the Women 's Environmental Network . Another major charity she supports is the Nordoff @-@ Robbins Center for Music Therapy , which provides help for children who are disabled .
On 7 September 2009 , She joined the Dame Vera Lynn Trust as a Vice @-@ President for this Children with Cerebral Palsy charity . On 22 Oct , Forces sweethearts from the original Second World War Forces sweetheart @-@ Dame Vera Lynn joined by one of today 's Forces sweetheart Kiwi songbird Hayley Westenra in launching the Poppy Appeal with a fundraising goal of £ 31 million . In Dec , New forces sweetheart Hayley Westenra performed with Faryl Smith and Camilla Kerslake in a special service for British troops serving in Afghanistan from St Clements Church , London .
On 7 March 2010 , Classical singing star Hayley Westenra lent her support with some other most successful female role models in FMWF 's " The Breaking the Mould " conference to inspire a generation of young women to aim high in their careers . On 20 Jun , Hayley Westenra took her role as Forces Sweetheart to the Cotswold Air Show , visiting Kemble to support the work of the Royal Air Force Benevolent Fund . On 6 Oct , Forces songbird Hayley Westenra whose uncle served in the Royal New Zealand Air Force united with British legends for charity CD " We Will Remember Them " .
On 3 March 2011 , Westenra led one of the national anthems " God Defend New Zealand " in a London Westminster Cathedral vigil service together with about 5 @,@ 000 Kiwis fundraising charity for her hometown Christchurch , after being devastated by a 6 @.@ 3 @-@ magnitude earthquake on 22 February 2011 . On 18 March , Westenra performed " Amazing Grace " in the national Christchurch memorial service at Hagley Park of Christchurch in the presence of Prince William , Prime Minister John Key , Bob Parker , Dame Malvina Major , Christchurch Cathedral Choir , dignitaries , international rescue teams and tens of thousands of New Zealanders . On 27 March , Westenra was invited to read out a testimony in the Christchurch memorial service at Westminster Abbey in the presence of The Prince of Wales , The High Commissioner from New Zealand to the United Kingdom and thousands of churchgoers . On 30 March , Westenra attended The News Of The World Children 's Champion Awards in London for supporting those people ( voted by the public ) who have done a brilliant , unsung job for children . On 2 April , Westenra as a Vice @-@ President of the Dame Vera Lynn Trust performed for this Children with Cerebral Palsy charity at the Lancaster London Hotel .
On 29 May , Westenra performed Pie Jesu at PBS 's 2011 National Memorial Day concert . On 10 June , Westenra was invited by Prime Minister David Cameron attending Downing Street Poppy Party along with injured Service personnel , bereaved Armed Forces families and veterans of Afghanistan and previous conflicts to celebrate the Legion 's 90th anniversary and help raise funds for The Royal British Legion Battle Back Centre . On 20 September , Westenra sang Laurence Binyon ’ s For The Fallen on a service of the 90th anniversary of the Royal British Legion held at Westminster Abbey in the presence of The Princess Royal , Church of England members and family of Royal Marines . On 5 December , Westenra performed solo " Whispers in a Dream " and duet with Rolando on the Royal Variety Performance show in the presence of the Princess Royal .
To promote Paradiso with peace and love message , Westenra would be embarking the Paradiso Homecoming Tour from 17 September 2011 to 8 March 2012 , and would raise charity attention to her UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador appeal and the Christchurch Earthquake Relief fund for supporting Christchurch to revive .
On 24 August 2012 , Westenra staged a concert in the Gŵyl Gobaith Music Festival in Wales to support for charities Cancer Research UK , Wales Air Ambulance , CLIC Sargent and HeadtoHeart . In Christmastime 2012 , Westenra was featured on the debut album " Starship Christmas Album " along with Justin Bieber , Queen , Lady Gaga , Elton John , Ronan Keating , Michael Jackson , Maroon 5 , Adeaze , The Jackson Five , Tiki Taane , OneRepublic and Lucy Lawless for supporting Starship Children 's Health . On 30 November , Westenra lent her support to Kate Winslet ’ s Golden Hat Foundation together with Tim Janis , Sarah McLachlan , Loreena McKennitt , Andrea Corr , Sleepy Man Banjo Boys , Dawn Kenney , Jana Mashonee , Amy Petty and a choir performing on " The American Christmas Carol " concert in Carnegie Hall .
On 20 November 2013 , Westenra recorded a Children in Need Christmas single 2013 album " Christmas Dream " with Sir Terry Wogan and Aled Jones featured Bond and the Portsmouth Citadel Salvation Army Band .
= = Personal life = =
Westenra has been known as a vegetarian / pescetarian . In 2007 , she was nominated for PETA 's ' Sexiest Vegetarian ' . However , when touring she sometimes has worried about getting the appropriate amounts of nutrients . She was sometimes unable to obtain the more nutritious vegetables and other foods she preferred , and now on occasions she eats meat . In 2007 , Westenra told The New Zealand Herald , " I 'm completely bursting the bubble now , aren 't I ? That 's that ruined . "
Westenra married her French boyfriend of three years , Arnaud Sabard ( born 1981 ) , on 29 December 2013 in Hawarden , North Canterbury , New Zealand .
= = Discography = =
= = Notable tours and concerts = =
= War of the Bavarian Succession =
A Saxon – Prussian alliance fought the War of the Bavarian Succession ( July 1778 – 21 May 1779 ) against the Austrian Habsburg Monarchy to prevent the Habsburgs from acquiring the Electorate of Bavaria . Although the war consisted of only a few minor skirmishes , thousands of soldiers died from disease and starvation , earning the conflict the name Kartoffelkrieg ( Potato War ) in Prussia and Saxony ; in Habsburg Austria , it was sometimes called the Zwetschgenrummel ( Plum Fuss ) .
On 30 December 1777 , Maximilian Joseph , the last of the junior line of Wittelsbach , died of smallpox , leaving no children . Charles IV Theodore , a scion of a senior branch of the House of Wittelsbach , held the closest claim of kinship , but he also had no legitimate children to succeed him . His cousin , Charles II August , Duke of Zweibrücken , therefore had a legitimate legal claim as Charles Theodore 's heir presumptive . Across Bavaria 's southern border , Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II coveted the Bavarian territory and had married Maximilian Joseph 's sister Maria Josepha in 1765 to strengthen any claim he could extend . His agreement with the heir , Charles Theodore , to partition the territory neglected any claims of the heir presumptive , Charles August .
Acquiring territory in the German @-@ speaking states was an essential part of Joseph 's policy to expand his family 's influence in Central Europe . For Frederick the Great , Joseph 's claim threatened the Prussian ascendancy in German politics , but he questioned whether he should preserve the status quo through war or through diplomacy . Empress Maria Theresa , who co @-@ ruled with Joseph , considered any conflict over the Bavarian electorate not worth bloodshed , and neither Maria Theresa nor Frederick saw any point in pursuing hostilities . Joseph would not drop his claim despite his mother 's contrary insistence . Frederick August III , Elector of Saxony , wanted to preserve the territorial integrity of the Duchy for his brother @-@ in @-@ law , Charles August , and had no interest in seeing the Habsburgs acquire additional territory on his southern and western borders . Despite his dislike of Prussia , which had been Saxony 's enemy in two previous wars , Charles August sought the support of Frederick , who was happy to challenge the Habsburgs . France became involved to maintain the balance of power . Finally , Catherine the Great 's threat to intervene on the side of Prussia with fifty thousand Russian troops forced Joseph to reconsider his position . With Catherine 's assistance , he and Frederick negotiated a solution to the problem of the Bavarian succession with the Treaty of Teschen , signed on 13 May 1779 .
For some historians , the War of the Bavarian Succession was the last of the old @-@ style Cabinet Wars ( Kabinettskriege ) of the Ancien Régime in which troops maneuvered while diplomats traveled between capitals to resolve their monarchs ' complaints . The subsequent French Revolutionary Wars and Napoleonic Wars differed in scope , strategy , organization and tactics .
= = Background = =
In 1713 , Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI established a line of succession that gave precedence to his own daughters over the daughters of his brother . To protect the Habsburg inheritance , he coerced , cajoled , and persuaded the crowned heads of Europe to accept the Pragmatic Sanction . In this agreement , they acknowledged any of his legitimate daughters as the rightful Queen of Bohemia , Hungary and Croatia , and Archduchess of Austria – a break from the tradition of male succession .
Holy Roman Emperors had been elected from the House of Habsburg for most of the previous three centuries . Charles VI arranged a marriage of his eldest daughter , Maria Theresa , to Francis of Lorraine . Francis relinquished the Duchy of Lorraine near France in exchange for the Grand Duchy of Tuscany near Austria to make himself a more appealing candidate for eventual election as Emperor . On paper , many heads of state and , most importantly , the rulers of the German states of the Holy Roman Empire , accepted the Pragmatic Sanction and the idea of Francis as the next Emperor . Two key exceptions , the Duchy of Bavaria and Saxony , held important electoral votes and could impede or even block Francis 's election . When Charles died in 1740 , Maria Theresa had to fight for her family 's entitlements in Bohemia , Hungary and Croatia , and her husband faced competition in his election as the Holy Roman Emperor .
Charles , Prince Elector and Duke of Bavaria , claimed the German territories of the Habsburg dynasty as a son @-@ in @-@ law of Joseph I , and furthermore presented himself as Charles VI 's legitimate Imperial successor . If women were going to inherit , he claimed , then he should be first in line : his wife , Maria Amalia , was the daughter of Joseph I. Both Charles VI and his predecessor Joseph I had died without sons . Charles of Bavaria suggested that the legitimate succession pass to Joseph 's female children , rather than to the daughters of the younger brother , Charles VI . For different reasons , Prussia , France , Spain and the Polish @-@ Saxon monarchy supported Charles of Bavaria 's claim to the Habsburg territory and the Imperial title and reneged on the Pragmatic Sanction .
Charles of Bavaria needed military assistance to take the Imperial title by force , which he secured the treaty of Nymphenburg ( July 1741 ) . During the subsequent War of the Austrian Succession , he successfully captured Prague , where he was crowned King of Bohemia . He invaded Upper Austria , planning to capture Vienna , but diplomatic exigencies complicated his plans . His French allies redirected their troops into Bohemia , where Frederick the Great , himself newly king of Prussia , had taken advantage of the chaos in Austria and Bavaria to annex Silesia .
Charles 's military options disappeared with the French . Adopting a new plan , he subverted the Imperial election . He sold the County of Glatz to Prussia for a reduced price in exchange for Frederick 's electoral vote . Charles 's brother , Klemens August of Bavaria , archbishop and prince @-@ elector of the Electorate of Cologne , voted for him in the Imperial election and personally crowned him on 12 February 1742 in the traditional ceremony in Frankfurt am Main . The next day , Charles 's Bavarian capital of Munich capitulated to the Austrians to avoid being plundered by Maria Theresa 's troops . In the following weeks , her army overran most of Charles 's territories , occupied Bavaria , and barred him from his ancestral lands and from Bohemia .
Charles VII spent most of his three @-@ year reign as Emperor residing in Frankfurt while Maria Theresa battled Prussia for her patrimony in Bohemia and Hungary . Frederick could not secure Bohemia for Charles , but he did manage to push the Austrians out of Bavaria . For the last three months of his short reign , the gout @-@ ridden Charles lived in Munich , where he died in January 1745 . His son , Maximilian III Joseph ( known as Max Joseph ) inherited his father 's Electoral dignities but not his Imperial ambition . With the Peace of Füssen ( 22 April 1745 ) , Max Joseph promised to vote for Francis of Lorraine , Maria Theresa 's husband , in the pending Imperial election . He also acknowledged the Pragmatic Sanction . In return , he obtained the restitution of his family 's Electoral position and territories . For his subjects , his negotiations ended five years of warfare and brought a generation of peace and relative prosperity that began with his father 's death in 1745 and ended with his own in 1777 .
= = Contenders = =
As the Duke of Bavaria , Max Joseph was the prince of one of the largest states in the German @-@ speaking portion of the Holy Roman Empire . As a prince @-@ elector , he stood in the highest rank of the Empire , with broad legal , economic , and judicial rights . As an elector , he was one of the men who selected the Holy Roman Emperor from a group of candidates . He was the son of one Holy Roman Emperor ( Charles VII ) , and the grandson of another ( Joseph I ) . When he died of smallpox on 30 December 1777 , he left no children to succeed him and several ambitious men prepared to carve his patrimony into pieces .
= = = Heir = = =
The Sulzbach branch of the Wittelsbach family inherited the Duchy of Bavaria . In this line , the 55 @-@ year @-@ old Charles IV Theodore , the Duke of Berg @-@ Jülich , held the first claim . Unfortunately for Charles Theodore , he was already the Elector Palatine . By the terms of the 1648 Peace of Westphalia , he had to cede the Palatine electorate to his own heir before he could claim the Bavarian electorate . He was not eager to do so , even though Bavaria was larger and more important . He preferred living in the Palatinate , with its salubrious climate and compatible social scene . He patronized the arts , and had developed in Mannheim , his capital city , an array of theaters and museums at tremendous cost to his subjects . He hosted Voltaire at one of his many palaces . During the visit , he had enticed Voltaire 's secretary , the Florentine noble Cosimo Alessandro Collini ( 1727 – 1806 ) , into his own employment , considered a coup in some of the Enlightenment circles . Thomas Carlyle referred to Charles Theodore as a " poor idle creature , of purely egoistical , ornamental , dilettante nature ; sunk in theatricals , [ and ] bastard children " . The French foreign minister Vergennes , who knew him , described Charles Theodore 's foibles more forcefully :
Although by nature intelligent , he [ Charles Theodore ] has never succeeded in ruling by himself ; he has always been governed by his ministers or by his father @-@ confessor or ( for a time ) by the electress [ his wife ] . This conduct has increased his natural weakness and apathy to such a degree that for a long time he has had no opinions save those inspired in him by his entourage . The void which this indolence has left in his soul is filled with the amusements of the hunt and of music and by secret liaisons , for which His Electoral Majesty has at all times had a particular penchant .
The Electress had provided him with a son , who had immediately died , but Charles Theodore 's " particular penchant " for secret liaisons , most of whom were French actresses that he had raised to the status of countess , had produced several natural children . By the time of Max Joseph 's death , he had legitimated seven of the males of his various alliances , and was considering the legitimation of two more . With this host of male offspring , although Charles Theodore certainly wished to acquire more territory , he needed it to be territory that he could bequeath through his testament , rather than territory encumbered by a legal entailment that could only pass to a legitimate child .
= = = Deal @-@ maker = = =
Joseph , Archduke of Austria , King of the Romans , and co @-@ ruler with his mother , Empress Maria Theresa , coveted Bavaria . He felt the War of the Austrian Succession had shown that the House of Habsburg @-@ Lorraine needed a wider sphere of influence in the German @-@ speaking parts of the Holy Roman Empire . Without this , the family could not count on the election of their chosen male candidate as emperor , nor could the family count on an uncontested succession to the Habsburg territories of Bohemia , Hungary and Croatia . For most of Joseph 's adult life , he sought to strengthen his family 's influence in German @-@ speaking lands . For him , this meant the acquisition of German lands ( generally better @-@ developed economically ) , not lands in the eastern region of the Habsburg empire , even such strategic territories as Bukovina .
Joseph married Max Joseph 's sister , Maria Josepha , in 1765 , hoping he could claim the Bavarian electorate for his offspring . After two years of unhappy marriage , Maria Josepha died without issue . When Max Joseph died ten years later , Joseph could only present a weak legal claim to Lower Bavaria through a dubious and ancient grant made by the Emperor Sigismund to the House of Habsburg in 1425 . Knowing its poor legal grounds , Joseph negotiated a secret agreement with Charles Theodore shortly after Max Joseph 's death . In this agreement ( 3 January 1778 ) , Charles Theodore ceded Lower Bavaria to Austria in exchange for uncontested succession to the remainder of the duchy . Charles Theodore also hoped to acquire from Joseph some unencumbered parts of the Austrian Netherlands and parts of Anterior Austria that he could bequeath to his bastards , but this was not written into the agreement and Joseph was not a particularly generous man . Furthermore , the agreement entirely ignored the interests of Charles Theodore 's own heir presumptive , Charles II August , of the House of Palatinate @-@ Zweibrücken @-@ Birkenfeld . Charles August was the presumptive heir of Charles Theodore 's domains and titles . He had a clear and direct interest in the disposition of the Bavarian duchy , especially in its territorial integrity .
= = = Heir presumptive = = =
Unbeknownst to either Charles Theodore or Joseph , a widow ( historians are uncertain which widow ) opened secret negotiations with Prussia to secure the eventual succession of Charles II August ( Charles August ) . Some historians maintain the active negotiator was Max Joseph 's widow , Maria Anna Sophia of Saxony . Others assert it was Max Joseph 's sister , Maria Antonia of Bavaria , who was also Charles August 's mother @-@ in @-@ law and the mother of the reigning Elector of Saxony . Ernest Henderson even maintained she was the " only manly one among the many Wittelsbach parties " involved in the issue .
Charles August was no great admirer of Joseph 's . As a younger man , he had sought the hand of Joseph 's sister , Archduchess Maria Amalia . She had been quite content to take him , but Joseph and their mother insisted she marry instead the better @-@ connected Duke of Parma . After this disappointment , Charles II August married Maria Amalia of Saxony in 1774 ; she was the daughter of the Elector Christian ( d . 1765 ) and his wife Maria Antonia , Max Joseph 's sister . In 1769 , the reigning Saxon elector , Frederick Augustus III , had married Charles August 's sister . Charles August , sometimes called duc de Deux @-@ Ponts ( a French translation of Zweibrücken , or two bridges ) , was a French client and could theoretically draw on French support for his claim . However , he had especially good relations with the Saxon Electors : both his mother- and brother @-@ in @-@ law wanted to ensure that Maria Amalia 's husband received his rightful inheritance .
= = Diplomacy = =
= = = Interested parties = = =
Count Karl @-@ Wilhelm Finck von Finckenstein , Frederick the Great 's prime minister , believed that any Austrian acquisition in Bavaria would shift the balance of power in the Holy Roman Empire , diminishing Prussia 's influence . Prussia 's recent gains had been hard @-@ won : thirty years earlier , Frederick had engaged in protracted wars in Silesia and Bohemia , resulting in Prussia 's annexation of most of Silesia , and now , with the economy and society modernizing under his direction , Prussia was emerging as a world power . In the Silesian Wars and the Seven Years ' War , Frederick had earned a new , if grudging , respect for his kingdom 's military and diplomatic prowess from the European powers of France , Russia , Britain and Austria . To protect Prussia 's status and territory , Finck and Frederick constructed an alliance with the Electorate of Saxony , ostensibly to defend the rights of Charles II August , Duke of Zweibrücken .
Although equally interested in maintaining its influence among the German states , France had a double problem . As a supporter of the rebellious British colonies in North America , she wished to avoid a continental engagement ; she could do more damage to the British in North America than in Europe . The Diplomatic Revolution in 1756 had gone against two hundred years of French foreign policy of opposition to the House of Habsburg , arguably bringing France massive territorial gains in repeated wars with Habsburg Austria and Spain . A reversal of this policy in 1756 tied French foreign policy in Europe to Vienna which , although it could give France additional influence and leverage , could also cripple the country 's diplomatic maneuvers with the other power players : Britain , Russia , and Prussia . Despite this restructuring , there existed in the French Court at Versailles , and in France generally , a strong anti @-@ Austrian sentiment . The personal union ( the diplomatic term for marriage ) of Louis , then the Dauphin , and the Austrian Archduchess Marie Antoinette , was considered both a political and matrimonial mésalliance in the eyes of many Frenchmen . It flew in the face of 200 years of French foreign policy , in which the central axiom " had been hostility to the House of Habsburg . " The French foreign minister , the Comte de Vergennes , maintained deep @-@ seated hostility to the Austrians that antedated the alliance of 1756 . He had not approved of the shift in France 's traditional bonds and considered the Austrians untrustworthy . Consequently , he managed to extricate France from immediate military obligations to Austria by 1778 .
= = = Tensions rise = = =
On 3 January 1778 , a few days after Max Joseph 's death , the ducal equerry proclaimed the succession of Charles Theodore . Dragoons rode through the streets of Munich , some banging drums and some blowing trumpets , and others shouting , " Long Live our Elector Charles Theodore . " According to the 3 January agreement between Joseph and Charles Theodore , fifteen thousand Austrian troops occupied Mindelheim , ultimately more territory than had been granted to Joseph . Charles Theodore , who had dreamed of rebuilding the Burgundian empire , realized that Joseph was not seriously planning to exchange Bavaria , or even a portion of it , for the entirety of the Austrian Netherlands . At best , he might acquire a few portions of it , perhaps Hainaut or Guelders , Luxembourg , Limburg , or various dispersed possessions in Anterior Austria , most of which lay in southwestern Germany , but Joseph would never release any sizable portion of territory , and certainly not any territory of strategic military or commercial value .
While Charles Theodore 's dream of a
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and then with 33rd Infantry . On returning to the United States in January 1922 , he joined the staff of 19th Infantry Brigade at Fort McPherson , Georgia . He was transferred to the 22nd Infantry at Fort Benning , Georgia , on 17 February 1923 .
From 1924 to 1925 , he attended the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas , graduating as an Honor Graduate . Duty then followed with the Third Corps Area from 30 June to 5 July 1925 ; with the National Guard at Staunton , Virginia from 5 July 1925 to 1 July 1926 ; in the Office Chief of Infantry at Washington , D.C. ; and at Camp Perry , Ohio as Publicity Officer . He served on the staff of the Chief of Infantry in the War Department from 1926 to 1930 , and then commanded a battalion of the 22nd Infantry from 1930 to 1932 .
Chamberlin attended the Army War College from July 1932 to June 1933 . Upon graduation , he was posted to the staff of the Army 's Hawaiian Division at Fort Shafter , Hawaii , serving as Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 3 . After more than 15 years as a major , he was finally promoted to lieutenant colonel on 1 August 1935 . On returning to the United States in July 1936 , he became Assistant Professor of Military Science and Tactics for the high schools of Los Angeles .
= = World War II = =
In 1938 , Chamberlin became Assistant Chief of the Construction Branch in the G @-@ 4 Division of War Department General Staff . At this time , the United States was embarking on a military buildup in response to a worsening international situation , which culminated in the outbreak of World War II on 1 September 1939 . A major component of this build up was a vast construction program of arsenals , depots , airbases and coastal defenses . Some $ 175 million was allocated to construction under the Expansion Program , as it became known .
On 7 May 1940 , the Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 4 , Major General Richard C. Moore , G @-@ 4 of the War Department General Staff , asked for an estimate of the cost to house an additional 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 men and balked at the estimate he received of $ 800 per head . To save on the cost of cantonments , Moore decided not to paint them . Chamberlin disagreed on the grounds that paint would reduce maintenance costs . President Franklin Roosevelt intervened and directed that the buildings be painted . As a result , an order was placed for 96 @,@ 500 US gallons ( 365 @,@ 000 l ; 80 @,@ 400 imp gal ) of paint , resulting in an $ 11 million budget shortfall . Chamberlin was promoted to colonel on 14 February 1941 . Commenting after the war on the construction program , he wrote :
Actually a phenomenal standard was set , one in which all Americans can glory . As far as wasting a few dollars was concerned , the construction effort cannot hold a candle to Lend @-@ Lease , the Marshall Plan , or the Military Assistance Program . Had it not been for the courageous performance of those in charge of the War Department in the emergency , we might well have been defeated , and how then would the expenditure of a few millions have loomed in the long @-@ range picture ?
In January 1942 , Chamberlin was appointed Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 4 , of US Army Forces in Australia , arriving by air from Washington , D.C. , on 9 January . He soon became Chief of Staff of US Army Forces in Australia , first under Major General Julian F. Barnes , and then under his successor , Lieutenant General George H. Brett . Chamberlin was promoted to brigadier general on 15 February 1942 . General Douglas MacArthur arrived in Australia on 17 March to become Supreme Commander of the newly established Southwest Pacific Area ( SWPA ) , which now included the US Army Forces in Australia . On 19 April , MacArthur formally established his General Headquarters ( GHQ ) , and Chamberlin was appointed its Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 3 .
As G @-@ 3 , Chamberlin was one of the most highly rated members of the GHQ staff , although not being part of the " Bataan Gang " – the group of officers who had escaped with MacArthur from the Philippines – made him something of an outsider at GHQ . Chamberlin was responsible for planning and overseeing the execution of MacArthur 's major operations , including the New Guinea , Philippines and Borneo campaigns . One member of the staff later recalled :
Chamberlin , G @-@ 3 , was an outstanding staff planner : quiet , unassuming , methodical , determined , aggressive in defending his position when challenged . He had a fine sense of timing and integration . He manipulated his three separate planning teams to move down parallel paths toward the same objective , or , when necessary , to move along divergent paths to map out a change of direction . Once an objective had been defined in long @-@ run terms , Chamberlin and his planners set the basic sequence of events . All major commanders participated in the planning process , with Chamberlin coordinating and adjusting to smooth out conflicts . Considering the huge distances involved and the necessity for working in the humid heat of equatorial islands , the performance was stupendous . The apparent ease that characterized the operations reflected the thoroughness of the planning process . On those occasions when MacArthur required a sudden and pressing shift of direction , Chamberlin delivered , not always with great patience . The deadlines were met with a finely turned operational plan .
Chamberlin jealously guarded his position . In late 1943 , Chamberlin differed with one of his planners , Brigadier General Bonner Fellers , over a proposed landing at Hansa Bay . Fellers thought that Hansa Bay could be bypassed , but Chamberlin felt that this would be too risky . While Fellers was a newcomer to GHQ , he had known MacArthur for many years , and Fellers took his proposal directly to MacArthur , who approved it . A furious Chamberlin had Fellers fired from G @-@ 3 . MacArthur made him his military secretary .
One of Chamberlin 's challenges was working with the Australians . Their decentralized mode of planning was entirely different from the top @-@ down approach used by GHQ , and Chamberlin found this a source of frustration , as it was difficult to extract information from them . Nonetheless , he established a good working relationship with the Australian Deputy Chief of the General Staff , Lieutenant General Frank Berryman .
When MacArthur began looking for a new chief of staff to replace Lieutenant General Richard K. Sutherland in 1945 , he considered but rejected giving the post to Chamberlin . Chamberlin became Deputy Chief of Staff in February 1946 , and was briefly acting as Chief of Staff from 2 May to 10 June 1946 . For his services in the Southwest Pacific and the Occupation of Japan , Chamberlin was awarded three Army Distinguished Service Medals and the Silver Star . In September 1946 , he was one of five American major generals who was made an honorary Commander of Order of the British Empire in the Military Division for his work with US Army Forces in Australia and GHQ SWPA .
= = Later life = =
From June 1946 to October 1948 Chamberlin was director of the Intelligence Division , G @-@ 2 , on the War Department General Staff . He commanded the Fifth Army from 1948 to 1951 , receiving promotion to lieutenant general on 24 January 1948 . In 1949 , he was chairman of a general officer committee that researched the role of race in the Army , and produced a report favoring the continuation of segregation and the maintenance of a quota that limited the number of African @-@ Americans who could serve in uniform .
He retired in September 1951 , and was then employed as chief of security for the US Air Force 's Arnold Engineering Development Center at Arnold Air Force Base , Tennessee . He died at Hoag Memorial Hospital in Newport Beach , Orange , California on 23 October 1971 . He was buried in Section 3 , Site 1968 A WH of Arlington National Cemetery . His wife Sarah was subsequently interred with him in 1975 . His papers are in the US Army Heritage and Education Center in Carlisle , Pennsylvania .
= Green marketing =
Green marketing is the marketing of products that are presumed to be environmentally preferable to others . Thus green marketing incorporates a broad range of activities , including product modification , changes to the production process , sustainable packaging , as well as modifying advertising . Yet defining green marketing is not a simple task where several meanings intersect and contradict each other ; an example of this will be the existence of varying social , environmental and retail definitions attached to this term . Other similar terms used are environmental marketing and ecological marketing .
Green , environmental and eco @-@ marketing are part of the new marketing approaches which do not just refocus , adjust or enhance existing marketing thinking and practice , but seek to challenge those approaches and provide a substantially different perspective . In more detail green , environmental and eco @-@ marketing belong to the group of approaches which seek to address the lack of fit between marketing as it is currently practiced and the ecological and social realities of the wider marketing environment .
The legal implications of marketing claims call for caution . Misleading or overstated claims can lead to regulatory or civil challenges . In the United States , the Federal Trade Commission provides some guidance on environmental marketing claims . This Commission is expected to do an overall review of this guidance , and the legal standards it contains , in 2011 .
= = History = =
The term Green Marketing came into prominence in the late 1980s and early 1990s . The proceedings of this workshop resulted in one of the first books on green marketing entitled " Ecological Marketing " .
The Corporate Social Responsibility ( CSR ) Reports started with the ice cream seller Ben & Jerry 's where the financial report was supplemented by a greater view on the company 's environmental impact . In 1987 a document prepared by the World Commission on Environment and Development defined sustainable development as meeting “ the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own need ” , this became known as the Brundtland Report and was another step towards widespread thinking on sustainability in everyday activity . Two tangible milestones for wave 1 of green marketing came in the form of published books , both of which were called Green Marketing . They were by Ken Peattie ( 1992 ) in the United Kingdom and by Jacquelyn Ottman ( 1993 ) in the United States of America .
According to Jacquelyn Ottman , ( author of " The New Rules of Green Marketing : Strategies , Tools , and Inspiration for Sustainable Branding " ( Greenleaf Publishing and Berrett @-@ Koehler Publishers , February 2011 ) ) from an organizational standpoint , environmental considerations should be integrated into all aspects of marketing — new product development and communications and all points in between . The holistic nature of green also suggests that besides suppliers and retailers new stakeholders be enlisted , including educators , members of the community , regulators , and NGOs . Environmental issues should be balanced with primary customer needs .
The past decade has shown that harnessing consumer power to effect positive environmental change is far easier said than done . The so @-@ called " green consumer " movements in the U.S. and other countries have struggled to reach critical mass and to remain in the forefront of shoppers ' minds . While public opinion polls taken since the late 1980s have shown consistently that a significant percentage of consumers in the U.S. and elsewhere profess a strong willingness to favor environmentally conscious products and companies , consumers ' efforts to do so in real life have remained sketchy at best . One of green marketing 's challenges is the lack of standards or public consensus about what constitutes " green , " according to Joel Makower , a writer on green marketing . In essence , there is no definition of " how good is good enough " when it comes to a product or company making green marketing claims . This lack of consensus — by consumers , marketers , activists , regulators , and influential people — has slowed the growth of green products , says Makower , because companies are often reluctant to promote their green attributes , and consumers are often skeptical about claims .
Despite these challenges , green marketing has continued to gain adherents , particularly in light of growing global concern about climate change . This concern has led more companies to advertise their commitment to reduce their climate impacts , and the effect this is having on their products and services .
= = Greenhouse gas reduction market = =
The emerging greenhouse gas reduction market can potentially catalyze projects with important local environmental , economic , and quality @-@ of @-@ life benefits . The Kyoto Protocol ’ s Clean Development Mechanism ( CDM ) , for example , enables trading between industrial and developing nations , providing a framework that can result in capital flows to environmentally beneficial development activities . Although the United States is not participating in the Kyoto Protocol , several US programs enable similar transactions on a voluntary and regulatory basis .
While international trade in greenhouse gas reductions holds substantial promise as a source of new funding for sustainable development , this market can be largely inaccessible to many smaller @-@ scale projects , remote communities , and least developed localities . To facilitate participation and broaden the benefits , several barriers must be overcome , including : a lack of market awareness among stakeholders and prospective participants ; specialized , somewhat complicated participation rules ; and the need for simplified participation mechanisms for small projects , without which transaction costs can overwhelm the financial benefits of participation . If the barriers are adequately addressed , greenhouse gas trading can play an important role supporting activities that benefit people ’ s lives and the environment .
= = Popularity and effectiveness = =
= = = Ongoing debate = = =
The popularity of such marketing approach and its effectiveness is hotly debated . Supporters claim that environmental appeals are actually growing in number – the Energy Star label , for example , now appears on 11 @,@ 000 different companies ' models in 38 product categories , from washing machines and light bulbs to skyscrapers and homes . However , despite the growth in the number of green products , green marketing is on the decline as the primary sales pitch for products . Shel Horowitz , a green marketer for over 30 years and primary author of Guerrilla Marketing Goes Green states that to market effectively , green businesses need to market to three different audiences , " deep green , " " lazy green , " and " nongreen " , and that each must be approached differently . Each will have different trigger points that will move them to buy , and for the nongreen audience , marketing effectively usually requires emphasizing product superiority rather than care for the planet . On the other hand , Roper ’ s Green Gauge shows that a high percentage of consumers ( 42 % ) feel that environmental products don ’ t work as well as conventional ones . This is an unfortunate legacy from the 1970s when shower heads sputtered and natural detergents left clothes dingy . Given the choice , all but the greenest of customers will reach for synthetic detergents over the premium @-@ priced , proverbial " Happy Planet " any day , including Earth Day . New reports , however show a growing trend towards green products .
= = = Confusion = = =
One challenge green marketers -- old and new -- are likely to face as green products and messages become more common is confusion in the marketplace . " Consumers do not really understand a lot about these issues , and there 's a lot of confusion out there , " says Jacquelyn Ottman ( founder of J. Ottman Consulting and author of " Green Marketing : Opportunity for Innovation . " ) Marketers sometimes take advantage of this confusion , and purposely make false or exaggerated " green " claims . Critics refer to this practice as " green washing " .
= = = = Greenwashing = = = =
Corporations are increasingly recognizing the benefits of green marketing , although there is often a thin line between doing so for its own benefit and for social responsibility reasons . The term “ greenwashing ” refers to all industries that adopt outwardly green acts with an underlying purpose to increase profits . The primary objective of greenwashing is to provide consumers with the feeling that the organization is taking the necessary steps to responsibly manage its ecological footprint . In reality , the company may be doing very little that is environmentally beneficial The term greenwashing was first used by environmentalist Jay Westerveld when objecting to hotelier 's practice of placing notices in hotel rooms which asked their guests to reuse towels to “ save the environment ” . Westerveld noted that there was little else to suggest that the hoteliers were interested in reducing their environmental impacts , and that their interest in washing fewer towels seemed to be motivated by a concern to save costs rather than the environment . Since then greenwashing has become a central feature of debates about marketing communications and sustainability , with “ awards ” for greenwashing established and numerous campaigns , law and advices developed in an attempt to reduce or curb it .
= = = Benefit corporations = = =
In January 2012 , Patagonia became the first brand to register for benefit corporation status .
A benefit corporation is an alternative to its standard counterpart as it operates under the legal premise of 1 ) creating a positive impact socially and environmentally in its materials , 2 ) uphold corporate social responsibility in terms of considering its workers , its community , and the environment as well as challenge its current boundaries in those areas , and 3 ) report its activity as a company as well as its achievements in social and environmental areas publicly using a non @-@ partisan third party source .
= = = Statistics = = =
According to market researcher Mintel , about 12 % of the U.S. population can be identified as True Greens , consumers who seek out and regularly buy so @-@ called green products . Another 68 % can be classified as Light Greens , consumers who buy green sometimes . " What chief marketing officers are always looking for is touch points with consumers , and this is just a big , big , big touch point that 's not being served , " says Mintel Research Director David Lockwood . " All the corporate executives that we talk to are extremely convinced that being able to make some sort of strong case about the environment is going to work down to their bottom line . "
= = Adoptability = =
In 1989 , 67 percent of Americans stated that they were willing to pay 5 @-@ 10 percent more for ecologically compatible products . By 1991 , environmentally conscious individuals were willing to pay between 15 @-@ 20 percent more for green products . Today , more than one @-@ third of Americans say they would pay a little extra for green products
An important challenge facing marketers is to identify which consumers are willing to pay more for environmentally friendly products . It is apparent that an enhanced knowledge of the profile of this segment of consumers would be extremely useful .
Everett Rogers , communication scholar and author of “ Diffusion of Innovations ” , claims that the following five factors can help determine whether a new idea will be adopted or not , including the idealism of the shift towards “ green ” :
Relative advantage : is the degree to which the new behavior is believed to accrue more beneficial outcomes than current practice .
Observability : is how easy it is to witness the outcomes of the new behavior .
Trialability : is the ease with which the new behavior can be tested by an individual without making a full commitment .
Compatibility : is the degree to which the new behavior is consistent with current practice .
Complexity : is how difficult the new behavior is to implement .
= = = LOHAS = = =
LOHAS stands for Lifestyles of Health and Sustainability , and describes an integrated , rapidly growing market for goods and services that appeal to consumers whose sense of environmental and social responsibility influences their purchase decisions . The Natural Marketing Institute ’ s ( short : NMI ) estimates the US LOHAS consumer market of products and services to be USD 209 billion – sold across all consumer segments .
The five LOHAS segments as defined by NMI include :
LOHAS : Active environmental stewards dedicated to personal and planetary health . These are the heaviest purchasers of green and socially responsible products and the early adopters who influence others heavily .
Naturalites : Motivated primarily by personal health considerations . They tend to purchase more LOHAS consumable products vs. durable items .
Drifters : While their intentions may be good , DRIFTERS follow trends when it is easy and affordable . They are currently quite engaged in green purchasing behaviours .
Conventionals : Pragmatists who embrace LOHAS behaviour when they believe they can make a difference , but are primarily focused on being very careful with their resources and doing the ‘ right ’ thing because it will save them money .
Unconcerned : Either unaware or unconcerned about the environment and societal issues mainly because they do not have the time or the means – these consumers are largely focused on getting by .
= = The green marketing mix = =
A model green marketing mix contains four " P 's " :
Product : A producer should offer ecological products which not only must not contaminate the environment but should protect it and even liquidate existing environmental damages .
Price : Prices for such products may be a little higher than conventional alternatives . But target groups like for example LOHAS are willing to pay extra for green products .
Place : A distribution logistics is of crucial importance ; main focus is on ecological packaging . Marketing local and seasonal products e.g. vegetables from regional farms is more easy to be marketed “ green ” than products imported .
Promotion : A communication with the market should put stress on environmental aspects , for example that the company possesses a CP certificate or is ISO 14000 certified . This may be publicized to improve a firm ’ s image . Furthermore , the fact that a company spends expenditures on environmental protection should be advertised . Third , sponsoring the natural environment is also very important . And last but not least , ecological products will probably require special sales promotions .
Additional social marketing " P 's " that are used in this process are :
Publics : Effective Social Marketing knows its audience , and can appeal to multiple groups of people . " Public " is the external and internal groups involved in the program . External publics include the target audience , secondary audiences , policymakers , and gatekeepers , while the internal publics are those who are involved in some way with either approval or implementation of the program .
Partnership : Most social change issues , including " green " initiatives , are too complex for one person or group to handle . Associating with other groups and initiatives to team up strengthens the chance of efficacy .
Policy : Social marketing programs can do well in motivating individual behavior change , but that is difficult to sustain unless the environment they 're in supports that change for the long run . Often , policy change is needed , and media advocacy programs can be an effective complement to a social marketing program .
Purse Strings : How much will this strategic effort cost ? Who is funding the effort ?
The level of greening — strategic , quasi @-@ strategic , or tactical — dictates what activities should be undertaken by a company . Strategic greening in one area may or may not be leveraged effectively in others . A firm could make substantial changes in production processes but opt not to leverage them by positioning itself as an environmental leader . So although strategic greening is not necessarily strategically integrated into all marketing activities , it is nevertheless strategic in the product area .
= = Ecolabels = =
An individual 's belief that an environmental claim lacks honesty can have a negative effect on attitude toward a brand . If , on the other side , the consumer grants credibility to the claim , the individual will behave more respectfully toward the environment . The problem in extending that credibility to a brand is that consumers interested in ecological products generally are skeptical of commercial advertisements . This skepticism is due to various factors such as lack of language , the absence of scientific knowledge necessary to interpret advertising meaning , and , in particular , the falsehoods and exaggeration of some advertising techniques . To resolve this problem , independent organizations may choose to guarantee messages on the environmental benefits of brands with environmental labeling systems sponsored by independent organizations . This practice tries to diminish perceived biases in environmental information by promoting standardization of the information with the aim of improving confidence in the evaluation of environmental benefits of products — all of which should positively affect the purchase intention .
= = Life @-@ cycle assessment = =
During the late 1980s , new instruments such as life @-@ cycle assessment ( LCA ) were invented which allowed ecological considerations to be introduced into marketing decisions .
The life cycle assessment model seeks to identify the main types of environmental impact throughout the life cycle of a product . LCA was developed according to ISO 14040 . The main goal of the LCA is to define the energy and environmental profile of the finished products . The reasons to use LCA arose from the need to have a precise process accounting and to highlight potential improvements that could be used in order to increase the environmental , energy and economic efficiency and overall effectiveness of the processes . In addition , the purpose was to quantify the environmental advantages deriving from the use of recycled raw material .
= = = Example for LCA = = =
LCA is used for example in the building sector . Buildings today account for the 40 % of the world ’ s energy use . The resulting carbon emissions are substantially higher than those of the transportation sector . New buildings using more energy than necessary are being built every day , and millions of today 's inefficient buildings will remain standing until at least 2050 . It ’ s therefore necessary to start reducing energy use in new and existing buildings in order to reduce the planet 's energy @-@ related carbon footprint . Growing interest , space , and attention in the architecture sector are directed to environmental issues according to the principles of green building . Mineral , vegetable , or animal materials such as perlite , vermiculite , rock wool , glass wool , cork , plant fibers ( cotton , flax , hemp , coconut ) , wood fiber , cellulose , and sheep 's wool can be used for the production of insulation panels .
= = Green marketing cases = =
= = = Phillips 's " Marathon " CFL lightbulb = = =
Philips Lighting 's first shot at marketing a standalone compact fluorescent light ( CFL ) bulb was Earth Light , at $ 15 each versus 75 cents for incandescent bulbs . The product had difficulty climbing out of its deep green niche . The company re @-@ launched the product as " Marathon , " underscoring its new " super long life " positioning and promise of saving $ 26 in energy costs over its five @-@ year lifetime . Finally , with the U.S. EPA 's Energy Star label to add credibility as well as new sensitivity to rising utility costs and electricity shortages , sales climbed 12 percent in an otherwise flat market .
= = = Car sharing services = = =
Car @-@ sharing services address the longer @-@ term solutions to consumer needs for better fuel savings and fewer traffic tie @-@ ups and parking nightmares , to complement the environmental benefit of more open space and reduction of greenhouse gases . They may be thought of as a " time @-@ sharing " system for cars . Consumers who drive less than 7 @,@ 500 miles a year and do not need a car for work can save thousands of dollars annually by joining one of the many services springing up , including Zipcar ( East Coast ) , I @-@ GO Car ( Chicago ) , and Hour Car ( Twin Cities ) .
= = = Electronics sector = = =
The consumer electronics sector provides room for using green marketing to attract new customers . One example of this is HP 's promise to cut its global energy use 20 percent by the year 2010 . To accomplish this reduction below 2005 levels , The Hewlett @-@ Packard Company announced plans to deliver energy @-@ efficient products and services and institute energy @-@ efficient operating practices in its facilities worldwide .
= = = Products and services = = =
Now companies are offering more eco @-@ friendly alternatives for their customers . Recycled products for example , are one of the most popular alternatives that can benefit the environment . These benefits include sustainable forestry , clean air , energy efficiency , water conservation , and a healthy office . One example , is the E @-@ commerce business and office supply company Shoplet which offers a web tool that allows you to replace similar items in your shopping cart with greener products .
= = = Introduction of CNG in Delhi = = =
New Delhi , capital of India , was being polluted at a very fast pace until Supreme Court of India forced a change to alternative fuels . In 2002 , a directive was issued to completely adopt CNG in all public transport systems to curb pollution .
= International Development Association =
The International Development Association ( IDA ) is an international financial institution which offers concessional loans and grants to the world 's poorest developing countries . The IDA is a member of the World Bank Group and is headquartered in Washington , D.C. , United States . It was established in 1960 to complement the existing International Bank for Reconstruction and Development by lending to developing countries which suffer from the lowest gross national income , from troubled creditworthiness , or from the lowest per capita income . Together , the International Development Association and International Bank for Reconstruction and Development are collectively generally known as the World Bank , as they follow the same executive leadership and operate with the same staff .
The association shares the World Bank 's mission of reducing poverty and aims to provide affordable development financing to countries whose credit risk is so prohibitive that they cannot afford to borrow commercially or from the Bank 's other programs . The IDA 's stated aim is to assist the poorest nations in growing more quickly , equitably , and sustainably to reduce poverty . The IDA is the single largest provider of funds to economic and human development projects in the world 's poorest nations . From 2000 to 2010 , it financed projects which recruited and trained 3 million teachers , immunized 310 million children , funded $ 792 million in loans to 120 @,@ 000 small and medium enterprises , built or restored 118 @,@ 000 kilometers of paved roads , built or restored 1 @,@ 600 bridges , and expanded access to improved water to 113 million people and improved sanitation facilities to 5 @.@ 8 million people . The IDA has issued a total $ 238 billion USD in loans and grants since its launch in 1960 . Thirty @-@ six of the association 's borrowing countries have graduated from their eligibility for its concessional lending . However , eight of these countries have relapsed and have not re @-@ graduated .
= = History = =
During the 1940s and 1950s , developing countries with the poorest incomes began realizing that they could no longer afford to borrow capital and needed more @-@ favorable lending terms than offered by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development ( IBRD ) . At the onset of his inaugural term in 1949 , then @-@ President of the United States Harry S. Truman assembled an advisory group to suggest ways to accomplish his Point Four Program , of which a significant component was an effort to strengthen developing countries , especially those nearest to the Eastern Bloc , to dissuade them from aligning with other communist states . The advisory group recommended an international mechanism that would function somewhere in between providing strictly @-@ loaned and strictly @-@ granted funds . The UN and United States government published reports expressing support for the creation of a multilateral , concessional lending program for the poorest developing countries . However , the United States was largely unresponsive and ultimately distracted by its involvement in the Korean War and unconvinced that development needed greater financial stimulation .
Developing countries grew increasingly frustrated with not being able to afford IBRD lending and perceived the Marshall Plan as a comparatively generous gift to European nations . In the late 1940s and early 1950s , developing countries began calling for the United Nations ( UN ) to create a development agency that would offer technical support and concessional financing , with a particular desire that the agency adhere to other UN bodies ' convention of each country having one vote as opposed to a weighted vote . However , the United States ultimately opposed proposals of that nature . As the United States grew more concerned over the growth of the Cold War , it made a concession in 1954 at the behest of its Department of State by backing the conception of the International Finance Corporation ( IFC ) . Despite the launch of the IFC in 1956 , developing countries persisted in demanding the creation of a new concessional financing mechanism and the idea gained traction within the IBRD . Then @-@ President of the IBRD Eugene R. Black , Sr. began circulating the notion of an International Development Association , as opposed to an idea of a concessional named the Special United Nations Fund for Economic Development ( SUNFED ) governed by the United Nations . Paul Hoffman , the Marshall Plan 's former Administrator , proposed the idea of a soft @-@ loan facility within the World Bank , where the US would have a preponderant voice in the allocation of such loans.Democratic Senator Mike Monroney of Oklahoma supported this idea . As Chairman of the Senate Subcommittee on International Finance , Monroney proposed a resolution recommending a study of the potential establishment of an International Development Association to be affiliated with the IBRD . Monroney 's proposal was more preferred received within the United States than the SUNFED . The resolution passed the senate in 1958 , and then @-@ U.S. Treasury Secretary Robert B. Anderson encouraged other countries to conduct similar studies . In 1959 , the World Bank 's Board of Governors approved a U.S.-born resolution calling for the drafting of the articles of agreement . SUNFED later became the Special Fund and merged with the Expanded Programme of Technical Assistance to form the United Nations Development Programme .
By the end of January 1960 , fifteen countries signed the articles of agreement which established the International Development Association . The association launched in September of that same year with an initial budget of $ 913 million ( $ 7 @.@ 1 billion in 2012 dollars ) . Over the next eight months following its launch , the IDA grew to 51 member states and loaned $ 101 million ( $ 784 @.@ 2 million in 2012 dollars ) to four developing countries .
= = Governance and operations = =
The IDA is governed by the World Bank 's Board of Governors which meets annually and consists of one governor per member country ( most often the country 's finance minister or treasury secretary ) . The Board of Governors delegates most of its authority over daily matters such as lending and operations to the Board of Directors . The Board of Directors consists of 25 executive directors and is chaired by the President of the World Bank Group . The executive directors collectively represent all 187 member states of the World Bank , although decisions regarding IDA matters concern only the IDA 's 172 member states . The president oversees the IDA 's overall direction and daily operations . As of July 2012 , Jim Yong Kim serves as the President of the World Bank Group . The association and IBRD operate with a staff of approximately 10 @,@ 000 employees .
The IDA is evaluated by the Bank 's Independent Evaluation Group . In 2009 , the group identified weaknesses in the set of controls used to protect against fraud and corruption in projects supported by IDA lending . In 2011 , the group recommended the Bank provide recognition and incentives to staff and management for implementing activities which implement the Paris Declaration on Aid Effectiveness principles of harmonization and alignment , promote greater use of sector @-@ wide approaches to coordination , and explain the reasons why when a country 's financial management system is not used so that the client country may address those shortcomings . It also recommended that the Bank collaborate with development partners to strengthen country @-@ level leadership of development assistance coordination by offering greater financial and technical support . Development economists , such as William Easterly , have conducted research which ranked the IDA as featuring the most transparency and best practices among donors of development aid .
Researchers from the Center for Global Development expect that the IDA 's collection of eligible borrowing countries will decrease by half by the year 2025 ( marking the 65th anniversary of the association 's establishment ) due to graduations and that remaining borrowers will consist primarily of African countries and will face substantial population declines . These changes will imply a need for the association to carefully examine its financial models and business operations to determine an appropriate strategy going forward . The center recommended that the World Bank leadership begin discussing the long @-@ term future of the IDA .
= = Membership = =
The IDA has 173 member countries which pay contributions every three years as replenishments of its capital . The IDA lends to 81 borrowing countries , nearly half of which are in Africa . Membership in the IDA is available only to countries who are members of the World Bank , particularly the IBRD . Throughout its lifetime , 36 borrowing countries have graduated from the association , although a number of these countries have relapsed as borrowers after not sustaining their graduate status .
To be eligible for support from the IDA , countries are assessed by their poverty and their lack of creditworthiness for commercial and IBRD borrowing . The association assesses countries based on their per capita income , lack of access to private capital markets , and policy performance in implementing pro @-@ growth and anti @-@ poverty economic or social reforms . As of 2012 , to borrow from the IDA 's concessional lending programs , a country 's gross national income ( GNI ) per capita must not exceed $ 1 @,@ 175 ( in 2010 dollars ) .
= = = Countries graduated from IDA lending = = =
The following countries have graduated from their eligibility for IDA lending .
= = = Countries relapsed to IDA lending = = =
The following countries have relapsed to their eligibility for IDA lending and have not yet re @-@ graduated or have instead become partially eligible ( also referred to as a blend country ) .
Cameroon ( 1994 )
Congo ( 1994 )
Cote d 'Ivoire ( 1992 )
Honduras ( 1991 )
Nicaragua ( 1991 )
Nigeria ( 1989 )
Papua New Guinea ( 2003 , partially eligible )
Zimbabwe ( 1992 )
= = Replenishment rounds = =
The IDA is a unique part of the World Bank as it requires continuous replenishment of its resources . Member countries replenish its funds through contributions in addition to supplementary funds provided by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development and the International Finance Corporation ( IFC ) . Whereas the IBRD acquires most of its funds by raising capital on international financial markets , the IDA heavily depends on contributions from its member states . The IDA received 2 billion in special drawing rights ( $
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. The road from Stanton to Wilmington was paved four years later and the portion west of Stanton was paved by 1936 . In 1936 , work was underway to improve the road between Stanton and Newport by widening and resurfacing it , with completion a year later . In 1957 , Maryland Avenue between Silview and Boxwood Road was widened to four lanes and the one @-@ way pair along Market Street and Justis Street in Newport was established .
The present DE 4 designation first appeared in 1967 , at which point it ran from the Maryland border near Newark east to DE 48 in Wilmington , following Chestnut Hill Road from the state line before picking up its current alignment southeast of Newark . By 1971 , the route was extended northeast to US 13 Bus. in Bellefonte , forming a brief concurrency with DE 48 before continuing along Washington Street and Washington Street Extension . DE 4 was truncated back to DE 48 by 1981 , with DE 3 being realigned to the easternmost part of Washington Street Extension three years later . The portion of DE 4 concurrent with DE 7 was widened into a divided highway in 1985 , with the road shifted west to a new alignment passing over the Amtrak tracks and the White Clay Creek .
The Christiana Parkway around the southern edge of Newark was completed in September 1983 and DE 4 was realigned to use the Christiana Parkway by 1987 , ending at DE 2 in the southwestern part of Newark . DE 896 was rerouted to use the Christiana Parkway the following year with DE 2 following by 1990 . The DE 2 designation was removed from the Christiana Parkway in 2013 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in New Castle County .
= Black Francis =
Charles Michael Kittridge Thompson IV ( born April 6 , 1965 ) is an American singer , songwriter and guitarist . He is best known as the frontman of the influential alternative rock band Pixies , with whom he performs under the stage name Black Francis . Following the band 's breakup in 1993 , he embarked on a solo career under the name Frank Black . After releasing two albums with record label 4AD and one with American Recordings , he left the label and formed a new band , Frank Black and the Catholics . He re @-@ adopted the name Black Francis in 2007 .
His vocal style has varied from a screaming , yowling delivery as lead vocalist of the Pixies to a more measured and melodic style in his solo career . His cryptic lyrics mostly explore unconventional subjects , such as surrealism , incest and biblical violence , along with science fiction and surf culture . His use of atypical meter signatures , loud – quiet dynamics and distinct preference for live @-@ to @-@ two @-@ track recording in his career as a solo artist give him a distinct style within alternative rock .
As frontman of the Pixies , his songs ( such as " Where Is My Mind ? " and " Debaser " ) received praise and citations from contemporaries , including Radiohead 's Thom Yorke and Nirvana 's Kurt Cobain . Cobain once said that " Smells Like Teen Spirit " was his attempt to " rip off the Pixies " . Thompson reformed the Pixies in 2004 and continues to release solo records and tour as a solo artist .
= = Biography = =
= = = Youth and college = = =
Charles Thompson was born in Boston , Massachusetts . His father was a bar owner , and Thompson lived in Los Angeles , California as a baby because his father wanted to " learn more about the restaurant and bar business " . Thompson was introduced to music at a young age , as his parents listened to 1960s folk rock . His first guitar was his mother 's , a Yamaha classical guitar bought with money from his father 's bar tips , which he started to play at age " 11 or 12 " .
Thompson 's family moved around , first with his father , and then his stepfather , a religious man who " pursued real estate on both coasts " ; his parents had separated twice by the time he was in first grade . When Thompson was 12 , his mother and stepfather joined a church that was tied to the evangelical Assemblies of God , a move that influenced many of his songs written with the Pixies , which often refer to the Bible .
He discovered the music of Christian rock singer @-@ songwriter Larry Norman at 13 when Norman played at a religious summer camp that Thompson attended . Norman 's music influenced Thompson to the extent that he named the Pixies ' first EP and a lyric in the band 's song " Levitate Me " after one of Norman 's catchphrases , " Come on , pilgrim ! " Thompson later described the music he listened to during his youth :
Thompson lived in Marblehead , Massachusetts , in an apartment . Just before Thompson 's senior year , his family moved to Westport , Massachusetts , where he received a Teenager of the Year award — the title of a later solo album . During this time , Thompson composed several songs that appeared in his later career , including " Here Comes Your Man " from Doolittle , and " Velvety Instrumental Version " .
After graduating from high school in 1983 , he studied at the University of Massachusetts Amherst , majoring in anthropology . Thompson shared a room with another roommate for a semester before moving in with future Pixies guitarist Joey Santiago . The two shared an interest in rock music , and Santiago introduced Thompson to 1970s punk and the music of David Bowie ; they began to jam together . It was at this time that Thompson discovered The Cars , a band he described as " very influential on me and the Pixies " .
In his second year of college , Thompson embarked on a trip to San Juan , Puerto Rico as part of an exchange program . He spent six months in an apartment with a " weird , psycho roommate " , who later served as a direct inspiration for the Pixies song " Crackity Jones " ; many of the band 's early songs refer to Thompson 's experiences in Puerto Rico . Thompson failed to learn to speak Spanish formally , and left his studies after debating whether he would go to New Zealand to view Halley 's Comet ( he later said it " seemed like the cool romantic thing to do at the time " ) , or start a rock band . He wrote a letter urging Santiago , with the words " we gotta do it , now is the time Joe " , to join him in a band upon his return to Boston .
= = = Pixies = = =
Soon after returning to Massachusetts , Thompson dropped out of college , and moved to Boston with Santiago . He spent 1985 working in a warehouse , " managing buttons on teddy bears " , composing songs on his acoustic guitar , and writing lyrics on the subway train . In January 1986 , Thompson formed the Pixies with Santiago . Bassist Kim Deal was recruited a week later via a classified advertisement placed in a Boston paper , which requested a bassist " into Hüsker Dü and Peter , Paul and Mary . " Drummer David Lovering was later hired on recommendation from Deal 's husband .
In 1987 , the Pixies released an 18 @-@ track demo tape , commonly referred to as The Purple Tape . Thompson 's father assisted the band financially , loaning $ 1 @,@ 000 in order to record the demo tape ; Thompson later said that his father " wasn 't around for a lot of my younger years , so I think he was doing his best to make up for lost time " . The Purple Tape led to a recording contract with the English independent record label 4AD . For the release of the mini album Come On Pilgrim , Thompson adopted the alias " Black Francis " , a name inspired by his father : " he had been saving that name in case he had another son " .
In 1988 , the Pixies recorded their debut album Surfer Rosa . Thompson wrote and sang on all the tracks , with the exception of the single " Gigantic " , which was co @-@ written and sung by Deal . To support the album , the band undertook a European tour , during which Thompson met Eric Drew Feldman , a later collaborator on Pixies and solo albums . Doolittle , with Thompson @-@ penned songs such as " Debaser " and " Monkey Gone To Heaven " , was released the following year to widespread critical acclaim . However , by this time , tensions between Thompson and Deal , combined with exhaustion , led the band to announce a hiatus . Thompson has an aversion to flying , and spent this time driving across America with his girlfriend , Jean Walsh ( whom he had met in the band 's early days ) , performing solo shows in order to raise funds to buy furniture for his new Los Angeles apartment .
The band reconvened in 1990 , and recorded two further albums : 1990 's Bossanova and 1991 's Trompe le Monde ; the latter was Thompson 's first collaboration with Feldman . The later Pixies albums were characterized by Thompson 's increasing influence on the band 's output , as well as a focus on science fiction themes , including aliens and UFOs . These themes would continue to be explored throughout his early solo work . Trompe le Monde includes the song " U @-@ Mass " , which was written about the university he attended as a youth , and due to the keyboard part played by Feldman , signified a move away from the band 's alternative rock sound . Although Deal had contributed on the songs " Gigantic " ( from Surfer Rosa ) and " Silver " ( from Doolittle ) , from Bossanova on , Thompson wrote all the band 's original material . This contributed to the increasing tension between him and Deal , and the Pixies broke up in 1992 ; this was not publicly announced until early 1993 .
= = = Early solo career = = =
While the Pixies ' 1991 album Trompe le Monde was being recorded , Thompson had discussions with the album 's producer , Gil Norton , about a possible solo record . He told Norton he was keen to record again , even though he had no new material ; as a result , the two decided on a cover album . However , by the time Thompson visited a recording studio again in 1992 , he had " plenty of tunes and musical scraps . "
He collaborated with Feldman to record new material ; they began by trimming down the number of covers to one , The Beach Boys ' " Hang On to Your Ego " . Feldman became the album 's producer , and played keyboard and bass guitar on several songs , with Santiago featuring on lead guitar and Nick Vincent on drums . Francis recorded the album during the hiatus and breakup of the Pixies in late 1992 and early 1993 . He then adopted the stage name " Frank Black " ( inverting his old persona " Black Francis " ) and released the results as Frank Black in March 1993 . Frank Black was characterized by a focus on UFOs and science fiction , although he explored other subjects , such as in " I Heard Ramona Sing " , a song about the Ramones . The album was similar in style , both musically and lyrically , to the Pixies ' albums Bossanova and Trompe le Monde . Feldman later said that the first record connected his solo career with Trompe le Monde , " but at the same time it is an island , like nothing else he [ Black ] did . "
The following year , Black released his second solo record , a 22 @-@ song double album entitled Teenager of the Year . Teenager included the song " Headache " ( sample ) , a moderate success on alternative rock playlists ; critics described the song as " irresistible pop " . The production of Teenager of the Year was markedly different from Frank Black ; in the previous album , MIDI templates were used when writing songs , but in Teenager , Black showed individual parts to band members , the core of which included drummer Vincent and Lyle Workman on lead guitar . Feldman noted that Thompson 's songwriting became " a lot more spontaneous " while recording the album . Thompson had begun to stray from his style with the Pixies , writing songs that covered a variety of genres and topics , and his new @-@ found method of recording was closer to later albums than that of Frank Black and Trompe le Monde .
Both Frank Black and Teenager of the Year were critically well received , although they enjoyed limited commercial success . In 1995 , Thompson left his long @-@ time labels 4AD and Elektra . In 1996 , he released The Cult of Ray on Rick Rubin 's American Recordings ; the album marked a turn away from the elaborate production of his first solo works and was recorded primarily live with few overdubs . His band for this album featured sole Teenager holdover Lyle Workman on lead guitar , along with bassist David McCaffrey and Scott Boutier on drums . Though the album was neither critically nor commercially successful , its stripped @-@ down approach would increasingly define Thompson 's working methods for the next several years .
= = = Frank Black and the Catholics = = =
Thompson dubbed his new band " Frank Black and the Catholics " , and recorded their eponymous first album in 1997 . Recorded live @-@ to @-@ two @-@ track initially as merely a demo , he was so pleased with the results that he decided to release the sessions with no further production . The album was delayed for over a year by conflicts at American , both internal and over its production , and was ultimately released in late 1998 by SpinArt Records in the US . Since leaving American , Black has avoided long @-@ term contracts with labels , and has maintained ownership of his album masters , licensing each album individually for release .
Frank Black and the Catholics became the first album to be posted to the eMusic service ; they claim it is " the first album ever made legally available for commercial download " . Critical reception to the album was mixed , with some writers noting Thompson 's seemingly deliberate turn away from the " quirkiness " of the Pixies and his early solo work for a self @-@ consciously straightforward approach , and the " disappointingly straightforward punk @-@ pop " musical style present on the album .
He would continue to eschew multi @-@ track recording for the live @-@ to @-@ two @-@ track technique for all subsequent releases under the group name . Live @-@ to @-@ two @-@ track recording precludes the use of overdubs to correct errors or add texture ; all takes are recorded continuously , and mixing is done " on the fly " . On later albums , he incorporated more musicians into the sessions to allow for more varied instrumental textures . Explaining his rationale behind the method , he commented :
Well , it 's real . It 's a recording of a performance , of a real performance between a group of people , an entourage , a band , as opposed to a facsimile of that , which is frequently what people do with multi @-@ track recording ... I prefer it . It 's a little more real . It 's got a little more heart .
Workman left the Catholics in 1998 to pursue session and sideman work ; Rich Gilbert was added to the band to replace him . Frank Black and the Catholics released Pistolero in 1999 and Dog in the Sand in 2001 . Dog in the Sand added Dave Philips on pedal steel guitar and lead guitar , and Santiago and Feldman began making occasional appearances with the group live and on record . Both Pistolero and Dog in the Sand were produced by Nick Vincent .
By this time , while dismissing the possibility of a Pixies reunion , Thompson had begun to incorporate an increasing number of the band 's songs into Catholics concerts , as well as including Santiago in his solo work again . Black and the Catholics continued to release records ; two separate albums , Black Letter Days and Devil 's Workshop , were released simultaneously in 2002 . Devil 's Workshop included the song " Velvety " ( sample ) , a version of the Pixies song " Velvety Instrumental Version " ( written by Black as a teenager ) with lyrics . The song was one of the first signs that he had acknowledged his past work with the Pixies in his solo output . A sixth album with the Catholics , Show Me Your Tears , was released in 2003 . Show Me Your Tears ' title and many of the songs in it were inspired by Thompson 's recent divorce and entry into therapy .
= = = Pixies reunion , Nashville and the return of Black Francis = = =
In late 2003 , following long @-@ standing rumors , an official announcement was made that the Pixies were rehearsing for a reunion tour . The band played publicly for the first time in 12 years in April 2004 , and went on to tour extensively throughout the U.S. , Canada and Europe in the same year . They also recorded one of Deal 's compositions , " Bam Thwok " , which was released on the iTunes Music Store . Frank Black Francis , a double album bridging the gap between his two personas , was released to coincide with the Pixies reunion tour . The first disc consisted of solo demos of Pixies songs recorded the day before The Purple Tape was recorded , and the second contained studio collaborations , again of Pixies songs , with Two Pale Boys .
Also in 2004 , Thompson began to collaborate with a group of Nashville session musicians , including Steve Cropper , Spooner Oldham , Reggie Young , and Anton Fig , as well as producer Jon Tiven . In July 2005 , the collective released Honeycomb under the Frank Black name , to generally favorable reviews . Entertainment Weekly described the album as " spare , graceful , [ and ] in the pocket " , while Billboard noted it as " One of [ Thompson 's ] finest hours " . A second volume of Nashville sessions , a double album entitled Fast Man Raider Man , was released in June 2006 . Thompson appeared at a concert by Christian rock pioneer Larry Norman in June 2005 in Salem , Oregon . Norman and Thompson performed a duet on " Watch What You 're Doing " , which later appeared on Norman 's album , Live at The Elsinore .
Thompson continued to tour with the Pixies through 2005 and 2006 . Though the Catholics were effectively defunct , they released two separate albums of B @-@ sides and rarities , Snake Oil and One More Road for the Hit , on iTunes , with an eye towards a future CD release . Thompson was also working on more new solo material with Feldman in the first part of 2006 , some of which they performed live . In the fall of 2006 , Thompson began his first solo tour since 2003 , taking Feldman , Billy Block , and Duane Jarvis along as his backing band . In October 2006 , Thompson announced plans for the Pixies to start rehearsing and recording a new album in January 2007 , but it is believed that no recording took place because of the reluctance of another member of the Pixies to commit to the project . In December 2006 , he released the compilation Christmass album ; a collection of new studio tracks , hotel room sessions , and live acoustic recordings from a solo tour the previous summer .
A Frank Black " best of " compilation , Frank Black 93 @-@ 03 , was released in June 2007 . Concurrently with that release , Thompson undertook a European tour with a new band , featuring Salem 's Guards of Metropolis members Jason Carter and Charles Normal , as well as bassist Ding Archer . For this tour , Thompson eschewed his usual rhythm guitar role and performed solely as a frontman and singer . In September 2007 , a new album entitled Bluefinger was released under his former stage name of Black Francis . For this album , he was inspired by the life and works of Herman Brood , a Dutch musician and artist . He also released a new " mini @-@ album " entitled Svn Fngrs as Black Francis in March 2008 .
In February 2008 , Thompson was taken away by the Irish police in Dublin , Ireland after staging an impromptu " precore " acoustic solo gig at St. Stephen 's Green . He was later released and performed that night in Vicar Street as planned . However , a similar event planned for London was prevented by police and had to be re @-@ arranged for a small indoor venue .
Thompson currently lives in Amherst , Massachusetts , and is married to Violet Clark , his second wife , with whom he has three children , along with her two children from previous relationships . The couple formerly lived in Eugene , Oregon , where they met . Thompson and Clark currently compose the band Grand Duchy . Their debut album , Petit Fours , was released in February 2009 .
In 2008 , Black produced Art Brut 's third album , Art Brut vs. Satan , which was released the following year . Black gave several joint interviews with frontman Eddie Argos about the album , and Art Brut supported the Pixies at their 2009 Brixton Academy show . In 2010 , Black worked with the group a second time on their album Brilliant ! Tragic ! .
Black Francis released NonStopErotik in March 2010 and contributed the song " I Heard Ramona Sing " to the soundtrack for the film Scott Pilgrim vs. the World released in August 2010 .
In the fall of 2010 in Nashville , Thompson recorded an album of new songs written and performed with collaborator Reid Paley , as Paley & Francis ( Reid Paley & Black Francis ) . The debut Paley & Francis album ( also titled Paley & Francis ) was produced by Jon Tiven , and features Reid Paley and Black Francis on guitars and vocals , accompanied by Muscle Shoals legends Spooner Oldham on piano and David Hood on bass . The album was released in October 2011 on Sonic Unyon in North America , and on Cooking Vinyl in the UK & Europe .
Paley & Francis debuted live in early September 2011 with club performances in Albany NY , Buffalo NY , and Hamilton , Ontario , and as one of the headliners of the Supercrawl Festival . The band for these performances consisted of Reid Paley and Black Francis on guitars and vocals , Eric Eble on bass , and Dave Varriale on drums . The pair toured again from February 8 to 22 , 2013 , with the shows including solo performances by each artist .
Black Francis performed at The Coach House Concert Hall in San Juan Capistrano , California on March 22 , 2013 . The Pixies , minus original bassist Kim Deal , reunited for a United States and world tour in 2014 .
= = Musical style = =
See also : Pixies ' musical style
Over the course of his career , Thompson 's musical style has grown to encompass a large number of genres ; however , he is considered to produce rock or alternative rock compositions . Whereas songs such as " Here Comes Your Man " ( Doolittle ) , " Velvety " ( Devil 's Workshop ) and " Headache " ( Teenager of the Year ) expose a more light rock side , others such as " Something Against You " ( Surfer Rosa ) and " Thalassocracy " ( Teenager of the Year ) hint to a more heavy rock influence in his material . A strong country music influence is also increasingly evident in his style , most notably in his Nashville albums , Honeycomb and Fast Man Raider Man .
Thompson has said that he acquired his vocal style as a teenager , when a Thai neighbor asked him to sing " Oh ! Darling " by The Beatles ( from their album Abbey Road ) and to " Scream it like you hate that bitch ! " Thompson 's powerful screams were a signature of Pixies albums , along with the band 's typical song structure of quietly paced verses followed by thundering chorus lines and repetitive guitar staccato .
= = = Influences = = =
Thompson has drawn influence from a number of musical genres . As a teenager , he mostly listened to 1960s folk and religious music , including the Christian singer @-@ songwriter Larry Norman . For playing on his junior high baseball team , he was given Leon Russell 's 1970 debut album , which he says influenced some of his vocalizing . Later in high school and in college , he discovered punk music ( Black Flag ) , along with bands from other genres , such as the new wave band The Cars and the obscure Angst . While in Boston in 1984 , before starting the Pixies , he listened to Hüsker Dü 's Zen Arcade , The Spotlight Kid by Captain Beefheart , and I 'm Sick of You , an Iggy Pop bootleg . Thompson was also greatly influenced by the Beatles self @-@ titled 1968 release ( known as White Album ) with regards to the experimental nature of his compositions ( especially those featured in Doolittle ) .
Thompson 's lyrics have also featured references to the Bible , especially in his career with the Pixies ; most notably in the incestuous tale of " Nimrod 's Son " , the stories of Uriah and Bathsheba in " Dead " , Samson in " Gouge Away " and references to the Tower of Babel in songs such as " Build High " and " Old Black Dawning " . He cited surrealist films Eraserhead and Un Chien Andalou ( as mentioned in " Debaser " ) as major influences on his work with the Pixies ; however , surrealism was less of an influence in his solo career . He commented on these influences ( which he paid tribute to most in the Pixies ' Doolittle ) , saying he " didn 't have the patience to sit around reading Surrealist novels " , but found it easier to watch 20 @-@ minute films .
= = = Songwriting and lyrics = = =
During his stay in Puerto Rico , Thompson acquired a fairly fluent , although informal and at times incorrect , use of Spanish , which he has continued throughout his career . Several early Pixies songs , including " Isla de Encanta " and " Vamos " , reference his experiences in San Juan , and the lyrics are often heavily seasoned with the island 's slang . The island 's influence in his work is most notable in the song " Isla De Encanta " , named after the island 's motto , " Isla Del Encanto " . Other Pixies songs drawn from his experiences there include " Vamos " ( Come On Pilgrim ) , " Oh My Golly ! " , " Where Is My Mind ? " ( Surfer Rosa ) , " Crackity Jones " ( Doolittle ) and the B @-@ side " Bailey 's Walk " . Several of his songs contain Spanish lyrics , most notably in the Pixies ' first album , Come On Pilgrim , and a Spanish translation of " Evil Hearted You " by The Yardbirds . From his later works with the Pixies onwards , his use of Spanish drifted westward , reflecting places and aspects of the state of California and its culture .
Thompson 's lyrics are noted for their obscure references to off @-@ beat topics such as outer space , UFOs , and The Three Stooges — the last of these being the subject of " Two Reelers " , a song from Teenager of the Year . Lyrics with a focus on science fiction were particularly prominent on the later Pixies records , as well as his early solo albums . With the Catholics , his lyrics have tended towards historical topics ; for example , the song " St. Francis Dam Disaster " ( from Dog in the Sand ) details the catastrophic collapse of the St. Francis Dam near Los Angeles in March 1928 , and the All My Ghosts EP featured an account of the Humboldt County Massacre of Wiyot Indians in 1860 near Eureka , California .
= = Television appearances and videos = =
See also : Pixies ' television appearances and videos
Thompson has appeared on a range of television shows solo and as part of the Pixies , ranging from 120 Minutes and The Late Show in the United States , to The Word in the UK .
As part of the Pixies , he was reluctant to film music videos for singles . Elektra Records ' Peter Lubin commented that " to get videos out of them was a major ... undertaking and it only got worse over time " , citing the fact that Thompson refused to lip @-@ sync ; the video for " Here Comes Your Man " features Thompson and Deal opening their mouths as the vocals are being heard , mocking the practice .
In his early solo career as Frank Black , his videos were more professional ; he became more willing to take part in them . " Los Angeles " is an example ; the video features Thompson riding across a desert on a hovercraft . They Might Be Giants ' John Flansburgh , who directed the " Los Angeles " video , later commented on the change in Black 's attitude to music videos :
I think the Pixies had made enough anti @-@ videos that Charles was ready to do things that were more visually hopped up . The " Los Angeles " video that we did , the last minute and a half of the song is this open field of grey over which hovercrafts are floating . It 's about as tripped up as any video I 've ever been involved in , and it was also realizing a dream of Charles ' , getting him in a hovercraft .
Thompson has released few music videos since leaving 4AD , one being a low @-@ budget video in Germany for Dog in the Sand 's " Robert Onion " . The last widely released video produced for his solo material was for " Men in Black " , from Cult of Ray .
In 2013 , Thompson appeared in a video promoting McSweeney 's children 's book Lost Sloth .
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
= = = Pixies = = =
= = Equipment = =
Frank Black 's 2014 Pixies guitar rig is well @-@ documented .
= Tristan Tzara =
Tristan Tzara ( French : [ tʁistɑ ̃ dzaʁa ] ; Romanian : [ trisˈtan ˈt ͡ sara ] ; born Samuel or Samy Rosenstock , also known as S. Samyro ; April 16 [ O.S. April 4 ] 1896 – December 25 , 1963 ) was a Romanian and French avant @-@ garde poet , essayist and performance artist . Also active as a journalist , playwright , literary and art critic , composer and film director , he was known best for being one of the founders and central figures of the anti @-@ establishment Dada movement . Under the influence of Adrian Maniu , the adolescent Tzara became interested in Symbolism and co @-@ founded the magazine Simbolul with Ion Vinea ( with whom he also wrote experimental poetry ) and painter Marcel Janco . During World War I , after briefly collaborating on Vinea 's Chemarea , he joined Janco in Switzerland . There , Tzara 's shows at the Cabaret Voltaire and Zunfthaus zur Waag , as well as his poetry and art manifestos , became a main feature of early Dadaism . His work represented Dada 's nihilistic side , in contrast with the more moderate approach favored by Hugo Ball .
After moving to Paris in 1919 , Tzara , by then one of the " presidents of Dada " , joined the staff of Littérature magazine , which marked the first step in the movement 's evolution toward Surrealism . He was involved in the major polemics which led to Dada 's split , defending his principles against André Breton and Francis Picabia , and , in Romania , against the eclectic modernism of Vinea and Janco . This personal vision on art defined his Dadaist plays The Gas Heart ( 1921 ) and Handkerchief of Clouds ( 1924 ) . A forerunner of automatist techniques , Tzara eventually aligned himself with Breton 's Surrealism , and under its influence wrote his celebrated utopian poem The Approximate Man .
During the final part of his career , Tzara combined his humanist and anti @-@ fascist perspective with a communist vision , joining the Republicans in the Spanish Civil War and the French Resistance during World War II , and serving a term in the National Assembly . Having spoken in favor of liberalization in the People 's Republic of Hungary just before the Revolution of 1956 , he distanced himself from the French Communist Party , of which he was by then a member . In 1960 , he was among the intellectuals who protested against French actions in the Algerian War .
Tristan Tzara was an influential author and performer , whose contribution is credited with having created a connection from Cubism and Futurism to the Beat Generation , Situationism and various currents in rock music . The friend and collaborator of many modernist figures , he was the lover of dancer Maja Kruscek in his early youth and was later married to Swedish artist and poet Greta Knutson .
= = Name = =
S. Samyro , a partial anagram of Samy Rosenstock , was used by Tzara from his debut and throughout the early 1910s . A number of undated writings , which he probably authored as early as 1913 , bear the signature Tristan Ruia , and , in summer of 1915 , he was signing his pieces with the name Tristan .
In the 1960s , Rosenstock 's collaborator and later rival Ion Vinea claimed that he was responsible for coining the Tzara part of his pseudonym in 1915 . Vinea also stated that Tzara wanted to keep Tristan as his adopted first name , and that this choice had later attracted him the " infamous pun " Triste Âne Tzara ( French for " Sad Donkey Tzara " ) . This version of events is uncertain , as manuscripts show that the writer may have already been using the full name , as well as the variations Tristan Țara and Tr . Tzara , in 1913 @-@ 1914 ( although there is a possibility that he was signing his texts long after committing them to paper ) .
In 1972 , art historian Serge Fauchereau , based on information received from Colomba , the wife of avant @-@ garde poet Ilarie Voronca , recounted that Tzara himself had explained his chosen name was a pun in Romanian , trist în țară , meaning " sad in the country " ; Colomba Voronca was also dismissing rumors that Tzara had selected Tristan as a tribute to poet Tristan Corbière or to Richard Wagner 's Tristan und Isolde opera . Samy Rosenstock legally adopted his new name in 1925 , after filing a request with Romania 's Ministry of the Interior . The French pronunciation of his name has become commonplace in Romania , where it replaces its more natural reading as țara ( " the land " , Romanian pronunciation : [ ˈt ͡ sara ] ) .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and Simbolul years = = =
Tzara was born in Moinești , Bacău County , in the historical region of Moldavia . His parents were Jewish Romanians who reportedly spoke Yiddish as their first language ; his father Filip and grandfather Ilie were entrepreneurs in the forestry business . Tzara 's mother was Emilia Rosenstock , née Zibalis . Owing to the Romanian Kingdom 's discrimination laws , the Rosenstocks were not emancipated , and thus Tzara was not a full citizen of the country until after 1918 .
He moved to Bucharest at the age of eleven , and attended the Schemitz @-@ Tierin boarding school . It is believed that the young Tzara completed his secondary education at a state @-@ run high school , which is identified as the Saint Sava National College or as the Sfântul Gheorghe High School . In October 1912 , when Tzara was aged sixteen , he joined his friends Vinea and Marcel Janco in editing Simbolul . Reputedly , Janco and Vinea provided the funds . Like Vinea , Tzara was also close to their young colleague Jacques G. Costin , who was later his self @-@ declared promoter and admirer .
Despite their young age , the three editors were able to attract collaborations from established Symbolist authors , active within Romania 's own Symbolist movement . Alongside their close friend and mentor Adrian Maniu ( an Imagist who had been Vinea 's tutor ) , they included N. Davidescu , Alfred Hefter @-@ Hidalgo , Emil Isac , Claudia Millian , Ion Minulescu , I. M. Rașcu , Eugeniu Sperantia , Al . T. Stamatiad , Eugeniu Ștefănescu @-@ Est , Constantin T. Stoika , as well as the journalist and lawyer Poldi Chapier . In its inaugural issue , the journal even printed a poem by one of the leading figures in Romanian Symbolism , Alexandru Macedonski . Simbolul also featured illustrations by Maniu , Millian and Iosif Iser .
Although the magazine ceased print in December 1912 , it played an important part in shaping Romanian literature of the period . Literary historian Paul Cernat sees Simbolul as a main stage in Romania 's modernism , and credits it with having brought about the first changes from Symbolism to the radical avant @-@ garde . Also according to Cernat , the collaboration between Samyro , Vinea and Janco was an early instance of literature becoming " an interface between arts " , which had for its contemporary equivalent the collaboration between Iser and writers such as Ion Minulescu and Tudor Arghezi . Although Maniu parted with the group and sought a change in style which brought him closer to traditionalist tenets , Tzara , Janco and Vinea continued their collaboration . Between 1913 and 1915 , they were frequently vacationing together , either on the Black Sea coast or at the Rosenstock family property in Gârceni , Vaslui County ; during this time , Vinea and Samyro wrote poems with similar themes and alluding to one another .
= = = Chemarea and 1915 departure = = =
Tzara 's career changed course between 1914 and 1916 , during a period when the Romanian Kingdom kept out of World War I. In autumn 1915 , as founder and editor of the short @-@ lived journal Chemarea , Vinea published two poems by his friend , the first printed works to bear the signature Tristan Tzara . At the time , the young poet and many of his friends were adherents of an anti @-@ war and anti @-@ nationalist current , which progressively accommodated anti @-@ establishment messages . Chemarea , which was a platform for this agenda and again attracted collaborations from Chapier , may also have been financed by Tzara and Vinea . According to Romanian avant @-@ garde writer Claude Sernet , the journal was " totally different from everything that had been printed in Romania before that moment . " During the period , Tzara 's works were sporadically published in Hefter @-@ Hidalgo 's Versuri și Proză , and , in June 1915 , Constantin Rădulescu @-@ Motru 's Noua Revistă Română published Samyro 's known poem Verișoară , fată de pension ( " Little Cousin , Boarding School Girl " ) .
Tzara had enrolled at the University of Bucharest in 1914 , studying mathematics and philosophy , but did not graduate . In autumn 1915 , he left Romania for Zürich , in neutral Switzerland . Janco , together with his brother Jules , had settled there a few months before , and was later joined by his other brother Georges . Tzara , who may have applied for the Faculty of Philosophy at the local university , shared lodging with Marcel Janco , who was a student at the Technische Hochschule , in the Altinger Guest House ( by 1918 , Tzara had moved to the Limmatquai Hotel ) . His departure from Romania , like that of the Janco brothers , may have been in part a pacifist political statement . After settling in Switzerland , the young poet almost completely discarded Romanian as his language of expression , writing most of his subsequent works in French . The poems he had written before , which were the result of poetic dialogues between him and his friend , were left in Vinea 's care . Most of these pieces were first printed only in the interwar period .
It was in Zürich that the Romanian group met with the German Hugo Ball , an anarchist poet and pianist , and his young wife Emmy Hennings , a music hall performer . In February 1916 , Ball had rented the Cabaret Voltaire from its owner , Jan Ephraim , and intended to use the venue for performance art and exhibits . Hugo Ball recorded this period , noting that Tzara and Marcel Janco , like Hans Arp , Arthur Segal , Otto van Rees , Max Oppenheimer , and Marcel Słodki , " readily agreed to take part in the cabaret . " According to Ball , among the performances of songs mimicking or taking inspiration from various national folklores , " Herr Tristan Tzara recited Rumanian poetry . " In late March , Ball recounted , the group was joined by German writer and drummer Richard Huelsenbeck . He was soon after involved in Tzara 's " simultaneist verse " performance , " the first in Zürich and in the world " , also including renditions of poems by two promoters of Cubism , Fernand Divoire and Henri Barzun .
= = = Birth of Dada = = =
It was in this milieu that Dada was born , at some point before May 1916 , when a publication of the same name first saw print . The story of its establishment was the subject of a disagreement between Tzara and his fellow writers . Cernat believes that the first Dadaist performance took place as early as February , when the nineteen @-@ year @-@ old Tzara , wearing a monocle , entered the Cabaret Voltaire stage singing sentimental melodies and handing paper wads to his " scandalized spectators " , leaving the stage to allow room for masked actors on stilts , and returning in clown attire . The same type of performances took place at the Zunfthaus zur Waag beginning in summer 1916 , after the Cabaret Voltaire was forced to close down . According to music historian Bernard Gendron , for as long as it lasted , " the Cabaret Voltaire was dada . There was no alternative institution or site that could disentangle ' pure ' dada from its mere accompaniment [ ... ] nor was any such site desired . " Other opinions link Dada 's beginnings with much earlier events , including the experiments of Alfred Jarry , André Gide , Christian Morgenstern , Jean @-@ Pierre Brisset , Guillaume Apollinaire , Jacques Vaché , Marcel Duchamp or Francis Picabia .
In the first of the movement 's manifestos , Ball wrote : " [ The booklet ] is intended to present to the Public the activities and interests of the Cabaret Voltaire , which has as its sole purpose to draw attention , across the barriers of war and nationalism , to the few independent spirits who live for other ideals . The next objective of the artists who are assembled here is to publish a revue internationale [ French for " international magazine " ] . " Ball completed his message in French , and the paragraph translates as : " The magazine shall be published in Zürich and shall carry the name ' Dada ' ( ' Dada ' ) . Dada Dada Dada Dada . " The view according to which Ball had created the movement was notably supported by writer Walter Serner , who directly accused Tzara of having abused Ball 's initiative .
A secondary point of contention between the founders of Dada regarded the paternity for the movement 's name , which , according to visual artist and essayist Hans Richter , was first adopted in print in June 1916 . Ball , who claimed authorship and stated that he picked the word randomly from a dictionary , indicated that it stood for both the French @-@ language equivalent of " hobby horse " and a German @-@ language term reflecting the joy of children being rocked to sleep . Tzara himself declined interest in the matter , but Marcel Janco credited him with having coined the term . Dada manifestos , written or co @-@ authored by Tzara , record that the name shares its form with various other terms , including a word used in the Kru languages of West Africa to designate the tail of a sacred cow ; a toy and the name for " mother " in an unspecified Italian dialect ; and the double affirmative in Romanian and in various Slavic languages .
= = = Dadaist promoter = = =
Before the end of the war , Tzara had assumed a position as Dada 's main promoter and manager , helping the Swiss group establish branches in other European countries . This period also saw the first conflict within the group : citing irreconcilable differences with Tzara , Ball left the group . With his departure , Gendron argues , Tzara was able to move Dada vaudeville @-@ like performances into more of " an incendiary and yet jocularly provocative theater . "
He is often credited with having inspired many young modernist authors from outside Switzerland to affiliate with the group , in particular the Frenchmen Louis Aragon , André Breton , Paul Éluard , Georges Ribemont @-@ Dessaignes and Philippe Soupault . Richter , who also came into contact with Dada at this stage in its history , notes that these intellectuals often had a " very cool and distant attitude to this new movement " before being approached by the Romanian author . In June 1916 , he began editing and managing the periodical Dada as a successor of the short @-@ lived magazine Cabaret Voltaire — Richter describes his " energy , passion and talent for the job " , which he claims satisfied all Dadaists . He was at the time the lover of Maja Kruscek , who was a student of Rudolf Laban ; in Richter 's account , their relationship was always tottering .
As early as 1916 , Tristan Tzara took distance from the Italian Futurists , rejecting the militarist and proto @-@ fascist stance of their leader Filippo Tommaso Marinetti . Richter notes that , by then , Dada had replaced Futurism as the leader of modernism , while continuing to build on its influence : " we had swallowed Futurism — bones , feathers and all . It is true that in the process of digestion all sorts of bones and feathers had been regurgitated . " Despite this and the fact that Dada did not make any gains in Italy , Tzara could count poets Giuseppe Ungaretti and Alberto Savinio , painters Gino Cantarelli and Aldo Fiozzi , as well as a few other Italian Futurists , among the Dadaists . Among the Italian authors supporting Dadaist manifestos and rallying with the Dada group was the poet , painter and in the future a fascist racial theorist Julius Evola , who became a personal friend of Tzara .
The next year , Tzara and Ball opened the Galerie Dada permanent exhibit , through which they set contacts with the independent Italian visual artist Giorgio de Chirico and with the German Expressionist journal Der Sturm , all of whom were described as " fathers of Dada " . During the same months , and probably owing to Tzara 's intervention , the Dada group organized a performance of Sphinx and Strawman , a puppet play by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Expressionist Oskar Kokoschka , whom he advertised as an example of " Dada theater " . He was also in touch with Nord @-@ Sud , the magazine of French poet Pierre Reverdy ( who sought to unify all avant @-@ garde trends ) , and contributed articles on African art to both Nord @-@ Sud and Pierre Albert @-@ Birot 's SIC magazine . In early 1918 , through Huelsenbeck , Zürich Dadaists established contacts with their more explicitly left @-@ wing disciples in the German Empire — George Grosz , John Heartfield , Johannes Baader , Kurt Schwitters , Walter Mehring , Raoul Hausmann , Carl Einstein , Franz Jung , and Heartfield 's brother Wieland Herzfelde . With Breton , Soupault and Aragon , Tzara traveled Cologne , where he became familiarized with the elaborate collage works of Schwitters and Max Ernst , which he showed to his colleagues in Switzerland . Huelsenbeck nonetheless declined to Schwitters membership in Berlin Dada .
As a result of his campaigning , Tzara created a list of so @-@ called " Dada presidents " , who represented various regions of Europe . According to Hans Richter , it included , alongside Tzara himself , figures ranging from Ernst , Arp , Baader , Breton and Aragon to Kruscek , Evola , Rafael Lasso de la Vega , Igor Stravinsky , Vicente Huidobro , Francesco Meriano and Théodore Fraenkel . Richter notes : " I 'm not sure if all the names who appear here would agree with the description . "
= = = End of World War I = = =
The shows Tzara staged in Zürich often turned into scandals or riots , and he was in permanent conflict with the Swiss law enforcers . Hans Richter speaks of a " pleasure of letting fly at the bourgeois , which in Tristan Tzara took the form of coldly ( or hotly ) calculated insolence " ( see Épater la bourgeoisie ) . In one instance , as part of a series of events in which Dadaists mocked established authors , Tzara and Arp falsely publicized that they were going to fight a duel in Rehalp , near Zürich , and that they were going to have the popular novelist Jakob Christoph Heer for their witness . Richter also reports that his Romanian colleague profited from Swiss neutrality to play the Allies and Central Powers against each other , obtaining art works and funds from both , making use of their need to stimulate their respective propaganda efforts . While active as a promoter , Tzara also published his first volume of collected poetry , the 1918 Vingt @-@ cinq poèmes ( " Twenty @-@ five Poems " ) .
A major event took place in autumn 1918 , when Francis Picabia , who was then publisher of 391 magazine and a distant Dada affiliate , visited Zürich and introduced his colleagues there to his nihilistic views on art and reason . In the United States , Picabia , Man Ray and Marcel Duchamp had earlier set up their own version of Dada . This circle , based in New York City , sought affiliation with Tzara 's only in 1921 , when they jokingly asked him to grant them permission to use " Dada " as their own name ( to which Tzara replied : " Dada belongs to everybody " ) . The visit was credited by Richter with boosting the Romanian author 's status , but also with making Tzara himself " switch suddenly from a position of balance between art and anti @-@ art into the stratospheric regions of pure and joyful nothingness . " The movement subsequently organized its last major Swiss show , held at the Saal zur Kaufleutern , with choreography by Susanne Perrottet , Sophie Taeuber @-@ Arp , and with the participation of Käthe Wulff , Hans Heusser , Tzara , Hans Richter and Walter Serner . It was there that Serner read from his 1918 essay , whose very title advocated Letzte Lockerung ( " Final Dissolution " ) : this part is believed to have caused the subsequent mêlée , during which the public attacked the performers and succeeded in interrupting , but not canceling , the show .
Following the November 1918 Armistice with Germany , Dada 's evolution was marked by political developments . In October 1919 , Tzara , Arp and Otto Flake began publishing Der Zeltweg , a journal aimed at further popularizing Dada in a post @-@ war world were the borders were again accessible . Richter , who admits that the magazine was " rather tame " , also notes that Tzara and his colleagues were dealing with the impact of communist revolutions , in particular the October Revolution and the German revolts of 1918 , which " had stirred men 's minds , divided men 's interests and diverted energies in the direction of political change . " The same commentator however dismisses those accounts which , he believes , led readers to believe that Der Zeltweg was " an association of revolutionary artists . " According to one account rendered by historian Robert Levy , Tzara shared company with a group of Romanian communist students , and , as such , may have met with Ana Pauker , who was later one of the Romanian Communist Party 's most prominent activists .
Arp and Janco drifted away from the movement ca . 1919 , when they created the Constructivist @-@ inspired workshop Das Neue Leben . In Romania , Dada was awarded an ambiguous reception from Tzara 's former associate Vinea . Although he was sympathetic to its goals , treasured Hugo Ball and Hennings and promised to adapt his own writings to its requirements , Vinea cautioned Tzara and the Jancos in favor of lucidity . When Vinea submitted his poem Doleanțe ( " Grievances " ) to be published by Tzara and his associates , he was turned down , an incident which critics attribute to a contrast between the reserved tone of the piece and the revolutionary tenets of Dada .
= = = Paris Dada = = =
In late 1919 , Tristan Tzara left Switzerland to join Breton , Soupault and Claude Rivière in editing the Paris @-@ based magazine Littérature . Already a mentor for the French avant @-@ garde , he was , according to Hans Richter , perceived as an " Anti @-@ Messiah " and a " prophet " . Reportedly , Dada mythology had it that he entered the French capital in a snow @-@ white or lilac @-@ colored car , passing down Boulevard Raspail through a triumphal arch made from his own pamphlets , being greeted by cheering crowds and a fireworks display . Richter dismisses this account , indicating that Tzara actually walked from Gare de l 'Est to Picabia 's home , without anyone expecting him to arrive .
He is often described as the main figure in the Littérature circle , and credited with having more firmly set its artistic principles in the line of Dada . When Picabia began publishing a new series of 391 in Paris , Tzara seconded him and , Richter says , produced issues of the magazine " decked out [ ... ] in all the colors of Dada . " He was also issuing his Dada magazine , printed in Paris but using the same format , renaming it Bulletin Dada and later Dadaphone . At around that time , he met American author Gertrude Stein , who wrote about him in The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas , and the artist couple Robert and Sonia Delaunay ( with whom he worked in tandem for " poem @-@ dresses " and other simultaneist literary pieces ) .
Tzara became involved in a number of Dada experiments , on which he collaborated with Breton , Aragon , Soupault , Picabia or Paul Éluard . Other authors who came into contact with Dada at that stage were Jean Cocteau , Paul Dermée and Raymond Radiguet . The performances staged by Dada were often meant to popularize its principles , and Dada continued to draw attention on itself by hoaxes and false advertising , announcing that the Hollywood film star Charlie Chaplin was going to appear on stage at its show , or that its members were going to have their heads shaved or their hair cut off on stage . In another instance , Tzara and his associates lectured at the Université populaire in front of industrial workers , who were reportedly less than impressed . Richter believes that , ideologically , Tzara was still in tribute to Picabia 's nihilistic and anarchic views ( which made the Dadaists attack all political and cultural ideologies ) , but that this also implied a measure of sympathy for the working class .
Dada activities in Paris culminated in the March 1920 variety show at the Théâtre de l 'Œuvre , which featured readings from Breton , Picabia , Dermée and Tzara 's earlier work , La Première aventure céleste de M. Antipyrine ( " The First Heavenly Adventure of Mr. Antipyrine " ) . Tzara 's melody , Vaseline symphonique ( " Symphonic Vaseline " ) , which required ten or twenty people to shout " cra " and " cri " on a rising scale , was also performed . A scandal erupted when Breton read Picabia 's Manifeste cannibale ( " Cannibal Manifesto " ) , lashing out at the audience and mocking them , to which they answered by aiming rotten fruit at the stage .
The Dada phenomenon was only noticed in Romania beginning in 1920 , and its overall reception was negative . Traditionalist historian Nicolae Iorga , Symbolist promoter Ovid Densusianu , the more reserved modernists Camil Petrescu and Benjamin Fondane all refused to accept it as a valid artistic manifestation . Although he rallied with tradition , Vinea defended the subversive current in front of more serious criticism , and rejected the widespread rumor that Tzara had acted as an agent of influence for the Central Powers during the war . Eugen Lovinescu , editor of Sburătorul and one of Vinea 's rivals on the modernist scene , acknowledged the influence exercised by Tzara on the younger avant @-@ garde authors , but analyzed his
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work only briefly , using as an example one of his pre @-@ Dada poems , and depicting him as an advocate of literary " extremism " .
= = = Dada stagnation = = =
By 1921 , Tzara had become involved in conflicts with other figures in the movement , whom he claimed had parted with the spirit of Dada . He was targeted by the Berlin @-@ based Dadaists , in particular by Huelsenbeck and Serner , the former of whom was also involved in a conflict with Raoul Hausmann over leadership status . According to Richter , tensions between Breton and Tzara had surfaced in 1920 , when Breton first made known his wish to do away with musical performances altogether and alleged that the Romanian was merely repeating himself . The Dada shows themselves were by then such common occurrences that audiences expected to be insulted by the performers .
A more serious crisis occurred in May , when Dada organized a mock trial of Maurice Barrès , whose early affiliation with the Symbolists had been shadowed by his antisemitism and reactionary stance : Georges Ribemont @-@ Dessaignes was the prosecutor , Aragon and Soupault the defense attorneys , with Tzara , Ungaretti , Benjamin Péret and others as witnesses ( a mannequin stood in for Barrès ) . Péret immediately upset Picabia and Tzara by refusing to make the trial an absurd one , and by introducing a political subtext with which Breton nevertheless agreed . In June , Tzara and Picabia clashed with each other , after Tzara expressed an opinion that his former mentor was becoming too radical . During the same season , Breton , Arp , Ernst , Maja Kruschek and Tzara were in Austria , at Imst , where they published their last manifesto as a group , Dada au grand air ( " Dada in the Open Air " ) or Der Sängerkrieg in Tirol ( " The Battle of the Singers in Tyrol " ) . Tzara also visited Czechoslovakia , where he reportedly hoped to gain adherents to his cause .
Also in 1921 , Ion Vinea wrote an article for the Romanian newspaper Adevărul , arguing that the movement had exhausted itself ( although , in his letters to Tzara , he continued to ask his friend to return home and spread his message there ) . After July 1922 , Marcel Janco rallied with Vinea in editing Contimporanul , which published some of Tzara 's earliest poems but never offered space to any Dadaist manifesto . Reportedly , the conflict between Tzara and Janco had a personal note : Janco later mentioned " some dramatic quarrels " between his colleague and him . They avoided each other for the rest of their lives and Tzara even struck out the dedications to Janco from his early poems . Julius Evola also grew disappointed by the movement 's total rejection of tradition and began his personal search for an alternative , pursuing a path which later led him to esotericism and fascism .
= = = Evening of the Bearded Heart = = =
Tzara was openly attacked by Breton in a February 1922 article for Le Journal de Peuple , where the Romanian writer was denounced as " an impostor " avid for " publicity " . In March , Breton initiated the Congress for the Determination and Defense of the Modern Spirit . The French writer used the occasion to strike out Tzara 's name from among the Dadaists , citing in his support Dada 's Huelsenbeck , Serner , and Christian Schad . Basing his statement on a note supposedly authored by Huelsenbeck , Breton also accused Tzara of opportunism , claiming that he had planned wartime editions of Dada works in such a manner as not to upset actors on the political stage , making sure that German Dadaists were not made available to the public in countries subject to the Supreme War Council . Tzara , who attended the Congress only as a means to subvert it , responded to the accusations the same month , arguing that Huelsenbeck 's note was fabricated and that Schad had not been one of the original Dadaists . Rumors reported much later by American writer Brion Gysin had it that Breton 's claims also depicted Tzara as an informer for the Prefecture of Police .
In May 1922 , Dada staged its own funeral . According to Hans Richter , the main part of this took place in Weimar , where the Dadaists attended a festival of the Bauhaus art school , during which Tzara proclaimed the elusive nature of his art : " Dada is useless , like everything else in life . [ ... ] Dada is a virgin microbe which penetrates with the insistence of air into all those spaces that reason has failed to fill with words and conventions . "
In " The Bearded Heart " manifesto a number of artists backed the marginalization of Breton in support of Tzara . Alongside Cocteau , Arp , Ribemont @-@ Dessaignes , and Éluard , the pro @-@ Tzara faction included Erik Satie , Theo van Doesburg , Serge Charchoune , Louis @-@ Ferdinand Céline , Marcel Duchamp , Ossip Zadkine , Jean Metzinger , Ilia Zdanevich , and Man Ray . During an associated soirée , Evening of the Bearded Heart , which began on 6 July 1923 , Tzara presented a re @-@ staging of his play The Gas Heart ( which had been first performed two years earlier to howls of derision from its audience ) , for which Sonia Delaunay designed the costumes . Breton interrupted its performance and reportedly fought with several of his former associates and broke furniture , prompting a theatre riot that only the intervention of the police halted . Dada 's vaudeville declined in importance and disappeared altogether after that date .
Picabia took Breton 's side against Tzara , and replaced the staff of his 391 , enlisting collaborations from Clément Pansaers and Ezra Pound . Breton marked the end of Dada in 1924 , when he issued the first Surrealist Manifesto . Richter suggests that " Surrealism devoured and digested Dada . " Tzara distanced himself from new trend , disagreeing with its methods and , increasingly , with its politics . In 1923 , he and a few other former Dadaists collaborated with Richter and the Constructivist artist El Lissitzky on the magazine G , and , the following year , he wrote pieces for the Yugoslav @-@ Slovenian magazine Tank ( edited by Ferdinand Delak ) .
= = = Transition to Surrealism = = =
Tzara continued to write , becoming more seriously interested in the theater . In 1924 , he published and staged the play Handkerchief of Clouds , which was soon included in the repertoire of Serge Diaghilev 's Ballets Russes . He also collected his earlier Dada texts as the Seven Dada Manifestos . Marxist thinker Henri Lefebvre reviewed them enthusiastically ; he later became one of the author 's friends .
In Romania , Tzara 's work was partly recuperated by Contimporanul , which notably staged public readings of his works during the international art exhibit it organized in 1924 , and again during the " new art demonstration " of 1925 . In parallel , the short @-@ lived magazine Integral , where Ilarie Voronca and Ion Călugăru were the main animators , took significant interest in Tzara 's work . In a 1927 interview with the publication , he voiced his opposition to the Surrealist group 's adoption of communism , indicating that such politics could only result in a " new bourgeoisie " being created , and explaining that he had opted for a personal " permanent revolution " , which would preserve " the holiness of the ego " .
In 1925 , Tristan Tzara was in Stockholm , where he married Greta Knutson , with whom he had a son , Christophe ( born 1927 ) . A former student of painter André Lhote , she was known for her interest in phenomenology and abstract art . Around the same period , with funds from Knutson 's inheritance , Tzara commissioned Austrian architect Adolf Loos , a former representative of the Vienna Secession whom he had met in Zürich , to build him a house in Paris . The rigidly functionalist Maison Tristan Tzara , built in Montmartre , was designed following Tzara 's specific requirements and decorated with samples of African art . It was Loos ' only major contribution in his Parisian years .
In 1929 , he reconciled with Breton , and sporadically attended the Surrealists ' meetings in Paris . The same year , he issued the poetry book De nos oiseaux ( " Of Our Birds " ) . This period saw the publication of The Approximate Man ( 1931 ) , alongside the volumes L 'Arbre des voyageurs ( " The Travelers ' Tree " , 1930 ) , Où boivent les loups ( " Where Wolves Drink " , 1932 ) , L 'Antitête ( " The Antihead " , 1933 ) and Grains et issues ( " Seed and Bran " , 1935 ) . By then , it was also announced that Tzara had started work on a screenplay . In 1930 , he directed and produced a cinematic version of Le Cœur à barbe , starring Breton and other leading Surrealists . Five years later , he signed his name to The Testimony against Gertrude Stein , published by Eugene Jolas 's magazine transition in reply to Stein 's memoir The Autobiography of Alice B. Toklas , in which he accused his former friend of being a megalomaniac .
The poet became involved in further developing Surrealist techniques , and , together with Breton and Valentine Hugo , drew one of the better @-@ known examples of " exquisite corpses " . Tzara also prefaced a 1934 collection of Surrealist poems by his friend René Char , and the following year he and Greta Knutson visited Char in L 'Isle @-@ sur @-@ la @-@ Sorgue . Tzara 's wife was also affiliated with the Surrealist group at around the same time . This association ended when she parted with Tzara late in the 1930s .
At home , Tzara 's works were collected and edited by the Surrealist promoter Sașa Pană , who corresponded with him over several years . The first such edition saw print in 1934 , and featured the 1913 @-@ 1915 poems Tzara had left in Vinea 's care . In 1928 @-@ 1929 , Tzara exchanged letters with his friend Jacques G. Costin , a Contimporanul affiliate who did not share all of Vinea 's views on literature , who offered to organize his visit to Romania and asked him to translate his work into French .
= = = Affiliation with communism and Spanish Civil War = = =
Alarmed by the establishment of Adolf Hitler 's Nazi regime , which also signified the end of Berlin 's avant @-@ garde , he merged his activities as an art promoter with the cause of anti @-@ fascism , and was close to the French Communist Party ( PCF ) . In 1936 , Richter recalled , he published a series of photographs secretly taken by Kurt Schwitters in Hanover , works which documented the destruction of Nazi propaganda by the locals , ration stamp with reduced quantities of food , and other hidden aspects of Hitler 's rule . After the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War , he briefly left France and joined the Republican forces . Alongside Soviet reporter Ilya Ehrenburg , Tzara visited Madrid , which was besieged by the Nationalists ( see Siege of Madrid ) . Upon his return , he published the collection of poems Midis gagnés ( " Conquered Southern Regions " ) . Some of them had previously been printed in the brochure Les poètes du monde défendent le peuple espagnol ( " The Poets of the World Defend the Spanish People " , 1937 ) , which was edited by two prominent authors and activists , Nancy Cunard and the Chilean poet Pablo Neruda . Tzara had also signed Cunard 's June 1937 call to intervention against Francisco Franco . Reportedly , he and Nancy Cunard were romantically involved .
Although the poet was moving away from Surrealism , his adherence to strict Marxism @-@ Leninism was reportedly questioned by both the PCF and the Soviet Union . Semiotician Philip Beitchman places their attitude in connection with Tzara 's own vision of Utopia , which combined communist messages with Freudo @-@ Marxist psychoanalysis and made use of particularly violent imagery . Reportedly , Tzara refused to be enlisted in supporting the party line , maintaining his independence and refusing to take the forefront at public rallies .
However , others note that the former Dadaist leader would often show himself a follower of political guidelines . As early as 1934 , Tzara , together with Breton , Éluard and communist writer René Crevel , organized an informal trial of independent @-@ minded Surrealist Salvador Dalí , who was at the time a confessed admirer of Hitler , and whose portrait of William Tell had alarmed them because it shared likeness with Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin . Historian Irina Livezeanu notes that Tzara , who agreed with Stalinism and shunned Trotskyism , submitted to the PCF cultural demands during the writers ' congress of 1935 , even when his friend Crevel committed suicide to protest the adoption of socialist realism . At a later stage , Livezeanu remarks , Tzara reinterpreted Dada and Surrealism as revolutionary currents , and presented them as such to the public . This stance she contrasts with that of Breton , who was more reserved in his attitudes .
= = = World War II and Resistance = = =
During World War II , Tzara took refuge from the German occupation forces , moving to the southern areas , controlled by the Vichy regime . On one occasion , the antisemitic and collaborationist publication Je Suis Partout made his whereabouts known to the Gestapo .
He was in Marseille in late 1940 @-@ early 1941 , joining the group of anti @-@ fascist and Jewish refugees who , protected by American diplomat Varian Fry , were seeking to escape Nazi @-@ occupied Europe . Among the people present there were the anti @-@ totalitarian socialist Victor Serge , anthropologist Claude Lévi @-@ Strauss , playwright Arthur Adamov , philosopher and poet René Daumal , and several prominent Surrealists : Breton , Char , and Benjamin Péret , as well as artists Max Ernst , André Masson , Wifredo Lam , Jacques Hérold , Victor Brauner and Óscar Domínguez . During the months spent together , and before some of them received permission to leave for America , they invented a new card game , on which traditional card imagery was replaced with Surrealist symbols .
Some time after his stay in Marseille , Tzara joined the French Resistance , rallying with the Maquis . A contributor to magazines published by the Resistance , Tzara also took charge of the cultural broadcast for the Free French Forces clandestine radio station . He lived in Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence , then in Souillac , and ultimately in Toulouse . His son Cristophe was at the time a Resistant in northern France , having joined the Francs @-@ Tireurs et Partisans . In Axis @-@ allied and antisemitic Romania ( see Romania during World War II ) , the regime of Ion Antonescu ordered bookstores not to sell works by Tzara and 44 other Jewish @-@ Romanian authors . In 1942 , with the generalization of antisemitic measures , Tzara was also stripped of his Romanian citizenship rights .
In December 1944 , five months after the Liberation of Paris , he was contributing to L 'Éternelle Revue , a pro @-@ communist newspaper edited by philosopher Jean @-@ Paul Sartre , through which Sartre was publicizing the heroic image of a France united in resistance , as opposed to the perception that it had passively accepted German control . Other contributors included writers Aragon , Char , Éluard , Elsa Triolet , Eugène Guillevic , Raymond Queneau , Francis Ponge , Jacques Prévert and painter Pablo Picasso .
Upon the end of the war and the restoration of French independence , Tzara was naturalized a French citizen . During 1945 , under the Provisional Government of the French Republic , he was a representative of the Sud @-@ Ouest region to the National Assembly . According to Livezeanu , he " helped reclaim the South from the cultural figures who had associated themselves to Vichy [ France ] . " In April 1946 , his early poems , alongside similar pieces by Breton , Éluard , Aragon and Dalí , were the subject of a midnight broadcast on Parisian Radio . In 1947 , he became a full member of the PCF ( according to some sources , he had been one since 1934 ) .
= = = International leftism = = =
Over the following decade , Tzara lent his support to political causes . Pursuing his interest in primitivism , he became a critic of the Fourth Republic 's colonial policy , and joined his voice to those who supported decolonization . Nevertheless , he was appointed cultural ambassador of the Republic by the Paul Ramadier cabinet . He also participated in the PCF @-@ organized Congress of Writers , but , unlike Éluard and Aragon , again avoided adapting his style to socialist realism .
He returned to Romania on an official visit in late 1946 @-@ early 1947 , as part of a tour of the emerging Eastern Bloc during which he also stopped in Czechoslovakia , Hungary , and the Federal People 's Republic of Yugoslavia . The speeches he and Sașa Pană gave on the occasion , published by Orizont journal , were noted for condoning official positions of the PCF and the Romanian Communist Party , and are credited by Irina Livezeanu with causing a rift between Tzara and young Romanian avant @-@ gardists such as Victor Brauner and Gherasim Luca ( who rejected communism and were alarmed by the Iron Curtain having fallen over Europe ) . In September of the same year , he was present at the conference of the pro @-@ communist International Union of Students ( where he was a guest of the French @-@ based Union of Communist Students , and met with similar organizations from Romania and other countries ) .
In 1949 @-@ 1950 , Tzara answered Aragon 's call and become active in the international campaign to liberate Nazım Hikmet , a Turkish poet whose 1938 arrest for communist activities had created a cause célèbre for the pro @-@ Soviet public opinion . Tzara chaired the Committee for the Liberation of Nazım Hikmet , which issued petitions to national governments and commissioned works in honor of Hikmet ( including musical pieces by Louis Durey and Serge Nigg ) . Hikmet was eventually released in July 1950 , and publicly thanked Tzara during his subsequent visit to Paris .
His works of the period include , among others : Le Signe de vie ( " Sign of Life " , 1946 ) , Terre sur terre ( " Earth on Earth " , 1946 ) , Sans coup férir ( " Without a Need to Fight " , 1949 ) , De mémoire d 'homme ( " From a Man 's Memory " , 1950 ) , Parler seul ( " Speaking Alone " , 1950 ) , and La Face intérieure ( " The Inner Face " , 1953 ) , followed in 1955 by À haute flamme ( " Flame out Loud " ) and Le Temps naissant ( " The Nascent Time " ) , and the 1956 Le Fruit permis ( " The Permitted Fruit " ) . Tzara continued to be an active promoter of modernist culture . Around 1949 , having read Irish author Samuel Beckett 's manuscript of Waiting for Godot , Tzara facilitated the play 's staging by approaching producer Roger Blin . He also translated into French some poems by Hikmet and the Hungarian author Attila József . In 1949 , he introduced Picasso to art dealer Heinz Berggruen ( thus helping start their lifelong partnership ) , and , in 1951 , wrote the catalog for an exhibit of works by his friend Max Ernst ; the text celebrated the artist 's " free use of stimuli " and " his discovery of a new kind of humor . "
= = = 1956 protest and final years = = =
In October 1956 , Tzara visited the People 's Republic of Hungary , where the government of Imre Nagy was coming into conflict with the Soviet Union . This followed an invitation on the part of Hungarian writer Gyula Illyés , who wanted his colleague to be present at ceremonies marking the rehabilitation of László Rajk ( a local communist leader whose prosecution had been ordered by Joseph Stalin ) . Tzara was receptive of the Hungarians ' demand for liberalization , contacted the anti @-@ Stalinist and former Dadaist Lajos Kassák , and deemed the anti @-@ Soviet movement " revolutionary " . However , unlike much of Hungarian public opinion , the poet did not recommend emancipation from Soviet control , and described the independence demanded by local writers as " an abstract notion " . The statement he issued , widely quoted in the Hungarian and international press , forced a reaction from the PCF : through Aragon 's reply , the party deplored the fact that one of its members was being used in support of " anti @-@ communist and anti @-@ Soviet campaigns . "
His return to France coincided with the outbreak of the Hungarian Revolution , which ended with a Soviet military intervention . On October 24 , Tzara was ordered to a PCF meeting , where activist Laurent Casanova reportedly ordered him to keep silent , which Tzara did . Tzara 's apparent dissidence and the crisis he helped provoke within the Communist Party were celebrated by Breton , who had adopted a pro @-@ Hungarian stance , and who defined his friend and rival as " the first spokesman of the Hungarian demand . "
He was thereafter mostly withdrawn from public life , dedicating himself to researching the work of 15th @-@ century poet François Villon , and , like his fellow Surrealist Michel Leiris , to promoting primitive and African art , which he had been collecting for years . In early 1957 , Tzara attended a Dada retrospective on the Rive Gauche , which ended in a riot caused by the rival avant @-@ garde Mouvement Jariviste , an outcome which reportedly pleased him . In August 1960 , one year after the Fifth Republic had been established by President Charles de Gaulle , at a time when French forces were confronting the Algerian rebels ( see Algerian War ) . Together with Simone de Beauvoir , Marguerite Duras , Jérôme Lindon , Alain Robbe @-@ Grillet and other intellectuals , he addressed Premier Michel Debré a letter of protest , concerning France 's refusal to grant Algeria its independence . As a result , Minister of Culture André Malraux announced that his cabinet would not subsidize any films to which Tzara and the others may contribute , and the signatories could no longer appear on stations managed by the state @-@ owned French Broadcasting Service .
In 1961 , as recognition for his work as a poet , Tzara was awarded the prestigious Taormina Prize . One of his final public activities took place in 1962 , when he attended the International Congress on African Culture , organized by English curator Frank McEwen and held at the National Gallery in Salisbury , Southern Rhodesia . He died one year later in his Paris home , and was buried at the Cimetière du Montparnasse .
= = Literary contributions = =
= = = Identity issues = = =
Much critical commentary about Tzara surrounds the measure to which the poet identified with the national cultures which he represented . Paul Cernat notes that the association between Samyro and the Jancos , who were Jews , and their ethnic Romanian colleagues , was one sign of a cultural dialogue , in which " the openness of Romanian environments toward artistic modernity " was stimulated by " young emancipated Jewish writers . " Salomon Schulman , a Swedish researcher of Yiddish literature , argues that the combined influence of Yiddish folklore and Hasidic philosophy shaped European modernism in general and Tzara 's style in particular , while American poet Andrei Codrescu speaks of Tzara as one in a Balkan line of " absurdist writing " , which also includes the Romanians Urmuz , Eugène Ionesco and Emil Cioran . According to literary historian George Călinescu , Samyro 's early poems deal with " the voluptuousness over the strong scents of rural life , which is typical among Jews compressed into ghettos . "
Tzara himself used elements alluding to his homeland in his early Dadaist performances . His collaboration with Maja Kruscek at Zuntfhaus zür Waag featured samples of African literature , to which Tzara added Romanian @-@ language fragments . He is also known to have mixed elements of Romanian folklore , and to have sung the native suburban romanza La moară la Hârța ( " At the Mill in Hârța " ) during at least one staging for Cabaret Voltaire . Addressing the Romanian public in 1947 , he claimed to have been captivated by " the sweet language of Moldavian peasants " .
Tzara nonetheless rebelled against his birthplace and upbringing . His earliest poems depict provincial Moldavia as a desolate and unsettling place . In Cernat 's view , this imagery was in common use among Moldavian @-@ born writers who also belonged to the avant @-@ garde trend , notably Benjamin Fondane and George Bacovia . Like in the cases of Eugène Ionesco and Fondane , Cernat proposes , Samyro sought self @-@ exile to Western Europe as a " modern , voluntarist " means of breaking with " the peripheral condition " , which may also serve to explain the pun he selected for a pseudonym . According to the same author , two important elements in this process were " a maternal attachment and a break with paternal authority " , an " Oedipus complex " which he also argued was evident in the biographies of other Symbolist and avant @-@ garde Romanian authors , from Urmuz to Mateiu Caragiale . Unlike Vinea and the Contimporanul group , Cernat proposes , Tzara stood for radicalism and insurgency , which would also help explain their impossibility to communicate . In particular , Cernat argues , the writer sought to emancipate himself from competing nationalisms , and addressed himself directly to the center of European culture , with Zürich serving as a stage on his way to Paris . The 1916 Monsieur 's Antipyrine 's Manifesto featured a cosmopolitan appeal : " DADA remains within the framework of European weaknesses , it 's still shit , but from now on we want to shit in different colors so as to adorn the zoo of art with all the flags of all the consulates . "
With time , Tristan Tzara came to be regarded by his Dada associates as an exotic character , whose attitudes were intrinsically linked with Eastern Europe . Early on , Ball referred to him and the Janco brothers as " Orientals " . Hans Richter believed him to be a fiery and impulsive figure , having little in common with his German collaborators . According to Cernat , Richter 's perspective seems to indicate a vision of Tzara having a " Latin " temperament . This type of perception also had negative implications for Tzara , particularly after the 1922 split within Dada . In the 1940s , Richard Huelsenbeck alleged that his former colleague had always been separated from other Dadaists by his failure to appreciate the legacy of " German humanism " , and that , compared to his German colleagues , he was " a barbarian " . In his polemic with Tzara , Breton also repeatedly placed stress on his rival 's foreign origin .
At home , Tzara was occasionally targeted for his Jewishness , culminating in the ban enforced by the Ion Antonescu regime . In 1931 , Const . I. Emilian , the first Romanian to write an academic study on the avant @-@ garde , attacked him from a conservative and antisemitic position . He depicted Dadaists as " Judaeo @-@ Bolsheviks " who corrupted Romanian culture , and included Tzara among the main proponents of " literary anarchism " . Alleging that Tzara 's only merit was to establish a literary fashion , while recognizing his " formal virtuosity and artistic intelligence " , he claimed to prefer Tzara in his Simbolul stage . This perspective was deplored early on by the modernist critic Perpessicius . Nine years after Emilian 's polemic text , fascist poet and journalist Radu Gyr published an article in Convorbiri Literare , in which he attacked Tzara as a representative of the " Judaic spirit " , of the " foreign plague " and of " materialist @-@ historical dialectics " .
= = = Symbolist poetry = = =
Tzara 's earliest Symbolist poems , published in Simbolul during 1912 , were later rejected by their author , who asked Sașa Pană not to include them in editions of his works . The influence of French Symbolists on the young Samyro was particularly important , and surfaced in both his lyric and prose poems . Attached to Symbolist musicality at that stage , he was indebted to his Simbolul colleague Ion Minulescu and the Belgian Maurice Maeterlinck . Philip Beitchman argues that " Tristan Tzara is one of the writers of the twentieth century who was most profoundly influenced by symbolism — and utilized many of its methods and ideas in the pursuit of his own artistic and social ends . " However , Cernat believes , the young poet was by then already breaking with the syntax of conventional poetry , and that , in subsequent experimental pieces , he progressively stripped his style of its Symbolist elements .
During the 1910s , Samyro experimented with Symbolist imagery , in particular with the " hanged man " motif , which served as the basis for his poem Se spânzură un om ( " A Man Hangs Himself " ) , and which built on the legacy of similar pieces authored by Christian Morgenstern and Jules Laforgue . Se spânzură un om was also in many ways similar to ones authored by his collaborators Adrian Maniu ( Balada spânzuratului , " The Hanged Man 's Ballad " ) and Vinea ( Visul spânzuratului , " The Hanged Man 's Dream " ) : all three poets , who were all in the process of discarding Symbolism , interpreted the theme from a tragicomic and iconoclastic perspective . These pieces also include Vacanță în provincie ( " Provincial Holiday " ) and the anti @-@ war fragment Furtuna și cântecul dezertorului ( " The Storm and the Deserter 's Song " ) , which Vinea published in his Chemarea . The series is seen by Cernat as " the general rehearsal for the Dada adventure . " The complete text of Furtuna și cântecul dezertorului was published at a later stage , after the missing text was discovered by Pană . At the time , he became interested in the free verse work of the American Walt Whitman , and his translation of Whitman 's epic poem Song of Myself , probably completed before World War I , was published by Alfred Hefter @-@ Hidalgo in his magazine Versuri și Proză ( 1915 ) .
Beitchman notes that , throughout his life , Tzara used Symbolist elements against the doctrines of Symbolism . Thus , he argues , the poet did not cultivate a memory of historical events , " since it deludes man into thinking that there was something when there was nothing . " Cernat notes : " That which essentially unifies , during [ the 1910s ] , the poetic output of Adrian Maniu , Ion Vinea and Tristan Tzara is an acute awareness of literary conventions , a satiety [ ... ] in respect to calophile literature , which they perceived as exhausted . " In Beitchman 's view , the revolt against cultivated beauty was a constant in Tzara 's years of maturity , and his visions of social change continued to be inspired by Arthur Rimbaud and the Comte de Lautréamont . According to Beitchman , Tzara uses the Symbolist message , " the birthright [ of humans ] has been sold for a mess of porridge " , taking it " into the streets , cabarets and trains where he denounces the deal and asks for his birthright back . "
= = = Collaboration with Vinea = = =
The transition to a more radical form of poetry seems to have taken place in 1913 @-@ 1915 , during the periods when Tzara and Vinea were vacationing together . The pieces share a number of characteristics and subjects , and the two poets even use them to allude to one another ( or , in one case , to Tzara 's sister ) .
In addition to the lyrics were they both speak of provincial holidays and love affairs with local girls , both friends intended to reinterpret William Shakespeare 's Hamlet from a modernist perspective , and wrote incomplete texts with this as their subject . However , Paul Cernat notes , the texts also evidence a difference in approach , with Vinea 's work being " meditative and melancholic " , while Tzara 's is " hedonistic " . Tzara often appealed to revolutionary and ironic images , portraying provincial and middle class environments as places of artificiality and decay , demystifying pastoral themes and evidencing a will to break free . His literature took a more radical perspective on life , and featured lyrics with subversive intent :
In his Înserează ( roughly , " Night Falling " ) , probably authored in Mangalia , Tzara writes :
Vinea 's similar poem , written in Tuzla and named after that village , reads :
Cernat notes that Nocturnă ( " Nocturne " ) and Înserează were the pieces originally performed at Cabaret Voltaire , identified by Hugo Ball as " Rumanian poetry " , and that they were recited in Tzara 's own spontaneous French translation . Although they are noted for their radical break with the traditional form of Romanian verse , Ball 's diary entry of February 5 , 1916 , indicates that Tzara 's works were still " conservative in style " . In Călinescu 's view , they announce Dadaism , given that " bypassing the relations which lead to a realistic vision , the poet associates unimaginably dissipated images that will surprise consciousness . " In 1922 , Tzara himself wrote : " As early as 1914 , I tried to strip the words of their proper meaning and use them in such a way as to give the verse a completely new , general , meaning [ ... ] . "
Alongside pieces depicting a Jewish cemetery in which graves " crawl like worms " on the edge of a town , chestnut trees " heavy @-@ laden like people returning from hospitals " , or wind wailing " with all the hopelessness of an orphanage " , Samyro 's poetry includes Verișoară , fată de pension , which , Cernat argues , displays " playful detachment [ for ] the musicality of internal rhymes " . It opens with the lyrics :
The Gârceni pieces were treasured by the moderate wing of the Romanian avant @-@ garde movement . In contrast to his previous rejection of Dada , Contimporanul collaborator Benjamin Fondane used them as an example of " pure poetry " , and compared them to the elaborate writings of French poet Paul Valéry , thus recuperating them in line with the magazine 's ideology .
= = = Dada synthesis and " simultaneism " = = =
Tzara the Dadaist was inspired by the contributions of his experimental modernist predecessors . Among them were the literary promoters of Cubism : in addition to Henri Barzun and Fernand Divoire , Tzara cherished the works of Guillaume Apollinaire . Despite Dada 's condemnation of Futurism , various authors note the influence Filippo Tommaso Marinetti and his circle exercised on Tzara 's group . In 1917 , he was in correspondence with both Apollinaire and Marinetti . Traditionally , Tzara is also seen as indebted to the early avant @-@ garde and black comedy writings of Romania 's Urmuz .
For a large part , Dada focused on performances and satire , with shows that often had Tzara , Marcel Janco and Huelsenbeck for their main protagonists . Often dressed up as Tyrolian peasants or wearing dark robes , they improvised poetry sessions at the Cabaret Voltaire , reciting the works of others or their spontaneous creations , which were or pretended to be in Esperanto or Māori language . Bernard Gendron describes these soirées as marked by " heterogeneity and eclecticism " , and Richter notes that the songs , often punctuated by loud shrieks or other unsettling sounds , built on the legacy of noise music and Futurist compositions .
With time , Tristan Tzara merged his performances and his literature , taking part in developing Dada 's " simultaneist poetry " , which was meant to be read out loud and involved a collaborative effort , being , according to Hans Arp , the first instance of Surrealist automatism . Ball stated that the subject of such pieces was " the value of the human voice . " Together with Arp , Tzara and Walter Serner produced the German @-@ language Die Hyperbel vom Krokodilcoiffeur und dem Spazierstock ( " The Hyperbole of the Crocodile 's Hairdresser and the Walking @-@ Stick " ) , in which , Arp stated , " the poet crows , curses , sighs , stutters , yodels , as he pleases . His poems are like Nature [ where ] a tiny particle is as beautiful and important as a star . " Another noted simultaneist poem was L 'Amiral cherche une maison à louer ( " The Admiral Is Looking for a House to Rent " ) , co @-@ authored by Tzara , Marcel Janco and Huelsenbach .
Art historian Roger Cardinal describes Tristan Tzara 's Dada poetry as marked by " extreme semantic and syntactic incoherence " . Tzara , who recommended destroying just as it is created , had devised a personal system for writing poetry , which implied a seemingly chaotic reassembling of words that had been randomly cut out of newspapers .
= = = Dada and anti @-@ art = = =
The Romanian writer also spent the Dada period issuing a long series of manifestos , which were often authored as prose poetry , and , according to Cardinal , were characterized by " rumbustious tomfoolery and astringent wit " , which reflected " the language of a sophisticated savage " . Huelsenbeck credited Tzara with having discovered in them the format for " compress [ ing ] what we think and feel " , and , according to Hans Richter , the genre " suited Tzara perfectly . " Despite its production of seemingly theoretical works , Richter indicates , Dada lacked any form of program , and Tzara tried to perpetuate this state of affairs . His Dada manifesto of 1918 stated : " Dada means nothing " , adding " Thought is produced in the mouth . " Tzara indicated : " I am against systems ; the most acceptable system is on principle to have none . " In addition , Tzara , who once stated that " logic is always false " , probably approved of Serner 's vision of a " final dissolution " . According to Philip Beitchman , a core concept in Tzara 's thought was that " as long as we do things the way we think we once did them we will be unable to achieve any kind of livable society . "
Despite adopting such anti @-@ artistic principles , Richter argues , Tzara , like many of his fellow Dadaists , did not initially discard the mission of " furthening the cause of art . " He saw this evident in La Revue Dada 2 , a poem " as exquisite as freshly @-@ picked flowers " , which included the lyrics :
La Revue Dada 2 , which also includes the onomatopoeic line tralalalalalalalalalalala , is one example where Tzara applies his principles of chance to sounds themselves . This sort of arrangement , treasured by many Dadaists , was probably connected with Apollinaire 's calligrams , and with his announcement that " Man is in search of a new language . " Călinescu proposed that Tzara willingly limited the impact of chance : taking as his example a short parody piece which depicts the love affair between cyclist and a Dadaist , which ends with their decapitation by a jealous husband , the critic notes that Tzara transparently intended to " shock the bourgeois " . Late in his career , Huelsenbeck alleged that Tzara never actually applied the experimental methods he had devised .
The Dada series makes ample use of contrast , ellipses , ridiculous imagery and nonsensical verdicts . Tzara was aware that the public could find it difficult to follow his intentions , and , in a piece titled Le géant blanc lépreux du paysage ( " The White Leprous Giant in the Landscape " ) even alluded to the " skinny , idiotic , dirty " reader who " does not understand my poetry . " He called some of his own poems lampisteries , from a French word designating storage areas for light fixtures . The Lettrist poet Isidore Isou included such pieces in a succession of experiments inaugurated by Charles Baudelaire with the " destruction of the anecdote for the form of the poem " , a process which , with Tzara , became " destruction of the word for nothing " . According to American literary historian Mary Ann Caws , Tzara 's poems may be seen as having an " internal order " , and read as " a simple spectacle , as creation complete in itself and completely obvious . "
= = = Plays of the 1920s = = =
Tristan Tzara 's first play , The Gas Heart , dates from the final period of Paris Dada . Created with what Enoch Brater calls a " peculiar verbal strategy " , it is a dialogue between characters called Ear , Mouth , Eye , Nose , Neck , and Eyebrow . They seem unwilling to actually communicate to each other and their reliance on proverbs and idiotisms willingly creates confusion between metaphorical and literal speech . The play ends with a dance performance that recalls similar devices used by the proto @-@ Dadaist Alfred Jarry . The text culminates in a series of doodles and illegible words . Brater describes The Gas Heart as a " parod [ y ] of theatrical conventions " .
In his 1924 play Handkerchief of Clouds , Tzara explores the relation between perception , the subconscious and memory . Largely through exchanges between commentators who act as third parties , the text presents the tribulations of a love triangle ( a poet , a bored woman , and her banker husband , whose character traits borrow the clichés of conventional drama ) , and in part reproduces settings and lines from Hamlet . Tzara mocks classical theater , which demands from characters to be inspiring , believable , and to function as a whole : Handkerchief of Clouds requires actors in the role of commentators to address each other by their real names , and their lines include dismissive comments on the play itself , while the protagonist , who in the end dies , is not assigned any name . Writing for Integral , Tzara defined his play as a note on " the relativity of things , sentiments and events . " Among the conventions ridiculed by the dramatist , Philip Beitchman notes , is that of a " privileged position for art " : in what Beitchman sees as a comment on Marxism , poet and banker are interchangeable capitalists who invest in different fields . Writing in 1925 , Fondane rendered a pronouncement by Jean Cocteau , who , while commenting that Tzara was one of his " most beloved " writers and a " great poet " , argued : " Handkerchief of Clouds was poetry , and great poetry for that matter — but not theater . " The work was nonetheless praised by Ion Călugăru at Integral , who saw in it one example that modernist performance could rely not just on props , but also on a solid text .
= = = The Approximate Man and later works = = =
After 1929 , with the adoption of Surrealism , Tzara 's literary works discard much of their satirical purpose , and begin to explore universal themes relating to the human condition . According to Cardinal , the period also signified the definitive move from " a studied inconsequentiality " and " unreadable gibberish " to " a seductive and fertile surrealist idiom . " The critic also remarks : " Tzara arrived at a mature style of transparent simplicity , in which disparate entities could be held together in a unifying vision . " In a 1930 essay , Fondane had given a similar verdict : arguing that Tzara had infused his work with " suffering " , had discovered humanity , and had become a " clairvoyant " among poets .
This period in Tzara 's creative activity centers on The Approximate Man , an epic poem which is reportedly recognized as his most accomplished contribution to French literature . While maintaining some of Tzara 's preoccupation with language experimentation , it is mainly a study in social alienation and the search for an escape . Cardinal calls the piece " an extended meditation on mental and elemental impulses [ ... ] with images of stunning beauty " , while Breitchman , who notes Tzara 's rebellion against the " excess baggage of [ man 's ] past and the notions [ ... ] with which he has hitherto tried to control his life " , remarks his portrayal of poets as voices who can prevent human beings from destroying themselves with their own intellects . The goal is a new man who lets intuition and spontaneity guide him through life , and who rejects measure . One of the appeals in the text reads :
The next stage in Tzara 's career saw a merger of his literary and political views . His poems of the period blend a humanist vision with communist theses . The 1935 Grains et issues , described by Beitchman as " fascinating " , was a prose poem of social criticism connected with The Approximate Man , expanding on the vision of a possible society , in which haste has been abandoned in favor of oblivion . The world imagined by Tzara abandons symbols of the past , from literature to public transportation and currency , while , like psychologists Sigmund Freud and Wilhelm Reich , the poet depicts violence as a natural means of human expression . People of the future live in a state which combines waking life and the realm of dreams , and life itself turns into revery . Grains et issues was accompanied by Personage d 'insomnie ( " Personage of Insomnia " ) , which went unpublished .
Cardinal notes : " In retrospect , harmony and contact had been Tzara 's goals all along . " The post @-@ World War II volumes in the series focus on political subjects related to the conflict . In his last writings , Tzara toned down experimentation , exercising more control over the lyrical aspects . He was by then undertaking a hermeutic research into the work of Goliards and François Villon , whom he deeply admired .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Influence = = =
Beside the many authors who were attracted into Dada through his promotional activities , Tzara was able to influence successive generations of writers . This was the case in his homeland during 1928 , when the first avant @-@ garde manifesto issued by unu magazine , written by Sașa Pană and Moldov , cited as its mentors Tzara , writers Breton , Ribemont @-@ Dessaignes , Vinea , Filippo Tommaso Marinetti , and Tudor Arghezi , as well as artists Constantin Brâncuși and Theo van Doesburg . One of the Romanian writers to claim inspiration from Tzara was Jacques G. Costin , who nevertheless offered an equally good reception to both Dadaism and Futurism , while Ilarie Voronca 's Zodiac cycle , first published in France , is traditionally seen as indebted to The Approximate Man . The Kabbalist and Surrealist author Marcel Avramescu , who wrote during the 1930s , also appears to have been directly inspired by Tzara 's views on art . Other authors from that generation to have been inspired by Tzara were Polish Futurist writer Bruno Jasieński , Japanese poet and Zen thinker Takahashi Shinkichi , and Chilean poet and Dadaist sympathizer Vicente Huidobro , who cited him as a precursor for his own Creacionismo .
An immediate precursor of Absurdism , he was acknowledged as a mentor by Eugène Ionesco , who developed on his principles for his early essays of literary and social criticism , as well as in tragic farces such as The Bald Soprano . Tzara 's poetry influenced Samuel Beckett ( who translated some of it into English ) ; the Irish author 's 1972 play Not I shares some elements with The Gas Heart . In the United States , the Romanian author is cited as an influence on Beat Generation members . Beat writer Allen Ginsberg , who made his acquaintance in Paris , cites him among the Europeans who influenced him and William S. Burroughs . The latter also mentioned Tzara 's use of chance in writing poetry as an early example of what became the cut @-@ up technique , adopted by Brion Gysin and Burroughs himself . Gysin , who conversed with Tzara in the late 1950s , records the latter 's indignation that Beat poets were " going back over the ground we [ Dadaists ] covered in 1920 " , and accuses Tzara of having consumed his creative energies into becoming a " Communist Party bureaucrat " .
Among the late 20th @-@ century writers who acknowledged Tzara as an inspiration are Jerome Rothenberg , Isidore Isou and Andrei Codrescu . The former Situationist Isou , whose experiments with sounds and poetry come in succession to Apollinaire and Dada , declared his Lettrism to be the last connection in the Charles Baudelaire @-@ Tzara cycle , with the goal of arranging " a nothing [ ... ] for the creation of the anecdote . " For a short period , Codrescu even adopted the pen name Tristan Tzara . He recalled the impact of having discovered Tzara 's work in his youth , and credited him with being " the most important French poet after Rimbaud . "
In retrospect , various authors describe Tzara 's Dadaist shows and street performances as " happenings " , with a word employed by post @-@ Dadaists and Situationists , which was coined in the 1950s . Some also credit Tzara with having provided an ideological source for the development of rock music , including punk rock , punk subculture and post @-@ punk . Tristan Tzara has inspired the songwriting technique of Radiohead , and is one of the avant @-@ garde authors whose voices were mixed by DJ Spooky on his trip hop album Rhythm Science . Romanian contemporary classical musician Cornel Țăranu set to music five of Tzara 's poems , all of which date from the post @-@ Dada period . Țăranu , Anatol Vieru and ten other composers contributed to the album La Clé de l 'horizon , inspired by Tzara 's work .
= = = Tributes and portrayals = = =
In France , Tzara 's work was collected as Oeuvres complètes ( " Complete Works " ) , of which the first volume saw print in 1975 , and an international poetry award is named after him ( Prix International de Poésie Tristan Tzara ) . An international periodical titled Caietele Tristan Tzara , edited by the Tristan Tzara Cultural @-@ Literary Foundation , has been published in Moinești since 1998 .
According to Paul Cernat , Aliluia , one of the few avant @-@ garde texts authored by Ion Vinea features a " transparent allusion " to Tristan Tzara . Vinea 's fragment speaks of " the Wandering Jew " , a character whom people notice because he sings La moară la Hârța , " a suspicious song
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three @-@ lap battle . Twenty @-@ four laps later Johnson passed Earnhardt for second place , and on lap 144 he passed Gordon for the lead . One lap later Gordon reclaimed first place , and built a quarter @-@ second lead by lap 150 . Johnson moved back into the lead on lap 153 . Two laps later Stremme spun sideways , prompting the third caution , and all the leaders made pit stops . Johnson remained the leader at the lap @-@ 161 restart , ahead of Gordon and Stewart . After the caution ended , Burton switched to a second ignition after feeling he had a problem with his engine . Forty @-@ two laps later Waltrip 's turn @-@ four spin prompted the fourth caution , although he was able to continue . During the caution , the leaders again made pit stops . Johnson , who had minor air @-@ pressure adjustments because of sunlight exposure at his pit stop , maintained his lead at the restart .
Jeff Burton drove to his garage on lap 218 when a carburetor problem caused him to run slower than his rivals ; Earnhardt and Stewart avoided a wreck on that lap . Four laps later , the fifth caution came out when David Gilliland made contact with Ward Burton in turn two ; although Burton spun , he avoided hitting the wall . Johnson maintained his lead at the lap @-@ 227 restart . The sixth caution was given on lap 231 when Sorenson spun after colliding with Riggs , causing Mike Skinner to contact the left front quarter of Harvick 's car and Travis Kvapil to spin sideways . Biffle sustained damage to his car 's nose , and turn three was temporarily blocked . Harvick , Kahne , Vickers and Biffle went to pit road for repairs , while the leaders remained on the track . Johnson led on the lap @-@ 238 restart . Four laps later Kvapil made heavy contact with the wall after being bumped and Tony Raines ' car had a cut tire from contact with Ragan , prompting the seventh caution . Most of the leaders , including Johnson , again made pit stops . On lap 244 , it was announced that Jeff Burton had retired from the race . Gordon became the leader at the restart , ahead of Hamlin , Elliott Sadler , Kurt Busch and Nemechek .
Hamlin passed Gordon for the lead on lap 256 . Twenty @-@ three laps later Bowyer made contact with Kenseth , spinning him in turn four ( although he kept his car off the wall ) and prompting the race 's eighth caution . During the caution , most of the leaders ( including Hamlin ) made pit stops . Kyle and Kurt Busch 's pit crews made track @-@ bar adjustments to their cars . Hamlin had tape added to the front of his car to fix a handling problem , and Sadler narrowly avoided a collision with Kahne . Johnson regained the lead after the pit stops , maintaining it at the lap @-@ 286 restart . Fourteen laps later Kurt Busch passed Earnhardt for second place , and Gordon moved back up to fifth by lap 318 . On lap 331 , the ninth caution was given ; Schrader collided with the wall , made contact with Ragan going into turn two and both drivers hit Jarrett . Schrader retired from the race because of the collision , but Ragan and Jarrett continued . The leaders , including Johnson , made pit stops during the caution . Kurt Busch gained the lead after the pit stops , maintaining it at the lap @-@ 341 restart . Six laps later Raines made contact with Skinner , forcing him to collide with the inside wall and prompting the tenth caution . With severe damage to his car 's rear end quarter , Skinner stopped before the start @-@ finish line . Kurt Busch maintained his lead at the lap @-@ 353 restart , ahead of Johnson and Earnhardt .
Johnson moved into the lead on the same lap after passing Kurt Busch , who dropped two more places on the lap . Two laps later Ragan spun after contact with Elliott Sadler , prompting the eleventh caution ; none of the leaders made pit stops . Johnson led at the lap @-@ 361 restart , ahead of Earnhardt and Hamlin . The twelfth caution came out two laps later when Kurt Busch tried to pass Riggs and the drivers made contact coming off turn four . Kurt Busch was spun while crossing the start @-@ finish line and hit the inside wall , requiring a pit stop for repairs . Johnson maintained his lead at the lap @-@ 371 restart and was followed by Earnhardt , Hamlin , Kurt Busch and Gordon ( who made a pit stop for an air @-@ pressure adjustment during the caution ) . Hamlin passed Earnhardt for second place ten laps later . The thirteenth caution was prompted on lap 399 when Bobby Labonte made contact with Jamie McMurray in turn two , sending him spinning sideways but avoiding the wall . Most of the leaders , including Johnson , made pit stops . Johnson adjusted his air pressure , and Hamlin 's pit crew removed a front fender .
Labonte led on the lap @-@ 406 restart , followed by Mears and Gordon . Elliott Sadler went to his garage with motor problems on lap 411 . By lap 437 , Johnson had moved into second position . Seven laps later he passed Labonte for the lead , and Hamlin passed Gordon for fourth a lap later . Lap 447 saw the fourteenth caution ; Ragan spun sideways at turn four and Kyle Busch collided with the wall to avoid him , sustaining minor damage to his car 's right side . One lap later , Kyle Busch went to pit road for repairs . The race restarted on lap 453 , with Johnson leading Labonte and Hamlin . On the 460th lap Gilliand caused Mears to spin sideways coming out of turn four , prompting the fifteenth caution ; Johnson maintained his lead at the restart . On lap 468 , Bowyer triggered the sixteenth caution after spinning sideways at turn three . Four laps later , Martin drove to pit road for engine troubleshooting .
The race restarted on lap 476 , when a seventeenth caution was issued because Earnhardt made contact with Kahne after trying to pass him ; Earnhardt spun at turn three . Martin again went to pit road because of water problems , and Johnson maintained the lead at the restart . On lap 484 , Hamlin passed Labonte for second place . Five laps later Wallace spun coming out of turn two after being hit by McMurray , prompting the race 's eighteenth ( and final ) caution , but was able to continue . Johnson remained the leader at the lap @-@ 495 restart , with Hamlin close behind . Hamlin bumped Johnson coming out of turn two , causing Johnson to move to the outside lane , and went to the inside lane to draw alongside him on the back stretch . They remained side by side for one lap , when Johnson drew ahead of Hamlin at turn four . He pulled away , holding the lead for the remaining six laps to win the race . Hamlin finished second , ahead of Labonte in third , Stewart in fourth and Gordon in fifth . Mears , Kahne , Green , Harvick and Petty rounded out the top ten finishers . The race had a total of 18 cautions and 16 lead changes by five drivers . Johnson led seven times for a total of 245 laps , more than any other competitor . The win was the 23rd of Johnson 's Cup Career , as well as his final of five victories he posted in the 2006 season .
= = = Post @-@ race comments = = =
Johnson appeared in victory lane after his victory lap to celebrate his fifth win of the season in front of the crowd ; the win earned him $ 191 @,@ 886 . He was pleased with the result , saying he was happy to have taken the victory : " We 've been running up front the last three of four races and haven 't been able to close the deal . Today we did . " Hamlin was disappointed with his finish as he felt he had a faster car after the race 's final restart but admitted Johnson would not be beaten : " It was my only shot to get around him . I wasn 't going to get under him completely . There was no way possible . I was doing the best I could to win the race . " He later admitted that he made contact with Johnson and that it was on purpose . Labonte said about his third @-@ place finish , " I feel like I stole something . " Jeff Burton was philosophical about his retirement from the race : " These things happen . Everybody has had an issue in this Chase , and we had ours today . This thing is not over for us by any means . " Kenseth , who finished eleventh , was optimistic about his chances of winning the Drivers ' Championship : " It 's great to be the leader , but we 've got to start running good , It 's still pretty wide open . It 's going to be pretty exciting , I think , coming down to the last race . "
Earnhardt admitted that he was to blame for the collision with Kahne on lap 476 . He said was anxious to pass him and was underneath him when he made the maneuver but his rear brakes locked which caused him to spin . Kahne thought Earnhardt was driving too hard in turn three : " I guess I need to get somebody on [ the radio ] to preach to me to have more patience because I definitely can 't take control of myself . " After retiring from the race , Schrader said of his collision with Ragan , " I moved him earlier because you can 't run like that two laps down . Got back around him and he paid me back for moving him , but he was two laps down . " Ragan denied intentionally wrecking Schrader , saying that he over @-@ drove his car going into the first corner and his brakes locked . Stewart saw Ragan 's lap @-@ 447 spin ( which caused Kyle Busch to collide with the wall ) , and believed that NASCAR should have disqualified Ragan from the race .
According to Mears , who was involved in an incident with Newman on the 64th lap , " [ Newman ] was kind of holding everyone up . When I got up to him , he tried to park me in the center of the corner . [ He ] just got on the brakes and I got into the back of him . Got him a little loose . He didn 't wreck , but he came around the next lap and wrecked me . " Although Mears was also angry about the incident with Gilliland 396 laps later , he praised his car 's handling and said it was the first time a car had worked in his favor . Three days after the race , NASCAR announced that Waltrip @-@ Jasper Racing crew chief Tommy Baldwin , Jr. was fined $ 5 @,@ 000 for violating four NASCAR rules . The fines were for " actions detrimental to stock car racing " , car , car parts , components and / or equipment used in the race that was not compliant to NASCAR rules and for entering the car @-@ servicing area without a fire @-@ resistant uniform or helmet .
The result left Kenseth leading the Drivers ' Championship with 5 @,@ 848 points , ahead of Harvick with 5 @,@ 812 . Johnson moved into third with 5 @,@ 807 , six points ahead of Hamlin . After the race , Jeff Burton ( who fell to fifth ) was still upbeat about his championship chances : " We have as good a shot as anybody . We 've run well enough to win the championship ; we just got to put the next four races together . " Earnhardt , Martin , Kahne , Gordon and Kyle Busch rounded out the top ten . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet maintained the lead with 246 points . Dodge remained in second with 195 , eight points ahead of Ford . The race took three hours and forty @-@ four minutes to complete , and the margin of victory was 0 @.@ 544 seconds .
= = Results = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race results = = =
= = Standings after the race = =
= Doxorubicin =
Doxorubicin , sold under the trade names Adriamycin among others , is a medication used in cancer chemotherapy . It is derived by chemical semisynthesis from a bacterial species . It is an anthracycline antitumor antibiotic ( note : in this context , this does not mean it is used to treat bacterial infections ) closely related to the natural product daunomycin and like all anthracyclines , it works by intercalating DNA , with the most serious adverse effect being life @-@ threatening heart damage . It is commonly used in the treatment of a wide range of cancers , including hematological malignancies ( blood cancers , like leukaemia and lymphoma ) , many types of carcinoma ( solid tumours ) and soft tissue sarcomas . It is often used in combination chemotherapy as a component of various chemotherapy regimens .
Common adverse effects of doxorubicin include hair loss ( seen in most of those treated with the drug ) , myelosuppression ( a compromised ability of the body 's bone marrow to produce new blood cells ) , nausea and vomiting ( which are seen in roughly 30 @-@ 90 % of people treated with the drug ) , oral mucositis , oesophagitis , diarrhoea , skin reactions ( including hand @-@ foot syndrome ) and localised swelling and redness along the vein in which the drug is delivered . Less common , yet serious reactions include hypersensitivity reactions ( including anaphylaxis ) , radiation recall , heart damage and liver dysfunction . Some people experience red discoloration of their urine , sometimes for up to 1 to 2 days after treatment .
Doxorubicin is on the World Health Organization 's List of Essential Medicines , the most important medication needed in a basic health system . The drug is administered intravenously as a hydrochloride salt . Doxorubicin is photosensitive , and containers are often covered by an aluminum bag and / or brown wax paper to prevent light from affecting it . Doxorubicin is also available in liposome @-@ encapsulated forms as Doxil ( pegylated form ) , Myocet ( nonpegylated form ) , and Caelyx , although these forms must also be given by intravenous injection .
= = Medical use = =
Doxorubicin is commonly used to treat some leukemias and Hodgkin 's lymphoma , as well as cancers of the bladder , breast , stomach , lung , ovaries , thyroid , soft tissue sarcoma , multiple myeloma , and others . Commonly used doxorubicin @-@ containing regimens are AC ( Adriamycin , cyclophosphamide ) , TAC ( Taxotere , AC ) , ABVD ( Adriamycin , bleomycin , vinblastine , dacarbazine ) , BEACOPP , CHOP ( cyclophosphamide , hydroxydaunorubicin , vincristine , prednisone ) and FAC ( 5 @-@ fluorouracil , adriamycin , cyclophosphamide ) .
Doxil ( see below ) is used primarily for the treatment of ovarian cancer where the disease has progressed or recurred after platinum @-@ based chemotherapy , or for the treatment of AIDS @-@ related Kaposi 's sarcoma .
= = = Liposomal formulations = = =
There is a pegylated ( polyethylene glycol coated ) liposome @-@ encapsulated form of doxorubicin , sold as Doxil . It was developed to treat Kaposi 's sarcoma , an AIDS @-@ related cancer that causes lesions to grow under the skin , in the lining of the mouth , nose and throat , or in other organs . The polyethylene glycol coating results in preferential concentration of doxorubicin in the skin . However , this also results in a side effect called palmar plantar erythrodysesthesia ( PPE ) , more commonly known as hand @-@ foot syndrome . Following administration of this form of doxorubicin , small amounts of the drug can leak from capillaries in the palms of the hands and soles of the feet . The result of this leakage is redness , tenderness , and peeling of the skin that can be uncomfortable and even painful . In clinical testing at 50 mg / m2 dosing every 4 weeks , half of people developed hand @-@ foot syndrome . The rate of this side effect limits the dose of this formulation that can be given as compared with plain doxorubicin in the same treatment regimen , thereby limiting potential substitution . Substitution would be desirable because liposome @-@ encapsulated doxorubicin is less cardiotoxic than unencapsulated doxorubicin . This form is also approved by the FDA for treatment of ovarian cancer and multiple myeloma .
A non @-@ pegylated liposomal doxorubicin , called Myocet , is approved in Europe and Canada for treatment of metastatic breast cancer in combination with cyclophosphamide , but has not been approved by the FDA for use in the United States . Unlike Doxil , the Myocet liposome does not have a polyethylene glycol coating , and therefore does not result in the same rate of hand @-@ foot syndrome . The minimization of this side effect may allow for one for one substitution with doxorubicin in the same treatment regimen , thereby improving safety with no loss of efficacy . Like Doxil , the liposomal encapsulation of the doxorubicin limits the cardiotoxicity . In theory , by limiting the cardiotoxicity of doxorubicin through liposomal encapsulation , it can be used safely in concurrent combination with other cardiotoxic chemotherapy drugs , such as trastuzumab . There is an FDA black box warning that trastuzumab cannot be used in concurrent combination with doxorubicin , only in sequential combination . Though concurrent combination of trastuzumab and doxorubicin in clinical studies found superior tumor response , the combination resulted in unacceptable cardiotoxicity , including risk of cardiac failure manifesting as congestive heart failure ( CHF ) . Published phase II study results have shown that Myocet , trastuzumab , and paclitaxel can safely be used concurrently without the cardiac risk , as measured by reduction in LVEF function , while still achieving superior tumor response . This finding is the basis for the ongoing phase III trial for FDA approval .
= = Adverse effects = =
The most dangerous side effect of doxorubicin is cardiomyopathy , leading to congestive heart failure . The rate of cardiomyopathy is dependent on its cumulative dose , with an incidence about 4 % when the dose of doxorubicin is 500 – 550 mg / m ² , 18 % when the dose is 551 – 600 mg / m ² and 36 % when the dose exceeds 600 mg / m ² . There are several ways in which doxorubicin is believed to cause cardiomyopathy , including oxidative stress , downregulation of genes for contractile proteins , and p53 mediated apoptosis . The drug dexrazoxane is used to mitigate doxorubicin 's cardiotoxicity .
Another common and potentially fatal complication of doxorubicin is typhlitis , an acute life @-@ threatening infection of the bowel .
Additionally , some patients may develop PPE , characterized by skin eruptions on the palms of the hand or soles of the feet , swelling , pain , and erythema .
Due to these side effects and its red color , doxorubicin has earned the nickname " red devil " or " red death . "
Chemotherapy can cause reactivation of hepatitis B , and doxorubicin @-@ containing regimens are no exception .
Doxorubicin and several chemotherapeutic drugs ( including cyclophosphamide ) cause dyspigmentation . Other groups of drugs that cause this problem include antimalarials , amiodarone , heavy metals ( but not iron ) , tetracyclines , and antipsychotics .
= = Biosynthesis = =
Doxorubicin ( DXR ) is a 14 @-@ hydroxylated version of daunorubicin , the immediate precursor of DXR in its biosynthetic pathway . Daunorubicin is more abundantly found as a natural product because it is produced by a number of different wild type strains of Streptomyces . In contrast , only one known non @-@ wild type species , Streptomyces peucetius subspecies cesius ATCC 27952 , was initially found to be capable of producing the more widely used doxorubicin . This strain was created by Arcamone et al. in 1969 by mutating a strain producing daunorubicin , but not DXR , at least in detectable quantities . Subsequently , Hutchinson 's group showed that under special environmental conditions , or by the introduction of genetic modifications , other strains of Streptomyces can produce doxorubicin . His group has also cloned many of the genes required for DXR production , although not all of them have been fully characterized . In 1996 , Strohl 's group discovered , isolated and characterized dox A , the gene encoding the enzyme that converts daunorubicin into DXR . By 1999 , they produced recombinant dox A , a cytochrome P450 oxidase , and found that it catalyzes multiple steps in DXR biosynthesis , including steps leading to daunorubicin . This was significant because it became clear that all daunorubicin @-@ producing strains have the necessary genes to produce DXR , the much more therapeutically important of the two . Hutchinson 's group went on to develop methods to improve the yield of DXR , from the fermentation process used in its commercial production , not only by introducing dox A encoding plasmids , but also by introducing mutations to deactivate enzymes that shunt DXR precursors to less useful products , for example baumycin @-@ like glycosides . Some triple mutants , that also over @-@ expressed dox A , were able to double the yield of DXR . This is of more than academic interest , because at that time DXR cost about $ 1 @.@ 37 million per kg and current production in 1999 was 225 kg per annum . More efficient production techniques have brought the price down to $ 1 @.@ 1 million per kg for the nonliposomal formulation . Although DXR can be produced semi @-@ synthetically from daunorubicin , the process involves electrophilic bromination and multiple steps , and the yield is poor . Since daunorubicin is produced by fermentation , it would be ideal if the bacteria could complete DXR synthesis more effectively .
= = Mechanism of action = =
Doxorubicin interacts with DNA by intercalation and inhibition of macromolecular biosynthesis . This inhibits the progression of the enzyme topoisomerase II , which relaxes supercoils in DNA for transcription . Doxorubicin stabilizes the topoisomerase II complex after it has broken the DNA chain for replication , preventing the DNA double helix from being resealed and thereby stopping the process of replication . It may also increase quinone type free radical production , hence contributing to its cytotoxicity .
The planar aromatic chromophore portion of the molecule intercalates between two base pairs of the DNA , while the six @-@ membered daunosamine sugar sits in the minor groove and interacts with flanking base pairs immediately adjacent to the intercalation site , as evidenced by several crystal structures .
By intercalation , doxorubicin can also induce histone eviction from transcriptionally active chromatin . As a result , DNA damage response , epigenome and transcriptome are deregulated in doxorubicin @-@ exposed cells .
= = History = =
In the 1950s , an Italian research company , Farmitalia Research Laboratories , began an organized effort to find anticancer compounds from soil @-@ based microbes . A soil sample was isolated from the area surrounding the Castel del Monte , a 13th @-@ century castle . A new strain of Streptomyces peucetius , which produced a red pigment , was isolated , and an antibiotic from this bacterium was effective against tumors in mice . Since a group of French researchers discovered the same compound at about the same time , the two teams named the compound daunorubicin , combining the name Dauni , a pre @-@ Roman tribe that occupied the area of Italy where the compound was isolated , with the French word for ruby , rubis , describing the color . Clinical trials began in the 1960s , and the drug was successful in treating acute leukemia and lymphoma . However , by 1967 , it was recognized that daunorubicin could produce fatal cardiac toxicity .
Researchers at Farmitalia soon discovered that changes in biological activity could be made by minor changes in the structure of the compound . A strain of Streptomyces was mutated using N @-@ nitroso @-@ N @-@ methyl urethane , and this new strain produced a different , red @-@ colored antibiotic . They named this new compound Adriamycin , after the Adriatic Sea , and the name was later changed to doxorubicin to conform to the established naming convention . Doxorubicin showed better activity than daunorubicin against mouse tumors , and especially solid tumors . It also showed a higher therapeutic index , yet the cardiotoxicity remained .
Doxorubicin and daunorubicin together can be thought of as prototype compounds for the anthracyclines . Subsequent research has led to many other anthracycline antibiotics , or analogs , and there are now over 2 @,@ 000 known analogs of doxorubicin . By 1991 , 553 of them had been evaluated in the screening program at the National Cancer Institute ( NCI ) . In 2016 GPX @-@ 150 was granted Orphan Drug designation by US FDA .
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Names = = =
It is also known as hydroxydaunorubicin and hydroxydaunomycin .
It is sold under a number of different brand names , including Adriamycin PFS , Adriamycin RDF , or Rubex .
= = = Shortage = = =
As of February 2014 , Doxil was available in limited supply . In 2011 , Doxil became available only in very limited supply due to production problems with the third @-@ party manufacturer . Johnson & Johnson ( JNJ ) , through its subsidiary Janssen Products , LP , had been receiving its Doxil supply from contract manufacturer Ben Venue Laboratories ( located in Bedford , Ohio ) , a unit of Boehringer Ingelheim GmbH of Germany . The problems began when Ben Venue temporarily shut down their manufacturing facility due to quality control issues .
In February 2012 , to address the Doxil shortage , the US Food and Drug Administration ( FDA ) allowed for the temporary importation of Lipodox , which contains the same active ingredient as Doxil and is made by Sun Pharma Global FZE ( Sun ) , a subsidiary of India 's Sun Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd . The agency said it intends to continue allowing the importation of Lipodox until Sun has made enough generic Doxil to meet demand .
The FDA approved the first generic version of Doxil , made by Sun , in February 2013 . It will be available in 20 milligram and 50 milligram vials .
= = Research = =
Combination therapy experiments with sirolimus ( rapamycin ) and doxorubicin have shown promise in treating Akt @-@ positive lymphomas in mice .
Recent animal research coupling a murine monoclonal antibody with doxorubicin has created an immunoconjugate that was able to eliminate HIV @-@ 1 infection in mice . Current treatment with antiretroviral therapy ( ART ) still leaves pockets of HIV within the host . The immunoconjugate could potentially provide a complementary treatment to ART to eradicate antigen @-@ expressing T cells .
= = = Antimalarial activity = = =
There is some evidence for antimalarial activity for doxorubicin and similar compounds . In 2009 , a compound similar in structure to doxorubicin was found to inhibit plasmepsin II , an enzyme unique to the malarial parasite Plasmodium falciparum . The pharmaceutical company GlaxoSmithKline ( GSK ) later identified doxorubicin in a set of compounds that inhibit parasite growth
= Seth @-@ Peribsen =
Seth @-@ Peribsen ( also known as Ash @-@ Peribsen , Peribsen and Perabsen ) is the serekh name of an early Egyptian monarch ( pharaoh ) , who ruled during the Second Dynasty of Egypt ( c . 2890 – c . 2686 BC ) . His chronological position within this dynasty is unknown and it is disputed who ruled both before and after him . The duration of his reign is also unknown .
Peribsen 's royal name is a subject of curiosity for Egyptologists because it is connected to the deity Seth rather than Horus , as was traditional for the name of a pharaoh . The debate continues over why Peribsen chose this name . Earlier theories have favoured the idea that Egypt was split in two realms during Peribsen 's time or that he was a heretic , who sought to start a new monotheistic religion with Seth as the only worshipped god . However , newer evidence and evaluations tend to show that the Egyptian kingdom was unified , but witnessed a vast and profound reform during the second dynasty . Seal impressions from tombs of this era reveal great changes in the titles held by high officials , pointing to a reduction of their power . Further seal impressions show that several deities were worshipped under Peribsen , refuting the monotheism theory , with other contemporary inscriptions indicating that the Egyptian grammar was perfected during his reign : In particular , the earliest seal impressions with complete sentences date back to Peribsen 's reign . Thus , Peribsen 's reign was in fact a time of cultural and religious advancement .
Existing negative views about Peribsen 's existence are based on Ramesside king lists , such as the Abydos King List , the Saqqara King List and the Royal Canon of Turin , which all omit Peribsen 's name . These , however , are known to have been redacted nearly 1500 years after his death and several 4th dynasty tombs of priests performing the funerary cult for Peribsen have been uncovered . These tombs report Peribsen 's name correctly and their existence demonstrate that Peribsen was seen as a legitimate pharaoh , not subject to damnatio memoriae as Akhenaten later would be . Historians and Egyptologists therefore consider the possibility that Peribsen 's name was actually forgotten in time or that his name was preserved in a distorted , misspelled form .
Peribsen 's Tomb was discovered in 1898 at Abydos . It was well preserved and showed traces of restoration undertaken during later dynastic periods .
= = Archaeological evidence = =
The serekh for Peribsen was found pressed in earthen jar seals made of clay and mud and in inscriptions on alabaster , sandstone , porphyry and black schist vessels . These seals and vessels were excavated from Peribsen 's tomb and at an excavation site in Elephantine . One clay seal with Peribsen 's name was found inside the mastaba tomb K1 at Beit Khallaf .
Two large tomb stelae made of granite were found at his burial site . Their shape is unusual and they appear unfinished and rough . Egyptologists suspect that this was done deliberately , but the reasons are unknown . A cylinder seal of unknown provenance shows Peribsen 's name inside a cartouche and gives the epithet Merj @-@ netjeru ( " beloved of the gods " ) . This arrangement leads Egyptologists and archaeologists to the conclusion that the seal must have been created later , in memoriam , because the use of royal cartouches began long after Peribsen 's reign . Another seal of the same material shows Peribsen 's name without a cartouche , but with the royal title Nisut @-@ Bity ( " king of Lower- and Upper Egypt " ) instead .
= = Peribsen 's name = =
Peribsen 's name is unusual , in that Seth , not Horus , was his patron deity . This goes against the Egyptian tradition of a king choosing the falcon @-@ shaped deity Horus as his royal patron . Traditionally , the Horus name of the king was written within a serekh : the image of the facade of the royal palace beneath a falcon representing the god Horus ( see Hieroglyphics ) . Instead , Peribsen chose to have the Set animal , representing Seth , on his serekh . Like Horus , Seth was a popular deity during the early dynastic period . He became the god of darkness and chaos afterward , during the much later Late Period of Ancient Egypt . Although Peribsen is the only known pharaoh to have the Set animal preside alone over his serekh , he is not the only king to associate himself with Seth . Examples include the 13th dynasty pharaoh Seth Meribre , the 19th dynasty rulers Seti I and Seti II and the 20th dynasty king Setnakhte .
Peribsen 's choice of patron , and his rule during the shadowy period of the mid Second dynasty , led Egyptologists and historians to search for possible explanations for both his name and the troubled times he lived in . The following sections discuss some of the theories that they put forth .
= = = Religious theories uniting Peribsen with Seth = = =
Older theories
A theory that was popular until the mid 20th century , supported by Egyptologists Percy Newberry , Jaroslav Černý , Walter Bryan Emery and Bernhard Grdseloff held that Peribsen was a heretic who sought to introduce a new , monotheistic state religion to Egypt , with Seth as the only worshipped god . Peribsen 's actions were thought to be similar to those of the much later 18th dynasty pharaoh Akhenaten , who had required Egyptians to serve only Aten . Newberry proposed that the priests of Horus and Seth fought each other " in the Manner of a war of the roses " during the second half of the Second dynasty .
The " heretic Peribsen " theory was based on three observations : that the name " Peribsen " was excluded from later king lists , that the king 's tomb had been destroyed and plundered during antiquity and finally that the tomb stelae of Peribsen , that once displayed the Set animal , were badly scratched with the clear intention of effacing the Seth image . Egyptologists hypothesized these were the actions of religious opponents to the Sethian priest @-@ caste . Lauer and Firth relied on the " heretic Peribsen " theory to explain the enormous quantity of stone vessels inscribed with the name of First and Second dynasty kings found beneath Djoser 's pyramid in bags bearing seals of Khasekhemwy and Djoser . They proposed that Peribsen had plundered the tombs of his predecessors , followers of Horus , and scattered their funerary equipment . These vessels were gathered in the royal treasury during Khasekhemwy 's reign following his reunification of Egypt , and finally put beneath the step pyramid by Djoser , in an act of pious devotion .
Contemporary theories
Today this theory , as well as Lauer and Firths ' conclusions , is widely questioned . Archaeological evidence of Peribsen has almost entirely been found in Upper Egypt . In particular , his name does not appear in Lower Egyptian records surviving from that time . It is argued that Peribsen may not have ruled over all of Egypt and therefore did not have the authority to force a change in state religion . Another piece of evidence that argues against the " heretic Peribsen " theory is the false door of the priest Shery at Saqqara . Shery held office during the early Fourth dynasty . The inscription on the false door connects the name of Peribsen in one sentence with another shadowy king of the Second dynasty , Senedj . According to the addendum , Shery was " overseer of all wab @-@ priests of king Peribsen in the necropolis of king Senedj , in his mortuary temple and at all other places " . This implies that the funerary cult of Peribsen continued at least until the Fourth dynasty , inconsistent with the assumption that Peribsen 's name was not allowed to be mentioned . Additionally , Egyptologists such as Herman te Velde point out that Shery was not the only Fourth dynasty priest participating in the funerary cult of Peribsen . Inkef , possibly a brother or cousin of Shery , also held the title of a " supervisor of Ka @-@ priests of Peribsen " .
Seal impressions found in Peribsen 's tomb at Abydos show several deities : Ash , Min and Bastet , suggesting they were venerated during Peribsen 's time on the throne . This finding argues against Peribsen worshipping a single god , or promoting monotheism . The heretic theory of Newberry , Černý , Grdseloff and others was devised from the very limited archaeological information available during their lifetimes . Most of the found clay seal impressions were still undeciphered and untranslated at their time .
According to the Egyptologists Jean Sainte Fare Garnot and Herman te Velde , the name of " Peribsen " accords religious meaning , even before association with a deity . The name " Peribsen " literally means " He who comes forth by their will " or " His heart and will comes forth for them . " The Egyptian syllable sn means " them , their , those " , revealing a clear plural writing . Te Velde and Garnot are convinced that Peribsen used the heraldic Seth animal as a serekh patron , but also linked his name to Horus . If true , it would prove that Peribsen worshipped Horus and Seth on an equal footing during his lifetime . An ostentatious plural meaning with religious ambiguity was not uncommon for pharaohs ' names in the early Egyptian dynasties . Peribsen may have been perceived as a living incarnation of both Horus and Seth in equal measure , just like his predecessors on the throne . Therefore , Peribsen 's name may actually show no break in the sacred tradition ; he added the power of Seth to Horus . As further examples , the titles of early dynastic queens used plural patron deities , such as " she who is allowed to see Horus and Seth " and " she who carries Horus and Seth " . Similarly , the unusual serekh of king Khasekhemwy , the last ruler of the Second dynasty , shows the deities Horus and Seth together atop the serekh . Horus wears the White Crown of Upper Egypt and Seth wears the Red Crown of Lower Egypt . Both gods are depicted facing each other in a kissing gesture . This special name was meant to illustrate the dual incarnation of the king as the representative of Horus and Seth , with power over all Egypt . Khasekhemwy 's name can be interpreted as an advanced form of Peribsen 's serekh name .
Egyptologists Ludwig David Morenz and Wolfgang Helck remark that the targeted gouging of Seth @-@ animals did not occur until the New Kingdom of Egypt . The erasure of the Seth chimera on Peribsen 's tomb stelae had been attributed to activity shortly after his death under the " heretic " theory ; new discoveries suggested the defamation occurred centuries later . Historian Dietrich Wildung states that the necropolis of Abydos was not the only one plundered in antiquity : the tombs at Saqqara and Giza were also ransacked . Thus , he concludes that any targeted action against one particular pharaoh can be excluded .
= = = Political theories = = =
The earlier theories of Newberry , Černý and Grdseloff said that the Egyptian state under Peribsen suffered from several civil wars , either economic or political in origin . If he was held responsible for the putative misery in the past , this could explain why later king lists excluded Peribsen .
In contrast , more recent theories now hold that , if the Egyptian kingdom was divided , the division happened peacefully . Egyptologists such as Michael Rice , Francesco Tiradritti and Wolfgang Helck point to the once palatial and well preserved mastaba tombs at Sakkara and Abydos belonging to high officials such as Ruaben and Nefer @-@ Setekh . These are all dated from the reign of Nynetjer to that of Khasekhemwy , the last ruler of the Second dynasty . Egyptologists consider the archaeological record of the mastabas ' condition and the original architecture as proof that the statewide mortuary cults for kings and noblemen successfully took place during the entire dynasty . If true , their preservation is inconsistent with the theory of civil wars and economic problems during Peribsen 's reign . Rice , Tiradritti and Helck think that Nynetjer decided to leave a divided realm because of private or political reasons and that the split was a formality sustained by Second Dynasty kings .
The origin of the political division is unknown . It might have happened at the beginning of Peribsen 's rule or shortly before . Because Peribsen chose the deity Seth as his new throne patron , Egyptologists are of the view that Peribsen was a chieftain from Thinis or a prince of the Thinite royal house . This theory is based on Seth being a deity of Thinite origin , which would explain Peribsen 's choice : his name changing may have been nothing more than smart political ( and religious ) propaganda . Peribsen is thought to have gained the Thinite throne and ruled only Upper Egypt , whilst other rulers held the Memphite throne and ruled Lower Egypt .
= = Identity = =
Egyptologists Walter Bryan Emery , Kathryn A. Bard and Flinders Petrie believe that Peribsen was also known as Sekhemib @-@ Perenmaat , another Second Dynasty ruler that had connected his name with the falcon @-@ god Horus . As evidence , clay seals of Sekhemib found in the entrance of Peribsen 's tomb support this hypothesis . Sekhemib 's tomb has not yet been found .
This theory is debatable ; Hermann Alexander Schlögl , Wolfgang Helck , Peter Kaplony and Jochem Kahl argue that the clay seals were only found at the entrance area of Peribsen 's tomb and none of them depict Peribsen and Sekhemib 's names together in one inscription . Furthermore , they remark that it was customary for a pharaoh to bury and seal his predecessor 's tomb ; the presence of Sekhemib 's seals show the line of dynastic inheritance . Similar inferences can be drawn from the ivory tablets of king Hotepsekhemwy found at the entrance of king Qa 'a's tomb and the clay seals of Djoser found at the entrance of Khasekhemwy 's tomb . Schlögl , Helck , Kaplony and Kahl are convinced that the discovery of Sekhemib 's seals support the view that Sekhemib immediately succeeded Peribsen and buried him .
Scholars Toby Wilkinson and Helck believe that Peribsen and Sekhemib could have been related . Their theory is based on the stone vessel inscriptions and seal impressions that show strong similarities in their typography and grammar . The vessels of Peribsen show the notation " ini @-@ setjet " ( " tribute of the people of Sethroë " ) , whilst Sekhemib 's inscriptions have the notation " ini @-@ khasut " ( " tribute of the desert nomads " ) . A further indication that Peribsen and Sekhemib were related is by serekh @-@ name ; they use the syllables " Per " and " ib " in their names .
The false door inscription of Shery might indicate that Peribsen is identical with king Senedj ( " Senedj " means " the frightening " ) and that this name was used in the king lists by proxy , as the Seth name was forbidden mention . In contrast , Dietrich Wildung and Wolfgang Helck identify Peribsen with the Ramesside cartouche name Wadjenes . They think it is possible that the name Per @-@ ib @-@ sen was misread from a sloppy hieratic inscription of Wadj @-@ sen .
= = Reign = =
As some archaeological records support the view that the Egyptian state was divided during Peribsen 's reign , there is continued debate as to why his predecessors decided to divide the realm , and whether Peribsen ruled part or all of Egypt .
= = = Proponents of the divided @-@ realm @-@ theory = = =
Egyptologists Wolfgang Helck , Nicolas Grimal , Hermann Alexander Schlögl and Francesco Tiradritti believe that king Nynetjer , the third ruler of the Second dynasty and predecessor to Peribsen , ruled an Egypt that was suffering from an overly complex state administration . Nynetjer decided to split Egypt to leave it to two chosen successors who would rule two separate kingdoms , in the hope that the state administration could improve . Archaeological evidence , such as the imprinted clay seals and inscribed jars , appear to support the claim that Peribsen ruled only in Upper Egypt . A great number of these were found in Abydos , Naqada and at Elephantine , with only a single clay seal bearing his name found in Lower Egypt , at Beit Khallaf . Historians think Peribsen 's realm would have extended from Naqada to the Isle of Elephantine . The rest of Egypt would therefore have been controlled by a different , coexisting ruler .
Egyptologist Dimitri B. Proussakov supports his theory with notations on the famous Palermo stone concerning the year events of king Nynetjer . From the twelfth year event onward , " The king of Upper- and Lower Egypt appears " was amended to " The king of Lower Egypt appears " . Proussakov sees this as a strong indication that Nynetjer 's power over Egypt had diminished . Egyptologists compare the situation to that of king Qa 'a , one of the last rulers of the First dynasty . When Qa 'a died , obscure claimants appeared and battled for the throne of Egypt . The struggles reached an apex with the plundering of the royal cemetery at Abydos , whereupon the cemetery was abandoned and Saqqara became the new royal burial site . The conflict was ended by the ascension of king Hotepsekhemwy , the founder of the Second dynasty .
Barbara Bell , another scholar , believes that an economic catastrophe such as a famine or a long @-@ lasting drought affected Egypt . To better address the problem of feeding the Egyptian population , Nynetjer split the realm into two and his successors founded two independent realms , perhaps with intent to reunite after the famine . Bell points to the inscriptions of the Palermo stone , where , in her opinion , the records of the annual Nile floods show constantly low levels during this period . Bell 's theory is refuted today by Egyptologists such as Stephan Seidlmayer , who asserts her calculations were incorrect . Seidlmayer has shown that the annual Nile floods were at usual levels at Nynetjer 's time up to the period of the Old Kingdom . Bell overlooked that the heights of the Nile floods in the Palermo stone inscription take into account the measurements of the nilometers around Memphis , but not elsewhere along the river . A state @-@ wide drought was unlikely .
= = = Opponents of the divided @-@ realm @-@ theory = = =
Scholars such as Herman TeVelde , I. E. S. Edwards and Toby Wilkinson believe the inscription of the famous Annal stone of Fifth dynasty , a black olivin @-@ basalt slabstone displaying a very detailed king list , argues against the division of the realm . On the stone the kings from 1st to 7th dynasty are listed by their Horus name , their gold name and their cartouche name , their name banderoles end with the name of their royal mother . The lists also contain rectangular windows presenting year events from the day of king 's coronation up to his death . The most famous fragments of the Annal stone are called Palermo Stone and Cairo Stone . On the Cairo stone , in line IV , the nine last years of king Nynetjer are preserved ( but most of the year windows are illegible now ) . The date of Nynetjer 's death is followed by a new king . Recent investigations reveal that the serekh of that new king is surmounted by a four @-@ legged animal , not by the Horus @-@ falcon . Since the only four @-@ legged heraldic serekh animal in early Egypt was the chimera of the god Seth , despite passionate disagreement , the indicated ruler is likely to be Peribsen . Egyptologists such as TeVelde , Barta and Edwards do not agree ; Peribsen might have not been the only king with a Seth @-@ name . The year events under Nynetjer show increasing references to Seth , suggesting the tradition of a Horus name as the sole name of kings might have already evolved . The rise of a king allied with Seth was thus unsurprising . TeVelde , Barta and Edwards think that , in addition to Peribsen , the rulers Wadjenes , Nubnefer or Sened might have been Seth @-@ kings as well ; one of them surely was the true direct successor of Nynetjer . The comparatively large amount of archaeological finds from Peribsen 's reign contradict the brief estimated length of rulership , only 10 to 12 years , as presented on the Annal stone .
The Annal stone gives absolutely no indication of a division of the Egyptian realm . Barta , TeVelde , Wilkinson and Edwards argue that the theory of state division is untenable . An administrative reorganization or split in the priesthood sects is more likely .
= = = Political accomplishments = = =
During his time on the throne , Peribsen founded an administrative center called " The white house of treasury " as well as a new royal residence , called the " protection of Nubt " , located near Ombos ( " Nubt " being the Ancient Egyptian name of Naqada ) . The administrative titles of scribes , seal @-@ bearers and overseers were adjusted to correspond to the divided bureaucratic state administration . For example , titles like " sealer of the king " were changed into " sealer of the king of Upper Egypt " . This bureaucratic reform may indicate an attempt by Peribsen to limit the power of these officials , further evidence for a bloated and unwieldy state administration under Nynetjer .
The administration system under Peribsen and Sekhemib had a clear and well @-@ defined hierarchy ; as an example , from highest to the lowest rank : Treasury house ( royal and therefore highest in ranking ) → pension office → property → vineyards → private vineyard ( property of citizens and therefore lowest in ranking ) . King Khasekhemwy , the last ruler of the Second dynasty , was able to re @-@ unify the state administration of Egypt and therefore unite the whole of Ancient Egypt . He brought the two treasury houses of Egypt under the control of the " House of the King " , bringing them into a new , single administration centre .
Peribsen also founded royal edifices such as Per @-@ nubt ( " house of Ombos " ) and Per @-@ Medjed ( " house of meetings " ) and created several cities of economic importance . Their names , Afnut ( " city of the headdress @-@ makers " ) , Nebj ( " protector 's city " ) , Abet @-@ desheret ( " city of the red granite jars " ) and Huj @-@ setjet ( " city of the Asians ' ) , are mentioned on numerous clay seals alongside Peribsen 's serekh , often preceded by the phrase " visit of the king at ... " . Inscriptions on stone vessels also mention an " ini @-@ setjet " ( " tribute of the people of Sethroë " ) , which might indicate that Peribsen founded a cult centre for the deity Seth in the Nile Delta . This may suggest Peribsen ruled over the whole of Egypt , or , at least , that he was accepted as king across all of Egypt .
One official from Peribsen 's reign , Nefer @-@ Setekh ( " Seth is beautiful " ) , the " wab @-@ priest of the king " , is known to Egyptologists by his stela . His name may highlight the appearance and popularity of Seth as a royal deity .
In Peribsen 's tomb at Abydos , clay seals were found that demonstrate the first complete written sentence in recorded Egyptian history . The inscription reads :
" The golden one / He of Ombos hath unified / handed over the two realms for / to his son , the king of Lower and Upper Egypt , Peribsen " .
The title " The golden one " , also read as " He of Ombos " , is considered by Egyptologists to be a religious form of address to the deity Seth .
= = = Religious changes = = =
Despite his alignment with Seth , numerous deities were worshipped by the populace under Peribsen . Numerous clay seal impressions and jar inscriptions mention the gods Ash , Horus , Nekhbet , Min , Bastet and Kherty . The depictions of the deities are followed by the name of the place or town where they had their principal cult center . On the Cairo stone , a statue of Ash and a fetish of Seth are credited to Peribsen , complementing the clay seal impressions . Curiously , several seal impressions show a sun disc over the Seth chimera atop the royal serekh : the ancient symbol for the god Ra . There is no archaeologic proof that the sun god Ra was part of the Egyptian pantheon at this early date ; the appearance of the disc may be the first evidence of the evolving sun cult and theistic change . The sun disc appears in connection to one of the state patrons ( for example , under Peribsen 's predecessor Raneb the sun was connected to Horus ) ; under Peribsen it was connected to Seth . Under king Khasekhemwy the sun finally received its own name ( ra ) and , at the time of throne change between Khasekhemwy and his follower Djoser , several priests and officials also connected their name to Ra .
= = Rulers of Lower and Upper Egypt = =
Egyptian historians such as Helck , Tiradritti , Schlögl , Emery and Grimal are convinced that Peribsen was a co @-@ ruler . The investigation into the rulers of Lower Egypt is ongoing . The Rammesside king lists differ in their order of royal names from king Senedj onward . The royal table of Sakkara and the royal canon of Turin reflect Memphite traditions , which only allowed Memphite rulers to be mentioned . The Abydos king list reflects instead the Thinite traditions and therefore only Thinite rulers appear on that list . Until king Senedj , all the king lists are in agreement . After him , the Sakkara list and the Turin list mention three kings as successors : Neferkara I , Neferkasokar and Hudjefa I. The Abydos king list jumps forward to Khasekhemwy , calling him " Djadjay " . The discrepancies are considered by Egyptologists to be the result of the division of Egypt during the Second dynasty .
Additional contradictory findings are the Horus and Nebty names of kings discovered in the Great Southern Gallery in the necropolis of the ( Third dynasty ) king Djoser at Sakkara . Stone vessel inscriptions mention the kings Nubnefer , Weneg @-@ Nebty , Horus Ba , Horus " Bird " and Za ; each of these is mentioned only a few times , suggesting their reigns were short . King Sneferka might be identical with king Qa 'a or an ephemeral successor of his . King Weneg @-@ Nebty might be identical with the Ramesside cartouche name Wadjenes . But kings such as " Nubnefer " , " Bird " and " Za " remain a mystery . They never appear anywhere else and the number of objects surviving from their lifetimes is very limited . Schlögl , Helck and Peter Kaplony postulate , that Nubnefer , Za and Bird were contemporaries of Peribsen and Sekhemib and ruled over Lower Egypt , whilst the latter two ruled Upper Egypt .
= = The tomb of Peribsen = =
Peribsen was buried in the tomb P of the royal cemetery at Umm el @-@ Qa 'ab near Abydos . The first excavation of the tomb started in 1898 under the supervision of French archaeologist and Egyptologist Émile Amélineau . This first foray was followed by excavations in 1901 and 1902 under the supervision of British archaeologist Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie . Further exploration of the tomb was undertaken in 1928 by the Swiss Egyptologist Edouard Naville .
The tomb 's construction is straightforward and , compared to the size of other royal tombs in the same area , surprisingly small . The design model was the tomb of king Djer ( third pharaoh of the First dynasty ) , thought to be the ' Tomb of Osiris ' from the Middle Kingdom . The architecture of Peribsen 's tomb is similar to the residential palace . The tomb measures 16 metres ( 52 ft ) x 13 metres ( 43 ft ) and comprises three independent structures nested into one another : in the center is the main burial chamber , measuring 7 @.@ 3 metres ( 24 ft ) x 2 @.@ 9 metres ( 9 @.@ 5 ft ) , and which is made of mud bricks , reeds , and wood . On the north , east and west sides the burial chamber is surrounded by nine small storage rooms leading into one another ; on the south face is a long antechamber . A passageway runs between the inner structures and the outer wall .
Excavations under the
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supervision of the Deutsches Archäologisches Institut Kairo ( DAIK ) in 2001 and 2004 revealed that the tomb had been erected and completed in a great hurry . The building works took place in a single phase ; the walls were plastered roughly ; and the monument had collapsed several times over the centuries . During the Middle Kingdom , Peribsen 's tomb was restored at least twice together with the tomb of Djer , which was thought to be that of Osiris .
= = = Findings = = =
The tomb had been extensively plundered by tomb robbers during antiquity , yet numerous stone vessels and earthen jars remained . Some of the stone vessels had copper @-@ coated rims and are similar to the better known finds from tomb of Khasekhemwy . Vessels from preceding rulers such as Nynetjer and Raneb were also found . Beads and bracelets made of fayence and carnelian and tools made of copper were excavated . Special findings include a silver needle engraved with the name of king Hor Aha and clay seal fragments with the name of king Sekhemib . The two stone stelae from the entrance , common to burial chambers of the First and Second dynasties , are now on display in two different museums .
= = = Royal funerary enclosure = = =
A royal funerary enclosure made of mud bricks was found close to Peribsen 's tomb . Clay seals with Peribsen 's serekh name on them were located near the eastern entrance and inside a destroyed offering shrine . The findings support the view that the building was part of Peribsen 's burial site . The funerary enclosure is commonly known as " Middle Fort " . This was first discovered in 1904 under the supervision of Canadian archaeologist Charles Trick Currelly and British Egyptologist Edward Russell Ayrton . The enclosure wall was located at the north @-@ west site of Khasekhemwy 's funerary enclosure " Shunet ez Zebib " ( " raisin barn " ) . Peribsen 's measures 108 metres ( 354 ft ) x 55 metres ( 180 ft ) and housed only a few cult buildings . The enclosure has three entrances : one to the east , one to the south and one to the north . A small shrine , measuring 12 @.@ 3 metres ( 40 ft ) x 9 @.@ 75 metres ( 32 @.@ 0 ft ) was located at the south @-@ east corner of the funerary enclosure . It once comprised three small chapels . No subsidiary tombs were found .
The tradition of burying the family and court of the king when he died was abandoned at the time of Qa 'a , one of the last rulers of the First dynasty .
= Who We Are ( Lifehouse album ) =
Who We Are is the fourth studio album by American alternative rock band Lifehouse . It was first released via compact disc in the United States on June 18 , 2007 by Geffen Records . It was released via digital download the next day on June 19 , 2007 . The band entered the studio without any demos recorded and only had lyrics from Lifehouse lead singer Jason Wade . The songs on the album were mostly inspired by different emotions of love , bliss , struggles , and pain . Musically , the album is a combination of rock , alternative , and adult alternative .
The album received positive reviews from critics , and peaked at number fourteen on the Billboard 200 , selling 49 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It also managed to chart in the top twenty of Billboard 's Alternative Albums , Digital Albums , and Rock Albums charts the first week it was released . It was certified Gold in the United States by the RIAA on October 22 , 2008 .
The album 's lead single , " First Time " , was released May 7 , 2007 , and charted in several countries . The second single , " Whatever It Takes " , was released on November 13 , 2007 , and charted on several Billboard charts . The third single , " Broken " was released July 8 , 2008 , and had commercial success in the United States and Canada , and eventually other countries .
= = Background = =
The album was produced by American record producer Jude Cole , Lifehouse , and John Fields . Lifehouse started recording Who We Are without any demos , and only had lyrics from Jason Wade when they entered the studio . When asked about creating a song for the album , Lifehouse lead percussionist Rick Woolstenhulme , Jr. said , " Nobody really knew what they would be playing . We just cut it , listened to it and realized it was pretty electric … the kind of song where you just turn up the radio . " The album focused on the different emotions of love , bliss , struggles , and pain . Musically , the album was a combination of rock , alternative , and adult alternative . After being asked about the title of the album , Wade stated , " We established camaraderie on the road and gelled as a unit . This record defines ' Who We Are , ' which is why that ’ s the title . The sound fits where we ’ re at right now . "
Lifehouse lead singer Jason Wade had many inspirations when writing songs for Who We Are . When asked about the background of lead single " First Time " , Wade said , " It just felt urgent , like a first kiss , a first love . Like the first time you realize there 's more to that relationship than you thought . I had to dig a little for that one , but I find myself at a place where I can write stuff that 's a little deeper than your average love song in terms of emotion . " Wade was inspired to write " The Joke " after he read a newspaper article that detailed the story of a British boy who hung himself as a result of being bullied by his fellow schoolmates . The song " Broken " was written by Wade after he visited a friend in Nashville that needed a kidney transplant .
" Make Me Over " was inspired by the band 's love of British rock , while strains of " Learn You Inside Out " were inspired by the Plastic Ono Band . When asked about the song " Learn You Inside Out " , Wade said , " I wrote it really quick . We decided just to freestyle . It was one of those moments when we really grew as a band , being able to reach each other and know where we 're going . " The song " Disarray " was inspired by Wade 's strict and religious family . When asked about the song , he said , " Angels , demons . We all fight them both , and anyone who pretends they don ’ t is not someone I want to hang out with . " " Storm " was originally written by Wade at the age of sixteen , when he was going through difficult times . When asked about the song in an interview , Wade said , " That was fun to record because of its starkness . We love the idea of the title , surrounded by negative space , like the a cappella beginning . Because when you ’ re lost in confusion , no matter how much is going on around you , you ’ re still alone . "
= = = Singles = = =
" First Time " was released as the album 's lead single on May 7 , 2007 and was solicited to mainstream radio on May 15 , 2007 . The song peaked at number twenty @-@ six on the Billboard Hot 100 and at number forty @-@ seven on the Canadian Hot 100 . It also appeared on the Billboard Pop Songs , Radio Songs , Digital Songs , and Adult Contemporary charts . In 2007 , the song was nominated for the " Choice Music : Love Song " award at the Teen Choice Awards . " Whatever It Takes " was released as the album 's second single on November 13 , 2007 . The song peaked at number thirty @-@ three on the Billboard Hot 100 during its twenty weeks on the chart . It also placed on the Billboard Pop Songs , Radio Songs , Digital Songs , Adult Contemporary , and Christian Songs charts . " Broken " was released as the album 's third and final single on July 8 , 2008 . It appeared on the Billboard Hot 100 , Canadian Hot 100 , and Digital Songs charts . On October 10 , 2007 , " Broken " was played in the Criminal Minds episode " Scared to Death " . Several months later , the song appeared in the Grey 's Anatomy episode " Lay Your Hands On Me " on January 10 , 2008 . It featured in the One Tree Hill episode " For Tonight You 're Only Here to Know " on February 26 , 2008 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic described the album as " post @-@ alternative guitar rock preserved in amber , all shallow angst and earnestness , communicated through music that surges without hooks . " However , he further commented that " Lifehouse [ is ] pleasant enough , but hardly memorable , and hardly [ answers ] the question of who they are no matter how they try . " Alex Lai of Contact Music called " the ballads on this record amongst the best the band has produced " and further commented that " [ the album ] is very well balanced and though far from groundbreaking , show that Lifehouse have returned to their consistent best . " John DiBiase of Jesus Freak Hideout said that the album " isn 't much different from their previous chapters . " However , DiBiase said that " there [ are ] plenty of accented new flavors among the tracks to keep things fresh and interesting . "
= = = Chart performance = = =
In the United States , Who We Are debuted and peaked at number fourteen on the Billboard Hot 200 , selling 49 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It stayed on the chart for seventy @-@ six non @-@ consecutive weeks . The album debuted and peaked on the Billboard Rock Albums chart at number five . On the Billboard Digital Albums chart , the album debuted and peaked at number four and stayed on the chart for five consecutive weeks . It debuted and peaked at number eighteen on the Billboard Alternative Albums chart and stayed there for ten non @-@ consecutive weeks . It was certified Gold in the United States by the RIAA on October 22 , 2008 . As of June 28 , 2010 , the album 's singles have garnered over three million digital downloads .
= = Promotion = =
In support of Who We Are , Lifehouse went on the " Disarray Tour " , which was highlighted by dates in Los Angeles , Chicago , New York City , and Atlanta . American singer @-@ songwriter Matt Nathanson and HoneyHoney joined Lifehouse on select dates throughout the tour . Lifehouse continued to promote the album on Last Call with Carson Daly on July 9 , 2007 where they played " First Time " . They also performed the song on The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson on August 15 , 2007 . The band made an appearance at the 2008 NFL Pro Bowl on February 10 , 2008 . On February 15 , 2008 , the band performed on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno . They performed on Live with Regis and Kelly playing " First Time " and " Whatever It Takes " on April 1 , 2008 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs produced by Jude Cole and Lifehouse , except " Broken " produced by John Fields .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Adapted from Allmusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Tropical Storm Patricia ( 2009 ) =
Tropical Storm Patricia was a short @-@ lived tropical cyclone that briefly affected parts of Baja California Sur before rapidly degenerating over water . Developing from a tropical wave that traversed the Atlantic Ocean during September 2009 , Patricia was first classified as a tropical depression on October 11 several hundred miles south of the Baja California Peninsula . The system quickly intensified into a tropical storm as it tracked in a general northward direction . By October 12 , Patricia attained its peak intensity with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 996 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 41 inHg ) . The following day , increasing wind shear and unfavorable conditions caused the storm to rapidly weaken . By the morning of October 14 , Patricia had degenerated into a non @-@ convective remnant low pressure area near the southern coastline of Baja California Sur . The remnants of the storm persisted until October 15 , at which time they dissipated over open waters .
Although the center of Patricia did not impact land , the outer bands caused significant rainfall in portions of western Mexico . In Sonora , up to 240 mm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) of rain fell , leading to significant flooding that left 600 people homeless . Other Mexican states received similar impact . Overall , the effects of Patricia were minor and resulted in no loss of life .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Storm Patricia originated from a tropical wave that moved off the west coast of Africa on September 23 , 2009 . Two days later , Tropical Depression Eight developed from the wave over the eastern Atlantic Ocean . The depression tracked northwestward , while the wave continued a steady westward track . By October 6 , the system crossed Central America and entered the eastern Pacific Ocean . Gradual development took place over the following several days with widespread , scattered convection consolidating around a developing area of low pressure . On October 11 , a well @-@ defined circulation had formed and the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) estimated that it developed into a tropical depression roughly 405 mi ( 650 km ) south @-@ southeast of the southern tip of Baja California Sur .
Several hours later , the system further strengthened into a tropical storm and was named Patricia . The low @-@ level circulation became embedded within very deep convection and further intensification was anticipated . Patricia tracked north @-@ northwest in a region of low to moderate wind shear , under the steering currents of a strong ridge of high pressure to the east and a trough located northwest . Although over warm sea surface temperatures , relatively stable air prevented substantial intensification . By the late morning of October 12 , the overall extent of cloud cover had increased but the center became less defined , described as " sloppy " by NHC forecaster Todd Kimberlain . Later that day , Patricia attained its peak intensity as a moderately strong tropical storm with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 996 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 41 inHg ) .
The storm maintained this intensity for several hours as its central dense overcast remained intact despite increasing wind shear . However , the NHC stated that there was a 20 % chance of the storm becoming a hurricane within 24 hours based on climatological factors and the average forecast intensity errors . However , this did not take place . The combination of moderate wind shear and a stable environment caused Patricia to rapidly weaken on October 13 . The storm 's cirrus outflow became weak in all directions and convection diminished . Later that day , convective developed ceased to occur as the storm neared the south tip of Baja California Sur . Early on October 14 , Patricia degenerated into a remnant low pressure area , bypassing tropical depression status , roughly 30 mi ( 50 km ) south of the Baja California Peninsula . The remnant low turned westward and tracked over open waters before dissipating on October 15 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Several hours after Patricia was classified as a tropical storm on October 12 , the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm watch for areas along Baja California Sur between La Paz and Santa Fe . The following day , the watch was upgraded to a tropical storm warning for areas between Buenavista and Agua Blanca . However , the storm 's rapid decay on October 14 allowed the watches and warnings to be discontinued . Officials in the threatened region began preparing by closing schools and opening 159 shelters on October 12 . The Civil Protection Department was prepared to evacuate residents in low @-@ lying area if necessary . Resorts and hotels cancelled all outdoor activities and brought all loose objects indoors . The city of Los Cabos was placed under a state of emergency as flooding rains were forecast to impact the area . Ports in the region were also shut down due to rough seas .
The storm 's quick deterioration led to significantly less impact than anticipated . High waves affected the coastlines of Baja California Sur , Sinaloa and Nayarit . Parts of Sinaloa also recorded heavy rainfall from Patricia , peaking at 184 @.@ 5 mm ( 7 @.@ 26 in ) in Higuera de Zaragoza . Subsequent flooding was reported in 12 municipalities in the state , resulting in the evacuation of 3 @,@ 000 people . Officials also closed elementary schools throughout the affected area due to the anticipation of flood waters . In southern Sonora , rainfall up to 240 mm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) led to widespread flooding . Officials reported that 181 people sought refuge in shelters . Additionally , relief agencies supplied 500 people with food during the storm . A total of 2 @,@ 272 hectares ( 5 @,@ 614 acres ) of agricultural land was inundated by flood waters . Roughly 815 people were left homeless in the wake of the storm , 600 of whom were in Sonora .
= Binky Brown Meets the Holy Virgin Mary =
Binky Brown Meets the Holy Virgin Mary is a comic @-@ book story by American cartoonist Justin Green , published in 1972 . Green takes the persona of Binky Brown to tell of the " compulsive neurosis " with which he struggled in his youth and which he blamed on his strict Roman Catholic upbringing . Green was later diagnosed with obsessive – compulsive disorder ( OCD ) and came to see his problems in that light .
In the story , sinful thoughts that he cannot control torment Binky Brown ; to his alarm , phallic objects become literal penises and project what he calls " pecker rays " at religious objects such as churches and statues of the Virgin Mary . He develops an internal set of rules to obey and punishments for breaking them . The torment does not subside , and he comes to reject the Catholic Church in defiance as the source of it . The work combines a wide variety of visual and narrative techniques in a style that echoes the torment of its protagonist .
Binky Brown had an immediate influence on contemporaries in underground comix : such cartoonists as Aline Kominsky , Robert Crumb , and Art Spiegelman soon turned to producing similarly confessional works . Binky Brown has gained a reputation as the first major work of autobiography in English @-@ language comics , and many aspects of its approach have become widespread in underground and alternative comics .
= = Background = =
Justin Green ( b . 1945 ) was born to a Jewish father and Catholic mother and raised Catholic . As a child he at first attended a Catholic parochial school , and later transferred to a school where most students were Jews . He rejected the Catholic faith in 1958 as he believed it caused him " compulsive neurosis " that decades later was diagnosed as obsessive – compulsive disorder ( OCD ) .
Green was studying painting at the Rhode Island School of Design when in 1967 he discovered the work of Robert Crumb and turned to cartooning , attracted to what he called Crumb 's " harsh drawing stuffed into crookedly @-@ drawn panels " . He experimented with his artwork to find what he called an " inherent and automatic style as a conduit for the chimerical forms in [ his ] own psyche " . He dropped out of an MFA program at Syracuse University when in 1968 he felt a " call to arms " to move to San Francisco , where the nascent underground comix scene was blossoming amid the counterculture there .
At the time , comic books had a reputation in the US as low @-@ brow children 's entertainment , and the public often associated them with juvenile delinquency . Comics had little cultural capital and few American cartoonists had challenged the perception that the medium was inherently incapable of mature artistic expression .
= = Synopsis = =
Green takes the persona of Binky Brown , who opens the story writing a confession of the neurosis that has tortured him since puberty . In his childhood , he knocks over a statue of the Virgin Mary and feels intense guilt over this affront to his mother and to God . Binky is raised a Catholic and undergoes the religious indoctrination of nuns at a strict Catholic parochial school that commonly employs corporal punishment . He forms an image of a vengeful God , which fills him with feelings of fear and guilt .
Binky 's intrusive thoughts bring him to believe his body is trying to lead him to sin and eternal punishment . He develops an internal system of rules to cope with these thoughts and punishes himself for violations . He wards off thoughts and fantasies he cannot control and that give him guilt by silently repeating the word " noyatin " to himself , a contraction of the repentant " not a sin " .
As he approaches adolescence and becomes aware of his sexuality , he begins to see common objects as phalluses — phalluses that project unholy rays . These objects include his fingers , his toes , and his own penis , and he obsessively tries to deflect their " pecker rays " from reaching holy items such as churches or statues of Mary . Binky finds his anguish all @-@ consuming as he imagines the destruction he cannot avoid , and spends hours praying to God for forgiveness . As an adult , Binky confronts his faith and by smashing a set of statues of the Virgin Mary declares himself free of the Church and its influence on him .
= = Composition and publication = =
Green spent about a year working on the 44 @-@ page Binky Brown Meets the Holy Virgin Mary . He took a few months making cards of what he called " factual incidents or neurotic habits " to incorporate . During the seven months he drew the work Green received a monthly stipend of $ 150 from Ron Turner , the founder of underground comix publisher Last Gasp Eco @-@ Funnies . Last Gasp published the story as a one @-@ shot comic book in 1972 — Green 's first solo title . It went through two print runs of 55 @,@ 000 copies each with a " Youngsters Prohibited " label on the cover .
In 1990 , Green had an essay published entitled " The Binky Brown Matter " in The Sun . In the essay , he describes the OCD with which he was diagnosed years after completing Binky Brown . Last Gasp reprinted the story in 1995 in The Binky Brown Sampler , a softcover anthology of Binky Brown strips with an introduction by Art Spiegelman and an expanded version of " The Binky Brown Matter " .
Green sold the original artwork to the strip in the 1970s ; McSweeney 's staff contacted the owner of the artwork , Christine Valenza , to make fresh scans for a standalone reprinting in 2009 , overseen by McSweeney 's editor Eli Horowitz . It had a print run of 5 @,@ 000 copies and reprints the artwork at the full size of the originals ; the page reproductions mimic the actual pages , including marks , smudges , and corrections . In 2011 , the publisher Stara published a French translation by Harry Morgan titled Binky Brown rencontre la Vierge Marie , and La Cúpula published a Spanish translation by Francisco Pérez Navarro titled Binky Brown conoce a la virgen María .
= = = Editions = = =
= = Style and analysis = =
The story takes the form of a guilt @-@ ridden confession . In the opening , the adult Binky hangs over a sickle , bound from head to toe and listening to Ave Maria as he draws with a pen in his mouth . He declares his intention : " to purge myself of the compulsive neurosis which I have served since I officially left Catholicism on Halloween , 1958 . " He justifies the work to communicate with the " many others [ who ] are slaves to their neuroses " and who , despite believing themselves isolated , number so many that they " would entwine the globe many times over in a vast chain of common suffering " .
Though Green built Binky Brown on an autobiographical base he fabricated many scenes — such as one in which Binky is bullied by two third @-@ graders — " to suggest or convey a whole generalized idea about some subjective feeling , such as order or fear or guilt " . To critic Charles Hatfield Binky Brown displays a " radical subjectivity " that calls into question the notion of objectivity in autobiography . The presentation is insistently subjective and non @-@ literal in its visuals .
Despite the heavy tone , humor is prominent . The work is conscious of its own creation — Green 's drawing of it frames the narrative proper and there are constant reminders of it throughout . Green patterned the opening after those featuring the Crypt @-@ Keeper in EC Comics ' Tales from the Crypt series from the 1950s . Green used the adult Binky as the narrator of the captions and as a way to tie together the past and present timeframes . There is a disconnect in that the narrator refers to his younger self as " he " . Other references to comics include a Sinstopper 's Guidebook , which alludes to Dick Tracy 's Crimestopper 's Textbook and a cartoon by Robert Crumb in the background .
Green employs numerous Catholic symbols , such as a word balloon adorned with symbols of Christ 's martyrdom to represent the depth of Binky 's desperation . Catholic works such as a catechism and Treasure Chest parochial comics appear throughout the work .
Despite strict censorship in other media in the US , explicit sexuality was common in underground comix . Binky Brown was the first work of autobiographical comics to depict explicit sexuality : penises appear throughout , and Binky masturbates in one scene . The central symbol of the penis recurs sometimes subtly as in the images of pencils used to craft the work , and more often explicitly , as every phallic @-@ like object Green sees because a literal " pecker ray " -projecting penis in Binky 's mind .
Art Spiegelman described the artwork as " quirky and ungainly " . Though it appears awkward , Green put considerable effort into elements such as graphical perspective , and draws attention to his craft by depicting himself drawing and by placing the drawing manuals Perspective and Fun With a Pencil in the backgrounds . Green makes wide use of visual metaphors , in contrast to the mundane tales of Harvey Pekar , another prominent early practitioner of autobiographical comics . In Binky Brown symbols become literal , as when Binky imagines himself becoming a snowball hurtling into Hell or as a fish chased by a police officer who wears a crucifix . The work displays a wide array of visual techniques : diagrammatic arrows ; mock @-@ scholarly documentation ; a great variety in panel size , composition , and layout ; and a range of contrasting mechanical and organic rendering techniques , such as screentone alongside dense hand @-@ drawn hatching . The symbolic and technical collide where the Virgin Mary becomes the vanishing point of Binky 's converging " pecker rays " .
Critic Joseph Witek sees the shifting between different modes of traditional comics representation at times presents a literalist view through " windowlike panels " , and at others " representational , symbolic , allegorical , associative , and allusive " , an approach analogous to " Binky Brown 's massively and chaotically overdetermined subjectivity " . Witek finds roots for the fractured psychological landscape of Binky Brown in the comics of earlier eras : the unrestrained psyches in the dreams of Winsor McCay 's Dream of the Rarebit Fiend , the irrational , shifting landscapes of George Herriman 's Krazy Kat , and Superman 's obsessively contrarian nemesis Bizarro .
In Binky Brown Green blames the Catholic Church for his psychological troubles ; years later , he was diagnosed with OCD , and came to see these episodes in that light rather than as the fault of the Church . He nevertheless continued to blame the Church for contributing to his anxieties and maintained that religion has a magnifying influence on the condition . He said the abandoning of both religion and recreational drugs made it easier to cope with his condition . In 1990 a Catholic priest raised concerns that Binky Brown may be harmful to minors ; Green countered that he believed it was the Church that was harming minors . Green has likened his OCD to a " split vision " which made him " both the slave to the compulsion and the detached observer " .
Literary scholar Hillary Chute sees the work as addressing feminist concerns of " embodiment and representation " as it " delves into and forcefully pictures non @-@ normative sexuality " . Chute affirms that despite its brevity Binky Brown merits the label " graphic novel " as " the quality of work , its approach , parameters , and sensibility " mark a " seriousness of purpose " .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Green recounted " a strong energy " that Binky Brown drew from his readership , the first significant response he got from his work . The story has had a wide influence on underground and alternative comics , where its self @-@ mocking and confessional approach has inspired numerous cartoonists to expose intimate and embarrassing details of their lives . Under the influence of Binky Brown , in 1972 Aline Kominsky published her first strip , the autobiographical " Goldie : A Neurotic Woman " in Wimmen 's Comix # 1 . Other contemporary underground cartoonists were soon to incorporate confessional autobiography into their work . Robert Crumb followed the same year with " The Confessions of R. Crumb " and continued with numerous other such strips . Art Spiegelman , who had seen Binky Brown in mid @-@ creation in 1971 , went as far as to state that " without Binky Brown there would be no Maus " — Spiegelman 's most prominent work . The same year as Binky Brown 's publication , Green asked Spiegelman to contribute a three @-@ page strip to the first issue of Funny Aminals , which Green edited . Spiegelman delivered the three @-@ page " Maus " in which Nazi cats persecute Jewish mice , inspired by his father 's experiences in the Auschwitz concentration camp ; years later he revisited the theme in the graphic novel of the same name . Comics critic Jared Gardner asserts that , while underground comix was associated with countercultural iconoclasm , the movement 's most enduring legacy was to be autobiography .
The strip went out of print for two decades after selling its initial print runs , during which time enthusiasts traded copies or photocopies . Rather than through cartooning , Green made his living painting signs , and contributed occasional cartoon strips to various publications . Aside from occasional one @-@ off strips , his more regular cartooning appeared in the ongoing strips The Sign Game in Signs of the Times magazine and Musical Legends in America in Pulse ! Such later work has attracted far less attention than Binky Brown .
Though autobiographical elements had appeared earlier in the work of underground cartoonists such as Crumb , Spain , and Kim Deitch , Binky Brown Meets the Holy Virgin Mary has gained credit as the first important work of autobiographical comics in English . To Charles Hatfield Binky Brown " the ur @-@ example of confessional literature in comics " ; for Paul Gravett Green was " the first neurotic visionary to unburden his uncensored psychological troubles " ; Douglas Wolk declared Green and his work " ahead of the memoirist curve " ; Art Spiegelman declared : " What the Brontë sisters did for Gothic romance , what Tolkien did for sword @-@ and @-@ sorcery , Justin Green did for confessionary , autobiographical comix [ sic ] " ; and Publishers Weekly called the work the " Rosetta Stone of autobiographical comics " . Binky Brown Meets the Holy Virgin Mary strip has appealed mostly to comics fans and cartoonists and has gained little recognition from mainstream audiences and arts critics . Spiegelman has speculated this neglect comes from the nature of the comics medium ; in contrast to explicit works such as Philip Roth 's Portnoy 's Complaint , the penises in Green 's work are visual .
According to underground comix historian Patrick Rosenkranz , Green represents a break with past convention by being " the first to openly render his personal demons and emotional conflicts within the confines of a comic " . Green denied credit , calling confessional autobiography " a fait accompli , a low fruit ripe for the plucking " , examples of which abounded in literary works he had read by James Joyce , James T. Farrell , and Philip Roth . He has accepted credit for " anticipat [ ing ] the groundswell in literature about obsessive compulsive disorder by almost two decades " , for which he knew of no precedent . Green used the Binky Brown persona over the years in short strips and prose pieces that appeared in underground periodicals such as Arcade and Weirdo . " Sweet Void of Youth " in 1976 follows Binky from high school to age thirty @-@ one , torn between cartooning and more respected forms of art .
To cartoonist Jim Woodring , Green 's autobiographical work " has never been surpassed " . Woodring 's own autobiographical work in Jim draws from his dreams rather than his waking life . British @-@ American cartoonist Gabrielle Bell sympathized with Brown 's approach , which she described as " talking about his feelings or his emotional state when he was illustrating it with striking images that were sort of absurd or a weird juxtaposition " . Green 's influence extended overseas to cartoonists such as the Dutch Peter Pontiac , who drew inspiration from Binky Brown and Maus to produce Kraut ( 2000 ) , about his father who collaborated with the Nazis during World War II . Chute sees major themes of isolation and coping with OCD recurring in autobiographical works such as Howard Cruse 's Stuck Rubber Baby ( 1995 ) and Alison Bechdel 's Fun Home ( 2006 ) . Hatfield sees echoes of Green 's unrestrained approach to dealing with a mental condition in Madison Clell 's Cuckoo ( 2002 ) — about Clell 's dissociative identity disorder — and in David B. ' s Epileptic ( 2003 ) .
The story ranked No. 9 on The Comics Journal 's list of the best hundred English @-@ language comics of the 20th century , and featured as the cover artwork for the autobiographical comics issue of the journal Biography ( Vol . 31 , No. 1 ) . Artwork to Binky Brown appeared in an exhibition of Green 's work at Shake It Records in Cincinnati in 2009 .
Autobiographical cartoonists inspired by ' ' Binky Brown Meets the Holy Virgin Mary ' '
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= Kraków =
Kraków ( Polish pronunciation : [ ˈkrakuf ] listen ) , also Cracow or Krakow ( US English / ˈkrɑːkaʊ / , UK English / ˈkrækaʊ / ) , is the second largest and one of the oldest cities in Poland . Situated on the Vistula River ( Polish : Wisła ) in the Lesser Poland region , the city dates back to the 7th century . Kraków has traditionally been one of the leading centres of Polish academic , cultural , and artistic life and is one of Poland 's most important economic hubs . It was the capital of the Crown of the Kingdom of Poland from 1038 to 1569 ; the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1569 to 1795 ; the Free City of Kraków from 1815 to 1846 ; the Grand Duchy of Cracow from 1846 to 1918 ; and Kraków Voivodeship from the 14th century to 1998 . It has been the capital of Lesser Poland Voivodeship since 1999 .
The city has grown from a Stone Age settlement to Poland 's second most important city . It began as a hamlet on Wawel Hill and was already being reported as a busy trading centre of Slavonic Europe in 965 . With the establishment of new universities and cultural venues at the emergence of the Second Polish Republic in 1918 and throughout the 20th century , Kraków reaffirmed its role as a major national academic and artistic centre . The city has a population of approximately 760 @,@ 000 , with approximately 8 million additional people living within a 100 km ( 62 mi ) radius of its main square .
After the invasion of Poland at the start of World War II , Kraków became the capital of Germany 's General Government . The Jewish population of the city was forced into a walled zone known as the Kraków Ghetto , from which they were sent to German extermination camps such as the nearby Auschwitz never to return , and the Nazi concentration camps like Płaszów .
In 1978 , Karol Wojtyła , archbishop of Kraków , was elevated to the papacy as Pope John Paul II — the first Slavic pope ever , and the first non @-@ Italian pope in 455 years . Also that year , UNESCO approved the first ever sites for its new World Heritage List , including the entire Old Town in inscribing Cracow 's Historic Centre . Kraków is classified as a global city by GaWC , with the ranking of High sufficiency . Cited as one of Europe 's most beautiful cities , its extensive cultural heritage across the epochs of Gothic , Renaissance and Baroque architecture includes the Wawel Cathedral and the Royal Castle on the banks of the Vistula river , the St. Mary 's Basilica and the largest medieval market square in Europe , the Rynek Główny . Kraków is home to Jagiellonian University , one of the oldest universities in the world and traditionally Poland 's most reputable institution of higher learning .
In 2000 , Kraków was named European Capital of Culture . The city will also host the next World Youth Day in 2016 .
= = Etymology = =
The name of Kraków is traditionally derived from Krakus ( Krak , Grakch ) , the legendary founder of Kraków and a ruler of the tribe of Lechitians . In Polish , Kraków is an archaic possessive form of Krak and essentially means " Krak 's ( town ) " . Krakus 's name may derive from " krakula " , a Proto @-@ Slavic word meaning a judge 's staff , or a Proto @-@ Slavic word " krak " meaning an oak , once a sacred tree most often associated with the concept of genealogy . The first mention of Prince Krakus ( then written as Grakch ) dates back to 1190 , although the town existed as early as the 7th century , inhabited by the tribe of Vistulans .
The city 's full official name is Stołeczne Królewskie Miasto Kraków , or " Royal Capital City of Kraków " . In English , a person born or living in Kraków is a Cracovian ( Polish : krakowianin ) .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Kraków 's prehistory begins with evidence of a Stone Age settlement on the present site of the Wawel Hill . A legend attributes Kraków 's founding to the mythical ruler Krakus , who built it above a cave occupied by a dragon , Smok Wawelski . The first written record of the city 's name dates back to 965 , when Kraków was described as a notable commercial centre controlled first by Moravia ( 876 – 879 ) , but captured by a Bohemian duke Boleslaus I in 955 . The first acclaimed ruler of Poland , Mieszko I , took Kraków from the Bohemians and incorporated it into the holdings of the Piast dynasty towards the end of his reign .
In 1038 , Kraków became the seat of the Polish government . By the end of the 10th century , the city was a leading centre of trade . Brick buildings were constructed , including the Royal Wawel Castle with St. Felix and Adaukt Rotunda , Romanesque churches such as St. Adalbert 's , a cathedral , and a basilica . The city was almost entirely destroyed during the Mongol invasion of 1241 . It was rebuilt practically identical , based on new location act and incorporated in 1257 by the high duke Bolesław V the Chaste who following the example of Wrocław , introduced city rights modelled on the Magdeburg law allowing for tax benefits and new trade privileges for the citizens . In 1259 , the city was again ravaged by the Mongols . A third attack in 1287 was repelled thanks in part to the new built fortifications . In 1335 , King Casimir III of Poland ( Kazimierz in Polish ) declared the two western suburbs to be a new city named after him , Kazimierz ( Casimiria in Latin ) . The defensive walls were erected around the central section of Kazimierz in 1362 , and a plot was set aside for the Augustinian order next to Skałka .
The city rose to prominence in 1364 , when Casimir III of Poland founded the University of Kraków , the second oldest university in central Europe after the Charles University in Prague . King Casimir also began work on a campus for the Academy in Kazimierz , but he died in 1370 and the campus was never completed . The city continued to grow under the joint Lithuanian @-@ Polish Jagiellon dynasty . As the capital of the Kingdom of Poland and a member of the Hanseatic League , the city attracted many craftsmen , businesses , and guilds as science and the arts began to flourish . The royal chancery and the University ensured a first flourishing of Polish literary culture in the city .
= = = Poland 's ' Golden Age ' = = =
The 15th and 16th centuries were known as Poland 's Złoty Wiek or Golden Age . Many works of Polish Renaissance art and architecture were created , including ancient synagogues in Kraków 's Jewish quarter located in the north @-@ eastern part of Kazimierz , such as the Old Synagogue . During the reign of Casimir IV , various artists came to work and live in Kraków , and Johann Haller established a printing press in the city after Kasper Straube had printed the Calendarium Cracoviense , the first work printed in Poland , in 1473 .
In 1520 , the most famous church bell in Poland , named Zygmunt after Sigismund I of Poland , was cast by Hans Behem . At that time , Hans Dürer , a younger brother of artist and thinker Albrecht Dürer , was Sigismund 's court painter . Hans von Kulmbach made altarpieces for several churches . In 1553 , the Kazimierz district council gave the Jewish Qahal a licence for the right to build their own interior walls across the western section of the already existing defensive walls . The walls were expanded again in 1608 due to the growth of the community and influx of Jews from Bohemia . In 1572 , King Sigismund II , the last of the Jagiellons , died childless . The Polish throne passed to Henry III of France and then to other foreign @-@ based rulers in rapid succession , causing a decline in the city 's importance that was worsened by pillaging during the Swedish invasion and by an outbreak of bubonic plague that left 20 @,@ 000 of the city 's residents dead . In 1596 , Sigismund III of the Swedish House of Vasa moved the administrative capital of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth from Kraków to Warsaw .
= = = 18th to early 20th centuries = = =
Already weakened during the 18th century , by the mid @-@ 1790s the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth had twice been partitioned by its neighbors : Russia , the Habsburg empire , and Prussia . In 1791 , the Austrian Emperor Joseph II changed the status of Kazimierz as a separate city and made it into a district of Kraków . The richer Jewish families began to move out . However , because of the injunction against travel on the Sabbath , most Jewish families stayed relatively close to the historic synagogues . In 1794 , Tadeusz Kościuszko initiated an unsuccessful insurrection in the town 's Main Square which , in spite of his victorious Battle of Racławice against a numerically superior Russian army , resulted in the third and final partition of Poland . In 1809 , Napoleon Bonaparte captured former Polish territories from Austria and made the town part of the Duchy of Warsaw . Following Napoleon 's defeat , the 1815 Congress of Vienna restored the pre @-@ war boundaries but also created the partially independent Free City of Kraków . An insurrection in 1846 failed , resulting in the city being annexed by Austria under the name the Grand Duchy of Cracow ( Polish : Wielkie Księstwo Krakowskie , German : Großherzogtum Krakau ) .
In 1866 , Austria granted a degree of autonomy to Galicia after its own defeat in the Austro @-@ Prussian War . Politically freer Kraków became a Polish national symbol and a centre of culture and art , known frequently as the " Polish Athens " ( Polskie Ateny ) or " Polish Mecca " . Many leading Polish artists of the period resided in Kraków , among them the seminal painter Jan Matejko , laid to rest at Rakowicki Cemetery , and the founder of modern Polish drama , Stanisław Wyspiański . Fin de siècle Kraków evolved into a modern metropolis ; running water and electric streetcars were introduced in 1901 , and between 1910 and 1915 , Kraków and its surrounding suburban communities were gradually combined into a single administrative unit called Greater Kraków ( Wielki Kraków ) .
At the outbreak of World War I on 3 August 1914 , Józef Piłsudski formed a small cadre military unit , the First Cadre Company — the predecessor of the Polish Legions — which set out from Kraków to fight for the liberation of Poland . The city was briefly besieged by Russian troops in November 1914 . Austrian rule in Kraków ended in 1918 when the Polish Liquidation Committee assumed power .
= = = 1918 to the present = = =
With the emergence of the Second Polish Republic , Kraków resumed its role as a major academic and cultural centre with the establishment of new universities such as the AGH University of Science and Technology and the Jan Matejko Academy of Fine Arts , including a number of new and essential vocational schools . It became an important cultural centre for the Polish Jews with a Zionist youth movement relatively strong among the city 's Jewish population . Kraków was also an influential centre of Jewish spiritual life , with all its manifestations of religious observance from Orthodox , to Chasidic and Reform flourishing side by side .
Following the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany in September 1939 the city became part of the General Government , a separate administrative region of the Third Reich , and from 4 November 1939 its capital . The General Government was headed by Hans Frank who was based in the city 's Wawel Castle . The Nazis envisioned turning Kraków into a completely German city after removing all Jews and Poles , renamed locations and streets into German and sponsored propaganda attempting to portray it as a historically German city In an operation called " Sonderaktion Krakau " , more than 180 university professors and academics were arrested and sent to Sachsenhausen and Dachau concentration camps , though the survivors were later released on the request of prominent Italians . The Jewish population was first confined to a ghetto in which many died of illness or starvation . Those in the Ghetto were later murdered or sent to concentration camps , including Płaszów and Auschwitz . Roman Polanski , the film director , is a survivor of the Ghetto , while Oskar Schindler selected employees from the Ghetto to work in his enamelware plant , Deutsche Emailwaren Fabrik ( Emalia for short ) saving them from the camps . Although looted by occupational authorities , Kraków remained relatively undamaged at the end of World War II , sparing most of the city 's historical and architectural legacy . Soviet forces entered the city on 18 January 1945 and started arresting Poles loyal to the Polish government @-@ in @-@ exile or those who had served in the Home Army .
After the war , under the Polish People 's Republic , the intellectual and academic community of Kraków was put under total political control . The universities were soon deprived of printing rights and autonomy . The Stalinist government ordered the construction of the country 's largest steel mill in the newly created suburb of Nowa Huta . The creation of the giant Lenin Steelworks ( now Sendzimir Steelworks owned by Mittal ) sealed Kraków 's transformation from a university city to an industrial centre . The new working class , drawn by the industrialisation of Kraków , contributed to rapid population growth .
In an effort that spanned two decades , Karol Wojtyła , cardinal archbishop of Kraków , successfully lobbied for permission to build the first churches in the new industrial suburbs . In 1978 , Wojtyła was elevated to the papacy as John Paul II , the first non @-@ Italian pope in 455 years . In the same year , UNESCO placed Kraków Old Town on the first @-@ ever list of World Heritage Sites .
= = Geography = =
Kraków lies in the southern part of Poland , on the Vistula River ( Polish name : Wisła ) , in a valley at the foot of the Carpathian Mountains , 219 m ( 719 ft ) above sea level ; half way between the Jurassic Rock Upland ( Polish : Jura Krakowsko @-@ Częstochowska ) to the north , and the Tatra Mountains 100 km ( 62 mi ) to the south , constituting the natural border with Slovakia and the Czech Republic ; 230 km ( 143 mi ) west from the border with Ukraine . There are five nature reserves in Kraków , with a combined area of ca . 48 @.@ 6 hectares ( 120 acres ) . Due to their ecological value , these areas are legally protected . The western part of the city , along its northern and north @-@ western side , borders an area of international significance known as the Jurassic Bielany @-@ Tyniec refuge . The main motives for the protection of this area include plant and animal wildlife and the area 's geomorphological features and landscape . Another part of the city is located within the ecological ' corridor ' of the Vistula River valley . This corridor is also assessed as being of international significance as part of the Pan @-@ European ecological network . The city centre is situated on the left ( northern ) bank of the river .
= = = Climate = = =
Kraków has an oceanic climate ( Cfb ) according to the Köppen climate classification system , one of the easternmost localities in Europe to do so . A mere 100 km ( 62 mi ) north @-@ east of Kraków ( east of Tarnów , and north of Kielce ) , the January mean dips below − 3 ° C ( 27 ° F ) and thus becomes continental ( Dfb ) in nature . The Kraków climate is also influenced by its far inland position , with significant temperature differences between seasons . Average temperatures in summer range from 18 to 19 @.@ 6 ° C ( 64 to 67 ° F ) and in winter from − 2 @.@ 0 to − 0 @.@ 6 ° C ( 28 to 31 ° F ) . The average annual temperature is 8 @.@ 7 ° C ( 48 ° F ) . In summer temperatures often exceed 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) , and even 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) , while winter drops to − 5 ° C ( 23 ° F ) at night and about 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) at day ; during very cold nights the temperature can drop to − 15 ° C ( 5 ° F ) . Since Kraków lies near the Tatra Mountains , there are often occurrences of halny blowing ( a foehn wind ) , causing temperatures to rise rapidly , and even in winter reach up to 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) .
The climate table below presents weather data from the years 2000 – 2012 although the official Köppen reference period was from 1981 – 2010 . According to ongoing measurements , the temperature has increased during these years as compared with the last series . This increase averages about 0 @.@ 6 ° C over all months . Warming is most pronounced during the winter months , with an increase of more than 1 @.@ 0 ° C in January .
= = = = Air Pollution = = = =
Since a couple of years growing with the economic meaning and individual transport Krakow faces the problem of Air pollution . In 2012 the city holds the 213th place out of 1215 cities of the most polluted ones referring to World Health Organization ( WHO ) .
= = Cityscape = =
Developed over many centuries , Kraków provides a showcase setting for many historic styles of architecture . As the city expanded , so too did the architectural achievements of its builders . It is for this reason that the variations in style and urban planning are so easily recognisable .
Built from its earliest nucleus outward , and having escaped much of the destruction endured by Poland during the 20th @-@ century wars , Kraków 's many architectural monuments can typically be seen in historical order by walking from the city centre out , towards its later districts . Kraków is one of the few medieval towns in Poland that does not have a historic Ratusz town hall in its Main Square , because it has not survived the Partitions of Poland .
Kraków 's historic centre , which includes the Old Town , Kazimierz and the Wawel Castle , was included as the first of its kind on the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in 1978 . The Stare Miasto is the most prominent example of an old town in the country . For many centuries Kraków was the royal capital of Poland , until Sigismund III Vasa relocated the court to Warsaw in 1596 . The whole district is bisected by the Royal Road , the coronation route traversed by the Kings of Poland . The Route begins at St. Florian 's Church outside the northern flank of the old city @-@ walls in the medieval suburb of Kleparz ; passes the Barbican of Kraków ( Barbakan ) built in 1499 , and enters Stare Miasto through the Florian Gate . It leads down Floriańska Street through the Main Square , and up Grodzka to Wawel , the former seat of Polish royalty , overlooking the Vistula river . Old Town attracts visitors from all over the World . Kraków historic centre is one of the 13 places in Poland that are included in the UNESCO World Heritage Sites . The architectural design of the district had survived all cataclysms of the past and retained its original form coming from the medieval times . The Old Town of Kraków is home to about six thousand historic sites and more than two million works of art . Its rich variety of heritage architecture includes Gothic , Renaissance and Baroque buildings . Kraków 's palaces , churches , theatres and mansions display great variety of color , architectural details , stained glass , paintings , sculptures , and furnishings .
In addition to the old town , the city 's district of Kazimierz is particularly notable for its many renaissance buildings and picturesque streets , as well as the historic Jewish quarter located in the north @-@ eastern part of Kazimierz . Kazimierz was founded in the 14th century to the south @-@ east of the city centre and soon became a wealthy , well @-@ populated area where construction of imposing properties became commonplace . Perhaps the most important feature of medieval Kazimierz was the only major , permanent bridge ( Pons Regalis ) across the northern arm of the Vistula . This natural barrier used to separate Kazimierz from the Old Town for several centuries , while the bridge connected Kraków to the Wieliczka Salt Mine and the lucrative Hungarian trade route . The last structure at this location ( at the end of modern Stradom Street ) was dismantled in 1880 when the northern arm of the river was filled in with earth and rock , and subsequently built over .
By the 1930s , Kraków had 120 officially registered synagogues and prayer houses that spanned across the old city . Much of Jewish intellectual life had moved to new centres like Podgórze . This in turn , led to the redevelopment and renovation of much of Kazimierz and the development of new districts in Kraków . Most historic buildings in central Kazimierz today are preserved in their original form . Some old buildings however , were not repaired after the devastation brought by the Second World War , and have remained empty . Most recent efforts at restoring the historic neighborhoods gained new impetus around 1993 . Kazimierz is now a well @-@ visited area , seeing a booming growth in Jewish @-@ themed restaurants , bars , bookstores and souvenir shops .
As the city of Kraków began to expand further under the rule of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire , the new architectural styles also developed . Key buildings from the 19th and early 20th centuries in Kraków include the Jan Matejko Academy of Fine Arts , the directorate of the Polish State Railways as well as the original complex of Kraków Główny railway station and the city 's Academy of Economics . It was also at around that time that Kraków 's first radial boulevards began to appear , with the city undergoing a large @-@ scale program aimed at transforming the ancient Polish capital into a sophisticated regional centre of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire . New representative government buildings and multi @-@ story tenement houses were built at around that time . Much of the urban @-@ planning beyond the walls of the Old Town was done by Polish architects and engineers trained in Vienna . Some major projects of the era include the development of the Jagiellonian University 's new premises and the building of the Collegium Novum just west of the Old Town . The imperial style planning of the city 's further development continued until the return of Poland 's independence , following the First World War . Early modernist style in Kraków is represented by such masterpieces as the Palace of Art by Franciszek Mączyński and the ' House under the Globe ' . Secession style architecture , which had arrived in Kraków from Vienna , became popular towards the end of the Partitions .
With Poland 's regained independence came the major change in the fortunes of Kraków — now the second most important city of a sovereign nation . The state began to make new plans for the city development and commissioned a number of representative buildings . The predominant style for new projects was modernism with various interpretations of the art @-@ deco style . Important buildings constructed in the style of Polish modernism include the Feniks ' LOT ' building on Basztowa Street , the Feniks department store on the Main Square and the Municipal Savings Bank on Szczepański Square . The Józef Piłsudski house is also of note as a particularly good example of interwar architecture in the city .
After the Second World War , new government turned toward Soviet influence and the Stalinist monumentalism . The doctrine of Socialist realism in Poland , as in other countries of the People 's Republics , was enforced from 1949 to 1956 . It involved all domains of art , but its most spectacular achievements were made in the field of urban design . The guidelines for this new trend were spelled @-@ out in a 1949 resolution of the National Council of Party Architects . Architecture was to become a weapon in establishing the new social order by the communists . The ideological impact of urban design was valued more than aesthetics . It aimed at expressing persistence and power . This form of architecture was implemented in the new industrial district of Nowa Huta with apartment blocks constructed according to a Stalinist blueprint , with repetitious courtyards and wide , tree @-@ lined avenues .
Since the style of the Renaissance was generally regarded as the most revered in old Polish architecture , it was also used for augmenting Poland 's Socialist national format . However , in the course of incorporating the principles of Socialist realism , there were quite a few deviations introduced by the communists . One of these was to more closely reflect Soviet architecture , which resulted in the majority of works blending into one another . From 1953 , critical opinions in the Party were increasingly frequent , and the doctrine was given up in 1956 marking the end of Stalinism . Currently the soc @-@ realist centre of Nowa Huta is considered to be a meritorious monument of the times . This period in postwar architecture was followed by the mass @-@ construction of large Panel System apartment blocks , most of which were built outside the city centre and thus do not encroach upon the beauty of the old or new towns . Some examples of the new style ( e.g. , Hotel Cracovia ) recently listed as heritage monuments were built during the later half of the 20th century in Kraków .
After the Revolutions of 1989 and the birth of the Third Republic in the later half of the 20th century , a number of new architectural projects were completed , including the construction of large business parks and commercial facilities such as the Galeria Krakowska , or infrastructure investments like the Kraków Fast Tram , giving the city a great deal of quality solutions blending with its centuries @-@ old heritage . A good example of this would be the 2007 @-@ built Pawilon Wyspiański 2000 , which is used as a multi @-@ purpose information and exhibition space , or the award @-@ winning Małopolski Garden of Arts ( Małopolski Ogród Sztuki ) , a multi @-@ purpose exhibition and theatre complex located in the historic Old Town .
= = = Parks and gardens = = =
There are about 40 parks in Kraków including dozens of gardens and forests . Several , like the Planty Park , Botanical Garden , Park Krakowski , Jordan Park and Błonia Park are located in the centre of the city ; with Zakrzówek , Lasek Wolski forest , Strzelecki Park and Park Lotników ( among others ) in the surrounding districts . Parks cover about 318 @.@ 5 hectares ( 2002 ) of the city .
The Planty Park is the best @-@ known park in Kraków . It was established between 1822 and 1830 in place of the old city walls , forming a green belt around the Old Town . It consists of a chain of smaller gardens designed in various styles and adorned with monuments . The park has an area of 21 hectares ( 52 acres ) and a length of 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) , forming a scenic walkway popular with Cracovians .
The Jordan Park founded in 1889 by Dr Henryk Jordan , was the first public park of its kind in Europe . The park built on the banks of the Rudawa river was equipped with running and exercise tracks , playgrounds , the swimming pool , amphitheatre , pavilions , and a pond for boat rowing and water bicycles . It is located on the grounds of a larger Kraków ’ s Błonia Park . The less prominent Park Krakowski was founded in 1885 by Stanisław Rehman but has since been greatly reduced in size because of rapid real estate development . It was a popular destination point with many Cracovians at the end of the 19th century .
= = = Environment = = =
There are five nature reserves in Kraków with a total area of 48 @.@ 6 ha . Smaller green zones constitute parts of the Kraków @-@ Częstochowa Upland Jurassic Landscape Parks ' Board , which deals with the protection areas of the Polish Jura . Under its jurisdiction are : the Bielany @-@ Tyniec Landscape Park ( Park Bielańsko @-@ Tyniecki ) , Tenczynek Landscape Park ( Park Tenczyński ) and Kraków Valleys Landscape Park ( Park Krajobrazowy Dolinki Krakowskie ) , with their watersheds . All natural reserves of the Polish Jura Chain are part of the CORINE biotopes programme due to their unique flora , fauna , geomorphology and landscape . The western part of Kraków constitute the so @-@ called Obszar Krakowski ecological network , including the ecological corridor of the Vistula river . The southern slopes of limestone hills provide conditions for the development of thermophilous vegetation , grasslands and scrubs .
The city is spaced along an extended latitudinal transect of the Vistula River Valley with a network of tributaries including its right tributary Wilga , and left : Rudawa , Białucha , Dłubnia and Sanka . The rivers and their valleys along with bodies of water are some of the most interesting natural wonders of Kraków .
= = Governance = =
The Kraków City Council has 43 elected members , one of whom is the mayor , or President of Kraków , elected every four years . The election of the City Council and of the local head of government , which takes place at the same time , is based on legislation introduced on 20 June 2002 . The current President of Kraków , re @-@ elected for his fourth term in 2014 , is Jacek Majchrowski . Several members of the Polish national Parliament ( Sejm ) are elected from the Kraków constituency . The city 's official symbols include a coat of arms , a flag , a seal , and a banner .
The responsibilities of Kraków 's president include drafting and implementing resolutions , enacting city bylaws , managing the city budget , employing city administrators , and preparing against floods and natural disasters . The president fulfills his duties with the help of the City Council , city managers and city inspectors . In the 1990s , the city government was reorganised to better differentiate between its political agenda and administrative functions . As a result , the Office of Public Information was created to handle inquiries and foster communication between city departments and citizens at large .
In 2000 , the city government introduced a new long @-@ term program called " Safer City " in cooperation with the Police , Traffic , Social Services , Fire , Public Safety , and the Youth Departments . Subsequently , the number of criminal offences went down by 3 percent between 2000 and 2001 , and the rate of detection increased by 1 @.@ 4 percent to a total of 30 @.@ 2 percent in the same period . The city is receiving help in carrying out the program from all educational institutions and the local media , including TV , radio and the press .
= = = Districts = = =
Kraków is divided into 18 administrative districts ( dzielnica ) or boroughs , each with a degree of autonomy within its own municipal government . Prior to March 1991 , the city had been divided into four quarters which still give a sense of identity to Kraków – the towns of Podgórze , Nowa Huta , and Krowodrza which were absorbed by Kraków as it expanded , and the ancient town centre of Kraków itself .
The oldest neighborhoods of Kraków were incorporated into the city before the late 18th century . They include the Old Town ( Stare Miasto ) , once contained within the city defensive walls and now encircled by the Planty park ; the Wawel District , which is the site of the Royal Castle and the cathedral ; Stradom and Kazimierz , the latter originally divided into Christian and Jewish quarters ; as well as the ancient town of Kleparz .
Major districts added in the 19th and 20th centuries include Podgórze , which until 1915 was a separate town on the southern bank of the Vistula , and Nowa Huta , east of the city centre , built after World War II .
Among the most notable historic districts of the city are : Wawel Hill , home to Wawel Castle and Wawel Cathedral , where many Polish kings are buried ; the medieval Old Town , with its Main Market Square ( 200 metres ( 660 ft ) square ) ; dozens of old churches and museums ; the 14th @-@ century buildings of the Jagiellonian University ; and Kazimierz , the historical centre of Kraków 's Jewish social and religious life .
The Old Town district of Kraków is home to about six thousand historic sites and more than two million works of art . Its rich variety of historic architecture includes Renaissance , Baroque and Gothic buildings . Kraków 's palaces , churches and mansions display great variety of color , architectural details , stained glass , paintings , sculptures , and furnishings .
In the Market Square stands the Gothic St. Mary 's Basilica ( Kościół Mariacki ) . It was re @-@ built in the 14th century and features the famous wooden altar ( Altarpiece of Veit Stoss ) , the largest Gothic altarpiece in the World , carved by Veit Stoss . From the church 's main tower a trumpet call ( hejnał mariacki ) , is sounded every hour . The melody , which used to announce the opening and closing of city @-@ gates , ends unexpectedly in midstream . According to legend , the tune was played during the 13th @-@ century Tatar invasion by a guard warning citizens against the attack . He was shot by a Tatar archer while playing , the bugle @-@ call breaking off at the moment he died . The story was recounted in a book published in the late 1920s called The Trumpeter of Krakow , by Eric P. Kelly , which won a Newbery Award .
The current divisions were introduced by the Kraków City Hall on 19 April 1995 . Districts were assigned Roman numerals as well as the current name : Stare Miasto ( I ) , Grzegórzki ( II ) , Prądnik Czerwony ( III ) , Prądnik Biały ( IV ) , Łobzów ( V ) , Bronowice ( VI ) , Zwierzyniec ( VII ) , Dębniki ( VIII ) , Łagiewniki @-@ Borek Fałęcki ( IX ) , Swoszowice ( X ) , Podgórze Duchackie ( XI ) , Bieżanów @-@ Prokocim ( XII ) , Podgórze ( XIII ) , Czyżyny ( XIV ) , Mistrzejowice ( XV ) , Bieńczyce ( XVI ) , Wzgórza Krzesławickie ( XVII ) , and Nowa Huta ( XVIII ) .
Map of districts of the City of Kraków
= = Economy = =
Kraków is one of Poland 's most important economic centres and the economic hub of the Lesser Poland ( Małopolska ) region . Following the collapse of communism , the private sector has been growing steadily . There are about 50 large multinational companies in the city , including Google , IBM , Royal Dutch Shell , Motorola , Delphi , MAN SE , General Electric , Aon Hewitt , Hitachi , Philip Morris , Capgemini , and Sabre Holdings , along with other British , German and Scandinavian @-@ based firms . The city is also the global headquarters for Comarch , a Polish enterprise software house . In 2005 , Foreign direct investment in Kraków has reached approximately 3 @.@ 5 billion USD . Kraków has been trying to position itself as Europe 's Silicon Valley , based on the large number of local and foreign hi tech companies . The unemployment rate in Kraków was 4 @.@ 8 percent in May 2007 , well below the national average of 13 percent . Kraków is the second city in Poland ( after Warsaw ) most often visited by foreigners . According to the World Investment Report 2011 by the UN Conference for Trade and Development ( UNCTAD ) , Kraków is also the most emerging city location for investment in global BPO projects ( Business Process Outsourcing ) in the world .
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011 , the city budget , which is presented by the Mayor of Kraków on 15 November each year , has a projected revenue of 3 @.@ 5 billion złoty . The primary sources of revenue were as follows : 14 % from the municipal taxation on real estate properties and the use of amenities , 30 % in transfers from the national budget , and 34 % in state subsidies . Projected expenditures , totaling 3 @.@ 52 billion złoty , included 21 % in city development costs and 79 % in city maintenance costs . Of the maintenance costs , as much as 39 % were spent on education and childcare . City of Kraków development costs included 41 % toward road building , transport , and communication ( combined ) , and 25 % for the city 's infrastructure and environment . The city has a high bond credit rating , and some 60 % of its population is below the age of 45 .
= = = Knowledge and Innovation Community EIT = = =
Kraków is one of the co @-@ location centres of Knowledge and Innovation Community ( Sustainable Energy ) of The European Institute of Innovation and Technology ( EIT ) .
InnoEnergy is an integrated alliance of reputable organisations from the education , research and industry sectors . It was created based on long standing links of cooperation as well as the principles of excellence . The partners have jointly developed a strategy to tackle the weaknesses of the European innovation landscape in the field of sustainable energy .
= = Transport = =
Public transport is based on a fairly dense network of tram and bus lines operated by a municipal company , supplemented by a number of private minibus operators . Local trains connect some of the suburbs . The bulk of the city 's historic area has been turned into a pedestrian zone with rickshaws and horse buggies ; however , the tramlines run within a three @-@ block radius ( pictured ) . The historic means of transportation in the city can be examined at the Museum of Municipal Engineering in the Kazimierz district , with many old trams , cars and buses .
Rail connections are available to most Polish cities . Trains to Warsaw depart every hour . International destinations include Berlin , Budapest , Prague , Hamburg , Lviv , Kiev , and Odessa ( June – September ) . The main railway station is located just outside the Old Town District and is well @-@ served by public transport .
Kraków 's airport , ( John Paul II International Airport Kraków – Balice , Polish : Międzynarodowy Port Lotniczy im . Jana Pawła II Kraków @-@ Balice , ( IATA : KRK ) ) is 11 km ( 7 mi ) west of the city . Direct trains cover the route between Kraków Główny train station and the airport in 15 minutes . The annual capacity of the airport is estimated at 1 @.@ 3 million passengers ( second largest airport in Poland ) ; however , in 2007 more than 3 @.@ 042 million people used the airport , giving Kraków Airport 15 percent of all air passenger traffic in Poland . Currently , the airport offers 59 connections and is operated by 2 terminals ( international T1 and national T2 ) . The Katowice International Airport is located 80 km or about 75 minutes from Kraków .
= = Demographics = =
Kraków had a recorded population of 762 @,@ 508 in 2015 . According to the 2006 data , the population of Kraków comprised about 2 % of the population of Poland and 23 % of the population of the Lesser Poland Voivodeship . Selected demographic indicators are presented in a table ( below ) , compiled on the basis of only the population living in Kraków permanently . The larger metropolitan area of the city encompasses a territory in which ( in 2010 ) 1 @,@ 393 @,@ 893 inhabitants live .
Already in the Middle Ages , the population of Kraków consisting of numerous ethnic groups , began to grow rapidly . It doubled between 1100 and 1300 from 5 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 , and in 1400 counted 14 @,@ 000 inhabitants . By 1550 , the population of metropolitan Kraków was 18 @,@ 000 ; although it went down to 15 @,@ 000 in the next fifty years due to calamity . By the early 17th century the Kraków population had reached 28 @,@ 000 inhabitants .
In the historical 1931 census preceding World War II , 78 @.@ 1 % of Cracovians declared Polish as their primary language , with Yiddish or Hebrew at 20 @.@ 9 % , Ukrainian 0 @.@ 4 % , German 0 @.@ 3 % , and Russian 0 @.@ 1 % . The ravages of history have greatly reduced the percentage of ethnic minorities living in Kraków . The official and unofficial numbers differ , as in the case of Romani people . Hence , according to the 2002 census , among those who have declared their national identity ( irrespective of language and religion ) in Kraków Voivodeship , 1 @,@ 572 were Slovaks , followed by Ukrainians ( 472 ) , Jews ( 50 ) and Armenians ( 22 ) . Romani people , officially numbered at 1 @,@ 678 , are estimated at over 5 @,@ 000 . Statistics collected by the Ministry of Education reveal that , even though only 1 % of adults ( as per above ) officially claim minority status , as many as 3 % of students participate in programmes designed for ethnic minorities .
Population growth in Kraków since 1791
= = = Religion = = =
The metropolitan city of Kraków is known as the city of churches . The abundance of landmark , historic temples along with the plenitude of monasteries and convents earned the city a countrywide reputation as the " Northern Rome " in the past . The churches of Kraków comprise over 120 places of worship ( 2007 ) of which over 65 were built in the 20th century . More are still being added . In addition to Roman Catholicism , other denominations present include Jehovah 's Witnesses , Mariavite Church , Polish Catholic Church , Polish Orthodox Church , Protestantism and Latter @-@ Day Saints .
Kraków contains also an outstanding collection of monuments of Jewish sacred architecture unmatched anywhere in Poland . Kraków was an influential centre of Jewish spiritual life before the outbreak of World War II , with all its manifestations of religious observance from Orthodox to Chasidic and Reform flourishing side by side . There were at least 90 synagogues in Kraków active before the Nazi German invasion of Poland , serving its burgeoning Jewish community of 60 @,@ 000 – 80 @,@ 000 ( out of the city 's total population of 237 @,@ 000 ) , established since the early 12th century .
Most synagogues of Kraków were ruined during World War II by the Nazis who despoiled them of all ceremonial objects , and used them as storehouses for ammunition , firefighting equipment , as general storage facilities and stables . The post @-@ Holocaust Jewish population of the city had dwindled to about 5 @,@ 900 before the end of the 1940s . Poland was the only Eastern Bloc country to allow free Jewish aliyah without visas or exit permits upon the conclusion of World War II . By contrast , Stalin forcibly kept Soviet Jews in the USSR , as agreed to in the Yalta Conference . In recent time , thanks to efforts of the local Jewish and Polish organisations including foreign financial aid from the American Jewish Joint Distribution Committee , many synagogues underwent major restorations and serve religious and tourist purposes .
= = Education = =
Kraków is a major centre of education . Twenty @-@ four institutions of higher education offer courses in the city , with more than 200 @,@ 000 students . Jagiellonian University , the oldest university in Poland and ranked by the Times Higher Education Supplement as the second @-@ best university in the country , was founded in 1364 as the Cracow University and renamed in 1817 to commemorate the Jagiellonian dynasty of Polish @-@ Lithuanian kings . Its principal academic asset is the Jagiellonian Library , with more than 4 million volumes , including a large collection of medieval manuscripts like Copernicus ' De Revolutionibus and the Balthasar Behem Codex . With 42 @,@ 325 students ( 2005 ) and 3 @,@ 605 academic staff , the Jagiellonian University is also one of the leading research centres in Poland . Famous historical figures connected with the University include Saint John Cantius , Jan Długosz , Nicolaus Copernicus , Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski , Jan Kochanowski , King John III Sobieski , Pope John Paul II and Nobel laureates Ivo Andrić and Wisława Szymborska .
AGH University of Science and Technology , established in 1919 , is the largest technical university in Poland , with more than 15 faculties and student enrollment exceeding 30 @,@ 000 . It was ranked by the Polish edition of Newsweek as the best technical university in the country in 2004 . During its 80 @-@ year history , more than 73 @,@ 000 students graduated from AGH with master 's or bachelor 's degrees . Some 3 @,@ 600 persons were granted the degree of Doctor of Science , and about 900 obtained the qualification of Habilitated Doctor .
Other institutions of higher learning include Academy of Music in Kraków first conceived as conservatory in 1888 , one of the oldest and most prestigious conservatories in Central Europe and a major concert venue ; Cracow University of Economics , established in 1925 ; Pedagogical University , in operation since 1946 ; Agricultural University of Cracow , offering courses since 1890 ( initially as a part of Jagiellonian University ) ; Academy of Fine Arts , the oldest Fine Arts Academy in Poland , founded by the Polish painter Jan Matejko ; Ludwik Solski Academy for the Dramatic Arts ; The Pontifical Academy of Theology ; and Cracow University of Technology , which has more than 37 @,@ 000 graduates .
Scientific societies and their branches in Kraków conduct scientific and educational work in local and countrywide scale . Academy of Learning , Cracow Scientific Society , Association of Law Students ' Library of the Jagiellonian University , Polish Copernicus Society of Naturalists , Polish Geological Society , Polish Theological Society in Kraków , Polish Section of Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers and Polish Society for Synchrotron Radiation have in Kraków their main seats .
= = Culture = =
Kraków was named the official European Capital of Culture for the year 2000 by the European Union . It is a major attraction for both local and international tourists , attracting seven million visitors a year . Major landmarks include the Main Market Square with St. Mary 's Basilica and the Sukiennice Cloth Hall , the Wawel Castle , the National Art Museum , the Zygmunt Bell at the Wawel Cathedral , and the medieval St Florian 's Gate with the Barbican along the Royal Coronation Route . Kraków has 28 museums and public art galleries . Among them are the main branch of Poland 's National Museum and the Czartoryski Museum , the latter featuring works by Leonardo da Vinci and Rembrandt .
= = = Museums and national art galleries = = =
Kraków 's 28 museums are separated into the national and municipal museums ; the city also has a number of art collections and public art galleries . The National Museum established in 1879 , which is the main branch of Poland 's National Museum with permanent collections around the country , as well as the National Art Collection on Wawel Hill are all accessible to the general public and well patroned . Meanwhile , the Czartoryski Museum features works by Leonardo and Rembrandt .
The National Art Collection is located at the Wawel , the former residence of three dynasties of Polish monarchs . Royal Chambers feature art , period furniture , Polish and European paintings , collectibles , and an unsurpassed display of the 16th @-@ century monumental Flemish tapestries . Wawel Treasury and Armoury features Polish royal memorabilia , jewels , applied art , and 15th to 18th century arms . The Wawel Eastern Collection features Turkish tents and military accessories . The National Museum is the richest museum in the country with collections consisting of several hundred thousand items kept in big part in the Main Building at Ul . 3 Maja , although there are as many as eleven separate divisions of the museum in the city , one of the most popular being The Gallery of the 19th Century Polish Art in Sukiennice with the collection of some of the best known paintings and sculptures of the Young Poland movement . The latest division called Europeum with Brueghel among a hundred Western European paintings was inaugurated in 2013 .
Other major museums of special interest in Kraków include the Manggha Museum of Japanese Art and Technology ( at M. Konopnickiej 26 ) , Stanisław Wyspiański Museum ( at 11 Szczepanska St ) , Jan Matejko Manor in Krzesławice , – a museum devoted to the master painter and his life , Emeryk Hutten Czapski Museum , and Józef Mehoffer Manor .
The Rynek Underground museum , under the main square , is an evocative modern display of Kraków 's 1000 + years of history though its streets , activities and artifacts . This followed the massively extended excavations which started in a small way in 2005 and , as more and more was found , ran on eventually to 2010 .
A half @-@ an @-@ hour tram @-@ ride takes you to the little @-@ heralded Polish Aviation Museum considered eighth world 's best aviation museum by CNN and featuring over 200 aircraft including a Sopwith Camel among other First World War biplanes ; a comprehensive display of aero engines ; and essentially a complete collection of airplane types developed by Poland after 1945 . Activities of small museums around Kraków and in the Lesser Poland region are promoted and supported by the Małopolska Institute of Culture ; the Institute organises annual Małopolska Heritage Days .
= = = Performing arts = = =
The city has several famous theatres , including the Narodowy Stary Teatr ( the National Old Theatre ) , the Juliusz Słowacki Theatre , the Bagatela Theatre , the Ludowy Theatre , and the Groteska Theatre of Puppetry , as well as the Opera Krakowska and Kraków Operetta . The city 's principal concert hall and the home of the Kraków Philharmonic Orchestra is the Kraków Philharmonic ( Filharmonia Krakowska ) built in 1931 .
Kraków hosts many annual and biannual artistic events , some of international significance such as the Misteria Paschalia ( Baroque music ) , Sacrum @-@ Profanum ( contemporary music ) , the Cracow Screen Festival ( popular music ) , the Festival of Polish Music ( classical music ) , Dedications ( theatre ) , the Kraków Film Festival ( one of Europe 's oldest short films events ) , Etiuda & Anima International Film Festival ( the oldest international art @-@ film event in Poland ) , Biennial of Graphic Arts , and the Jewish Culture Festival . Kraków was the residence of two Polish Nobel laureates in literature , Wisława Szymborska and Czesław Miłosz ; a third Nobel laureate , the Yugoslav writer Ivo Andric , lived and studied in Kraków . Other former longtime residents include internationally renowned Polish film directors Andrzej Wajda and Roman Polanski , both of whom are Academy Award winners .
= = = Music = = =
Opera Krakowska one of the leading national opera companies , stages 200 performances each year including ballet , operettas and musicals . It has , in its main repertoire , the greatest world and Polish opera classics . The Opera moved into its first permanent House in the autumn of 2008 . It is in charge also of the Summer Festival of Opera and Operetta .
Kraków is home to two major Polish festivals of early music presenting forgotten Baroque oratorios and operas : Opera Rara , and Misteria Paschalia . Meanwhile , Capella Cracoviensis runs the Music in Old Cracow International Festival .
Academy of Music in Kraków , founded in 1888 , is known world @-@ wide as the alma mater of the contemporary Polish composer Krzysztof Penderecki and it is also the only one in Poland to have two winners of the International Chopin Competition in Warsaw among its alumni . The Academy organises concerts of its students and guests throughout the whole year .
Music organisations and venues include : Kraków Philharmonic , Sinfonietta Cracovia ( a.k.a. the Orchestra of the Royal City of Kraków ) , the Polish Radio Choir of Kraków , Organum Academic Choir , the Mixed Mariański Choir ( Mieszany Chór Mariański ) , Kraków Academic Choir of the Jagiellonian University , the Kraków Chamber Choir , Amar Corde String Quartet , Consortium Iagellonicum Baroque Orchestra of the Jagiellonian University , Brass Band of T. Sendzimir Steelworks , and Camerata Chamber Orchestra of Radio Kraków .
= = Tourism = =
According to statistics , in 2012 Kraków was visited by 7 @.@ 3 million tourists including 2 @.@ 1 million foreign travelers ( over 30 % of their grand total ) . The visitors spent over 2 @.@ 5 billion złoty in the city ( without travel costs and pre @-@ booked accommodations ) . Most foreign tourists came from Great Britain ( over 25 % ) , with German , French , Spanish , Italian and American visitors closely following . The Kraków tour @-@ guide from the Lesser Poland Visitors Bureau indicated that not all statistics are recorded due to considerable number of those who come , staying in readily available private rooms paid by cash , especially from Eastern Europe .
The main reasons for visiting the city are : its historical monuments , recreation as well as relatives and friends ( placing third in the ranking ) , religion and business . There are 120 quality hotels in Kraków ( usually about half full ) offering 15 @,@ 485 overnight accommodations . The average stay last for about 4 to 7 nights . The survey conducted among the travelers showed that they enjoyed the city 's friendliness most , with 90 % of Polish tourists and 87 % foreigners stating that they would personally recommend visiting it . Notable points of interest outside the city include the Wieliczka salt mine , the Tatra Mountains 100 km ( 62 mi ) to the south , the historic city of Częstochowa ( north @-@ west ) , the well @-@ preserved former Nazi concentration camp at Auschwitz , and Ojcowski National Park , which includes the Renaissance Castle at Pieskowa Skała . Kraków has been awarded a number of top international rankings such as the 1st place in the Top city @-@ break destinations 2014 survey conducted by the British Which ? .
= = Sports = =
Kraków is the host city of the 2014 FIVB Men 's Volleyball World Championship and 2016 European Men 's Handball Championship . It has also been selected as the European City of Sport for 2014 .
Football is one of the most popular sports in the city . The two teams with the largest following are thirteen @-@ time Polish champion Wisła Kraków , and five @-@ time champion Cracovia , both founded in 1906 as the oldest in Poland . They have been involved in the most intense rivalry in the country and one of the most intense in all of Europe , known as the Holy War ( Święta Wojna ) . Other football clubs include Hutnik Kraków , Wawel Kraków , and one @-@ time Polish champion Garbarnia Kraków . There is also the first @-@ league rugby club Juvenia Kraków . Kraków has a number of additional , equally valued sports teams including nine @-@ time Polish ice hockey champion Cracovia Kraków and the twenty @-@ time women 's basketball champion Wisła Kraków .
The Cracovia Marathon , with over a thousand participants from two dozen countries annually , has been held in the city since 2002 . Poland 's first F1 racing driver Robert Kubica was born and brought up in Kraków , as was former WWE tag team champion Ivan Putski , and Top 10 ranked women 's tennis player Agnieszka Radwańska .
The construction of the new Kraków Arena has started in May 2011 ; for concerts , indoor athletics , hockey , basketball , futsal , etc . The Arena will be ready in 2013 ; cost is estimated at 363 million Polish złoty . It will accommodate up to 15 thousand viewers . In the case of a concert , when the stage is set on the lower arena , the facility will be able to seat up to 18 thousand people .
Kraków was bidding to host the 2022 Winter Olympics with Jasná but the bid was rejected in a local referendum on 25 May 2014 by a majority of 69 @.@ 72 % of the vote . The referendum was organised after a wave of criticism from citizens who believed that the Olympics would not promote the city . The organizing committee of " Krakow 2022 " spent almost $ 40 @,@ 000 to pay for a citizen @-@ approved logo , but many citizens considered this a waste of public money . The committee was rumoured to have fraudulently used several million zloty 's for unknown expenses .
= = International relations = =
= = = Contemporary foreign names for the city = = =
Kraków is referred to by various names in different languages . The city is known in Czech and Slovak as Krakov , in Hungarian as Krakkó , in Lithuanian as Krokuva , in Finnish as " Krakova " , in German and Dutch as Krakau , in Latin , Spanish and Italian as Cracovia , in French as Cracovie , in Portuguese as Cracóvia and in Russian as Краков . Ukrainian and Yiddish languages refer to it as Krakiv ( Краків ) and Kroke ( קראָקע ) respectively . Names of Kraków in different languages are also available .
= = = Twin towns and sister cities = = =
Kraków is twinned , or maintains close relations , with 34 cities around the world :
= BAE Systems =
BAE Systems plc is a British multinational defence , security and aerospace company . Its headquarters are in London in the United Kingdom and it has operations worldwide . It is among the world 's largest defence contractors ; it was ranked as the second @-@ largest based on applicable 2012 revenues . Its largest operations are in the United Kingdom and United States , where its BAE Systems Inc. subsidiary is one of the six largest suppliers to the US Department of Defense . Other major markets include Australia , India and Saudi Arabia . The company was formed on 30 November 1999 by the £ 7 @.@ 7 billion merger of two British companies : Marconi Electronic Systems ( MES ) – the defence electronics and naval shipbuilding subsidiary of the General Electric Company plc ( GEC ) – and British Aerospace ( BAe ) – an aircraft , munitions and naval systems manufacturer .
BAE Systems is the successor to various aircraft , shipbuilding , armoured vehicle , armaments and defence electronics companies , including the Marconi Company , the first commercial company devoted to the development and use of radio ; A.V. Roe and Company , one of the world 's first aircraft companies ; de Havilland , manufacturer of the Comet , the world 's first commercial jet airliner ; British Aircraft Corporation , co @-@ manufacturer of the Concorde supersonic transport ; Supermarine , manufacturer of the Spitfire ; Yarrow Shipbuilders , builder of the Royal Navy 's first destroyers ; Fairfield Shipbuilding and Engineering Company , pioneer of the triple @-@ expansion engine and builder of the world 's first battlecruiser ; and Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering , builder of the Royal Navy 's first submarines . Since its formation it has made a number of acquisitions , most notably of United Defense and Armor Holdings of the United States , and sold its shares in Airbus , Astrium , AMS and Atlas Elektronik .
BAE Systems is involved in several major defence projects , including the Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning II , the Eurofighter Typhoon , the Astute @-@ class submarine and the Queen Elizabeth @-@ class aircraft carriers . BAE Systems is listed on the London Stock Exchange and is a constituent of the FTSE 100 Index .
= = History = =
= = = Heritage = = =
BAE Systems was formed on 30 November 1999 by the £ 7 @.@ 7 billion merger of British Aerospace ( BAe ) and Marconi Electronic Systems ( MES ) . As a result , BAE Systems is the successor to many of the most famous British aircraft , defence electronics and warship manufacturers . Predecessor companies built the Comet , the world 's first commercial jet airliner ; the Harrier " jump jet " , the world 's first operational Vertical / Short Take @-@ Off and Landing ( VTOL ) aircraft ; the " groundbreaking " Blue Vixen radar carried by Sea Harrier FA2s and which formed the basis of the Eurofighter 's CAPTOR radar ; and co @-@ produced the iconic Concorde supersonic airliner with Aérospatiale .
British Aerospace was a civil and military aircraft manufacturer , as well as a provider of military land systems . The company had emerged from the massive consolidation of UK aircraft manufacturers since World War II . British Aerospace was formed on 29 April 1977 by the nationalisation and merger of The British Aircraft Corporation ( BAC ) , the Hawker Siddeley Group and Scottish Aviation . Both BAC and Hawker Siddeley were themselves the result of various mergers and acquisitions .
Marconi Electronic Systems was the defence subsidiary of British engineering firm The General Electric Company ( GEC ) , dealing largely in military systems integration , as well as naval and land systems . Marconi 's heritage dates back to Guglielmo Marconi 's Wireless Telegraph & Signal Company , founded in 1897 . GEC purchased English Electric ( which included Marconi ) in 1968 and thereafter used the Marconi brand for its defence businesses ( as GEC @-@ Marconi and later Marconi Electronic Systems ) . GEC 's own defence heritage dates back to World War I , when its contribution to the war effort included radios and bulbs . World War II consolidated this position , as the company was involved in important technological advances , notably the cavity magnetron for radar . Between 1945 and 1999 , GEC @-@ Marconi / Marconi Electronic Systems became one of the world 's most important defence contractors . GEC 's major defence related acquisitions included Associated Electrical Industries in 1967 , Yarrow Shipbuilders in 1985 , Plessey companies in 1989 , parts of Ferranti 's defence business in 1990 , the rump of Ferranti when it went into receivership in 1993 / 1994 , Vickers Shipbuilding and Engineering in 1995 and Kværner Govan in 1999 . In June 1998 , MES acquired Tracor , a major American defence contractor , for £ 830 million ( approx . US $ 1 @.@ 4 billion c . 1998 ) .
= = = Formation = = =
The 1997 merger of American corporations Boeing and McDonnell Douglas , which followed the forming of Lockheed Martin , the world 's largest defence contractor in 1995 , increased the pressure on European defence companies to consolidate . In June 1997 British Aerospace Defence managing director John Weston commented " Europe ... is supporting three times the number of contractors on less than half the budget of the U.S. " . European governments wished to see the merger of their defence manufacturers into a single entity , a European Aerospace and Defence Company .
As early as 1995 British Aerospace and the German aerospace and defence company DaimlerChrysler Aerospace ( DASA ) were said to be keen to create a transnational aerospace and defence company . The two companies envisaged including Aérospatiale , the other major European aerospace company , but only after its privatisation . The first stage of this integration was seen as the transformation of Airbus from a consortium of British Aerospace , DASA , Aérospatiale and Construcciones Aeronáuticas SA into an integrated company ; in this aim British Aerospace and DASA were united against the various objections of Aérospatiale . As well as Airbus , British Aerospace and DASA were partners in the Panavia Tornado and Eurofighter Typhoon aircraft projects . Merger discussions began between British Aerospace and DASA in July 1998 , just as French participation became more likely with the announcement that Aérospatiale was to merge with Matra and emerge with a diluted French government shareholding . A merger was agreed between British Aerospace chairman Richard Evans and DASA CEO Jürgen Schrempp in December 1998 .
Meanwhile , GEC was also under pressure to participate in defence industry consolidation . Reporting the appointment of George Simpson as GEC managing director in 1996 , The Independent had said " some analysts believe that Mr Simpson 's inside knowledge of BAe , a long @-@ rumoured GEC bid target , was a key to his appointment . GEC favours forging a national ' champion ' defence group with BAe to compete with the giant US organisations . " When GEC put MES up for sale on 22 December 1998 , British Aerospace abandoned the DASA merger in favour of purchasing its British rival . The merger of British Aerospace and MES was announced on 19 January 1999 . Evans stated that in 2004 that his fear was that an American defence contractor would acquire MES and challenge both British Aerospace and DASA . The merger created a vertically integrated company which The Scotsman described as " [ a combination of British Aerospace 's ] contracting and platform @-@ building skills with Marconi 's coveted electronics systems capability " , for example combining the manufacturer of the Eurofighter with the company that provided many of the aircraft 's electronic systems ; British Aerospace was MES ' largest customer . In contrast , DASA 's response to the breakdown of the merger discussion was to merge with Aérospatiale to create the European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company ( EADS ) , a horizontal integration . EADS has since considered a merger with Thales to create a " fully rounded " company .
Seventeen undertakings were given by BAE Systems to the Department of Trade and Industry which prevented a reference of the merger to the Monopolies and Mergers Commission . These were largely to ensure that the integrated company would tender sub @-@ contracts to external companies on an equal basis with its subsidiaries . Another condition was the " firewalling " of former British Aerospace and MES teams on defence projects such as the Joint Strike Fighter ( JSF ) . In 2007 the government , on advice from the Office of Fair Trading , announced it had agreed to release BAE Systems from ten of the undertakings due to " a change in circumstances " .
BAE Systems inherited the UK government owned " golden " share that was established when British Aerospace was privatised . This unique share prevents amendments of certain parts of the company 's Articles of Association without the permission of the Secretary of State . These Articles require that no foreign person or persons acting together may hold more than 15 % of the company 's shares or control the majority of the board and that the CEO and the Chairman of BAE Systems must be British nationals .
British Aerospace 's head office was in Warwick House , Farnborough Aerospace Centre in Farnborough , Hampshire . BAE Systems retains this but the registered office , and base for the senior leadership team , is in the City of Westminster .
= = = 2000s = = =
BAE Systems ' first annual report identified Airbus , support services to militaries and integrated systems for air , land and naval applications as key areas of growth . It also stated the company 's desire to both expand in the US and participate in further consolidation in Europe . BAE Systems described 2001 as an " important year " for its European joint ventures , which were reorganised considerably . The company has described the rationale for expansion in the US ; " [ it ] is by far the largest defence market with spend running close to twice that of the Western European nations combined . Importantly , US investment in research and development is significantly higher than in Western Europe . " When Dick Olver was appointed chairman in July 2004 he ordered a review of the company 's businesses which ruled out further European acquisitions or joint ventures and confirmed a " strategic bias " for expansion and investment in the US . The review also confirmed the attractiveness of the land systems sector and , with two acquisitions in 2004 and 2005 , BAE moved from a limited land systems supplier to the second largest such company in the world . This shift in strategy was described as " remarkable " by the Financial Times . Between 2008 and early 2011 BAE acquired five cyber security companies in a shift in strategy to take account of reduced spending by governments on " traditional defence items such as warships and tanks " .
In 2000 Matra Marconi Space , a joint BAE Systems / Matra company , was merged with the space division of DASA to form Astrium . On 16 June 2003 BAE sold its 25 % share to EADS for £ 84 million , however due to the lossmaking status of the company , BAE Systems invested an equal amount for " restructuring " . In January 2001 Airbus Industrie was transformed from an inherently inefficient consortium structure to a formal joint stock company . BAE Systems sold its 54 % majority share of BAE Systems Canada , an electronics company , in April for CA $ 310 ( approx . £ 197 million as of December 2010 ) . In November 2001 , the company announced the closure of the Avro Regional Jet ( Avro RJ ) production line at Woodford and the cancellation of the Avro RJX , an advanced series of the aircraft family , as the business was " no longer viable " . The final Avro RJ to be completed became the last British civil airliner . In November 2001 BAE sold its 49 @.@ 9 % share of Thomson Marconi Sonar to Thales for £ 85 million . A further step of European defence consolidation was the merger of BAE 's share of Matra BAe Dynamics and the missile division of Alenia Marconi Systems ( AMS ) into MBDA in December . MBDA thus became the world 's second largest missile manufacturer . Although EADS has been reported to be interested in acquiring full control of MBDA , BAE has said that , unlike Airbus , MBDA is a " core business " .
In June 2002 , BAE Systems confirmed it was in takeover discussions with TRW , an American aerospace , automotive and defence business . This was prompted by Northrop Grumman 's £ 4 @.@ 1 billion ( approx . US $ 6 billion c . 2002 ) hostile bid for TRW in February 2002 . A bidding war between BAE Systems , Northrop and General Dynamics ended on 1 June when Northrop 's increased bid of £ 5 @.@ 1 billion was accepted . On 11 December 2002 , the company issued a shock profit warning due to cost overruns of the Nimrod MRA4 maritime reconnaissance / attack aircraft and the Astute @-@ class submarine projects . On 19 February 2003 BAE took a charge of £ 750 million against these projects and the Ministry of Defence ( MOD ) agreed to pay a further £ 700 million of the cost . In 2000 the company had taken a £ 300 million " loss charge " on the Nimrod contract which was expected to cover " all the costs of completion of the current contract " .
The UK government , following a cabinet row described as " one of the most bitter Cabinet disputes over defence contracts since the Westland helicopter affair in 1985 " , ordered 20 BAE Hawk trainer aircraft with 24 options in July 2003 in a deal worth £ 800 million . The deal was significant because it was a factor in India 's decision to finalise a £ 1 billion order for 66 Hawks in March 2004 . Also in July 2003 BAE Systems and Finmeccanica announced their intention to set up three joint venture companies , to be collectively known as Eurosystems . These companies would have pooled the avionics , C4ISTAR and communications businesses of the two companies . However the difficulties of integrating the companies in this way led to a re @-@ evaluation of the proposal ; BAE Systems ' 2004 Annual Report states that " recognising the complexity of the earlier proposed Eurosystems transaction with Finmeccanica we have moved to a simpler model " . The main part of this deal was the dissolution of AMS and the establishment of SELEX Sensors and Airborne Systems ; BAE Systems sold its 25 % share of the latter to Finmeccanica for € 400 million ( approx . £ 270 million c . 2007 ) in March 2007 .
In May 2004 , it was reported that the company was considering selling its shipbuilding divisions , BAE Systems Naval Ships and BAE Systems Submarines . It was understood that General Dynamics wished to acquire the submarine building facilities at Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness , while VT Group was said to be interested in the remaining yards on the Clyde . However , in 2008 BAE Systems merged its Surface Fleet arm with the shipbuilding operations of VT Group to form BVT Surface Fleet , an aim central to the British Government 's Defence Industrial Strategy .
On 4 June 2004 , BAE Systems outbid General Dynamics for Alvis Vickers , the UK 's main manufacturer of armoured vehicles . Alvis Vickers was merged with the company 's RO Defence unit to form BAE Systems Land Systems . Recognising the lack of scale of this business compared to General Dynamics , BAE Systems executives soon identified the US defence company United Defense Industries ( UDI ) , a major competitor to General Dynamics , as a main acquisition target . On 7 March 2005 BAE announced the £ 2 @.@ 25 billion ( approx . US $ 4 @.@ 2 billion c . 2005 ) acquisition of UDI . UDI , now BAE Systems Land and Armaments , manufactures combat vehicles , artillery systems , naval guns , missile launchers and precision guided munitions .
In December 2005 , BAE Systems announced the sale of its German naval systems subsidiary , Atlas Elektronik , to ThyssenKrupp and EADS . The sale was complicated by the requirement of the German government to approve any sale . The Financial Times described the sale as " cut price " because French company Thales bid € 300 million , but was blocked from purchasing Atlas on national security grounds . On 31 January 2006 the company announced the sale of BAE Systems Aerostructures to Spirit AeroSystems , Inc , having said as early as 2002 that it wished to dispose of what it did not regard as a " core business " .
On 18 August 2006 Saudi Arabia signed a contract worth £ 6 billion to £ 10 billion for 72 Eurofighter Typhoons , to be delivered by BAE Systems . On 10 September 2006 the company was awarded a £ 2 @.@ 5 billion contract for the upgrade of 80 Royal Saudi Air Force Tornado IDSs . One of BAE Systems ' major aims , as highlighted in the 2005 Annual Report , was the granting of increased technology transfer between the UK and the US . The F @-@ 35 ( JSF ) programme became the focus of this effort , with British government ministers such as Lord Drayson , Minister for Defence Procurement , suggesting the UK would withdraw from the project without the transfer of technology that would allow the UK to operate and maintain F @-@ 35s independently . However , on 12 December 2006 , Lord Drayson signed an agreement which allows " an unbroken British chain of command " for operation of the aircraft . On 22 December 2006 BAE received a £ 947 million contract to provide guaranteed availability of Royal Air Force ( RAF ) Tornados .
On 7 May 2007 the company announced its subsidiary BAE Systems Inc. was to purchase Armor Holdings for £ 2 @.@ 3 billion ( approx . US $ 4 @.@ 5 billion c . 2007 ) and completed the deal on 31 July 2007 . The company is a manufacturer of tactical wheeled vehicles and a provider of vehicle and individual armour systems and survivability technologies . BAE Systems ( and British Aerospace previously ) was a technology partner to the McLaren Formula One team from 1996 to December 2007 . The partnership originally focused on McLaren 's F1 car 's aerodynamics , eventually moving on to carbon fibre techniques , wireless systems and fuel management . BAE Systems ' main interest in the partnership was to learn about the high speed build and operations processes of McLaren .
The company announced the acquisition of Tenix Defence , a major Australian defence contractor on 18 January 2008 . The purchase was completed on 27 June for A $ 775 million ( £ 373 million ) making BAE Systems Australia that country 's largest defence contractor . The UK Ministry of Defence awarded BAE Systems a 15 @-@ year munitions contract in August 2008 worth up to £ 3 billion . The contract guarantees supply of 80 % of the UK Armed Forces ' ammunition and required BAE to modernise its munitions manufacturing facilities . BAE Systems expanded its intelligence and security business with the £ 531 million purchase of Detica Group in July 2008 . It continued this strategy with purchases of Danish cyber and intelligence company ETI for approximately $ 210 million in December 2010 , and Norkom Group PLC the following month for € 217 million . The latter provides counter fraud and anti @-@ money laundering solutions to the global financial services industry where its software assists institutions to comply with regulations on financial intelligence and monitoring .
= = = = Airbus shareholding = = = =
BAE Systems inherited British Aerospace 's share of Airbus Industrie , which consisted of two factories at Broughton and Filton . These facilities manufactured wings for the Airbus family of aircraft . In 2001 Airbus was incorporated as Airbus SAS , a joint stock company . In return for a 20 % share in the new company BAE Systems transferred ownership of its Airbus plants ( known as Airbus UK ) to the new company .
Despite repeated suggestions as early as 2000 that BAE Systems wished to sell its 20 % share of Airbus , the possibility was consistently denied by the company . However , on 6 April 2006 BBC News reported that it was indeed to sell its stake , then " conservatively valued " at £ 2 @.@ 4 billion . Due to the slow pace of informal negotiations , BAE Systems exercised its put option which saw investment bank Rothschild appointed to give an independent valuation . Six days after this process began , Airbus announced delays to the A380 with significant effects on the value of Airbus shares . On 2 June 2006 Rothschild valued the company 's share at £ 1 @.@ 87 billion , well below its own analysts ' and even EADS ' expectations . The BAE Systems board recommended that the company proceed with the sale . On 4 October 2006 shareholders voted in favour and the sale was completed on 13 October . BAE Systems ' sale of its Airbus share saw the end of UK owned involvement in civil airliner production . Airbus Operations Ltd ( the former Airbus UK ) continues to be the Airbus " Centre of Excellence " for wing production , employing over 9 @,@ 500 , but is entirely owned by the Airbus Group ( formerly EADS ) .
= = = 2010s = = =
In February 2010 BAE Systems announced a £ 592 million writedown of the former Armor Holdings business following the loss of the Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles contract in 2009 . It was outbid by Oshkosh Corporation for the £ 2 @.@ 3 billion ( $ 3 @.@ 7 billion ) contract . Land and Armaments had been the " star performer " of BAE Systems ' subsidiaries , growing from sales of £ 482 million in 2004 to £ 6 @.@ 7 billion in 2009 .
BAE Systems inherited British Aerospace 's 35 % share of Saab AB , with which it produced and marketed the Gripen fighter aircraft . In 2005 it reduced this share to 20 @.@ 5 % and in March 2010 announced its intention to sell the remainder . The Times stated that the decision brought " to an end its controversial relationship with the Gripen fighter aircraft " . Several of the export campaigns for the aircraft were subject to allegations of bribery and corruption . Meanwhile , the company was increasing its presence in India with the formation of Defence Land Systems India in April , a joint venture with Mahindra & Mahindra Limited . BAE Systems holds just 26 % of the equity due to Indian foreign direct investment regulations .
The company continued its move into support services in May 2010 with the purchase of the marine support company Atlantic Marine for $ 352 million . In September 2010 BAE Systems announced plans to sell the Platform Solutions division of BAE Systems Inc . , which the Financial Times said could yield as much as £ 1 @.@ 3 billion . However , despite " considerable expressions of interest " , the sale was abandoned in January 2011 . On 19 October 2010 the British government cancelled the Nimrod project as part of its Strategic Defence and Security Review . The purchases of Queen Elizabeth @-@ class aircraft carrier , the Astute class submarines , and the Type 26 frigates were all confirmed . A new generation of nuclear missile submarines will be built , however the final decision will be delayed until after the next election .
BAE Systems sold the regional aircraft lease portfolio and asset management arm of its BAE Systems Regional Aircraft business in May 2011 . This unit leases the BAe 146 / Avro RJ family , BAe ATP , Jetstream and BAe 748 . The company retained the support and engineering activities of the business as part of the transaction .
In September 2011 , BAE Systems began consultation with unions and workers over plans to cut nearly 3 @,@ 000 jobs , mostly in the company 's military aircraft division .
In its 2012 half @-@ year report , the company revealed a 10 % decline in revenue in the six months up to 30 June due to falling demand for armaments . In May 2012 the governments of the UK and Saudi Arabia reached an agreement on an arms package which saw a £ 1 @.@ 6 billion contract awarded to BAE for the delivery of 55 Pilatus PC @-@ 21 and 22 BAE Systems Hawk aircraft . The Sultanate of Oman ordered Typhoon and Hawk aircraft worth £ 2 @.@ 5 billion in December 2012 .
On 13 September 2012 , it was reported that BAE Systems and EADS had entered possible merger talks . In case of a potential tie @-@ up , BAE shareholders would own 40 % and EADS ' 60 % of the new organisation . However , on 10 October 2012 , the companies said the merger talks had been called off .
In July 2014 it announced the acquisition of US intelligence capability , Signal Innovations Group Inc . , to augment imagery and data analysis technologies in its Intelligence & Security business .
In August 2014 , BAE was awarded a £ 248 million contract from the British government to build three new offshore patrol vessels .
In October 2014 , BAE Systems and Babcock International won contracts from the British Ministry of Defence worth a total of £ 3 @.@ 2 billion to maintain British warships , submarines and naval bases for the following five years .
On 9 October 2014 , the company announced the loss of 440 management jobs across the country , with 286 of the job cuts in Lancashire . BAE said that the changes are to " make a more efficient and effective business " . During 2014 BAE Systems acquired US @-@ based cybersecurity firm Silversky for $ 232 @.@ 5 million .
= = Products = =
BAE Systems plays a significant role in the production of military equipment . In 2008 , 95 % of BAE Systems ' total sales were military related .
It plays important roles in military aircraft production . The company 's Typhoon fighter and Tornado fighter @-@ bomber are both front line aircraft of the RAF . The company is a major partner in the F @-@ 35 Lightning II programme . Its Hawk advanced jet trainer aircraft has been widely exported . In July 2006 , the British government declassified the HERTI ( High Endurance Rapid Technology Insertion ) , an Unmanned Aerial Vehicle ( UAV ) which can navigate autonomously .
BAE Systems Land and Armaments manufactures the M2 / M3 Bradley fighting vehicle family , the US Navy Advanced Gun System ( AGS ) , M113 armoured personnel carrier ( APC ) , M109 Paladin , M777 howitzer , the British Army 's Challenger II , Warrior Tracked Armoured Vehicle , Panther Command and Liaison Vehicle , and the SA80
Major naval projects include the Astute class nuclear submarine , Type 45 air defence destroyer and Queen Elizabeth class aircraft carrier .
= = Areas of business = =
BAE Systems defines its " home markets " to be Australia , India , Saudi Arabia , the UK and the US .
= = = United Kingdom = = =
BAE Systems is the predominant supplier to the UK Ministry of Defence ( MoD ) ; in 2009 / 2010 BAE Systems companies in the list of Top 100 suppliers to the MoD received contracts totalling £ 3 @.@ 98 billion , with total revenue being higher when other subsidiary income is included . In comparison , the second largest supplier is Babcock International Group and its subsidiaries , with a revenue of £ 1 @.@ 1 billion from the MoD . Oxford Economic Forecasting states that in 2002 the company 's UK businesses employed 111 @,@ 578 people , achieved export sales of £ 3 billion and paid £ 2 @.@ 6 billion in taxes . These figures exclude the contribution of Airbus UK .
After its creation BAE Systems had a difficult relationship with the MoD . This was attributed to deficient project management by the company , but also in part to the deficiencies in the terms of " fixed price contracts " . CEO Mike Turner said in 2006 " We had entered into contracts under the old competition rules that frankly we shouldn 't have taken " . These competition rules were introduced by Lord Levene during the 1980s to shift the burden of risk to the contractor and were in contrast to " cost plus contracts " where a contractor was paid for the value of its product plus an agreed profit .
BAE Systems was operating in " the only truly open defence market " , which meant that it was competing with US and European companies for British defence projects , while they were protected in their home markets . The US defence market is competitive , however largely between American firms , while foreign companies are excluded . In December 2005 the MoD published the Defence Industrial Strategy ( DIS ) which has been widely acknowledged to recognise BAE Systems as the UK 's " national champion " . The DIS identifies key industrial capabilities which must be maintained within the UK through long @-@ term government commitments to support research spending and procurement . Of these capabilities , several are dominated by BAE Systems , including naval vessels and submarines , combat vehicles , fixed @-@ wing aircraft , general munitions ( with the exception of certain " niche capabilities abroad " ) and network @-@ enabled capability ( defined as C4ISTAR in the DIS ) . The company maintains an interest in future UAV technologies through its collaborative FLAVIIR research programme with EPSRC .
After the publication of the DIS BAE Systems CEO Mike Turner said " If we didn 't have the DIS and our profitability and the terms of trade had stayed as they were ... then there had to be a question mark about our future in the UK " . Lord Levene said in the balance between value for money or maintaining a viable industrial base the DIS " tries as well as it can to steer a middle course and to achieve as much as it can in both directions . ... We will never have a perfect solution . "
In May 2012 , the MOD awarded BAE Systems a £ 328m contract to design the UK 's next generation nuclear @-@ armed submarines .
On 6 November 2013 , BAE Systems announced that 1 @,@ 775 jobs are to go at its yards in England and Scotland . Shipbuilding will cease entirely in Portsmouth in 2014 with the loss of 940 jobs , and a further 835 jobs would be lost at Filton , near Bristol , and at the shipyards in Govan , Rosyth , and Scotstoun in Scotland .
= = = United States = = =
The attraction of MES to British Aerospace was largely its ownership of Tracor , a major American defence contractor . Since its creation the company has steadily increased its investment in and revenues from the US .
BAE Systems Inc. now sells more to the US Department of Defense ( DOD ) than the UK MoD . The company has been allowed to buy important defence contractors in the US , however its status as a UK company requires that its US subsidiaries are governed by American executives under Special Security Arrangements . The company faces fewer impediments in this sense than its European counterparts , as there is a high degree of integration between the US and UK defence establishments . BAE Systems ' purchase of Lockheed Martin Aerospace Electronic Systems in November 2000 was described by John Hamre , CEO of the Center for Strategic and International Studies and former Deputy Secretary of Defense , as " precedent setting " given the advanced and classified nature of many of that company 's products .
The possibility of a merger between BAE Systems Inc. and major North American defence contractors has long been reported , including Boeing , General Dynamics , Lockheed Martin , and Raytheon .
= = = Rest of the world = = =
BAE Systems Australia is one of the largest defence contractors in Australia , having more than doubled in size with the acquisition of Tenix Defence in 2008 . The Al Yamamah agreements between the UK and Saudi Arabia require " the provision of a complete defence package for the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia " ; BAE Systems employs 4 @,@ 600 people in the kingdom . BAE Systems Land Systems South Africa , 75 % owned by BAE Systems , is the largest military vehicle manufacturer in South Africa , and is currently taking part in the US MRAP programme . BAE Systems ' interests in Sweden are a result of the purchases of Alvis Vickers and UDI , which owned Hägglunds and Bofors respectively ; The companies are now part of BAE Systems AB and have a combined workforce of approximately 1 @,@ 750 . BAE Systems is also present in India under the name BAE Systems India . Also , BAE Systems owns 49 % of Air Astana , Kazakhstan .
= = Shareholders = =
As of 8 October 2012 BAE Systems listed the following as " significant " shareholders : Invesco Perpetual ( 13 @.@ 38 % ) , BlackRock ( 4 @.@ 66 % ) , Franklin Templeton Investments , ( 3 @.@ 95 % ) and Legal & General , ( 3 @.@ 62 % ) .
= = Organisation = =
BAE Systems has its head office and its registered office in City of Westminster , London . In addition to its central London offices , it has an office in Farnborough , Hampshire that houses functional specialists and support functions .
The company divides its business into the following business groups :
Applied Intelligence
This division delivers hardware and software tools to protect and enhance critical assets . The division includes BAE Systems Applied Intelligence .
Saudi Arabia
This division supports customers in Saudi Arabia , including the Al Yamamah project and subsequent Saudi Typhoon contract .
Intelligence & Security
This division provides mission @-@ critical cyber security tools , information technology and intelligence and analytical and support tools
Maritime
This division designs and manufactures naval ships and submarines . The division includes BAE Systems Maritime – Naval Ships and BAE Systems Maritime – Submarines . Maritime has inherited the naval systems businesses of Insyte , for example BAE Systems Underwater Systems and naval radar .
Regional Aircraft
This division provides regional aircraft and support services to regional airlines
Australia
This division supports customers in Australia
Electronic Systems
This division supplies flight and engine controls for electronic warfare and night vision systems , surveillance and reconnaissance sensors , secure networked communications equipment , and power and energy management systems
Platforms & Services
This division designs , develops , produces , supports , maintains , modernises and upgrades armoured combat vehicles , wheeled vehicles , naval guns , surface ship combatants , commercial vessels , missile launchers , artillery systems , military ordnance , and protective wear and armour . This division includes BAE Systems Land & Armaments . It also includes projects such as Taranis . The company 's 33 % share of Eurofighter Jagdflugzeug GmbH ( 33 % ) represents its involvement in the Eurofighter Typhoon project .
Military Air & Information
This division provides information superiority and air power to customers . The division includes BAE Systems Military Air & Information
Shared Services
This division provides shared capabilities and support services , principally to internal customers . It also includes a 49 % interest in Air Astana .
= = Corporate governance = =
BAE Systems ' chairman is Sir Roger Carr . The executive directors are Ian King ( CEO ) , Jerry DeMuro , and George Rose . The non @-@ executive directors are Harriet Green , Michael Hartnall , Sir Peter Mason , Carl Symon , Roberto Quarta , Paul Anderson and Nick Rose .
The company 's first CEO , John Weston , was forced to resign in 2002 in a boardroom " coup " and was replaced by Mike Turner . The Business reported that Weston was ousted when non @-@ executive directors informed the chairman that they had lost confidence in him . Further , it was suggested that at least one non @-@ executive director was encouraged to make such a move by the MOD due to the increasingly fractious relationship between BAE Systems and the government . As well as the terms of the Nimrod contract , Weston had fought against the MOD 's insistence that one of the first three Type 45 destroyers should be built by VT Group . The Business said he considered this " competition @-@ policy gone mad " .
It is understood that Turner had a poor working relationship with senior MOD officials , ( for example with former Defence Secretary Geoff Hoon ) Significantly the first meeting between Olver and Hoon was said to have gone well , a MOD official commented " He is a man we can do business with . We think it is good to be taking a fresh look at things . " It has been suggested that relations between Turner and Olver were tense . On 16 October 2007 the company announced that Mike Turner would retire in August 2008 . The Times called his departure plans " abrupt " and a " shock " , given previous statements that he wished to retire in 2013 at the age of 65 . Despite suggestions that BAE Systems would prefer an American CEO due to the increasing importance of the United States defence market to the company and the opportunity to make a clean break from corruption allegations and investigations related to the Al Yamamah contracts the company announced on 27 June 2008 that it had selected the company 's chief operating officer , Ian King , to succeed Turner with effect from 1 September 2008 ; The Financial Times noted that King 's career at Marconi distances him from the British Aerospace @-@ led Al Yamamah project .
In 2015 the company invested more than £ 11m in charities and not @-@ for @-@ profit organisations through company and employee donations to support its key areas of customer , education and heritage .
= = Financial information = =
Financial information for the Company is as follows :
[ a ] : Restated to exclude Airbus contributions . Included for comparison .
[ b ] : Data prepared using UK GAAP guidelines . Recent data prepared using International Financial Reporting Standards .
[ c ] : Reflects £ 750 million charges for problems with Nimrod MRA4 ( £ 500 million ) and Astute class submarine ( £ 250 million ) programmes .
= = Corruption investigations = =
= = = Serious Fraud Office = = =
BAE Systems has been under investigation by the Serious Fraud Office , into the use of political corruption to help sell arms to Chile , Czech Republic , Romania , Saudi Arabia , South Africa , Tanzania and Qatar . In response , BAE Systems ' 2006 Corporate Responsibility Report states " We continue to reject these allegations ... We take our obligations under the law extremely seriously and will continue to comply with all legal requirements around the world . In June 2007 Lord Woolf was selected to lead what the BBC described as an " independent review .... [ an ] ethics committee to look into how the defence giant conducts its arms deals . " The report , Ethical business conduct in BAE Systems plc – the way forward , made 23 recommendations , measures which the company has committed to implement . The finding stated that " in the past BAE did not pay sufficient attention to ethical standards in the way it conducted business , " and was described by the BBC as " an embarrassing admission . "
In September 2009 , the Serious Fraud Office announced that it intended to prosecute BAE Systems for offences relating to overseas corruption . The Guardian claimed that a penalty " possibly of more than £ 500m " might be an acceptable settlement package . On 5 February 2010 , BAE Systems agreed to pay £ 257m criminal fines to the US and £ 30m to the UK . The UK had already massively benefited from £ 43 billion contract in tax receipts and jobs in the UK , and dropped an anti @-@ corruption investigation into the Al Yamamah contracts later taken up by US authorities . Crucially , under a plea bargain with the US Department of Justice , BAE Systems was convicted of felony conspiracy to defraud the United States government and sentenced in March 2010 by US District Court Judge John D. Bates to pay a $ 400 million fine , one of the largest fines in the history of the DOJ . Judge Bates said the company 's conduct involved " deception , duplicity and knowing violations of law , I think it 's fair to say , on an enormous scale " . BAE Systems did not directly admit to bribery , and is thus not internationally blacklisted from future contracts . Some of the £ 30m penalty the company will pay in fines to the UK will be paid ex gratia for the benefit of the people of Tanzania . On 2 March 2010 Campaign Against Arms Trade and The Corner House were successful in gaining a High Court injunction on the Serious Fraud Office 's settlement with BAE Systems . The High Court may order a full review of the settlement .
= = = Saudi Arabia = = =
BAE Systems ( and British Aerospace previously ) has long been the subject of allegations of bribery in relation to its business in Saudi Arabia . The UK National Audit Office ( NAO ) investigated the Al Yamamah contracts and has so far not published its conclusions , the only NAO report ever to be withheld . The MOD has stated " The report remains sensitive . Disclosure would harm both international relations and the UK 's commercial interests . " The company has been accused of maintaining a £ 60 million Saudi slush fund and was the subject of an investigation by the Serious Fraud Office ( SFO ) . However , on 14 December 2006 it was announced that the SFO was " discontinuing " its investigation into the company . It stated that representations to its Director and the Attorney General Lord Goldsmith had led to the conclusion that the wider public interest " to safeguard national and international security " outweighed any potential benefits of further investigation . The termination of the investigation has been controversial . In June 2007 , the BBC 's Panorama alleged BAE Systems " paid hundreds of millions of pounds to the ex
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McKinley even won Bryan 's home state of Nebraska .
= = = Second term = = =
Soon after his second inauguration on March 4 , 1901 , William and Ida McKinley undertook a six @-@ week tour of the nation . Traveling mostly by rail , the McKinleys were to travel through the South to the Southwest , and then up the Pacific coast and east again , to conclude with a visit on June 13 , 1901 , to the Pan @-@ American Exposition in Buffalo , New York . However , the First Lady fell ill in California , causing her husband to limit his public events and cancel a series of speeches he had planned to give urging trade reciprocity . He also postponed the visit to the fair until September , planning a month in Washington and two in Canton before the Buffalo visit .
= = = Assassination and death throes = = =
Although McKinley enjoyed meeting the public , Cortelyou was concerned with his security due to recent assassinations by anarchists in Europe , such as the assassination of King Umberto I of Italy the previous year , and twice tried to remove a public reception from the President 's rescheduled visit to the Exposition . McKinley refused , and Cortelyou arranged for additional security for the trip . On September 5 , the President delivered his address at the fairgrounds , before a crowd of some 50 @,@ 000 people . In his final speech , McKinley urged reciprocity treaties with other nations to assure American manufacturers access to foreign markets . He intended the speech as a keynote to his plans for a second term .
One man in the crowd , Leon Czolgosz , hoped to assassinate McKinley . He had managed to get close to the presidential podium , but did not fire , uncertain of hitting his target . Czolgosz , since hearing a speech by anarchist Emma Goldman in Cleveland , had decided to do something heroic ( in his own mind ) for the cause . After his failure to get close enough on the fifth , Czolgosz waited the next day at the Temple of Music on the Exposition grounds , where the President was to meet the public . Czolgosz concealed his gun in a handkerchief , and , when he reached the head of the line , shot McKinley twice in the abdomen .
McKinley urged his aides to break the news gently to Ida , and to call off the mob that had set on Czolgosz — a request that may have saved his assassin 's life . McKinley was taken to the Exposition aid station , where the doctor was unable to locate the second bullet . Although a primitive X @-@ ray machine was being exhibited on the Exposition grounds , it was not used . McKinley was taken to the Milburn House .
In the days after the shooting McKinley appeared to improve . Doctors issued increasingly optimistic bulletins . Members of the Cabinet , who had rushed to Buffalo on hearing the news , dispersed ; Vice President Roosevelt departed on a camping trip to the Adirondacks . Leech wrote ,
It is difficult to interpret the optimism with which the President 's physicians looked for his recovery . There was obviously the most serious danger that his wounds would become septic . In that case , he would almost certainly die , since drugs to control infection did not exist ... [ Prominent New York City physician ] Dr. McBurney was by far the worst offender in showering sanguine assurances on the correspondents . As the only big @-@ city surgeon on the case , he was eagerly questioned and quoted , and his rosy prognostications largely contributed to the delusion of the American public .
Unknown to the doctors , the gangrene that would kill him was growing on the walls of his stomach , slowly poisoning his blood . On the morning of September 13 , McKinley took a turn for the worse . Relatives and friends gathered around the death bed . At 2 : 15 a.m. on September 14 , President McKinley died . Theodore Roosevelt had rushed back and took the oath of office as president in Buffalo . Czolgosz , put on trial for murder nine days after McKinley 's death , was found guilty , sentenced to death on September 26 , and executed by electric chair on October 29 , 1901 .
= = Funeral , memorials , and legacy = =
= = = Funeral and resting place = = =
According to Gould , " The nation experienced a wave of genuine grief at the news of McKinley 's passing . " The stock market , faced with sudden uncertainty , suffered a steep decline — almost unnoticed in the mourning . The nation focused its attention on the casket that made its way by train , first to Washington , where it first lay in the East Room of the Executive Mansion , and then in state in the Capitol , and then was taken to Canton . A hundred thousand people passed by the open casket in the Capitol Rotunda , many having waited hours in the rain ; in Canton , an equal number did the same at the Stark County Courthouse on September 18 . The following day , a funeral service was held at the First Methodist Church ; the casket was then sealed and taken to the McKinley house , where relatives paid their final respects . It was then transported to the receiving vault at West Lawn Cemetery in Canton , to await the construction of the memorial to McKinley already being planned .
There was a widespread expectation that Ida McKinley would not long survive her husband ; one family friend stated , as William McKinley lay dying , that they should be prepared for a double funeral . This did not occur ; the former first lady accompanied her husband on the funeral train . Leech noted " the circuitous journey was a cruel ordeal for the woman who huddled in a compartment of the funeral train , praying that the Lord would take her with her Dearest Love " . She was thought too weak to attend the services in Washington or Canton , although she listened at the door to the service for her husband in her house on North Market Street . She remained in Canton for the remainder of her life , setting up a shrine in her house , and often visiting the receiving vault , until her death at age 59 on May 26 , 1907 . She died only months before the completion of the large marble monument to her husband in Canton , which was dedicated by President Roosevelt on September 30 , 1907 . William and Ida McKinley are interred there with their daughters , atop a hillside overlooking the city of Canton .
= = = Other memorials = = =
In addition to the Canton site there are many memorials to McKinley . There is a monument at his birthplace in Niles ; 20 Ohio schools bear his name . There are several schools in the United States named McKinley School . Nearly a million dollars was pledged by contributors or allocated from public funds for the construction of McKinley memorials in the year after his death . Phillips suggests the significant number of major memorials to McKinley in Ohio reflected the expectation among Ohioans in the years after McKinley 's death that he would be ranked among the great presidents . Statues to him may be found in more than a dozen states ; his name has been bestowed on streets , civic organizations , and libraries . McKinley 's name is also used in the large inner @-@ city Honolulu , Hawaii high school , President William McKinley High School .
Denali , in central Alaska , was named Mount McKinley in support of the then newly minted Republican nominee for President until The Alaska Board of Geographic Names changed the name of the mountain to Denali in 1975 , which is how it was called by locals . The mountain 's name was changed to Denali on the federal level by the Department of the Interior as a part of a visit to Alaska by President Barack Obama in August 2015 ; its summit , at 20 @,@ 310 feet ( 6 @,@ 190 m ) , is the highest point in North America . Similarly , until its name was changed to Denali National Park on December 2 , 1980 , under congressional legislation signed by President Jimmy Carter , the park in which it is located was known as Mount McKinley National Park .
= = = Legacy and historical image = = =
McKinley 's biographer , H. Wayne Morgan remarks that McKinley died the most beloved president in history . However , the young , enthusiastic Roosevelt quickly captured public attention after his predecessor 's death . The new president made little effort to secure the trade reciprocity McKinley had intended to negotiate with other nations . Controversy and public interest surrounded Roosevelt throughout the seven and a half years of his presidency as memories of McKinley faded ; by 1920 , according to Gould , McKinley 's administration was deemed no more than " a mediocre prelude to the vigor and energy of Theodore Roosevelt 's " . Beginning in the 1950s , McKinley received more favorable evaluations ; nevertheless , in surveys ranking American presidents , he has generally been placed near the middle , often trailing contemporaries such as Hayes and Cleveland . Morgan suggests that this relatively low ranking is due to a perception among historians that while many decisions during McKinley 's presidency profoundly affected the nation 's future , he more followed public opinion than led it , and that McKinley 's standing has suffered from altered public expectations of the presidency .
There has been broad agreement among historians that McKinley 's election was at the time of a transition between two political eras , dubbed the Third and Fourth Party Systems . Kenneth F. Warren emphasizes the national commitment to a pro @-@ business , industrial , and modernizing program , represented by McKinley . Historian Daniel P. Klinghard argued that McKinley 's personal control of the 1896 campaign gave him the opportunity to reshape the presidency — rather than simply follow the party platform — by representing himself as the voice of the people . However , more recently , as Republican political official Karl Rove exalted McKinley as the agent of sweeping political realignment in the 2000s , some scholars , such as David Mayhew , questioned whether the 1896 election truly represented a realignment , thereby placing in issue whether McKinley deserves credit for it . Historian Michael J. Korzi argued in 2005 that while it is tempting to see McKinley as the key figure in the transition from congressional domination of government to the modern , powerful president , this change was an incremental process through the late 19th and early 20th centuries .
Phillips writes that McKinley 's low rating is undeserved , and that he should be ranked just after the great presidents such as Washington and Lincoln . He pointed to McKinley 's success at building an electoral coalition that kept the Republicans mostly in power for a generation . Phillips believes that part of McKinley 's legacy is the men he included in his administration , who dominated the Republican Party for a quarter century after his death . These officials included Cortelyou , who served in three Cabinet positions under Roosevelt , and Dawes , who became vice president under Coolidge . Other McKinley appointees who later became major figures include Day , who Roosevelt elevated to the Supreme Court where he remained nearly twenty years , and William Howard Taft , whom McKinley had made Governor @-@ General of the Philippines and who succeeded Roosevelt as president .
A controversial aspect of McKinley 's presidency is territorial expansion and the question of imperialism — with the exception of the Philippines , granted independence in 1946 , the United States retains the territories taken under McKinley . The territorial expansion of 1898 is often seen by historians as the beginning of American empire . Morgan sees that historical discussion as a subset of the debate over the rise of America as a world power ; he expects the debate over McKinley 's actions to continue indefinitely without resolution , and notes that however one judges McKinley 's actions in American expansion , one of his motivations was to change the lives of Filipinos and Cubans for the better .
Morgan alludes to the rise of interest in McKinley as part of the debate over the more assertive American foreign policy of recent decades :
McKinley was a major actor in some of the most important events in American history . His decisions shaped future policies and public attitudes . He usually rises in the estimation of scholars who study his life in detail . Even those who disagree with his policies and decisions see him as an active , responsible , informed participant in charge of decision making . His dignified demeanor and subtle operations keep him somewhat remote from public perception . But he is once again at the center of events , where he started .
= = Administration and cabinet = =
= The Bog People =
The Bog People : Iron @-@ Age Man Preserved is an archaeological study of the bog bodies of Northern Europe written by the Danish archaeologist P.V. Glob . First published in 1965 by Gyldendal under the Danish title of Mosefolket : Jernalderens Mennersker bevaret i 2000 År , it was translated into English by the English archaeologist Rupert Bruce @-@ Mitford and published by Faber and Faber in 1969 . In 1966 it was translated into German by Thyra Dohrenburg and published by Winkler Werlag Munich under the title Die Schläfer im Moor ( English : The Sleepers in the Bog ) .
The Bog People is divided into six chapters . The first is devoted to Tollund Man , and the second to Grauballe Man , two of the best known Iron Age bog bodies to have been discovered in Jutland , Denmark . The third and fourth chapters are devoted to the wider context of bog bodies first in Denmark and then in other parts of Europe . The final two chapters are devoted to a wider exposition of life and death in Iron Age Denmark .
Glob 's book received positive reviews from both Barry Cunliffe in Nature and Ralph M. Rowlett in American Anthropologist . They praised Glob 's arguments as well as his writing style and use of illustrations , alongside Bruce @-@ Mitford 's translation . In subsequent decades , it has received both praise and criticism from specialists in the field , who have lauded the publicity which it brought to the subject , but rejected many of Glob 's conclusions as being based on insufficient evidence .
= = Synopsis = =
Chapter one , " The Tollund Man " , is devoted to the bog body of the same name that was discovered in 1950 in Tollund Fell , Bjaeldskov Dal in Jutland , Denmark . Glob discusses the excavation of the corpse , and his own personal involvement with the operation . Outlining the find 's removal to the National Museum of Denmark in Copenhagen , he then outlines the manner in which the head was conserved for public display at the Silkeborg Museum . Alongside this he also discusses the archaeological context of Tollund Man , examining the manner in which he was executed , his clothing , and the contents of his last meal . The second chapter , entitled " The Grauballe Man " , deals with the eponymous bog body found in 1952 at Nebelgård Fen , located 11 miles ( 18 km ) east of Tolland . Like with the previous chapter , Glob discusses his own personal investigation into the body , outlining its discovery and conservation , as well as the context of his death and burial .
In the third chapter , " Bog People in Denmark " , Glob notes that there have been over 150 bog bodies found in Denmark , and proceeds to provide a number of examples including Haraldskær Woman and the Borremose bodies , in doing so highlighting the similarities that exist between them . Noting that many of these were discovered in the 19th and early 20th centuries , he explains that little can be known for most of them because methods of archaeological investigation and conservation were unavailable at the time . Chapter four , " Bog People in Other Countries " , explores similar bog bodies which have been discovered in neighbouring Germany and the Netherlands , such as Windeby I , making reference to the cataloging project undertaken by the German archaeologist Alfred Dieck .
" How They Lived " is the title of the fifth chapter , and explores the wider context of life in Iron Age Denmark , dealing with such issues as class divisions , houses and garments . The final chapter , " When Death Came " , looks at the place of death in Iron Age Denmark , outlining ordinary funerary remains , which include both cremation and inhumation . Contrasting these methods of dealing with the dead to the corpses left in the bogs , he argues that the latter must represent evidence for a widespread tradition of human sacrifice devoted to a fertility goddess , citing the writings of Tacitus as evidence .
= = Reception = =
= = = Academic reviews = = =
The Nature journal published a review provided by the English archaeologist Barry Cunliffe of the University of Southampton . He expresses only one disappointment with Glob 's work , that there is what he sees as a lack of information on the daily life and social structure of Iron Age Denmark . He nevertheless feels compensated by the final chapter , which he describes as representing Glob " at his best , building @-@ up , in detective @-@ style fashion " , a picture of ritual behavior in the Iron Age . Praising the use of photographs as " brilliant " , he refers to the " attractive " translation of Bruce @-@ Mitford , and considers the overall effect to be " stimulating and provocative " . Summarizing The Bog People , he labels it a " splendid book , full of detail and fascination " for both specialists and a wider readership interested in archaeology .
Ralph M. Rowlett of the University of Missouri wrote a review of The Bog People for the journal American Anthropologist . He began his review by describing his background interest in bog bodies , and highlighting that he had married one of Glob 's graduate students . He proceeds to note that there is much in the book that would be of interest to anthropologists , and he hoped that they would not be put off by its use of " gossip and anecdote " and its " intensely personal and culturally ultra @-@ Danish tone " , which he attributes to Glob 's attempts to reach a wider , non @-@ academic audience . Praising Glob 's use of ethnohistory and epic literature to illuminate the Early Iron Age , he claims that The Bog People represents " one of the best modern ethnographic descriptions of the North Germani of that era " and that it furthermore provides evidence in support of Tacitus ' claims . Rowlett goes on to praise Bruce @-@ Mitford 's translation , but believes that he has a " slight tendency to over @-@ translate " with place names , and also disagrees with his decision to convert centimeters into inches . Ending his review , Rowlett notes that along with Alfred Deick 's catalog of bog bodies , The Bog People represented " a starter for a by no means exhausted field . "
= = = Wider reception = = =
In an academic paper discussing the bog bodies which was published in 1995 , C.S. Briggs criticised Glob for jumping to conclusions that were not supported by the evidence , exclaiming " Can Glob 's book today actually pass muster as responsible popular scholarship ? " . In particular , they highlighted that he ascribed many bodies to the Iron Age when they had not been securely carbon dated and that he overconfidently proclaimed the Drumkeeragh Lady from Medieval Ireland to be a Danish Viking despite a lack of supporting evidence .
In his 1996 book on bog bodies , Wijnand Van der Sanden paid homage to Glob 's The Bog Bodies , describing it as a " highly accessible work " which had done more than any other to bring publicity to the bog cadavers . Exclaiming that he was filled with admiration for the work , he noted that he wished that he himself had written it 30 years before . In their 2007 edited volume on the reinvestigation of Grauballe Man , Pauline Asingh and Niels Lynnerup stated that Glob 's book had represented a " major contribution " to the study of bog bodies which " awoke many people 's interest in prehistory " .
In her 2009 study of the cultural and artistic reception of the bog bodies , Karin Sanders noted that she had first become interested in archaeology through reading a copy of Mosefolket in her primary school 's library , near to Copenhagen . Proceeding to describe the book as " a classic " , she noted that even in the 21st century , it continued to offer the " source book " for artistic expressions of bog bodies . Proceeding to explore the influence of Glob 's tome , she noted that many artists and writers had used it as a basis for learning more about the bog bodies , to whom their works were dedicated , and that Glob himself had successfully blended an engaging narrative with archaeological information , and that he was " profoundly influenced by the potentiality of interaction between fact and fiction . "
= Trespass in English law =
Trespass in English law is an area of tort law broadly divided into three groups : trespass to the person , trespass to goods and trespass to land .
Trespass to the person comes in three variants : assault , which is " to act in such a way that the claimant believes he is about to be attacked " ; battery , " the intentional and direct application of force to another person " ; and false imprisonment , " depriving the claimant of freedom of movement , without a lawful justification for doing so " . All three require that the act be a direct and intentional act , with indirect or unintentional acts falling under the tort of negligence . Battery and assault require the claimant to establish that the defendant intended to act , while false imprisonment is a tort of strict liability . The guiding principle behind all three is based on the statement of Goff , LJ , who stated in Collins v Wilcock that " any person 's body is inviolate " , excepting normal , day @-@ to @-@ day physical contact .
Trespass to goods is defined as " wrongful physical interference with goods that are in the possession of another " , and is covered not only by the common law , but also by the Torts ( Interference with Goods ) Act 1977 . The " trespass " can be as little as touching or moving the goods , given the right circumstances . It is unknown whether intention is required for a claim under trespass to goods , as the matter has never gone to court ; the courts have confirmed that for damages to be awarded for harm suffered , the harm must have been reasonably foreseeable .
Trespass to land involves the " unjustifiable interference with land which is in the immediate and exclusive possession of another " ; it is both a tort and , in certain circumstances , a crime under the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 . It is not necessary to prove that harm was suffered to bring a claim , and is instead actionable per se . While most trespasses to land are intentional , the courts have decided that it could also be committed negligently . Accidental trespass also incurs liability .
= = Trespass to the person = =
The general principle is that a trespass to the person must be a direct and intentional act , while if it was indirect or unintentional the tort of negligence is more appropriate , as established in Letang v Cooper . The tort of trespass to the person contains three possible types ; assault , battery and false imprisonment .
= = = Assault = = =
In English law , an assault means to act in such a way that the claimant or victim apprehends the application of immediate unlawful force upon themselves . The key elements of the tort are therefore that the defendant acts , and does so in such a way that the claimant is put in fear of " immediate physical violence " . There is no requirement that actual damage be caused . In R v Costanza , the courts held that threats made by a stalker could be assault , while in R v Ireland , the House of Lords said that in the right situation ( specifically , harassing phone calls ) silence could be enough . In some situations an act which would otherwise be assault can be mitigated by the language used . In Tuberville v Savage , the defendant reached for his sword and told the claimant that " if it were not [ court ] time , I would not take such language from you " ; it was held that despite the threatening gesture , this meant the claimant was not in immediate danger . The actions must give the claimant reasonable expectation that the defendant is going to use violence ; if a fist was raised in front of the claimant , it could be enough . If the fist was raised from inside a police van following arrest , it would not .
= = = Battery = = =
Battery is defined as " the intentional and direct application of force to another person " , and has three elements ; force , direct application and intent . The courts have also added a requirement of " hostility " or lack of consent in many cases . As with assault , there is no need to show that damage was caused . Any application of physical contact , regardless of harm caused , can constitute force . In Collins v Wilcock , a female police officer took hold of a woman 's arm , intending to talk to her on suspicion of soliciting contrary to the Street Offences Act 1959 . The woman scratched the female police officer 's arm . As the female police officer had gone beyond her duties in grabbing the woman ( since she did not intend to charge her with an offence , but was still using force ) it was held that this constituted " force " . Goff LJ wrote that the fundamental principle is that any person 's body is inviolate , except in situations where the bodily contact " [ falls ] within a general exception embracing all physical contact which is generally acceptable in the ordinary conduct of daily life " .
The defendant must intend to carry out the act which constitutes trespass for it to be valid . This does not require the defendant to intend harm ; in Nash v Sheen , a hairdresser who put a tone rinse on the claimant ( when the claimant had given permission for a perm ) was found liable in battery after it caused a rash . In Livingstone v Ministry of Defence , the defendant , a soldier , had intended to shoot someone with a baton round , which went wide and hit the claimant . Even though he had not intended to hit the claimant , it was held that because he had intended to fire the baton round in the first place , he was liable . The final element occasionally added to the tort is the hostility of the action ; in Wilson v Pringle , it was decided that the onus is on the claimant to show that the force was hostile , except in such situations where it is self @-@ evident . This was undermined by R v F , in which Goff wrote that he " respectfully doubts whether [ the requirement to show hostility ] is correct " , in line with his comment in Collins .
An extension to battery was given in Wilkinson v Downton , where emotional distress was considered a possible battery despite no physical force being used . The defendant told the claimant ( as a practical joke ) that her husband had been seriously injured . As a result the claimant suffered a nervous disorder and was thought to be suicidal for a time . It was held that such an action will be valid under battery where it is calculated to cause physical damage and does so . The principle was extended by Khorasandjian v Bush , in 1993 , where there was a risk that the defendant 's actions would cause physical or psychiatric damage . The tort set down in Wilkinson is normally considered a separate tort of intentional infliction of emotional distress .
= = = False imprisonment = = =
False imprisonment is defined as " depriving the claimant of freedom of movement , without a lawful justification for doing so " . Unlike assault and battery , false imprisonment is a tort of strict liability : no intention on the behalf of the defendant is needed , but the imprisonment must be caused by a deliberate act ( as decided in Sayers v Harlow Urban District Council , where a faulty lock , not a deliberate act from another party , caused a woman to become trapped in a public toilet ) and must be unlawful . The imprisonment of a lawfully convicted criminal is not false , nor is the arrest of a suspect if done in line with the Serious Organised Crime and Police Act 2005 and Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 .
Imprisonment is considered any restraint on the freedom of movement , for however short a time . In Austin and another v Metropolitan Police Commissioner , seven hours was considered a sufficient period of time to constitute false imprisonment ( although the claim was ultimately rejected due to the circumstances of a potentially hostile crowd of demonstrators ) . The requirement is complete restraint ; in Bird v Jones , the defendant fenced off part of a footpath for use as a viewing point for a boat race . The claimant , accustomed to walking across it , climbed into the enclosure ; the defendants refused to let him pass . They were found not liable for false imprisonment , as another way across existed . There is on the other hand no requirement that the claimant actually attempt to leave , as in Grainger v Hill , or even that he knows he is being prevented from leaving , as in Meering v Graham @-@ White Aviation Co Ltd .
= = = Defences = = =
There are many defences to trespasses against the person ; the stranger are the right of parents to commit assault and battery against their children for " chastisement " under the Children and Young Persons Act 1933 , and the right of the captain of a ship to discipline his crew , as in Hook v Cunard Steamship Co Ltd . There is also a right to eject a trespasser to land using reasonable force , and a defendant is also not liable for " inevitable accidents " , as in Stanley v Powell , where a ricocheting pellet was ruled to be accidental . Individuals and bodies will not be liable for imprisonment , battery or assault if doing so in line with statutory authorities , such as the Criminal Law Act 1967 .
A commonly used defence for the torts of trespass against the person is that of volenti non fit injuria , or consent . If a claimant participates in a sporting activity in which physical contact is ordinary conduct , such as rugby , they are considered to have consented . This is not the case if the physical contact went beyond what could be expected , as in R v Billinghurst , or where the injuries were suffered not from the claimant 's participation in the sport but inadequate safety measures taken , as in Watson v British Boxing Board of Control . The same general rule applies to people who voluntarily take part in fights , although only if the injuries caused are proportionate , as in Lane v Holloway . If the claimant is informed by a doctor of the broad risks of a medical procedure , there will be no claim under trespass against the person for resulting harm caused ; the claimant 's agreement constitutes " real consent " , as in Chatterton v Gerson . Consent for medical procedures is different in cases where the claimant does not have the mental capacity to consent . In F v West Berkshire Health Authority , it was held that in such situations the requirements are that there " must be a necessity to act when it is not practical to communicate with the assisted person ... [ and ] the action taken must be such as a reasonable person would in all the circumstances take , acting in the best interests of the assisted person " .
Self @-@ defence is also a valid defence to trespasses against the person , assuming that it constituted the use of " reasonable force which they honestly and reasonably believe is necessary to protect themselves or someone else , or property " . The force used must be proportionate to the threat , as ruled in Cockroft v Smith . If the action is undertaken to prevent a crime , Section 3 of the Criminal Law Act 1967 permits it assuming that it is " reasonable under the circumstances " .
= = Trespass to goods = =
Trespass to goods is defined as " wrongful physical interference with goods that are in the possession of another " . It is covered not only by the common law , but also by the Torts ( Interference with Goods ) Act 1977 , which was written to clear up the confusing rules on trespass to goods which had evolved over the centuries . It is similar to the tort of conversion , which covers the interference with goods in a way which is inconsistent with the rights of the owner . " Physical interference " is usually the taking or destroying of goods , but can be as minor as touching or moving them in the right circumstances . In Kirk v Gregory , the defendant moved jewellery from one room to another , where it was stolen . The deceased owner 's executor successfully sued her for trespass to goods . Goods cover almost any physical object , including animals , as in Slater v Swann , but not organs , as in AB & Ors v Leeds Teaching Hospital NHS Trust . " Possession " has the standard legal meaning , referring to the claimant 's right to use , control or deal with the item . This can include owners , but also bailees .
It is unknown what mental element is expected in cases of trespass to goods ; while trespass to the person requires intent , the requirements for trespass to goods have never been tested in court . The common remedy is damages , which may be awarded regardless of if any actual harm is suffered ; where there is damage , the defendant will only be liable if he could have reasonably foreseen it , as in Kuwait Airways Corporation v Iraqi Airways Co ( No 5 ) . Valid defences are those of statutory authority , consent , where it is necessary to interfere with the goods , or jus tertii .
= = Trespass to land = =
In English law , trespass to land involves the " unjustifiable interference with land which is in the immediate and exclusive possession of another " . It is not necessary to prove that harm was suffered to bring a claim , and is instead actionable per se . While most trespasses to land are intentional , in League Against Cruel Sports v Scott , the courts decided that it could also be committed negligently . Accidental trespass also incurs liability , with an exception for entering land adjoining a road unintentionally ( such as in a car accident ) , as in River Wear Commissioners v Adamson . Although previously a pure tort , the Criminal Justice and Public Order Act 1994 created some circumstances in which trespass to land can also be a crime .
Land is defined as the surface , subsoil , airspace and anything permanently attached to the land , such as houses . The rights of landowners over airspace are not unlimited ; in Bernstein of Leigh v Skyviews & General Ltd , the action for trespass failed because the violation of airspace took place several hundred metres above the land . This was backed up by the Civil Aviation Act 1982 , which provides that it is not trespass if the aircraft is flying at a reasonable height . An overhanging crane can constitute trespass , as in Woolerton v Costain , as can an advertising sign , as in Kelsen v Imperial Tobacco Co . Possession does not necessarily mean the ownership of land , but the right to eject or exclude others from it .
= = = Interference = = =
The main element of the tort is " interference " . This must be both direct and physical , with indirect interference instead being covered by negligence or nuisance . " Interference " covers any physical entry to land , as well as the abuse of a right of entry . If the person has the right to enter the land but remains after this right expires , this is also trespass . It is also a trespass to throw anything on the land . For the purposes of trespass , the person who owns the land on which a road rests is treated as the owner ; it is not , however , a trespass to use that road if public . In Hickman v Maisey , it was established that any use of a road that went beyond using it for its normal purpose could constitute a trespass , but this was altered by DPP v Jones . Lord Irvine , giving the leading judgment , said that " the public highway is a public place which the public may enjoy for any reasonable purpose , providing that the activity in question does not amount to a public or private nuisance and does not obstruct the highway by reasonably impeding the primary right of the public to pass and repass ; within these qualifications there is a public right of peaceful assembly on the highway " .
= = = Defences = = =
There are several defences to trespass to land ; licence , justification by law , necessity and jus tertii . Licence is express or implied permission , given by the possessor of land , to be on that land . If a licence is lawfully revoked , a licence @-@ holder becomes a trespasser if they remain on the land . Justification by law refers to those situations in which there is statutory authority permitting a person to go onto land , such as the Police and Criminal Evidence Act 1984 , which allows the police to enter land for the purposes of carrying out an arrest . Jus tertii is where the defendant can prove that the land is not possessed by the claimant , but by a third party , as in Doe d Carter v Barnard . The exception to this defence is if the claimant is a tenant and the defendant a landlord who had no right to give the claimant his lease . Necessity is the situation in which it is vital to commit the trespass ; in Esso Petroleum Co v Southport Corporation , the captain of a ship committed trespass by allowing oil to flood a shoreline . This was necessary to protect his ship and crew , however , and the defence of necessity was accepted .
= Tales of Wonder ( magazine ) =
Tales of Wonder was a British science fiction magazine which was launched in 1937 with Walter Gillings as editor . It was published by The World 's Work , a subsidiary of William Heinemann , as part of a series of genre titles that included Tales of Mystery and Detection and Tales of the Uncanny . GIllings was able to attract some good material , despite the low payment rates he was able to offer ; he also included many reprints from U.S. science fiction magazines . The magazine was apparently more successful than the other genre titles issued by The World 's Work , since Tales of Wonder was the only one to publish more than a single issue .
Arthur C. Clarke made his first professional sale to Tales of Wonder , with two science articles . Gillings also published William F. Temple 's first story , some early material by John Wyndham , and " The Prr @-@ r @-@ eet " by Eric Frank Russell . American writers who appeared in the magazine included Murray Leinster and Jack Williamson ; these were both reprints , but some new material from the U.S. did appear , including Lloyd A. Eshbach 's " Out of the Past " , and S.P. Meek 's " The Mentality Machine " . With the advent of World War II , paper shortages and Gillings ' call up into the army made it increasingly difficult to continue , and the sixteenth issue , dated Spring 1942 , was the last . Tales of Wonder was not the first British science fiction magazine , but it was the first one aimed at an adult market , and its success made it apparent that a science fiction magazine could survive in the U.K.
= = Publication history = =
The first U.S. science fiction ( sf ) magazine , Amazing Stories , was imported into the U.K. from its launch in 1926 , and other magazines from the U.S. market were also available from an early date . However , no British sf magazine appeared until 1934 , when Pearson 's launched Scoops , a weekly in tabloid format aimed at the juvenile market . Soon Haydn Dimmock , Scoops ' editor , began to receive more sophisticated stories , targeted at an adult audience ; he tried to change the magazine 's focus to include more mature fiction but within twenty issues falling sales led Pearson 's to kill the magazine . The failure of Scoops gave British publishers the impression that Britain could not support a science fiction publication .
Despite this failure , only a year later , George Newnes , Ltd . , the publisher of The Strand magazine , decided to launch a group of four genre pulp magazines , and to include a science fiction title . The editor , T. Stanhope Sprigg , had help from Walter Gillings , a British science fiction reader who had been active in fan circles since the early 1930s , in searching for good submissions , but the project was placed on hold after fifteen months . Gillings next approached The World 's Work , a subsidiary of William Heinemann , who were already publishing titles such as Tales of Mystery and Detection and Tales of the Uncanny , as part of their Master Thriller series . Gillings had heard that The World 's Work were planning a science fiction magazine ; as it turned out this was not the case , but Gillings was quickly able to persuade them to add science fiction to their list . He was asked to prepare a single issue of 80 @,@ 000 words to test the market . The World 's Work reprinted a good deal of American fiction and since they were only paying for reprint rights their rates were lower than was usual for new fiction . Gillings was given a budget of 10 / 6 ( ten shillings and sixpence ) per thousand words : the low rate discouraged those writers who could sell to the better @-@ paying American magazines . Newer writers were glad of the chance to develop a British market for their work , though most American writers were unimpressed .
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and 13 .
Alison Chesley – cello
= = = Technical personnel = = =
Rob Caggiano – producer
Jay Ruston – mixing and additional production
Asim Ali – engineer
Andy Lagis – assistant engineer
Alex Ross – artwork
Charlie Benante – cover concept
Douglas Heusser – artwork , design
Ross Halfin – photography
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= T48 Gun Motor Carriage =
The T48 57 mm Gun Motor Carriage was a self @-@ propelled anti @-@ tank gun produced by the Diamond T company in 1943 for the United States . The design incorporated a 57 mm gun M1 , a US production of the British Ordnance QF 6 pounder , mounted on an M3 Half @-@ track .
A total of 962 vehicles were produced from 1942 to 1943 . It had originally been planned that Britain would receive all of the examples produced through Lend @-@ Lease , intending to use them in the Western Desert , but by the time they arrived the campaign was over . Additionally , the purpose @-@ built M10 tank destroyer , armed with a 3 @-@ inch gun ( and later a 17 @-@ pounder gun in British service ) had begun to enter production . As a result , the British transferred 650 half @-@ tracks to the Soviet Union under the Soviet Aid Program . Britain retained 30 and the remainder were taken by the US ; these British and American vehicles were converted back to standard M3 Half @-@ tracks , except for one kept by the U.S. Army .
The Soviets called it the SU @-@ 57 ( Samokhodnaya ustanovka 57 ) , and under this designation it served in Operation Bagration and other fighting on the Eastern Front during World War II .
= = Specifications = =
The T48 Gun Motor Carriage was 21 ft ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) long , 7 ft 1 in ( 2 @.@ 16 m ) wide , and 7 ft ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) high . It had a wheelbase of 135 @.@ 5 in ( 3 @.@ 44 m ) , and weighed 9 @.@ 45 tons ( 20 @,@ 800 lb ) . The suspension consisted of a leaf spring for the wheels , while the front tread had vertical volute springs . The vehicle had a maximum speed of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) . With a fuel capacity of 60 US gallons ( 230 l ) , it had a range of 150 miles ( 240 km ) , and was powered by a 128 hp ( 95 kW ) White 160AX , 386 in3 ( 6 @,@ 330 cc ) , 6 @-@ cylinder gasoline engine with a compression ratio of 6 : 3 : 1 . The power @-@ to @-@ weight ratio was 15 @.@ 8 hp / ton . It also had 6 – 12 mm of armor , and was armed with a single 57 mm Gun M1 with 99 rounds of ammunition . It had a crew of five ( commander , gunner , driver , loader , and radio operator ) .
= = Development = =
The T48 originated from an Anglo @-@ American requirement for a self @-@ propelled 6 @-@ pounder anti @-@ tank gun . The requirement was met by emplacing a 57 mm gun M1 – the U.S. production version of the British Ordnance QF 6 @-@ pounder – in the rear of an M3 Half @-@ track . The first production batch was ordered in April 1942 . The Americans dropped their requirements because of the design of another tank destroyer , the M10 . Afterwards it was intended solely to be supplied overseas under the terms of the Lend @-@ Lease Program ; the T48 was never officially type @-@ classified .
= = = Pilot model = = =
The pilot model was built at the Aberdeen Proving Ground in May 1942 . The 57 mm Gun M1 was mounted in the M12 recoil mechanism and installed on a tubular pedestal . The tubular pedestal was soon replaced with a conical structure that was designated the " 57 mm gun mount T5 " . The gun on the pilot model had a traverse of 27 @.@ 5 degrees either side of the centerline ( total of 55 degrees ) , while having an elevation of + 15 to -5 degrees . The short @-@ barrelled ( 43 caliber ) British Mark III 6 @-@ pounder gun was installed in the pilot , but the longer @-@ barrelled ( 50 caliber ) 57 mm Gun M1 was specified for the production models . The original travel lock – to hold the gun in a fixed position when the vehicle was moving – proved to be unsatisfactory , and was replaced by a travel lock on the front hood .
The original design used a gun shield taken from the T44 57 mm Gun Motor Carriage , but after the first tests were complete , a new shield was designed with 5 / 8 inch thick face @-@ hardened steel on the front and 1 / 4 inch thick on the sides and top . The shield extended over the crew with a relatively low silhouette of only 90 in ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) . Experience with the M3 Gun Motor Carriage in the Philippines Campaign , resulted in demountable headlights being used . The T48 was accepted for production in 1942 .
= = Service history = =
Deliveries of the T48 were made in 1942 and 1943 , with 50 arriving in 1942 followed by a further 912 in 1943 . The British ordered all of the T48s that were produced , intending to use them in the Western Desert Campaign . By the time the vehicles arrived in the theater in the summer of 1943 , the British had already won the war in the Western Desert . Meanwhile , the 57 mm gun was superseded by the 75 mm gun from the U.S. , and later the availability of the Ordnance QF 17 @-@ pounder gun , meant that the T48 became surplus to British requirements . As a result , the vehicles were almost immediately shipped to the Soviet Union under the terms of the Soviet Aid Program . Through this , the Soviets received 650 vehicles , which they designated the " SU @-@ 57 " ( Samokhodnaya ustanovka 57 ) . A small number were later passed to the Polish People 's Army .
Of the remainder , Britain accepted 30 , all of which were converted back into carriers , and the US took 282 vehicles . Of those retained by the US , all but one were converted back to M3A1 standard carriers in 1944 . The conversion took place at the Chester Tank Depot . The Wehrmacht also operated a number of T48s as carriers , having captured several from Britain and the Soviet Union .
The Soviets employed the T48 along the Eastern Front , mainly in Operation Bagration . The Soviet 16th Separate Tank Destroyer Brigade used a large number of T48s in 1943 during the offensive across the Dnieper River , and with the 19th Brigade during the Baranow bridgehead battle in August 1944 . The T48 also served with the Soviet 22nd Self @-@ Propelled Artillery Brigade . Some of these units also took part in the Berlin and Prague offensives . The Polish People 's Army used T48s assigned to the 7th Self @-@ Propelled Artillery Battery to support Soviet attacks into Germany and Poland .
In Soviet service , the vehicles were allocated to brigades at a scale of 60 per brigade . During the attack , the vehicles were used to provide mobile fire support , being placed behind the infantry , usually in a hull @-@ down position behind a ridge or a hill , to fire across a broad front to take advantage of the long range of the 57 mm gun .
= = Operators = =
British Army accepted 30 vehicles , later rebuilt as carriers .
Polish Army in the East received 15 vehicles operated previously by the Red Army .
Red Army operated T48 GMC under the designation SU @-@ 57 .
U.S. Army used T48s rebuilt as M3A1 Half @-@ tracks , in 1944 . Most rebuilt by the Chester Tank Depot . One T48 was integrated into the U.S. Army .
Wehrmacht units operated a small number of T48s captured from UK and the Soviet Union .
= Irish phonology =
The phonology of the Irish language varies from dialect to dialect ; there is no standard pronunciation of Irish . Therefore , this article focuses on phenomena that pertain generally to most or all dialects , and on the major differences among the dialects . Detailed discussion of the dialects can be found in the specific articles : Ulster Irish , Connacht Irish , and Munster Irish .
Irish phonology has been studied as a discipline since the late 19th century , with numerous researchers publishing descriptive accounts of dialects from all regions where the language is spoken . More recently , Irish phonology has been the focus of theoretical linguists , who have produced a number of books , articles , and doctoral theses on the topic .
One of the most important aspects of Irish phonology is that almost all consonants come in pairs , with one having a " broad " pronunciation and the other a " slender " one . Broad consonants are velarized , that is , the back of the tongue is pulled back and slightly up in the direction of the soft palate while the consonant is being articulated . Slender consonants are palatalized , which means the tongue is pushed up toward the hard palate during the articulation . The contrast between broad and slender consonants is crucial in Irish , because the meaning of a word can change if a broad consonant is substituted for a slender consonant or vice versa . For example , the only difference in pronunciation between the words bó ( ' cow ' ) and beo ( ' alive ' ) is that bó is pronounced with a broad b sound , while beo is pronounced with a slender b sound . The contrast between broad and slender consonants plays a critical role not only in distinguishing the individual consonants themselves , but also in the pronunciation of the surrounding vowels , in the determination of which consonants can stand next to which other consonants , and in the behavior of words that begin with a vowel . This broad / slender distinction is similar to the hard / soft one of several Slavic languages , like Russian .
The Irish language shares a number of phonological characteristics with its nearest linguistic relatives , Scottish Gaelic and Manx , as well as with Hiberno @-@ English , the language with which it is most closely in contact .
= = History of the discipline = =
Until the end of the nineteenth century , linguistic discussions of Irish focused either on the traditional grammar of the language ( issues like the inflection of nouns , verbs and adjectives ) or on the historical development of sounds from Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European through Proto @-@ Celtic to Old Irish . The first descriptive analysis of the phonology of an Irish dialect was Finck ( 1899 ) , which was based on the author 's fieldwork in the Aran Islands . This was followed by Quiggin ( 1906 ) , a phonetic description of the dialect of Meenawannia near Glenties , County Donegal . Pedersen ( 1909 ) is predominantly a historical account , but has some description of modern dialects as well . Alf Sommerfelt published early descriptions of both Ulster and Munster varieties ( Sommerfelt 1922 and Sommerfelt 1965 for the village of Torr in Gweedore , Sommerfelt 1927 for Munster , and Sommerfelt 1929 for the now extinct dialect of South Armagh ) . The dialect of Dunquin on the Dingle Peninsula was described by Sjoestedt ( 1931 ) . From 1944 to 1968 the Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies published a series of monographs , each describing the phonology of one local dialect : Ó Cuív ( 1944 ) for West Muskerry in County Cork ( Ballyvourney , Coolea and vicinity ) , de Bhaldraithe ( 1966 ) ( first published 1945 ) for Cois Fhairrge in County Galway ( Barna , Spiddal , Inverin and vicinity ) , Breatnach ( 1947 ) for An Rinn , County Waterford , de Búrca ( 1958 ) for Tourmakeady in County Mayo , Wagner ( 1959 ) for Teelin , County Donegal , Mhac an Fhailigh ( 1968 ) for Erris in County Mayo . More recent descriptive phonology has been published by Lucas ( 1979 ) for Rosguill in northern Donegal , Hughes ( 1986 ) for Tangaveane and Commeen ( also near Glenties ) , Ó Curnáin ( 1996 ) for Iorras Aithneach in Connemara ( Kilkieran and vicinity ) , and Ó Sé ( 2000 ) for the Dingle Peninsula in County Kerry .
Research into the theoretical phonology of Irish began with Ó Siadhail & Wigger ( 1975 ) , which follows the principles and practices of The Sound Pattern of English and which formed the basis of the phonology sections of Ó Siadhail ( 1989 ) . Dissertations examining Irish phonology from a theoretical point of view include Ní Chiosáin ( 1991 ) , Green ( 1997 ) in optimality theory , and Cyran ( 1997 ) and Bloch @-@ Rozmej ( 1998 ) in government phonology .
= = Consonants = =
Most dialects of Irish contain at a minimum the consonant phonemes shown in the following chart ( see International Phonetic Alphabet for an explanation of the symbols ) . The consonant / h / is neither broad nor slender .
= = = On- and offglides = = =
Broad ( velar or velarized ) consonants have a noticeable velar offglide ( a very short vowel @-@ like sound ) before front vowels , which sounds like the English w but made without rounding the lips . The IPA symbol for this sound is [ ɰ ] . Thus naoi / n ̪ ˠiː / ( ' nine ' ) and caoi / kiː / ( ' way , manner ' ) are pronounced [ n ̪ ˠɰiː ] and [ kɰiː ] , respectively . This velar offglide is labialized ( pronounced with lip @-@ rounding , like w ) after labial consonants , so buí / bˠiː / ( ' yellow ' ) is pronounced [ bˠwiː ] .
Similarly , slender ( palatal or palatalized ) consonants have a palatal offglide ( like English y ) before back vowels , e.g. tiubha / tʲuː / ( ' thick ' ) is pronounced [ tʲjuː ] .
When a broad consonant follows a front vowel , there is a very short vowel sound [ ə ̯ ] ( called an onglide ) just before the consonant , e.g. díol / dʲiːl ̪ ˠ / ( ' sell ' ) is pronounced [ dʲiːə ̯ l ̪ ˠ ] . Similarly , when a slender consonant follows a back vowel , there is an onglide [ i ̯ ] before the consonant , e.g. áit / aːtʲ / ( ' place ' ) is pronounced [ aːi ̯ tʲ ] , óil / oːlʲ / ( ' drinking ' gen . ) is pronounced [ oːi ̯ lʲ ] , meabhair / mʲəuɾʲ / ( ' understanding ' ) is [ mʲəui ̯ ɾʲ ] , and dúinn / d ̪ ˠuːn ̠ ʲ / ( ' to us ' ) is [ d ̪ ˠuːi ̯ n ̠ ʲ ] .
= = = Allophones = = =
/ w / ( which can be written as 〈 bh 〉 , 〈 mh 〉 , or 〈 v 〉 ) has two basic allophones : the labiovelar approximant [ w ] and the velarized voiced labiodental fricative [ vˠ ] . The distribution of these allophones varies from dialect to dialect . In Munster , generally only [ vˠ ] is found , and in Ulster generally only [ w ] is found . In Connacht , [ w ] is found word @-@ initially before vowels ( e.g. bhfuil [ wɪlʲ ] ' is ' ) and [ vˠ ] in other positions ( e.g. naomh [ n ̪ ˠiːvˠ ] ' saint ' , fómhar [ ˈfˠuːvˠəɾˠ ] ' autumn ' , and bhrostaigh [ ˈvˠɾˠɔsˠt ̪ ˠə ] ' hurried ' ) .
The remaining labial fricatives are typically labiodental [ fˠ , fʲ , vʲ ] , but they as well as the fricative allophone [ vˠ ] of / w / have bilabial allophones [ ɸˠ , ɸʲ , βˠ , βʲ ] in many dialects ; the distribution depends partly on environment ( bilabials are more likely to be found adjacent to rounded vowels ) and partly on the individual speaker .
Among the coronals , most are alveolar , but the broad stops and lateral are typically dental [ t ̪ ˠ , d ̪ ˠ , n ̪ ˠ , l ̪ ˠ ] , and the slender coronal fricative is typically postalveolar [ ʃ ] . The slender coronal stops / tʲ , dʲ / may be realized as alveolo @-@ palatal affricates [ tɕ , dʑ ] in a number of dialects , including Tourmakeady , Erris , and Teelin .
The slender dorsal stops / c , ɟ , ɲ / may be articulated as true palatals [ c , ɟ , ɲ ] or as palatovelars [ k ̟ , ɡ ˖ , ŋ ˖ ] .
The phoneme / j / has three allophones in most dialects : a palatal approximant [ j ] before vowels besides / iː / and at the ends of syllables ( e.g. dheas [ jasˠ ] ' nice ' , beidh [ bʲɛj ] ' will be ' ) ; a voiced ( post ) palatal fricative [ ʝ ] before consonants ( e.g. ghrian [ ʝɾʲiən ̪ ˠ ] ' sun ' ) ; and an intermediate sound [ j ˔ ] ( with more frication than [ j ] but less frication than [ ʝ ] ) before / iː / ( e.g. dhírigh [ j ˔ iːɾʲə ] ' straightened ' ) .
As in English , voiceless stops are aspirated ( articulated with a puff of air immediately upon release ) at the start of a word , while voiced stops may be incompletely voiced but are never aspirated . Voiceless stops are unaspirated after / sˠ / and / ʃ / ( e.g. scanradh [ sˠkauɾˠə ] 1 ' terror ' ) ; however , stops remain aspirated after the clitic is / sˠ / ( e.g. is cam [ sˠkʰaum ] ' it 's crooked ' ) . Several researchers ( e.g. Ó Cuív 1944 , Wagner 1959 , de Bhaldraithe 1966 , Mhac an Fhailigh 1968 , and Ó Sé 2000 ) use transcriptions like / sb sd sɡ xd / , etc . , indicating they consider the stops that occur after voiceless fricatives to be devoiced allophones of the voiced stops rather than unaspirated allophones of the voiceless stops ( as is actually the case in Scottish Gaelic ) , but this is a minority view .
= = = Fortis and lenis sonorants = = =
In Old Irish , the sonorants ( those spelled 〈 l n r m 〉 ) were divided not only into broad and slender types , but also into fortis and lenis types . The precise phonetic definition of these terms is somewhat vague , but the coronal fortis sounds ( those spelled 〈 l n r 〉 ) were probably longer in duration and may have had a larger area of contact between the tongue and the roof of the mouth than the lenis sounds . Fortis m was probably a normal [ m ] , while lenis m was a nasalized semivowel [ w ̃ ] , perhaps tending towards a nasalized fricative [ ṽ ] or [ β ̃ ] when palatalized . By convention , the fortis coronals are transcribed with capital letters 〈 L N R 〉 , the lenis with lower case 〈 l n r 〉 ( some authors , such as Stifter 2006 , instead use Latin 〈 l n r m 〉 for fortis and Greek 〈 λ ν ρ μ 〉 for lenis ) . Thus Old Irish had four rhotic phonemes / Rˠ , Rʲ , rˠ , rʲ / , four lateral phonemes / Lˠ , Lʲ , lˠ , lʲ / , and four coronal nasal phonemes / Nˠ , Nʲ , nˠ , nʲ / . Fortis and lenis sonorants contrasted with each other between vowels and word @-@ finally after vowels in Old Irish , for example berraid / bʲeRˠɨðʲ / ( ' he shears ' ) vs. beraid / bʲerˠɨðʲ / ( ' he may carry ' ) ; coll / koLˠ / ( ' hazel ' ) vs. col / kolˠ / ( ' sin ' ) ; sonn / sˠoNˠ / ( ' stake ' ) vs. son / sˠonˠ / ( ' sound ' ) . Word @-@ initially , only the fortis sounds were found , but they became lenis in environments where morphosyntactically triggered lenition was found : rún / Rˠuːnˠ / ( ' mystery ' ) vs. a rún / a rˠuːnˠ / ( ' his mystery ' ) , lón / Lˠoːnˠ / ( ' provision ' ) vs. a lón / a lˠoːnˠ / ( ' his provision ' ) .
In the modern language , the four rhotics have been reduced to two in all dialects , / Rˠ , Rʲ , rˠ / having merged as / ɾˠ / . For the laterals and nasals , some dialects have kept all four distinct , while others have reduced them to three or two distinct phonemes , as summarized in the following table .
As for fortis and lenis m , in time the lenis version ( nasalized semivowel or labial fricative ) came to be pronounced as a regular semivowel or fricative along with nasalization of the preceding vowel . The later loss of / w / between vowels has resulted in phonemically nasalized vowels in some modern dialects ( see below ) , but these are not robustly maintained in any dialect ; the strong tendency is to eliminate the nasalization entirely . The original nasalized semivowel is still reflected as 〈 mh 〉 in the spelling , however .
= = Vowels = =
The vowel sounds vary from dialect to dialect , but in general Connacht and Munster at least agree in having the monophthongs / iː / , / ɪ / , / uː / , / ʊ / , / eː / , / ɛ / , / oː / , / ɔ / , / a / , / aː / , and schwa ( / ə / ) , which is found only in unstressed syllables ; and the falling diphthongs / əi / , / əu / , / iə / , and / uə / .
The vowels of Ulster Irish are more divergent and are not discussed in this article .
= = = Vowel backness = = =
The backness of vowels ( that is , the horizontal position of the highest point of the tongue ) depends to a great extent on the quality ( broad or slender ) of adjacent consonants . Some researchers ( e.g. Ó Siadhail & Wigger 1975 : 80 – 82 , Ó Siadhail 1989 : 35 – 37 , Ní Chiosáin 1994 ) have argued that [ ɪ ] and [ ʊ ] are actually allophones of the same phoneme , as are [ ɛ ] and [ ɔ ] , as in a vertical vowel system . Under this view , these phonemes are not marked at an abstract level as either front vowels or back vowels . Rather , they acquire a specification for frontness or backness from the consonants around them . In this article , however , the more traditional assumption that / ɪ , ʊ , ɛ , ɔ / are four distinct phonemes will be followed . The descriptions of the allophones in this section come from Ó Sé ( 2000 : 20 – 24 ) ; the pronunciations therefore reflect the Munster accent of the Dingle Peninsula . Unless otherwise noted , however , they largely hold for other Munster and Connacht accents as well .
= = = = Close vowels = = = =
The four close vowel phonemes of Irish are the fully close / iː / and / uː / , and the near @-@ close / ɪ / and / ʊ / . Their exact pronunciation depends on the quality of the surrounding consonants . / iː / is realized as a front [ iː ] between two slender consonants ( e.g. tír [ tʲiːrʲ ] ' country ' ) . Between a slender and a broad consonant , the tongue is retracted slightly from this position ( for which the IPA symbol is [ i ̠ ː ] ) , e.g. díol [ dʲi ̠ ːl ̪ ˠ ] ( ' sale ' ) , caoire [ ki ̠ ːɾʲə ] ( ' berry ' gen . ) . Between two broad consonants , the tongue is retracted even further , almost to the point of being a central vowel ( in IPA , [ ïː ] ) : caora [ kïːɾˠə ] ( ' sheep ' ) . / uː / is a fully back [ uː ] between broad consonants ( e.g. dún [ d ̪ ˠuːn ̪ ˠ ] ' fort ' ) , but between a broad and a slender consonant , the tongue is somewhat advanced ( IPA [ u ̟ ː ] ) , e.g. triúr [ tʲɾʲu ̟ ːɾˠ ] ( ' three people ' ) , súil [ sˠu ̟ ːlʲ ] ( ' eye ' ) . Between two slender consonants , it is advanced even further , to a centralized vowel ( IPA [ üː ] ) : ciúin [ cüːnʲ ] ( ' quiet ' ) .
The near @-@ close vowels / ɪ / and / ʊ / show a similar pattern . / ɪ / is realized between slender consonants as a front [ i ̞ ] , e.g. tigh [ tʲi ̞ ɟ ] ( ' house ' dat . ) . After a slender consonant and before a broad one , it is a near @-@ front [ ɪ ] , e.g. giota [ ˈɟɪt ̪ ˠə ] ( ' piece ' ) . After a broad consonant and before a slender one , it is a more retracted [ ɪ ̈ ] , e.g. tuigeann [ ˈt ̪ ˠɪ ̈ ɟən ̪ ˠ ] ( ' understands ' ) . Finally , between two broad consonants it is a central [ ɨ ̞ ] , e.g. goirt [ ɡɨ ̞ ɾˠtʲ ] 2 ( ' salty ' ) . / ʊ / is a near @-@ back [ ʊ ] when all adjacent consonants are broad , e.g. dubh [ d ̪ ˠʊvˠ ] ( ' black ' ) , and a more centralized [ ʊ ̟ ] after a slender consonant , e.g. giobal [ ˈɟʊ ̟ bˠəl ̪ ˠ ] ( ' rag ' ) .
= = = = Mid vowels = = = =
The realization of the long close @-@ mid vowels / eː / and / oː / varies according to the quality of the surrounding consonants . / eː / is a front [ eː ] between two slender consonants ( e.g. béic [ bʲeːc ] ' yell ' ) , a centralized [ ëː ] between a broad and a slender consonant ( e.g. glaoigh [ ɡl ̪ ˠëːɟ ] ' call ' ) , and a more open centralized [ ɛ ̝ ̈ ː ] between two broad consonants ( e.g. baol [ bˠɛ ̝ ̈ ːl ̪ ˠ ] ' danger ' ) . / oː / ranges from a back [ oː ] between two broad consonants ( e.g. fód [ fˠoːd ̪ ˠ ] ' turf ' ) to an advanced [ o ̟ ː ] between a broad and a slender consonant ( e.g. fóid [ fˠo ̟ ːdʲ ] ' turf ' [ gen . ] ) to a centralized [ öː ] between two slender consonants ( e.g. ceoil [ cöːlʲ ] ' music ' [ gen . ] ) .
The short open @-@ mid vowels also vary depending on their environment . Short / ɛ / ranges from a front [ ɛ ̝ ] between slender consonants ( e.g. beidh [ bʲɛ ̝ ɟ ] ' will be ' ) to a retracted [ ɛ ̝ ̈ ] between a broad and a slender consonant ( e.g. bead [ bʲɛ ̝ ̈ d ̪ ˠ ] ' I will be ' , raibh [ ɾˠɛ ̝ ̈ vʲ ] ' was ' ) to a central [ ɘ ̞ ] when the only adjacent consonant is broad ( e.g. croich [ kɾˠɘ ̞ ] ' cross ' [ dat . ] ) . Short / ɔ / between two broad consonants is usually a back [ ɔ ̝ ] , e.g. cloch [ kl ̪ ˠɔ ̝ x ] ( ' stone ' ) , but it is a centralized [ ö ] adjacent to nasal consonants and labial consonants , e.g. ansan [ ən ̪ ˠˈsˠön ̪ ˠ ] ( ' there ' ) and bog [ bˠöɡ ] ( ' soft ' ) . Between a broad and a slender consonant , it is a more open [ ɔ ̝ ̈ ] : scoil [ skɔ ̝ ̈ lʲ ] ( ' school ' ) , deoch [ dʲɔ ̝ ̈ x ] ( ' drink ' ) .
Unstressed / ə / is realized as a near @-@ close , near @-@ front [ ɪ ] when adjacent to a palatal consonant , e.g. píce [ ˈpʲiːcɪ ] ( ' pike ' ) . Next to other slender consonants , it is a mid @-@ centralized [ ɪ ̽ ] , e.g. sáile [ ˈsˠaːlʲɪ ̽ ] ( ' salt water ' ) . Adjacent to broad consonants , it is usually a mid central [ ə ] , e.g. eolas [ ˈoːl ̪ ˠəsˠ ] ( ' information ' ) , but when the preceding syllable contains one of the close back vowels / uː , ʊ / , it is realized as a mid @-@ centralized back [ ʊ ̽ ] , e.g. dúnadh [ ˈd ̪ ˠuːn ̪ ˠʊ ̽ ] ( ' closing ' ) , muca [ ˈmˠʊkʊ ̽ ] ( ' pigs ' ) .
= = = = Open vowels = = = =
The realization of the open vowels varies according to the quality of the surrounding consonants ; there is a significant difference between Munster dialects and Connacht dialects as well . In Munster , long / aː / and short / a / have approximately the same range of realization : both vowels are relatively back in contact with broad consonants and relatively front in contact with slender consonants . Specifically , long / aː / in word @-@ initial position and after broad consonants is a back [ ɑː ] , e.g. áit [ ɑːtʲ ] ( ' place ' ) , trá [ t ̪ ˠɾˠɑː ] ( ' beach ' ) . Between a slender and a broad consonant , it is a retracted front [ a ̠ ː ] , e.g. gearrfaidh [ ˈɟa ̠ ːɾˠhəɟ ] ( ' will cut ' ) , while between two slender consonants it is a fully front [ aː ] , e.g. a Sheáin [ ə çaːnʲ ] ( ' John ' voc . ) . In Dingle , the back allophone is rounded to [ ɒː ] after broad labials , e.g. bán [ bˠɒːn ̪ ˠ ] ( ' white ' ) , while in An Rinn , rounded [ ɒː ] is the usual realization of / aː / in all contexts except between slender consonants , where it is a centralized [ ɒ ̈ ː ] . Short / a / between two slender consonants is a front [ a ] , as in gairid [ ɟaɾʲədʲ ] 3 ( ' short ' ) . Between a broad and a slender consonant , it is in most cases a retracted [ a ̠ ] , e.g. fear [ fʲa ̠ ɾˠ ] ( ' man ' ) , caite and [ ˈka ̠ tʲə ] ( ' worn ' ) , but after broad labials and / l ̪ ˠ / it is a centralized front [ ä ] , e.g. baile [ bˠälʲə ] ( ' town ' ) , loit [ l ̪ ˠätʲ ] 4 ( ' injure ' ) . When it is adjacent only to broad consonants , it is a centralized back [ ɑ ̈ ] , e.g. mac [ mˠɑ ̈ k ] ( ' son ' ) , abair [ ɑ ̈ bˠəɾʲ ] ( ' say ' ) .
In Connacht varieties , the allophones of short / a / are consistently further front than the allophones of long / aː / . In Erris , for example , short / a / ranges from a near @-@ open front vowel [ æ ] before slender consonants ( e.g. sail [ sˠælʲ ] ' earwax ' ) to an open [ a ] after slender consonants ( e.g. geal [ ɟalˠ ] ' bright ' ) to a centralized back [ ɑ ̈ ] between broad consonants ( e.g. capall [ ˈkɑ ̈ pˠəl ̪ ˠ ] ' horse ' ) . Long / aː / , on the other hand , ranges from a back [ ɑː ] between broad consonants ( e.g. bád [ bˠɑːd ̪ ˠ ] ' boat ' ) to an advanced back [ ɑ ̟ ː ] before slender consonants ( e.g. fáil [ fˠɑ ̟ ːlʲ ] ' to get ' ) to a centralized back [ ɑ ̈ ː ] after slender consonants ( e.g. breá [ bʲɾʲɑ ̈ ː ] ' fine ' ) . In Tourmakeady , the back allophone is rounded to [ ɒː ] after broad labials , e.g. bán [ bˠɒːn ̪ ˠ ] ( ' white ' ) . In Connemara , the allophones of / a / are lengthened in duration , so that only vowel quality distinguishes the allophones of / a / from those of / aː / .
= = = = Diphthongs = = = =
The starting point of / əi / ranges from a near @-@ open central [ ɐ ] after broad consonants to an open @-@ mid centralized front [ ɛ ̈ ] after slender consonants , and its end point ranges from a near @-@ close near @-@ front [ ɪ ] before slender consonants to a centralized [ ɪ ̈ ] before broad consonants . Examples include cladhaire [ kl ̪ ˠɐɪɾʲə ] ( ' rogue ' ) , gadhar [ ɡɐɪ ̈ ɾˠ ] ( ' dog ' ) , cill [ cɛ ̈ ɪlʲ ] ( ' church ' ) , and leigheas [ lʲɛ ̈ ɪ ̈ sˠ ] ( ' cure ' ) .
The starting point of / əu / ranges from a near @-@ open central [ ɐ ] after broad consonants to an open @-@ mid advanced central [ ɜ ̟ ] after slender consonants , and its end point ranges from a near @-@ close near @-@ back [ ʊ ] before broad consonants to a centralized [ ʊ ̈ ] before slender consonants . Examples include bodhar [ bˠɐʊɾˠ ] ( ' deaf ' ) , feabhas [ fʲɜ ̟ ʊsˠ ] ( ' improvement ' ) , labhairt [ l ̪ ˠɐʊ ̈ ɾʲtʲ ] ( ' speak ' ) , and meabhair [ mʲɜ ̟ ʊ ̈ ɾʲ ] ( ' memory ' ) . In West Muskerry and the Dingle Peninsula , however , the starting point of / əu / is rounded and further back after broad consonants , e.g. gabhar [ ɡɔʊɾˠ ] ( ' goat ' ) .
The starting point of / iə / ranges from a close front [ i ] after slender consonants to a retracted [ i ̠ ] after word @-@ initial broad / ɾˠ / ( the only context in which it appears after a broad consonant ) . Its end point ranges from a mid central [ ə ] before broad consonants to a close @-@ mid centralized front [ ë ] before slender consonants . Examples include ciall [ ciəl ̪ ˠ ] ( ' sense ' ) , riamh [ ɾˠi ̠ əvˠ ] ( ' ever ' ) , and diabhail [ dʲiëlʲ ] ( ' devils ' ) .
The starting point of / uə / is consistently a close back [ u ] while the end point ranges from [ ɐ ] to [ ɪ ̽ ] : thuas [ huɐsˠ ] ( ' above ' ) , uan [ uən ̪ ˠ ] ( ' lamb ' ) , buail [ bˠuɪ ̽ lʲ ] ( ' strike ' ) .
= = = Nasalized vowels = = =
In general , vowels in Irish are nasalized when adjacent to nasal consonants . For some speakers , there are reported to be minimal pairs between nasal vowels and oral vowels , indicating that nasal vowels are also separate phonemes ; these generally result from an earlier nasalized semivowel [ w ̃ ] ( historically the lenited version of / m / ) , that has since been lost . However , the contrast is not robust in any dialect ; most published descriptions say that contrastively nasal vowels are present in the speech of only some ( usually older ) speakers . Potential minimal pairs include those shown in the table below .
In addition , where a vowel is nasalized because it is adjacent to a nasal consonant , it often retains its nasalization in related forms where the consonant is no longer nasal . For example , the nasal / m / of máthair [ ˈmãːhəɾʲ ] ( ' mother ' ) is replaced by nonnasal / w / in the phrase a mháthair [ ə ˈwãːhəɾʲ ] ( ' his mother ' ) , but the vowel remains nasalized . Similarly , in sneachta [ ˈʃnʲãxt ̪ ˠə ] ( ' snow ' ) the vowel after the / nʲ / is nasalized , while in an tsneachta [ ə ˈtʲɾʲãxt ̪ ˠə ] ( ' the snow ' gen . ) , the / nʲ / is replaced by / ɾʲ / in some northern dialects , but the nasalized vowel remains .
= = Phonotactics = =
The most interesting aspects of Irish phonotactics revolve around the behavior of consonant clusters . Here it is important to distinguish between clusters that occur at the beginnings of words and those that occur after vowels , although there is overlap between the two groups .
= = = Word @-@ initial consonant clusters = = =
Irish words can begin with clusters of two or three consonants . In general , all the consonants in a cluster agree in their quality , i.e. either all are broad or all are slender . Two @-@ consonant clusters consist of an obstruent consonant followed by a liquid or nasal consonant ( however , labial obstruents may not be followed by a nasal ) ; examples ( from Ní Chiosáin 1999 ) include bleán / bʲlʲaːnˠ / ( ' milking ' ) , breá / bʲɾʲaː / ( ' fine ' ) , cnaipe / ˈkn ̪ ˠapʲə / ( ' button ' ) , dlí / dʲlʲiː / ( ' law ' ) , gnáth / ɡn ̪ ˠaː / ( ' usual ' ) , pleidhce / ˈpʲlʲəicə / ( ' idiot ' ) , slios / ʃlʲɪsˠ / ( ' slice ' ) , sneachta / ˈʃnʲaxt ̪ ˠə / ( ' snow ' ) , tlúth / t ̪ ˠl ̪ ˠuː / ( ' poker ' ) , and tnúth / t ̪ ˠn ̪ ˠuː / ( ' long for ' ) . In addition , / sˠ / and / ʃ / may be followed by a voiceless stop , as in sparán / ˈsˠpˠaɾˠaːn ̪ ˠ / ( ' purse ' ) and scéal / ʃceːl ̪ ˠ / ( ' story ' ) . Further , the cluster / mˠn ̪ ˠ / occurs in the word mná / mˠn ̪ ˠaː / ( ' women ' ) and a few forms related to it . Three @-@ consonant clusters consist of / sˠ / or / ʃ / plus a voiceless stop plus a liquid . Examples include scliúchas / ˈʃclʲuːxəsˠ / ( ' rumpus ' ) , scread / ʃcɾʲad ̪ ˠ / ( ' scream ' ) , splanc / sˠpˠl ̪ ˠaŋk / ( ' flash ' ) , spraoi / sˠpˠɾˠiː / ( ' fun ' ) , and stríoc / ʃtʲɾʲiːk / ( ' streak ' ) .
One exception to quality agreement is that broad / sˠ / is found before slender labials ( and for some speakers in Connemara and Dingle before / c / as well ) . Examples include : sméara / sˠmʲeːɾˠə / ( ' berries ' ) , speal / sˠpʲal / ( ' scythe ' ) , spleách / sˠpʲlʲaːx / ( ' dependent ' ) , spreag / sˠpʲɾʲaɡ / ( ' inspire ' ) , and scéal / ʃceːl ̪ ˠ / ~ / sˠceːl ̪ ˠ / ( ' story ' ) .
In the environment of an initial consonant mutation , there is a much wider range of possible onset clusters ; for example , in a lenition environment the following occur : bhlas / wl ̪ ˠasˠ / ( ' tasted ' ) , bhris / vʲɾʲɪʃ / ( ' broke ' ) , chleacht / çlʲaxt ̪ ˠ / ( ' practiced ' ) , chrom / xɾˠɔmˠ / ( ' bent ' ) , ghreamaigh / ˈjɾʲamˠə / ( ' stuck ' ) , ghníomhaigh / ˈjnʲiːwə / ( ' acted ' ) , shleamhnaigh / hlʲəun ̪ ˠə / ( ' slipped ' ) , shnámh / hn ̪ ˠaːw / ( ' swam ' ) , shroich / hɾˠɪç / ( ' reached ' ) . In an eclipsis environment , the following are found : mbláth / mˠl ̪ ˠaː / ( ' flower ' ) , mbliana / ˈmʲlʲiən ̪ ˠə / ( ' years ' ) , mbrisfeá / ˈmʲɾʲɪʃaː / ( ' you would break ' ) , ndlúth / n ̪ ˠl ̪ ˠuː / ( ' warp ' ) , ndroichead / ˈn ̪ ˠ
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ambassador of King James I to the Ottoman Empire , was born and grew up in the town , and attended Wellingborough School .
The town has sports people such as Rory McLeod and Jamie O 'Neill both snooker players , born in the town , and football players Trevor Benjamin and Bill Perkins both grew up in the town . Perkins played for a number of teams including Liverpool Football Club , Kettering Town and Northampton Town . Fanny Walden was born in the town , formerly playing for Northampton Town and Tottenham Hotspur . Brian Hill , referee , was also born in the town . Anita Neal , 100m olympic sprinter , lived in the town and went to John Lea School England Rugby captain Bob Taylor and player Jeff Butterfield both taught at Wellingborough Grammar School . Infamous football hooligan colloquially known as the Pig of Marseille is also from the town .
Wellingborough is home to singers Peter Murphy of Bauhaus who lived a large portion of his early life here , Thom Yorke of Radiohead , musician Robin Rimbaud aka Scanner , and politicians Alfred Dobbs , Arthur Allen ( for the Labour Party ) and Brian Binley ( for the Conservative Party ) .
Authors connected with the town include Lesley Glaister who was born in Wellingborough , while Stephen Elboz was born and currently lives in the town . Journalist and whisky writer Jim Murray also lives here . Author and historian Bruce Quarrie lived in the town before his death in 2004 . A school in Wellingborough is named after Sir Christopher Hatton , and high scoring WWI fighter pilot Edward Mannock ( Major ' Mick ' Mannock ) lived in the town and is mentioned on the Wellingborough War Memorial and has a road named after him .
= = Twin towns = =
Wellingborough is twinned with :
Niort , France ( 1977 )
Wittlich , Germany .
and also has relations with Willingboro , township in Burlington County , New Jersey , United States , while Irchester and Grendon , two of the villages within the Borough of Wellingborough , have twin town partners at Coulon near Niort , and Bois @-@ Bernard near Arras .
= Persoonia levis =
Persoonia levis , commonly known as the broad @-@ leaved geebung , is a shrub native to New South Wales and Victoria in eastern Australia . It reaches 5 m ( 16 ft ) in height and has dark grey papery bark and bright green asymmetrical sickle @-@ shaped leaves up to 14 cm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) long and 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 2 in ) wide . The small yellow flowers appear in summer and autumn ( December to April ) , followed by small green fleshy fruit , which are classified as drupes . Within the genus Persoonia , it is a member of the Lanceolata group of 58 closely related species . P. levis interbreeds with several other species where they grow together .
Found in dry sclerophyll forest on sandstone @-@ based nutrient @-@ deficient soils , P. levis is adapted to a fire @-@ prone environment ; the plants resprout epicormic buds from beneath their thick bark after bushfires , and can live for over 60 years . Regeneration also takes place after fire by a ground @-@ stored seed bank . The longtongue bee Leioproctus carinatifrons is a pollinator of the flowers , and the fruit are consumed by vertebrates such as kangaroos , possums and currawongs . Despite its horticultural appeal , P. levis is rare in cultivation as it is very hard to propagate , either by seed or cuttings .
= = Description = =
Persoonia levis grows as a tall shrub to small tree , and can reach 5 m ( 16 ft ) in height . The flaky soft bark is dark grey on the surface , while deeper layers are reddish in colour . Within the bark are epicormic buds , which sprout new growth after bushfire . The new growth is smooth to slightly hairy . The large green leaves measure 6 to 14 cm ( 2 @.@ 2 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) in length , and 1 @.@ 3 to 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 2 in ) in width , and are oblong or sickle @-@ shaped ( falcate ) . The asymmetrical shape helps distinguish the species from P. lanceolata . The bright green foliage , particularly of new growth , stands out against the more subdued tones of the surrounding vegetation and the stems , which are reddish in colour . The yellow flowers appear in summer and autumn ( December to April ) , and peak over December to February . They are arranged on short axillary racemes along the branchlets . Each individual flower consists of a cylindrical perianth , consisting of tepals fused for most of their length , within which are both male and female parts . The central style is surrounded by the anther , which splits into four segments ; these curl back and resemble a cross when viewed from above . They provide a landing area for insects attending to the stigma , which is located at the tip of the style . The smooth fleshy fruit , known as a drupe , is green and more or less round , measuring 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) by 0 @.@ 8 cm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) in diameter . It contains two seeds , and has a spike at the end . The drupe is juicy but stringy when unripe , and the seeds and skin are inedible .
= = Taxonomy and classification = =
Persoonia levis was described and given the name Linkia levis by Antonio José Cavanilles in 1798 . His description was based on plant material collected by Luis Née in the vicinity of Port Jackson ( Sydney ) in April 1793 during the Malaspina Expedition . The species was placed in the genus Persoonia by Karel Domin in 1921 . The genus names Linkia and Persoonia had been coined in 1798 , but the latter was officially conserved . The species name is the Latin adjective levis , meaning " smooth " , and refers to the hairless foliage . Christiaan Hendrik Persoon coined the name Persoonia salicina for it in his 1805 work Synopsis Plantarum , and queried whether Cavanilles ' Linkia levis was in fact P. lanceolata . Robert Brown used Persoon 's name in his 1810 work Prodromus Florae Novae Hollandiae et Insulae Van Diemen , and echoed Persoon 's thoughts on Cavanilles ' original name and specimen . In the 1995 Flora of Australia revision of the genus , Peter John Weston reviewed the mounted material of Linkia levis , and found that Cavanilles had mounted material from both P. levis and P. lanceolata . He set one specimen of the three , which was clearly P. levis , as the lectotype , which aligned the material with the description . Common names include broad @-@ leaved geebung , willow geebung and smooth geebung . The term geebung is derived from the Dharug language word geebung .
Like most other members of the genus , Persoonia levis has seven chromosomes that are large compared to those of other Proteaceae . In 1870 , George Bentham published the first infrageneric arrangement of Persoonia in Volume 5 of his landmark Flora Australiensis . He divided the genus into three sections , placing P. levis ( which he called P. salicina ) in P. sect . Amblyanthera . The 1995 Flora of Australia revision of the genus saw it classified in the Lanceolata group , a group of 58 closely related species with similar flowers but very different foliage . These species will often interbreed with each other where two members of the group occur , and hybrids with P. acerosa , P. lanceolata , P. linearis , P. mollis subsp. ledifolia , P. myrtilloides subsp. myrtilloides ( in the Upper Blue Mountains , these plants resemble P. lanceolata ) , P. oxycoccoides , and P. stradbrokensis have been recorded . Robert Brown initially described the hybrid with P. linearis as a species " Persoonia lucida " , which is now known as Persoonia × lucida , and has been recorded from the southeast forests of the New South Wales south coast .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Persoonia levis is found from the Macleay River catchment on the New South Wales mid north coast to the Cann River in far eastern Victoria . It is found in dry sclerophyll forest on sandstone @-@ based nutrient @-@ deficient soils , from sea level to an altitude of 1000 m ( 3500 ft ) . There it grows in sunny or lightly shaded areas in open woodland , associated with such trees as Eucalyptus piperita , E. sieberi , E. sclerophylla , E. radiata , E. smithii , Angophora costata and Corymbia gummifera , and shrubs such as Conospermum longifolium , Grevillea buxifolia , G. phylicoides , Hakea laevipes , Symphionema montanum and Telopea speciosissima , as well as Persoonia hirsuta and P. mollis . Coastal forms are smaller with broader leaves than inland forms . The annual rainfall of the area it occurs in the Sydney Basin is 900 – 1 @,@ 400 mm ( 35 – 55 in ) . It is considered adequately protected in the Sydney region , and is found in Georges River , Cattai , Wollemi , Bouddi , Brisbane Water , Marramarra , Ku @-@ ring @-@ gai Chase , Garigal , Lane Cove , Sydney Harbour , Botany Bay and Budderoo National Parks .
= = Ecology = =
Persoonia levis is one of several species of Persoonia that regenerate by resprouting from the trunk after bushfire , an adaptation to the fire @-@ prone habitat in which it grows . Its thick papery bark shields the underlying epicormic buds from the flames . Plants also regenerate by seedlings that arise from a seedbank in the soil after fire , although they may take up to 12 months to germinate . One study of sclerophyll forest unburnt for thirty years showed P. levis had declined over time . P. levis plants can live for over 60 years , and their leaves have a lifespan of up to 6 years .
Vesicles indicating a mycorrhizal association have been found on the roots of Persoonia levis , the Proteaceae not previously noted for forming mycorrhizal associations . Infection by the fungal species Anthracostroma persooniae results in leaf spot disease . P. levis is the food plant of the larvae of the weevil species Eurhynchus laevior .
Colletid bees of the genus Leioproctus subgenus Cladocerapis exclusively forage on and pollinate flowers of many species of Persoonia . Bees of subgenus Filiglossa in the same genus that also specialise in feeding on Persoonia flowers do not appear to be effective pollinators . Particular species recorded on P. levis include the longtongue bee Leioproctus carinatifrons . Weighing 1700 mg ( 0 @.@ 60 oz ) , the fruit are adapted to be eaten by vertebrates , such as kangaroos and possums , as well as currawongs and other large birds . The flowers of P. levis are self @-@ incompatible — that is , they are unable to fertilise themselves and require outcrossing to another plant .
= = Cultivation = =
Persoonia levis is rarely seen in cultivation , mainly because of difficulties in propagation ; seed germination is unpredictable , and cuttings have been nearly impossible to strike . Nevertheless , its colourful bark and leaves are attractive horticultural features . Well @-@ drained sandy soils in sun or part shade are needed for the plant in a garden situation . Once established , it tolerates moderate frosts and dry spells and grows fairly readily , albeit slowly , in suitable conditions . Plantsmen in England germinated seed as early as 1795 .
= Forth Road Bridge =
The Forth Road Bridge is a suspension bridge in east central Scotland . The bridge , opened in 1964 , spans the Firth of Forth , connecting Edinburgh , at Queensferry , to Fife , at North Queensferry . It replaced a centuries @-@ old ferry service to carry vehicular traffic , cyclists , and pedestrians across the Forth ; rail crossings are made by the adjacent and historic Forth Bridge .
Issues regarding the continued tolling of the bridge , and those over its deteriorating condition and proposals to have it replaced or supplemented by an additional crossing , caused it to become something of a political football for the Scottish Parliament , which voted to scrap tolls on the bridge from 11 February 2008 .
On 4 December 2015 , the bridge was closed to all vehicular traffic , pedestrians and cyclists due to structural issues . The bridge reopened to all traffic except heavy goods vehicles ( HGVs ) on 23 December 2015 , and it was reopened to HGVs on 20 February 2016 .
= = History = =
The first crossing at what is now the site of the bridge was established in the 11th century by Margaret , queen consort of King Malcolm III , who founded a ferry service to transport religious pilgrims from Edinburgh to Dunfermline Abbey and St Andrews . Its creation gave rise to the port towns of Queensferry and North Queensferry , which remain to this day ; and the service remained in uninterrupted use as a passenger ferry for over eight hundred years . As early as the 1740s there were proposals for a road crossing at the site , although their viability was only considered following the construction of the Forth Bridge in 1890 .
The importance of the crossing to vehicular traffic was underpinned when the Great Britain road numbering scheme was drawn up in the 1920s . The planners wished the arterial A9 road to be routed across the Forth here , although the unwillingness to have a ferry crossing as part of this route led to the A90 number being assigned instead .
There was a period of renewed lobbying for a road crossing in the 1920s and 1930s , at which time the only vehicle crossing was a single passenger and vehicle ferry . Sir William Denny championed the expansion of that service in the 1930s , providing and operating on behalf of the London and North Eastern Railway two additional ferries that aimed to supplement the services of the adjacent railway bridge . Their success allowed for the addition of two more craft in the 1940s and 1950s , by which time the ferries were making 40 @,@ 000 crossings annually , carrying 1 @.@ 5 million passengers and 800 @,@ 000 vehicles .
= = = Design = = =
With the then newest and nearest bridge spanning the Forth ( the Kincardine Bridge , built in 1936 ) still around 15 miles ( 24 km ) upstream , the upsurge in demand for a road crossing between Edinburgh and Fife prompted the UK Government to establish the Forth Road Bridge Joint Board ( FRBJB ) by Act of Parliament in 1947 to oversee the implementation of a new bridge to replace the ferry service . In 1955 the authorities on either side investigated and drew up an alternative scheme for a tunnel beneath the estuary . This was known as the Maunsell Scheme , and was projected to run somewhat closer to the rail bridge than the present road bridge . The scheme was abandoned as being too ambitious and reverted to a bridge concept .
= = = Construction = = =
The final construction plan was accepted in February 1958 and work began in September of that year . Mott , Hay and Anderson and Freeman Fox and Partners carried out the design work and a joint venture of Sir William Arrol & Co . , Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Company and Dorman Long constructed the bridge at a cost of £ 11 @.@ 5 million , while the total cost of the project including road connections and realignments was £ 19 @.@ 5 million .
It was the longest steel suspension bridge in Europe . 210 @,@ 000 tons of concrete were involved in its construction , with nine miles of grade @-@ separated dual @-@ carriageway approach roads . Reed and Mallik ( known for Reema construction of houses ) of Salisbury , Wiltshire , built the approach viaducts .
There were twenty four individual bridges built for the approach roads . The 4 @.@ 5 @-@ mile southern approach road of the A90 began at Cramond Bridge , over the River Almond on the western outskirts of Edinburgh , near Craigiehall . There were two @-@ level interchanges built at Burnshot , Dolphington ( B924 ) and the Echline junction ( A904 and B800 ) . At Dalmeny there was a bridge over the railway . The southern approach roads were built by A.M. Carmichael Ltd . The 4 @-@ mile northern approach road had three two @-@ level junctions at Ferry Toll ( for the B980 ) , Admiralty ( for Rosyth Dockyard via the A985 , and Inverkeithing via the A921 ) and at Mastertown / Masterton ( for what would be the fledgling M90 southern terminus ) . The Masterton junction was an octopus junction , a variation of a clover @-@ leaf junction , having six bridges and a 600 ft viaduct . There were fifteen bridges built for this approach road . The northern approach road terminated as the A823 ( M ) at a roundabout with the A823 south of Dunfermline , next to Rosyth railway station . The northern approach roads were built by Whatlings Ltd of Glasgow , later bought by Alfred McAlpine .
Seven lives were lost during construction before the bridge was opened by Queen Elizabeth II and the Duke of Edinburgh on 4 September 1964 . The ferry service was discontinued as of that date .
= = = Operation = = =
The bridge 's management was delegated to the FRBJB , and remained so until 2002 when its operation was transferred to a new body with a wider remit , the Forth Estuary Transport Authority .
On 1 December 2010 the bridge was closed for the first time due to heavy snow . After several accidents meant snowploughs were unable to clear the carriageways , the bridge was closed in both directions at 6 @.@ 40 a.m. and remained closed for several hours . As part of celebrations of the fiftieth anniversary of the bridge 's operation , artist Kate Downie was commissioned to create a print of the bridge and hold an exhibition of works portraying it .
On 1 June 2015 Amey took over the maintenance and operating of the bridge on behalf of Transport Scotland from the Forth Estuary Transport Authority and are now called the Forth Bridges Unit .
= = Statistics = =
The bridge 's central main span is 1 @,@ 006 metres ( 3 @,@ 301 ft ) long , its two side spans are each 408 metres ( 1 @,@ 339 ft ) long , and the approach viaducts are 252 metres ( 827 ft ) on the north side and 438 metres ( 1 @,@ 437 ft ) on the south side . At a total length of 2 @,@ 512 metres ( 8 @,@ 241 ft ) , it was the longest suspension bridge span outside the United States and the fourth @-@ longest span in the world at the time of its construction . The bridge comprises 39 @,@ 000 tonnes of steel and 115 @,@ 000 cubic metres of concrete . The towers reach 156 metres ( 512 ft ) above mean water level . Its width comprises a dual carriageway road with two lanes in each direction bounded by cycle / footpaths on each side . The main strung cables are 590 millimetres ( 23 in ) in diameter , comprising 11 @,@ 618 high tensile wires , each five millimetres in diameter , and each cable carries 13 @,@ 800 tonnes of the bridge 's load .
The bridge forms a crucial part of the corridor between south @-@ east and north @-@ east Scotland , linking Edinburgh to Perth , Dundee and Aberdeen by the A90 road and its sister M90 motorway , which begins 1 @.@ 67 miles ( 2 @.@ 69 km ) north of the bridge 's northern terminus . The bridge carried around 2 @.@ 5 million vehicles in its first year but the annual figure has risen steadily over time to around 21 @.@ 4 million vehicles in 2008 . The bridge carried its 250 millionth vehicle in 2002 .
It was awarded Historic Scotland 's Category A listed structure status in 2001 .
= = Structural issues = =
There has been concern at FETA over the structural wear of the bridge . The planned theoretical capacity for the bridge ( 30 @,@ 000 vehicles per day in each direction ) is routinely exceeded as traffic levels have outstripped predictions . The Scottish Government stated in 2006 that 60 @,@ 000 vehicles travel on more than half the days in a year . This raised concerns about the lifespan of the bridge , originally planned at 120 years .
2003 saw an inspection programme launched ( at a cost of £ 1 @.@ 2 million ) to assess the condition of the main suspension cables after corrosion was discovered in a number of older bridges in the United States of a similar design and size . The study , which was completed in 2005 , found that the main cables had suffered an 8 – 10 % loss of strength . Future projections highlighted the likelihood of an accelerating loss of strength , with traffic restrictions to limit loading required in 2014 in the worst @-@ case scenario , followed by full closure by 2020 .
Further monitoring and remedial work is now under way . An acoustic monitoring system , commissioned in August 2006 , uses listening devices to monitor any further strands snapping and pinpoint their location within the main cables .
Given the significance of the findings of the first internal inspection , in November 2005 the Scottish Executive appointed Flint & Neill Partnership to audit the results . Flint & Neill appointed New York – based Ammann & Whitney to act as sub @-@ consultants providing specialist advice using experience gained from inspections and assessments carried out in America . In January 2006 , an audit report to the Scottish Executive concluded that FETA 's consultant had performed the initial internal inspection and cable strength calculation in accordance with accepted practice . The audit report suggested that traffic restrictions could be required as early as 2013 .
Several options are being implemented to increase the bridge 's lifespan . These include an extensive dehumidification programme to slow the rate of corrosion in the main cables by installing a system that will keep the air in the voids between the strands that make up the main cables at a humidity level of below 40 % . Engineering consultants Faber Maunsell began work on the project in 2006 . The works are planned to take two and a half years at a cost of £ 7 @.@ 8 million . As part of the works , some of the corroded cable strands are to be spliced .
The southbound carriageway of the bridge was closed on 1 December 2015 due to the discovery of steelwork defects during routine inspections . Subsequently a 7 @.@ 5 tonne weight limit was put in place ( public service buses were not included ) . On 4 December , the bridge was fully closed because of structural faults and was initially not expected to reopen until the new year following further inspections and repair work . Following the closure , Transport Scotland began work to lay on extra trains and buses and consider whether to reintroduce a ferry service to mitigate the impact on travellers . The closure resulted in tailbacks approaching the Kincardine Bridge , the alternative route across the Forth from Fife to Edinburgh . On 22 December it was announced that the Road Bridge would reopen the following day for all traffic except heavy goods vehicles ( HGVs ) , with an expectation that the bridge will reopen to HGVs around mid @-@ February .
On 4 February , It was announced the date had been pushed back to March for full restrictions to be taken off , due to further problems with the truss end link pins in the southern towers , which require preventative works to be carried out . Trials began to allow 600 HGVs to cross northbound between 23 : 00 and 04 : 00 each night , subject to weather conditions . The HGVs are controlled by traffic signals and released onto the bridge at a rate of one every 30 seconds .
= = = 2016 public inquiry = = =
On 20 January Scottish Parliament began its inquiry led by the Infrastructure and Capital Investment Committee ( ICI ) , to determine the circumstances that led to the discovery of a cracked truss in the bridge 's undercarriage . Evidence was heard from ; Forth Estuary Transport Authority ( Feta ) , Transport minister Derek Mackay , engineers and officials from Amey along with a number of other experts and key personnel .
On the first day , Richard Hornby , of engineering consulting firm Arup , stated , since 2001 , the truss end in question had been inspected 23 times and there was no fault found . It was revealed a pin had seized up , which was cause of the truss end to crack , and was only the quality of the steel which had stopped its cracking appearing earlier . Hornby also made clear even if the seized pin had been picked up earlier it was " virtually impossible " to lubricate the bearing .
Several witnesses defended a decision by previous operator Forth Estuary Transport Authority ( Feta ) not to proceed with a £ 15 million truss end link replacement project in 2010 . This claim was disputed by Barry Colford , former chief engineer and bridgemaster at the Forth Estuary Transport Authority . Lesley Hinds , Feta ’ s former convener , pointed out that the bridge budget had been cut by 58 % in 2011 , while senior staff at Feta had “ deep concerns ” about the transfer of bridge management to a private company .
= = Tolling issues = =
On 11 February 2008 tolls were abolished on the bridge .
Initially , it was suggested that tolling would cease once the original cost of construction plus the accrued interest was repaid – this was done in 1993 and it was planned that tolls would not be levied after May 1995 . However , the legislation enabling the levying of tolls was instead renewed by Parliament ( originally that of the UK but now the responsibility of the Scottish Parliament ) on three separate occasions in 1998 , 2003 and 2006 .
Originally , a toll was paid for each direction of travel with sets of toll booths on both carriageways . In 1997 , a decision was made to double the northbound toll ( then 40p , to 80p ) and remove the southbound toll . The belief was that almost all traffic makes a return journey across the bridge , and that the removal of the southbound toll would result in a reduction of congestion for southbound traffic without reducing overall toll revenues .
The Forth Estuary Transport Authority ( FETA ) justified the continued use of tolls by suggesting they were necessary to fund maintenance and improvement works . These included the construction of defences around the submerged piers forming the bases of the main towers in the event of collision in the Firth . The main towers were also strengthened with internal steel columns ( the original tower structure was hollow ) and had hydraulic rams jack up these sections to transfer a portion of the load to the new steelwork . Also , the vertical cables suspending the deck had their bolts replaced after a single detected failure . A new paint system required development for the bridge ( the original was phased out due to environmental concerns ) .
= = = Variable tolling proposals = = =
In late 2005 , FETA 's committee approved a proposal for a complete revamp of the system of toll levies . The minimum toll would be set to the existing £ 1 figure , but would increase dependent on the time of day , rising to a maximum of £ 4 for evening rush hour travel . All tolls would be halved for cars with more than one occupant , as an incentive to drivers to share cars and make fewer journeys . According to FETA 's chairman Lawrence Marshall , the system would provide the most efficiency , claiming that 80 % of peak @-@ time journeys are made by single @-@ occupant vehicles . The proposal , passed with the chairman 's casting vote after the committee was deadlocked , was referred to the Scottish Executive in December 2005 , and implementation planned for October 2007 subject to approval by transport minister Tavish Scott . Environmental groups welcomed the proposal , although local politicians condemned it as simply a means of raising capital . At the same time , a counter @-@ argument was tabled by Fife councillors proposing the complete removal of tolls .
The Scottish Parliament debated the proposals in January 2006 , and the affair became a major political issue after Westminster @-@ based MPs Gordon Brown and Alistair Darling ( Chancellor of the Exchequer and Secretary of State for Scotland respectively ) were seen to describe the variable tolling plan as " dead in the water " . Scottish First Minister Jack McConnell insisted his Labour Party colleagues were misquoted and himself refused to rule out the plan , receiving considerable condemnation from the opposition Scottish National Party .
The political situation was particularly important given that by late January 2006 , campaigning was under way for the Dunfermline and West Fife by @-@ election , 2006 scheduled to take place for the Westminster constituency in which the north end of the bridge is situated . The by @-@ election , scheduled for 9 February , was contested by - in addition to the major political parties in Scotland - an Abolish Forth Bridge Tolls Party . It was won by Liberal Democrat candidate Willie Rennie , overturning a large Labour majority on a 16 % swing .
In the aftermath of the by @-@ election defeat , media speculation suggested the Executive had turned against the proposals , and Tavish Scott eventually confirmed their rejection and the retention of the existing toll structure on 1 March 2006 . FETA condemned the decision , while local opposition MSPs charged the minister that his tolling review short @-@ changed Fifers as tolls were axed on the Erskine Bridge leaving tolls on only the Forth and Tay Road Bridge .
= = = Abolition = = =
Following the formation of an SNP minority government after the Scottish parliamentary election of May 2007 , a new debate on the abolition of tolls was opened by Transport Minister Stewart Stevenson on 31 May 2007 , where it was agreed by a large majority . Toll levies at that point totalled £ 16 million annually .
The Abolition of Bridge Tolls ( Scotland ) Bill , required to revoke legislation mandating toll collection on the bridge , was introduced to the Scottish Parliament on 3 September 2007 , passed on 20 December 2007 , and received royal assent on 24 January 2008 . The tolls were removed on 11 February 2008 at 00 : 01 GMT . This immediately followed a major upgrade and reconfiguration of the tolls on the northbound carriageway ( the toll on the southbound carriageway had been removed some years before , simplifying the arrangement as most journeys were , and remain , two @-@ way ) .
= = Additional crossing at Queensferry = =
The strategic transport importance of the road bridge and the threat of closure by 2020 if major structural work were not undertaken led to fears of serious economic consequences , especially as work on any new crossing could take a decade .
Increasing traffic levels across the Firth of Forth had also led to the construction of the Clackmannanshire Bridge adjacent to the existing Kincardine Bridge . This bridge opened in November 2008 .
Proposals for a second road crossing at Queensferry had been made in the 1990s , but were subsequently shelved , despite preliminary work on route selection . Following the discovery of potentially serious structural issues with the Forth Road Bridge in 2005 the proposals were revisited and plans advanced . The decision to proceed with a replacement bridge was taken at the end of 2007 , and it was announced the following year that the existing bridge would be retained , as a public transport link . The Forth Crossing Act received Royal Assent in January 2011 , and construction began in September 2011 . The Queensferry Crossing is being constructed as a cable @-@ stayed bridge , with an overall length of 1 @.@ 7 miles ( 2 @.@ 7 km ) . Around 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) of new connecting roads are being built , including new and upgraded junctions at Ferrytoll in Fife , South Queensferry , and Junction 1a on the M9 . The new bridge will continue the M90 motorway , ( extending its southern terminus ) from Admiralty to the M9 junction 1a ( re @-@ numbering the M9 spur ) .
= Telenor Arena =
Telenor Arena , sometimes referred to as Fornebu Arena , is a multi @-@ purpose indoor arena located at Fornebu in Bærum , outside Oslo , Norway . It serves as a venue for a variety of events , including concerts , exhibitions , action shows , family shows , TV and sport . It has a capacity for 15 @,@ 000 spectators for sports and 23 @,@ 000 for concerts , including 40 luxury boxes and club seating for 1 @,@ 200 . The venue has a fixed roof and an asphalt floor . The venue was opened ahead of the 2009 Norwegian football season as a replacement for Nadderud Stadion . It cost 585 million Norwegian kroner ( NOK ) to build , of which NOK 300 million was for the sports venue .
During the 2000s , Nadderud was below standards for play in the top national league . Fornebu was at the time undergoing an urban redevelopment ; after several years of negotiations and public grants , Stabæk secured a lot in 2004 . Construction started in 2007 . In 2010 , a disagreement arose between the club and venue @-@ owner Kjell Chr . Ulrichsen , with the latter demanding that the team leave the venue to allow for more event revenue . Telenor Arena has hosted the Eurovision Song Contest 2010 , as well as concerts by artists and bands of international fame , such as Adele , Muse , Foo Fighters , Roger Waters ( the Wall tour ) , Rihanna , Lady Gaga , Beyoncé , Jay @-@ Z , Kanye West , Metallica , AC / DC , Black Sabbath , The Rolling Stones . Telenor holds the naming rights .
= = History = =
= = = Planning = = =
Stabæk traditionally has played their home games at Nadderud Stadion , a municipal multi @-@ purpose stadium at Bekkestua . Following the club 's rapid ascent from lower divisions to the top league during the first half of the 1990s , Nadderud became in need of upgrades , resulting in a new main grandstand opening in 1996 . The stadium remained severely lacking adequate facilities for professional football , and fell short of increasing requirements from the Football Association of Norway ( NFF ) .
Originally , a redevelopment of Nadderud was proposed , but in 1999 Stabæk players launched the idea of building a new stadium at Fornebu , which became subject to an urban redevelopment project after the 1998 closing of Oslo Airport , Fornebu . The initial proposal was named Blue Dream Arena , would have seating for 25 @,@ 000 spectators , blue artificial turf and a retractable roof . Other proposed amenities were movable seating which would also allow the stadium to both host athletics and be configured as an intimate football stadium . The idea called for Bruce Springsteen to hold a concert before the first match , which would be played against Barcelona . Several of the initial concepts of the stadium were never materialized . International rules disallowed blue artificial turf ; instead , the flooring in the boxes were made in a blue , artificial turf @-@ inspired material . Also the idea of having a retractable roof was discarded , both because of technical difficulties and cost issues .
In May 2001 , Oslo City Council voted to sell their properties at Fornebu to Fornebu Boligspar ( FB ) , which again had agreements to sell a lot for the stadium to Stabæk . In November 2002 , Borgarting Court of Appeal concluded that Norrønafly had the right to continue leasing a hangar — located at the planned location of the venue — until 2014 . In June 2003 , Stabæk was in financial difficulties , and investor Kjell Chr . Ulrichsen bought shares for NOK 10 million to avoid bankruptcy ; these shares had the option to be converted to shares in the arena company .
Fornebu Boligspar later determined that it was more profitable to build apartments at the arena site . Negotiations started between the club , the property company and Mayor Odd Reinsfelt . In November 2003 , it was announced that a compromise was reached whereby Fornebu Boligspar would give the lot free to Stabæk , in exchange for a lot nearby . Two weeks later the compromise was rejected by FB . A new compromise was announced on 29 June 2004 , whereby FB would give 50 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) and a lot free to Stabæk in exchange for the commercial properties which would be part of the stadium . However , the following day the parties announced that they were not able to agree on the risk , as Stabæk demanded that FB take the full risk in the project .
Instead , Stabæk started negotiating with IT Fornebu to take over a lot they owned . They needed a 300 hectares ( 740 acres ) lot which would have a market value of between NOK 60 and 80 million , and Reinsfelt stated that the municipality was willing to help by " maneuver in gray areas within the margins " . The club was further pressured by NFF , who were going to limit the exceptions allowed for Nadderud and other stadiums not meeting their criteria . On 29 October , FB and Stabæk signed an agreement whereby Stabæk received a free lot and NOK 50 million , in exchange for FB taking over the commercial properties . The condition was that the municipality allowed a more dense use of the rest of FB 's area . This would require a re @-@ regulation of the area , and Reinsfelt estimated that it would not be possible for construction to start until 2006 . In November , UEFA changed the rules for artificial turf to state that it had to be green . Until Stabæk 's proposal was made , UEFA had not though that anyone would build a pitch with a non @-@ green turf , and representatives stated that it was because of Stabæk the rule change was made . The plans were nearly terminated in October 2006 , after discussion about the planned Fornebu Line — a people mover which would connect Fornebu to Lysaker — stopped the regulation plan . However , in November the final permissions were granted by Bærum Municipality . On 22 December , Stabæk announced that the financing was secured .
= = = Construction = = =
Architects were HRTB and the main contractor was NCC Construction . While domed stadiums have been common in North America , no such stadiums of comparable size of Telenor Arena had previously been built for football in Europe . Construction started by demolishing a hangar , which was completed in February 2007 . However , because of the building boom , concrete elements needed for construction to start meant that the rest of the construction was delayed . The cornerstone was laid on 5 September .
In June 2008 , Stabæk announced they had signed an eleven @-@ year sponsorship agreement with the telecommunications company Telenor , where the latter would pay up to NOK 115 million for the sole naming rights for the arena , in addition to tickets and access to executive boxes . In March 2009 , the retailing property was sold from Scandinavian Property Development to KLP Eiendom . The plans called for twenty to twenty @-@ five football games , four to eight concerts , three to four large sports events and two other large events and conventions per year . Because of larger seating capacity , an all @-@ seating arrangement , higher attendance and VIP facilities , Stabæk is able to generate three times the matchday revenue from Telenor Arena as Nadderud . The stadium is plagued with traffic problems on matchdays , with large crews hired to create temporary barriers to direct the crowds . The bus stops closest to the venue are closed , and a large number of police officers have to direct the traffic . These are costs which have to be carried by the arena company , and contrasts to matches at the nearly twice as large Ullevaal , where no such measures are necessary .
= = = Football versus event controversy = = =
In October 2009 , ten individuals bought the operation company of the club and signed a 40 @-@ year lease for the use of the arena for Stabæk 's home matches , as well as the right to use the facility for certain other activities . This contract has a revenue of NOK 9 million per year . In 2009 , Stabæk Holding had a deficit of NOK 66 @.@ 1 million , while Stabæk Fotball lost NOK 23 @.@ 6 million . To keep the operating company running , Ulrichsen increased the company 's share capital by NOK 73 million from late 2009 through late 2010 .
On 4 November 2010 , Stabæk Holding stated that they were near a bankruptcy , and that they intended to throw out Stabæk as a tenant , remove the turf and instead use the venue exclusively for events . Chair Diderik Schnitler in Stabæk Holding stated that the business model was not sustainable . The football schedule was not made until early in the year , while in the event business , bookings were common one to two years in advance . It was therefore difficult to secure lucrative events , as large parts of the year had to be held in reserve in case the venue was needed for yet @-@ to @-@ be scheduled matches . The holding company stated that they might have to file for bankruptcy . Stabæk Fotball stated that they had a 40 @-@ year contract to use the venue .
Stabæk 's director of sports , Inge André Olsen , stated that returning to Nadderud was not an option , as it had too little capacity and insufficient facilities . Should Nadderud be used , it would have to be rebuilt , with new grandstands under roofs , VIP seating , a new parking house and new change room , which would cost NOK 100 million . Because of building permits , construction would take two to three years . Nadderud is also not approved to host games in the Premier League , so Stabæk would have to either play their games at Ullevaal Stadion in Oslo or Marienlyst Stadion in Drammen . Telenor stated that if Stabæk moved , they would have to re @-@ negotiate the naming rights agreement for the arena , as the value of the contract was largely based on the naming exposure of Stabæk playing in the Premier League . The company also stated that they had difficulty understanding the argumentation from the holding company , as there was no football being played October and March , but that the venue , which has the largest capacity for indoor concerts in the Oslo area , failed to attract large artists , such as Rihanna , during the winter months .
On 4 December , Stabæk Fotball stated that they were willing to move their training , Norwegian Football Cup and UEFA matches to either Nadderud or Ullevaal , as a compromise to free up more available time in the arena . This was rejected by NFF , who stated that the licensing rules required that a club 's main arena be available for all league , cup and UEFA matches , and that a general exemption would not be given for the cup . In mid @-@ December , Stabæk Fotball started the process of a judicial registration of the right to lease the venue , which was permitted according to the contract . This would grant Stabæk Fotball the right to continue to lease the venue even if the holding company went bankrupt . A preliminary injunction for this was granted by Asker and Bærum District Court .
In a 16 December statement , three Stabæk Fotball officials said that they suspected that Ulrichen 's plan all along was to convert the venue to a pure convention center , and that the use as a football venue was a decoy to get a free lot worth up to NOK 200 million plus grants worth NOK 50 million . The book value of the venue was NOK 303 million at the end of 2010 , although a statement from the district court stated that the value of the venue was significantly lower than that . The bank DnB NOR held at the time a mortgage with security in the property worth NOK 260 million , while Ulrichsen through his investment company held a mortgage worth NOK 60 @.@ 1 million .
On 7 January 2011 , the parts announced that they had reached a compromise . Stabæk would remain at Telenor Arena for at least the 2011 season . In addition , the club held an option to take over the responsibility for events at the venue . Stabæk Fotball had until 30 June to accept the option , which would allow the club to remain at the venue on a permanent basis . This would require them to invest NOK 20 million in an event administration , which would increase event revenue , but at the same time move the risk from Stabæk Holding to Stabæk Fotball . If the club declined the option , they would not be allowed to play at the venue from the 2012 season . On 30 June , Stabæk announced that they would not fulfill the option to continue renting the stadium . The necessary NOK 35 million would entail a risk the club was not willing to take . The club stated that they hoped they could remain at the stadium by establishing a foundation which could purchase the venue form Ulrichsen . If this does not work out , the club will have to relocate from the 2012 season . The club is then considering relocating back to Nadderud , to Ullevaal or to Marienlyst . The club estimates that any relocation would result in the club losing half their revenue . Stabæk played its last match at Fornebu Arena on 20 November 2011 , losing 1 – 2 against Haugesund . Subsequently the pitch was removed , and Stabæk returned to Nadderud from the 2012 season .
The Norwegian Handball Federation announced in May 2013 that the arena would be used for a four @-@ nation men 's handball tournament , Bring Cup , in November . The federation stated that they would use the tournament to evaluate if the venue was suitable as a new national arena for handball . The venue received mixed reviews . The tournament saw low attendance and Danish commentator Bent Nyegaard criticized the arena for being too large . The federation was happy with the arena , and stated that were planning on using it for finals in their bid for future World and European Handball Championships . Telenor Arena is part of the Oslo bid for the 2022 Winter Olympics , in which it has been proposed used for short track speed skating and figure skating .
= = Facilities = =
The venue is located at Fornebu , a peninsula in Bærum , located 10 kilometers ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) from the city center of Oslo . The venue is owned and operated by Fornebu Arena AS , which is again owned by Stabæk Holding , which also owns Stabæk Fotball . Telenor , Norway 's largest telecommunications company , holds the naming rights for the stadium . The venue has seating for 15 @,@ 000 spectators for football , and 23 @,@ 000 for concerts . This includes club seating for 1 @,@ 200 , 40 luxury boxes and a restaurant which can seat 800 . The arena is entirely indoors , and has a height clearance of 23 meters ( 75 ft ) to the beams and 33 meters ( 108 ft ) to the roof . The floor surface is 120 by 82 meters ( 394 by 269 ft ) , while the pitch is 105 by 60 meters ( 344 by 197 ft ) . The venue has a considerably lower heating cost than similar conventional halls because the warm air is stored in the building 's concrete and steel elements , and using the inert energy created by the spectators . The venue is the largest indoor stadium in Northern Europe . The retailing area of 2 @,@ 600 square metres ( 28 @,@ 000 sq ft ) in the complex is owned by Arena Handel AS , a subsidiary of KLP Eiendom .
The venue is owned and operated by a conglomerate of six companies all owned by Kjell Christian Ulrichsen . The mother company for the other companies is Stabæk Holding AS . Fornebu Arena AS is the actual owner of the real estate . Fornebu Event AS is responsible for renting out the venue for concerts , conventions and other non @-@ sporting events . FA Leie AS partially leases and partially owns installed facilities in the venue . Sameiedrift Widerøeveien nr . 1 AS is the management company for the property as a whole . Arena Idrett AS hold the rental guarantee given to Fornebu Arena by the renters of the commercial properties and Sameiedrift Widerøeveien nr . 1 .
= = Transport = =
Ruter bus 31 is a high @-@ frequency service which runs from the city center of Oslo via Lysaker Station to Fornebu . During regular schedule it stops just outside the stadium ; however , on matchdays it stops further away because of traffic . Lysaker Station is served by both the Oslo Commuter Rail and selected intercity and regional trains . Dedicated football buses are operated by Ruter to Stabæk home games . There are 1 @,@ 500 parking spaces immediately near the venue , although additional parking is available at IT Fornebu and at Lysaker , which are a seven- and fifteen @-@ minute walk away , respectively . The Fornebu Line is under planning , and would be built either as a light rail or a rapid transit , which would allow rail transport from the city center of Oslo and Lysaker to the stadium .
= = Events = =
Telenor Arena was the home ground for Stabæk Fotball , which plays in the Norwegian Premier League . The first match was a friendly against Sweden 's IFK Göteborg on 24 January 2009 . The official opening took place on 8 March , when it was host of Superfinalen 2009 , a pre @-@ season match between Stabæk as league champions and Vålerenga as cup champions .
Stabæk has played four UEFA tournament matches at Fornebu : against Tirana and Copenhagen during the qualification for the 2009 – 10 UEFA Champions League , against Valencia in the play @-@ off for the 2009 – 10 UEFA Europa League , and against Dnepr Mogilev in the qualification for the 2010 – 11 UEFA Europa League . Stabæk 's record attendance at Telenor Arena dates from 13 September 2009 , when 13 @,@ 402 people saw a league game against Rosenborg . The record in a UEFA game was 12 @,@ 560 , who saw the match against Copenhagen .
The following list shows the average , maximum and minimum attendance for Stabæk 's home games in the Premier League . It also gives the rank among the average attendance for the Premier League teams .
Telenor Arena is often used as a concert arena when international superstars visits Norway . The other big concert arena in Norway is Oslo Spektrum . Madonna visited Telenor Arena with her The MDNA Tour on 15 August 2012 . Rihanna visited Telenor Arena with her Diamonds World Tour on 25 July 2013 . The arena when filled could get very hot and the organisers where criticized for the water priced at 44 NOK ( approximately $ 7 @,@ 2 ) for a cup with water.Justin Bieber visited Norway and Telenor Arena with his Believe Tour 16 @,@ 17 and 18 April 2013 . The three concerts were all full seated . Other major concerts held at the venue include AC / DC with their Black Ice World Tour and Tina Turner with her 50th Anniversary Tour in 2009 , Andrea Bocelli in 2010 , Metallica for two nights on their World Magnetic Tour in 2010 , , Bruce Springsteen for two nights of the Wrecking Ball World Tour in 2013 and Iron Maiden on The Final Frontier World Tour in 2011 . Kylie Minogue will perform in 2015 as part of her Kiss Me Once Tour . Telenor Arena was the host of the Eurovision Song Contest 2010 on 25 , 27 and 29 May 2010 . During the proceeding weeks , Stabæk had to play their home matches at Ullevaal Stadion in Oslo . Other events at the venue include the Solberg Extreme Motorshow , Oslo International Horse Show and Sensation .
= Cheek to Cheek ( album ) =
Cheek to Cheek is a collaborative album by American singers Tony Bennett and Lady Gaga . It was released on September 19 , 2014 , by Interscope Records and Columbia Records . In 2011 , Bennett and Gaga first met at the Robin Hood Foundation gala in New York City . After these two later recorded a rendition of " The Lady Is a Tramp " , they began discussing plans for working on a jazz project . Cheek to Cheek consists of jazz standards by popular jazz composers such as George Gershwin , Cole Porter , Jerome Kern , and Irving Berlin . The album was inspired by Bennett and Gaga 's desire to introduce the songs to a younger generation , since they believed that these tracks had universal appeal .
In January 2013 , it was announced by both artists and started recording , after Gaga recovered from her hip surgery . The album was recorded in New York City , where Bennett and Gaga were accompanied by a live band and jazz musicians associated with both artists . Gaga deviated from her previous contemporary pop albums , while wanting instead to create a jazz record . The release date of the album was delayed multiple times , and the final date was announced by Bennett and Gaga on The Today Show . The full @-@ length track listing and the cover artwork was released thereafter ; including the track lists for many alternate editions . The artists promoted Cheek to Cheek through multiple performances in and around New York , a " behind the scenes " program detailing the recording of the album on Home Shopping Network ( HSN ) , and a televised concert , titled Tony Bennett and Lady Gaga : Cheek to Cheek Live ! , which aired on PBS in October 2014 . The album was preceded by the release of two singles : " Anything Goes " and " I Can 't Give You Anything but Love " . They both reached number one on Billboard 's Jazz Digital Songs Chart .
Cheek to Cheek received generally positive reviews upon release , with critics praising Gaga 's vocals . At the 57th Annual Grammy Awards , the album won a Grammy for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album . Cheek to Cheek debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 , with 131 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week according to Nielsen SoundScan , and has since sold 717 @,@ 000 copies in the US . The album became Bennett 's second number @-@ one album and Gaga 's third consecutive number @-@ one album in the US ; Gaga became the first female artist in the 2010 decade to have three number @-@ one albums , while Bennett extended his record as the oldest person to achieve a number @-@ one album on the chart . The album also reached the top ten in Greece , the United Kingdom , Canada , Japan , and Australia .
= = Background = =
In 2011 , Tony Bennett and Lady Gaga first met , after she had performed a rendition of Nat King Cole 's " Orange Colored Sky " , at the Robin Hood Foundation gala in New York City . Bennett then asked Gaga to sing a duet with him on his album Duets II , and these two have recorded " The Lady Is a Tramp " for the album . In September 2012 , Bennett confirmed to Rolling Stone that Gaga wanted to record a jazz album with him and there was a well @-@ known composer associated with the project , and although not on a par with songwriters like George Gershwin or Cole Porter , he had had several hits to his name . Swing band and composer Marion Evans were also under consideration for collaborating on the album ; Bennett confirmed recording sessions would start soon after .
In January 2013 , Evans confirmed that he would have a fairly significant part in the making of the album , stating " I don 't know at this point exactly how many songs will be on the CD , but I 'm sure we 'll have about four or five different @-@ sized orchestras or bands . It 'll turn into a giant panic , I can assure you . That 's just how this business is . " Later that month , Gaga , after her performance with Bennett at the final inaugural ball of President Obama 's second inauguration , announced the album formally through her Twitter . " And here 's me and my handsome date , I simply cannot wait for our album together , he 's my darling ! " she wrote as a caption for a photo tweeted of the pair , along with revealing the title of the album as Cheek to Cheek . In September 2013 , Bennett explained that for the album , they recorded " all great standards , quality songs ; George Gershwin , Cole Porter , Jerome Kern , Irving Berlin , songs like that . With a big swingin ' band and great , great , jazz artists playing . " He told Chicago Tribune that his main intention of recording the album with Gaga was to introduce the jazz standards to a younger audience , believing that the tracks had a " universal appeal " and " timeless quality " about them . Gaga told The Daily Telegraph that with her earlier releases like The Fame ( 2008 ) , The Fame Monster ( 2009 ) , and Born This Way ( 2011 ) , she felt unable to achieve her full vocal potential . She described Cheek to Cheek as a " rebellious " and " liberating " album for her because she was able to sing without worrying about record producers engineering it for radio .
Bennett said that Gaga had written an original song for the album titled " Paradise " . It also contained solo performances along with the duets ; Gaga later clarified that the album contained only standards . The songs were handpicked by Bennett and Gaga ; they selected tracks from the Great American Songbook including " Anything Goes " , a Porter song , " It Don 't Mean a Thing ( If It Ain 't Got That Swing ) " and " Sophisticated Lady " by Duke Ellington , " Lush Life " by Billy Strayhorn , and the title track by Berlin . In an interview with French newspaper La Presse , Bennett said :
I do not understand why [ Gaga ] had to make contemporary music ! When she sings great standards , she does it with such emotion ... It will surprise people by the quality of her voice when making quality songs . We sing a duet again on the album , but also separately . With this album , I think she will become bigger than Elvis Presley ! Of course we recorded the album in New York . As the saying goes : ' If you can make it in New York , you 'll make it anywhere .
= = Recording and composition = =
Although the project was in development and discussions were taking place as early as September 2012 , the recording did not start until the Spring of 2013 , being delayed by Gaga 's hip surgery and cancellation of her Born This Way Ball tour . The recording took place over a year in New York City , and featured jazz musicians associated with both artists . Bennett 's quartet was present , including Mike Renzi , Gray Sargent , Harold Jones and Marshall Wood as well as pianist Tom Lanier . Along with Evans , jazz trumpeter Brian Newman , a long @-@ time friend and colleague of Gaga , played on the album with his New York City based jazz quintet . Tenor saxophonist Joe Lovano and flautist Paul Horn were also enlisted as musicians .
According to Gaga , Bennett wanted her to sing different songs and was impressed by her vocals during " Lush Life " , referring to the Billy Strayhorn written standard that has been recorded by everyone from Nancy Wilson and Sarah Vaughan to Donna Summer and Linda Ronstadt . Gaga explained that she was nervous about recording with Bennett . " I just wanted him to hear I have an authentic jazz voice and that I studied that ... If he can hear that , I 'm okay . If he can 't hear it , I 'm not an authentic jazz voice , " she added . Inspiration for singing came from jazz singer Amy Winehouse , who died in July 2011 ; Gaga added " I thought of her almost every day in the studio . I wish she was still here . She was jazz to her core " . The songs were recorded live with the band , and during the recording process Gaga asked for carpets to be placed on the studio floor , so that it looked like a film set and it could be photographed .
In Cheek to Cheek , Gaga sings solo on " Lush Life " , " Bang Bang ( My Baby Shot Me Down ) " and " Ev 'ry Time We Say Goodbye " , while Bennett 's solo includes " Don 't Wait Too Long " and " Sophisticated Lady " . According to Gaga , " Lush Life " and " Sophisticated Lady " complemented each other ; for Bennett , the complement came from the fact that Duke Ellington wrote " Sophisticated Lady " and later collaborated with Strayhorn for " Lush Life " . Gaga sang " Lush Life " in her school choir , but it was only later she understood the lyrical interpretation of the track , about failure and heartache . During Cheek to Cheek 's recording , she was emotionally upset about her professional and personal conflicts during the Artpop era ; Bennett had to support and guide her through the process . Newman recalled that " Bang Bang ( My Baby Shot Me Down ) " was recorded during the taping of the duo 's show at Lincoln Center . Gaga had informed the musicians about performing the song , and piano player Alex Smith made the necessary musical arrangements the night before the concert . They did not rehearse it , and recorded it live when Gaga performed the song in front of the audience .
The first song , " Anything Goes " , was recorded by Bennett for his 1959 collaboration with Count Basie and his Orchestra , Strike Up the Band , and Gaga first came to know about it when she was 13 years old . Gaga thought that " Anything Goes " was a funny track with a " real sexy , powerful vibe to it , and it 's just because we 're having fun singing it . " The version on Cheek to Cheek finds Bennett and Gaga swapping the lyrics between themselves , and was described by Bobby Olivier , from The Star @-@ Ledger , as " smooth as silk " . The syllables are pronounced strongly by Gaga in syncopation while her vibrato complemented Bennett 's characteristic jazz vocals and swing . Olivier added , " Gaga 's voice , when stripped of its bells and whistles , showcases a timelessness that lends itself well to the genre . " " I Can 't Give You Anything but Love " was originally written in 1928 by Jimmy McHugh and Dorothy Fields for the Broadway revue , Blackbirds of 1928 . The version on Cheek to Cheek opens with the sound of high @-@ hat and an electronic organ . Gaga alters the lyrics to sing " Gee , I 'd like to say you 're looking swell , Tony " , who later rejoins with the line " Diamond bracelets won 't work , doesn 't sell , Gaga " . " Nature Boy " was first released as a single in 1948 by Cole , and it became a commercial success for him . Written by eccentric songwriter eden ahbez , the song about a " strange enchanted boy " features instrumentation from flutes and drums , and has an orchestral arrangement . A loungier version , Gaga sings in a Liza Minnelli inspired voice with a breathy range , followed by Bennett complimenting her with the story of meeting the titular character .
= = Release and artwork = =
On December 12 , 2013 , Bennett revealed to CNN that the album 's release was delayed and the final release date was confirmed as March 18 , 2014 . Edna Gunderson from USA Today reported that the album had been delayed and was expected to be released in late 2014 . Later in April 2014 , during the Museum of the Moving Image 's salute to Kevin Spacey , Bennett told a reporter that the album would be released during September . On July 29 , 2014 , Bennett and Gaga appeared on The Today Show to formally announce their collaboration and confirmed the final release date in the US as September 23 , 2014 . The album was first released in Australia and Germany on September 19 , 2014 .
Photographer Steven Klein shot the album covers , and was responsible for the artistic ideas behind the packaging of the release . He also developed the cover art for " Anything Goes " . On August 18 , 2014 , Gaga released the official cover art for the album , which showed the singer with Bennett , sitting and holding hands . The singer explained that she and Bennett were sitting and talking when Klein had suddenly photographed them . For the standard edition , Bennett and Gaga are shown in a New York newspaper with the album name atop the image , while the deluxe edition just features the same image . Gaga 's look with her massive black curls in the image was compared by Kirthana Ramisetti from New York Daily News to singer Cher 's character in the 1987 American romantic comedy Moonstruck .
The complete track list for the album was also revealed alongside the cover arts . The standard edition consists of 11 tracks while the deluxe edition has 15 songs listed . Along with the standard and deluxe editions in digital and CD formats , there were exclusive releases to Home Shopping Network ( HSN ) and Target . A 180 grams ( 0 @.@ 40 lb ) vinyl edition of the album was also released to Amazon.com. The album was sold at Starbucks stores with unique cover artwork . In October 2014 , Gaga announced a Collector 's Box Set to be released in December 2014 . It would include limited edition items , like personal snapshots , Cheek to Cheek sheet music autographed by Bennett , 8 × 10 art prints housed in a vellum envelope and others .
Bennett told Billboard that they were also inspired by Porter 's 1936 musical , Red , Hot and Blue , for a possible sequel to Cheek to Cheek . He wanted to see how Cheek to Cheek fared after its release , but Gaga wanted to start working on the collaboration " right away " . Bennett added : " we 're gonna do two albums in a row with her . We 'll have to try and do that as soon as possible , just as a follow @-@ up for a second album . "
= = Promotion = =
= = = Live performances = = =
In June 2014 , Gaga began promoting the album through a series of public appearances with and without Bennett , the first of them being at the Frank Sinatra School of the Arts in New York City . At the school , which was founded by Bennett and his wife Susan Crow , the pair performed as a duo and individually , and fielded questions from the audience . They concluded their engagement by watching a performance from the school 's choir . Two days after her performance at the school , Gaga showed a new tattoo of a Miles Davis trumpet she had gotten earlier . The singer posted a picture to her Instagram account of her getting the tattoo with Newman , announcing his involvement on the album while proclaiming , " It 's jazz time , world " . Gaga also performed with Bennett at the Montreal International Jazz Festival , and starred in a holiday commercial for retail company H & M , directed by Johan Renck and featuring " It Don 't Mean A Thing ( If I Ain 't Got That Swing ) " . The artists announced the news on Instagram . At the 2014 New York Fashion Week party , Gaga performed " Ev 'ry Time We Say Goodbye " , dedicating it to her boyfriend , actor Taylor Kinney .
On September 13 and 14 , 2014 , HSN broadcast a special titled Tony Bennett and Lady Gaga : Cheek to Cheek . The music special gave fans an exclusive look behind @-@ the @-@ scenes at the making of the album , as well as never @-@ before @-@ seen footage of the two artists collaborating in the recording studio . It also showcased their song selection process from the Great American Songbook . Following the announcement of the release , a short concert was held at the Rose Theater of Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts . Titled Tony Bennett and Lady Gaga : Cheek to Cheek Live ! , the concert aired on PBS as part of their Great Performances series on October 24 , 2014 . It was watched by an audience consisting of invited guests and students from New York schools . Set and lighting was created by Robert Wilson , while David Horn directed it . Bennett and Gaga were joined onstage by 39 @-@ piece orchestra conducted by Jorge Calandrelli , soloists Chris Botti on trumpet and David Mann on tenor sax , and jazz musicians associated with both artists . On January 20 , 2015 , the DVD was released .
Three songs from the album were used by ESPN during the advertisements for the 2014 Tennis US Open . The channel 's vice president Jamie Reynolds explained that their decision to incorporate the " classic swing vibe of New York " led them to use the Cheek to Cheek songs . Universal Music provided the videos for the songs , which were then mixed with tennis shots and used in the ads . It also used original content like Bennett in his Manhattan apartment , and Gaga on tour in Australia with ArtRave : The Ar
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. Several of the older buildings of the town show evidence of the Dutch architectural style .
Chatteris is a market town and has possessed this designation since 1834 , although an earlier market existed in the town , which was discontinued due to poor roads in 1808 . A small market is still held every Friday . Following the Beeching Axe , Chatteris railway station , formerly on the St. Ives extension of the Great Eastern Railway was closed in March 1967 .
= = Governance = =
The town is in the North East Cambridgeshire parliamentary constituency , with the incumbent MP being the Conservative Stephen Barclay . The constituency is now considered a safe Conservative seat , although the Liberal MP Clement Freud held the seat from 1973 to 1987 . The town is locally governed by Cambridgeshire County Council , Fenland District Council and Chatteris Town Council , each performing separate functions .
The town is historically part of the Isle of Ely , once under the secular jurisdiction of the Bishop of Ely , a power ended by the Liberty of Ely Act , 1837 . After various changes throughout the 19th and 20th centuries , following the recommendations of the Local Government Commission for England , on 1 April 1965 the bulk of the area was merged to form Cambridgeshire and Isle of Ely , and since the Local Government Act 1972 , Chatteris has been part of the wider Cambridgeshire County Council .
Under the Police Act 1964 and local government reform in 1974 , the Isle of Ely Constabulary became part of the present Cambridgeshire Constabulary . A small police station is situated in East Park Street , but it is no longer open to the public .
= = Geography = =
Chatteris is situated between Huntingdon , St Ives , Peterborough , March and Ely , in the middle of The Fens — the lowest @-@ lying area in the United Kingdom — with most of the land surrounding the town being below sea level , although the highest point in the Fens ( 36 feet above sea level ) is within Chatteris 's parish boundaries . The peaty land surrounding the town is largely used for agriculture , drained by numerous ditches and dykes , and there are two large drainage rivers near the town - the Forty Foot Drain , also known as Vermuyden 's Drain , and the Sixteen Foot Drain .
Chatteris is a key turning point on the A141 road ( known as the Isle of Ely way ) and the starting point of the A142 road to Ely and Suffolk ( known as Ireton 's Way ) . The town also has important links to Cambridge and the A14 via the B1050 to Bar Hill . The town centre traffic was bypassed in 1986 , with the disused route of the former St Ives extension of the Great Eastern Railway being used to build the A141 to March and Guyhirn .
There are no Met Office recording stations in the Fens , but an indication of rainfall and temperature of the county town Cambridge on the edge of the Fens shows that rainfall is below the national average , and in a wider study of East Anglia , the region had temperatures comparable with London , the warmest part of the UK .
= = Demography = =
The United Kingdom Census 2011 found the population of Chatteris to be 10 @,@ 453 . This was an increase of 1163 since 2001 which recorded 8 @,@ 820 people living in 3 @,@ 809 households , with the average number of people per dwelling 2 @.@ 31 . The 2001 census found that 98 @.@ 9 % of the population of the town were of the white ethnic group . The parish of Chatteris is large , covering 6 @,@ 099 hectares , equalling an average population density of 1 @.@ 45 , although most of the dwellings are concentrated in a smaller area , the outskirts of the town consisting of farmland .
= = Economy = =
Chatteris is sited in particularly fertile agricultural land , and as such , the town 's local economy is largely based on this industry . Alan Bartlett and Songs Ltd , a major British grower and packer of root vegetables has a large facility in the town with over 2 @,@ 500 hectares under cultivation , much of it growing parsnips and the Chantenay and Bushytops carrot . The company is a demerger of Albert Bartlett & Sons , which are now based in Scotland . Rustler Produce Ltd , also based in Chatteris , is another major player in this industry , and a number of smaller vegetable producers and processors operate in the Chatteris area .
Another major employer in the town is Metalcraft ( Stainless Metalcraft ( Chatteris ) Ltd ) . The company was established in the town in the late 19th century and over the years has manufactured diamond mining equipment and overhead cranes . The company is now part of the Avingtrans Group and specialises in creating engineered products for the oil , gas , nuclear and medical industries .
The town 's main retail outlets are situated in Market Hill and High Street . The town centre has a post office , a branch of Barclays , a large Aldi supermarket on Bridge Street and a small Budgens supermarket in the High Street . The town centre generally features more specialist non @-@ branch shops in the centre . In 2007 , the Petrou Brothers fish and chip shop in West Park Street won the National Chip Shop of the Year competition . The Cross Keys , The George Inn and The Bramley House are the town 's main hotel and bed @-@ and @-@ breakfast establishments , all located in the High Street or Market Hill . In addition to the Cross Keys and George , there are two further pubs ; The Ship in Bridge Street and The Honest John in South Park Street , and a number of small restaurants and tea shops .
A large Tesco supermarket was constructed on the outskirts of Chatteris at a cost of £ 22 million . It was due to be opened in November 2014 , but has been left unopened and empty following the company 's decision to halt the opening of 49 out @-@ of @-@ town supermarkets following poor financial results . As of April 2016 , Tesco are looking for another retailer to take over the store , which remains mothballed .
= = Religion = =
The 2001 Census found that 6 @,@ 596 ( 74 @.@ 8 % ) of people in the town stated Christian to be their religion , with 54 ( 0 @.@ 6 % ) of other religions and 2163 ( 24 @.@ 5 % ) as having no religion .
The parish church of St Peter & St Paul is situated in the centre of the town . A church has been on the site since at least 1162 , although the current tower dates from 1352 . The building had fallen into disrepair during the 19th century , and the majority of the building is the result of an intensive restoration in 1910 . This included restoring a pitched roof and adding new aisles , although the nave arches are original . In 1935 , a new two manual Harrison & Harrison organ was installed , a fine example of a pneumatic action instrument . Recent years have seen the construction of several new facilities , such as the Bricstan room extension . The church lists itself as being of the low church branch of the Church of England . The church also hosts the town 's Catholic congregation .
The Emmanuel Church in East Park Street was created through the union of the Methodist , United Reformed and Baptist Union churches in Chatteris in 1990 . It is based in the former United Reformed building in East Park Street , although several of the former chapel buildings still exist around the town . The town also has a Salvation Army citadel , also in East Park Street .
= = Education = =
The town has two primary schools , Kingsfield Primary School ( created in 2003 by the amalgamation of the former Burnsfield School and King Edward School ) and Glebelands School , which opened in the early months of 1994 . The town 's secondary school is Cromwell Community College , founded in 1939 . The school became an academy in 2012 . The Isle College used to have a presence in the town , with a base in Grove House . However , this closed following the College 's merger with the College of West Anglia . The town has a library run by Cambridgeshire County Council .
= = Sport and leisure = =
The town 's football club , Chatteris Town , was founded in 1920 and currently play in the Kershaw Premier Division of the Cambridgeshire Football Association County League . The town also has a cricket club , Chatteris Cricket Club , which was founded in 1879 . The club has five senior teams and four youth teams that compete in both the Fenland and Cambridgeshire leagues . Chatteris CC won the St Ivo Midweek League in 2008 and 2009 going both seasons unbeaten . The town also has a bowls club and a tennis club ( St Peters ) . Chatteris Airfield is about 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) north @-@ northeast , which is mainly used for skydiving , and is the base of the North London Skydiving Centre . A flying school is also based at the airfield .
The town has one swimming pool , the Empress , which is privately owned and is a registered charity run by three trustees . It is open to members and can be booked for private hires or group sessions . It is home of the Chatteris Kingfishers swimming club , who after successes in 2008 compete in Division One of the 2009 " Cambs Cup " competition . Plans for a public swimming pool and leisure centre have been proposed by the council since 1990 , but have yet to be approved . Proposals for the development of Cromwell Community College under the government 's BSF programme include significant leisure provisions and these are expected to start in 2010 . A new gym situated in the grounds of Cromwell Community College opened in 2013 .
= = Culture and community = =
The town is noted for its annual display of Christmas lights , which are entirely funded by community donations and have been featured on BBC Look East . In 2008 , a medieval @-@ themed Historical Festival replaced the town 's traditional festival week .
The town has a museum run by volunteers , with several permanent exhibitions about local history , the Fens , Victoriana and the Railways . Chatteris also has a Scout club , an Army Cadet force and a youth football team .
Chatteris has morning and evening Women 's Institutes , which both meet at the King Edward Centre , and a Rotary Club which meet at the local fire station , and put on an annual firework display , plus other events in the town . The town 's annual entry in the " Anglia in Bloom " competition was awarded a Silver Gilt in 2008 , and achieved a Gold in 2009 . The town also has a brass band , founded in 1882 , which competes in the East Anglian Brass Band Association .
In 2005 , British indie band Half Man Half Biscuit – perhaps best known for " The Trumpton Riots " and " Dickie Davies Eyes " – included a song entitled " For What Is Chatteris ... " on their award @-@ winning Achtung Bono album . The song extolled the virtues of the town , offset against how unsatisfying the best place in the world can suddenly become when the one you love is no longer there : " a market town that lacks quintessence / that 's Chatteris without your presence " . News of the song made the headlines of the Cambridgeshire Times and the Peterborough Evening Telegraph during September 2005 , a month before the album 's official release .
A Chatteris fish and chip shop won the 2006 National Fish and Chip Shop of the Year competition . The Petrou Brothers owners were presented with the award by chef Ainsley Harriott .
= = Notable residents = =
Eric Boon , boxer ; British Lightweight Champion 1938 @-@ 1944 .
George William Burdett Clare , Victoria Cross recipient for whom the doctors ' surgery is named .
Sir George Herbert Farrar , South African mining magnate , politician and soldier .
John Percy Farrar , English soldier and mountaineer . President of the Alpine Club from 1917 to 1919 and a member of the Mount Everest Committee .
Dave Boy Green , boxer .
Dominic Mohan ( former resident ) Editor of The Sun newspaper .
Joe Perry , snooker player
Joseph Ruston , engineer and MP .
Lindsay Shilling , Principal Trombonist at the Royal Opera House .
= = Transport = =
Chatteris is well served by local bus routes , with regular buses to the nearby towns of March , St Ives , Ely and the city of Cambridge . There are also occasional services to Huntingdon and Peterborough .
The nearest railway stations are in March and Manea .
= Mayer – Vietoris sequence =
In mathematics , particularly algebraic topology and homology theory , the Mayer – Vietoris sequence is an algebraic tool to help compute algebraic invariants of topological spaces , known as their homology and cohomology groups . The result is due to two Austrian mathematicians , Walther Mayer and Leopold Vietoris . The method consists of splitting a space into subspaces , for which the homology or cohomology groups may be easier to compute . The sequence relates the ( co ) homology groups of the space to the ( co ) homology groups of the subspaces . It is a natural long exact sequence , whose entries are the ( co ) homology groups of the whole space , the direct sum of the ( co ) homology groups of the subspaces , and the ( co ) homology groups of the intersection of the subspaces .
The Mayer – Vietoris sequence holds for a variety of cohomology and homology theories , including singular homology and singular cohomology . In general , the sequence holds for those theories satisfying the Eilenberg – Steenrod axioms , and it has variations for both reduced and relative ( co ) homology . Because the ( co ) homology of most spaces cannot be computed directly from their definitions , one uses tools such as the Mayer – Vietoris sequence in the hope of obtaining partial information . Many spaces encountered in topology are constructed by piecing together very simple patches . Carefully choosing the two covering subspaces so that , together with their intersection , they have simpler ( co ) homology than that of the whole space may allow a complete deduction of the ( co ) homology of the space . In that respect , the Mayer – Vietoris sequence is analogous to the Seifert – van Kampen theorem for the fundamental group , and a precise relation exists for homology of dimension one .
= = Background , motivation , and history = =
Like the fundamental group or the higher homotopy groups of a space , homology groups are important topological invariants . Although some ( co ) homology theories are computable using tools of linear algebra , many other important ( co ) homology theories , especially singular ( co ) homology , are not computable directly from their definition for nontrivial spaces . For singular ( co ) homology , the singular ( co ) chains and ( co ) cycles groups are often too big to handle directly . More subtle and indirect approaches become necessary . The Mayer – Vietoris sequence is such an approach , giving partial information about the ( co ) homology groups of any space by relating it to the ( co ) homology groups of two of its subspaces and their intersection .
The most natural and convenient way to express the relation involves the algebraic concept of exact sequences : sequences of objects ( in this case groups ) and morphisms ( in this case group homomorphisms ) between them such that the image of one morphism equals the kernel of the next . In general , this does not allow ( co ) homology groups of a space to be completely computed . However , because many important spaces encountered in topology are topological manifolds , simplicial complexes , or CW complexes , which are constructed by piecing together very simple patches , a theorem such as that of Mayer and Vietoris is potentially of broad and deep applicability .
Mayer was introduced to topology by his colleague Vietoris when attending his lectures in 1926 and 1927 at a local university in Vienna . He was told about the conjectured result and a way to its solution , and solved the question for the Betti numbers in 1929 . He applied his results to the torus considered as the union of two cylinders . Vietoris later proved the full result for the homology groups in 1930 but did not express it as an exact sequence . The concept of an exact sequence only appeared in print in the 1952 book Foundations of Algebraic Topology by Samuel Eilenberg and Norman Steenrod where the results of Mayer and Vietoris were expressed in the modern form .
= = Basic versions for singular homology = =
Let X be a topological space and A , B be two subspaces whose interiors cover X. ( The interiors of A and B need not be disjoint . ) The Mayer – Vietoris sequence in singular homology for the triad ( X , A , B ) is a long exact sequence relating the singular homology groups ( with coefficient group the integers Z ) of the spaces X , A , B , and the intersection A ∩ B. There is an unreduced and a reduced version .
= = = Unreduced version = = =
For unreduced homology , the Mayer – Vietoris sequence states that the following sequence is exact :
<formula>
Here the maps i : A ∩ B ↪ A , j : A ∩ B ↪ B , k : A ↪ X , and l : B ↪ X are inclusion maps and <formula> denotes the direct sum of abelian groups .
= = = Boundary map = = =
The boundary maps ∂ * lowering the dimension may be made explicit as follows . An element in Hn ( X ) is the homology class of an n @-@ cycle x which , by barycentric subdivision for example , can be written as the sum of two n @-@ chains u and v whose images lie wholly in A and B , respectively . Thus ∂ x
= ∂ ( u + v ) =
0 so that ∂ u
= − ∂ v. This implies that the images of both these boundary ( n − 1 ) -cycles are contained in the intersection A ∩ B. Then ∂ * ( [ x ] ) is the class of ∂ u in Hn − 1 ( A ∩ B ) . Choosing another decomposition x =
u ′ + v ′ does not affect [ ∂ u ] , since ∂ u + ∂ v
= ∂ x =
∂ u ′ + ∂ v ′ , which implies ∂ u − ∂ u ′
= ∂ ( v ′ − v ) , and therefore ∂ u and ∂ u ′ lie in the same Homology class ; nor does choosing a different representative x ′ , since then ∂ x ′ =
∂ x = 0 . Notice that the maps in the Mayer – Vietoris sequence depend on choosing an order for A and B. In particular , the boundary map changes sign if A and B are swapped .
= = = Reduced version = = =
For reduced homology there is also a Mayer – Vietoris sequence , under the assumption that A and B have non @-@ empty intersection . The sequence is identical for positive dimensions and ends as :
<formula>
= = = Analogy with the Seifert – van Kampen theorem = = =
There is an analogy between the Mayer – Vietoris sequence ( especially for homology groups of dimension 1 ) and the Seifert – van Kampen theorem . Whenever A ∩ B is path @-@ connected the reduced Mayer – Vietoris sequence yields the isomorphism
<formula>
where , by exactness ,
<formula>
This is precisely the abelianized statement of the Seifert – van Kampen theorem . Compare with the fact that H1 ( X ) is the abelianization of the fundamental group π1 ( X ) when X is path @-@ connected .
= = Basic applications = =
= = = k @-@ sphere = = =
To completely compute the homology of the k @-@ sphere X = Sk , let A and B be two hemispheres of X with intersection homotopy equivalent to a ( k − 1 ) -dimensional equatorial sphere . Since the k @-@ dimensional hemispheres are homeomorphic to k @-@ discs , which are contractible , the homology groups for A and B are trivial . The Mayer – Vietoris sequence for reduced homology groups then yields
<formula>
Exactness immediately implies that the map ∂ * is an isomorphism . Using the reduced homology of the 0 @-@ sphere ( two points ) as a base case , it follows
<formula>
where δ is the Kronecker delta . Such a complete understanding of the homology groups for spheres is in stark contrast with current knowledge of homotopy groups of spheres , especially for the case n > k about which little is known .
= = = Klein bottle = = =
A slightly more difficult application of the Mayer – Vietoris sequence is the calculation of the homology groups of the Klein bottle X. One uses the decomposition of X as the union of two Möbius strips A and B glued along their boundary circle ( see illustration on the right ) . Then A , B and their intersection A ∩ B are homotopy equivalent to circles , so the nontrivial part of the sequence yields
<formula>
and the trivial part implies vanishing homology for dimensions greater than 2 . The central map α sends 1 to ( 2 , − 2 ) since the boundary circle of a Möbius band wraps twice around the core circle . In particular α is injective so homology of dimension 2 also vanishes . Finally , choosing ( 1 , 0 ) and ( 1 , − 1 ) as a basis for Z2 , it follows
<formula>
= = = Wedge sums = = =
Let X be the wedge sum of two spaces K and L , and suppose furthermore that the identified basepoint is a deformation retract of open neighborhoods U ⊂ K and V ⊂ L. Letting A
= K ∪ V and B =
U ∪ L it follows that A ∪ B
= X and A ∩ B =
U ∪ V , which is contractible by construction . The reduced version of the sequence then yields ( by exactness )
<formula>
for all dimensions n . The illustration on the right shows X as the sum of two 2 @-@ spheres K and L. For this specific case , using the result from above for 2 @-@ spheres , one has
<formula>
= = = Suspensions = = =
If X is the suspension SY of a space Y , let A and B be the complements in X of the top and bottom ' vertices ' of the double cone , respectively . Then X is the union A ∪ B , with A and B contractible . Also , the intersection A ∩ B is homotopy equivalent to Y. Hence the Mayer – Vietoris sequence yields , for all n ,
<formula>
The illustration on the right shows the 1 @-@ sphere X as the suspension of the 0 @-@ sphere Y. Noting in general that the k @-@ sphere is the suspension of the ( k − 1 ) -sphere , it is easy to derive the homology groups of the k @-@ sphere by induction , as above .
= = Further discussion = =
= = = Relative form = = =
A relative form of the Mayer – Vietoris sequence also exists . If Y ⊂ X and is the union of C ⊂ A and D ⊂ B , then the exact sequence is :
<formula>
= = = Naturality = = =
The homology groups are natural in the sense that if ƒ is a continuous map from X1 to X2 , then there is a canonical pushforward map ƒ ∗ of homology groups ƒ ∗ : Hk ( X1 ) → Hk ( X2 ) , such that the composition of pushforwards is the pushforward of a composition : that is , <formula> . The Mayer – Vietoris sequence is also natural in the sense that if X1
= A1 ∪ B1 to X2 =
A2 ∪ B2 and the mapping ƒ satisfies ƒ ( A1 ) ⊂ A2 and ƒ ( B1 ) ⊂ B2 , then the connecting morphism ∂ ∗ of the Mayer – Vietoris sequence commutes with ƒ ∗ . That is , the following diagram commutes ( the horizontal maps are the usual ones ) :
<formula>
= = = Cohomological versions = = =
The Mayer – Vietoris long exact sequence for singular cohomology groups with coefficient group G is dual to the homological version . It is the following :
<formula>
where the dimension preserving maps are restriction maps induced from inclusions , and the ( co- ) boundary maps are defined in a similar fashion to the homological version . There is also a relative formulation .
As an important special case when G is the group of real numbers R and the underlying topological space has the additional structure of a smooth manifold , the Mayer – Vietoris sequence for de Rham cohomology is
<formula>
where { U , V } is an open cover of X , ρ denotes the restriction map , and Δ is the difference . The map d ∗ is defined similarly as the map ∂ ∗ from above . It can be briefly described as follows . For a cohomology class [ ω ] represented by closed form ω in U ∩ V , express ω as a difference of forms ωU - ωV via a partition of unity subordinate to the open cover { U , V } , for example . The exterior derivative dωU and dωV agree on U ∩ V and therefore together define an n + 1 form σ on X. One then has d ∗ ( [ ω ] ) = [ σ ] .
= = = Derivation = = =
Consider the long exact sequence associated to the short exact sequences of chain groups ( constituent groups of chain complexes )
<formula>
where α ( x )
= ( x , − x ) , β ( x , y ) =
x + y , and Cn ( A + B ) is the chain group consisting of sums of chains in A and chains in B. It is a fact that the singular n @-@ simplices of X whose images are contained in either A or B generate all of the homology group Hn ( X ) . In other words , Hn ( A + B ) is isomorphic to Hn ( X ) . This gives the Mayer – Vietoris sequence for singular homology .
The same computation applied to the short exact sequences of vector spaces of differential forms
<formula>
yields the Mayer – Vietoris sequence for de Rham cohomology .
From a formal point of view , the Mayer – Vietoris sequence can be derived from the Eilenberg – Steenrod axioms for homology theories using the long exact sequence in homology .
= = = Other homology theories = = =
The derivation of the Mayer – Vietoris sequence from the Eilenberg – Steenrod axioms does not require the dimension axiom , so in addition to existing in ordinary cohomology theories , it holds in extraordinary cohomology theories ( such as topological K @-@ theory and cobordism ) .
= = = Sheaf cohomology = = =
From the point of view of sheaf cohomology , the Mayer – Vietoris sequence is related to Čech cohomology . Specifically , it arises from the degeneration of the spectral sequence that relates Čech cohomology to sheaf cohomology ( sometimes called the Mayer – Vietoris spectral sequence ) in the case where the open cover used to compute the Čech cohomology consists of two open sets . This spectral sequence exists in arbitrary topoi .
= U.S. Route 1 / 9 Truck =
U.S. Route 1 @-@ 9 Truck ( US 1 @-@ 9 Truck ) is a United States highway in the northern part of New Jersey that stretches 4 @.@ 11 mi ( 6 @.@ 61 km ) from the eastern edge of Newark to the Tonnele Circle in Jersey City . It is the alternate road for U.S. Route 1 @-@ 9 ( US 1 @-@ 9 ) that trucks must use because they are prohibited from using the Pulaski Skyway , which carries the main routes of US 1 @-@ 9 . It also serves traffic accessing the New Jersey Turnpike , Route 440 , and Route 7 . The route is a four- to six @-@ lane road its entire length , with portions of it being a divided highway , that runs through urban areas . From its south end to about halfway through Kearny , US 1 @-@ 9 Truck is freeway @-@ standard , with access to other roads controlled by interchanges .
While the US 1 @-@ 9 Truck designation was first used in 1953 , the roadway comprising the route was originally designated as an extension of pre @-@ 1927 Route 1 in 1922 , a route that in its full length stretched from Trenton to Jersey City . US 1 @-@ 9 was designated along the road in 1926 and one year later , in 1927 , this portion of pre @-@ 1927 Route 1 was replaced with Route 25 as well as with a portion of Route 1 north of the Communipaw Avenue intersection . Following the opening of the Pulaski Skyway in 1932 , US 1 @-@ 9 and Route 25 were realigned to the new skyway . After trucks were banned from the skyway in 1934 , the portion of Route 25 between Newark and Route 1 was designated as Route 25T . In 1953 , US 1 @-@ 9 Truck was designated in favor of Route 25T and Route 1 along this segment of road . The portion of the truck route north of Route 7 is being rebuilt as part of a $ 271 @.@ 9 million project to construct new approach roads to connect Route 1 & 9T , Route 7 , the Pulaski Skyway , Route 139 , and Route 1 & 9 north of Tonnele Circle and local streets in Jersey City . Construction , which started in late 2008 , is expected to be complete in late 2012 .
= = Route description = =
US 1 @-@ 9 Truck begins at an interchange with access to and from the southbound direction US 1 @-@ 9 , the Pulaski Skyway , in the Ironbound section of the city of Newark in Essex County . The truck route is meant to bypass the portion of US 1 @-@ 9 along the Pulaski Skyway , which trucks are restricted from . It merges onto Raymond Boulevard , which continues west from the US 1 @-@ 9 and US 1 @-@ 9 Truck interchange into downtown Newark . The truck restriction on Route 1 @-@ 9 is for the " safety and welfare of the public " according to the New Jersey Department of Transportation , not a specific bridge defect . At this point , the truck route becomes a four @-@ lane divided highway , heading to the east . A short distance later , the road comes to an interchange with the New Jersey Turnpike ( Interstate 95 ) and Doremus Avenue before crossing over the Passaic River on a vertical lift bridge . Here , the route enters Kearny in Hudson County and continues east into industrial areas as the Lincoln Highway . The road has a right @-@ in / right @-@ out in both directions that provides access to Jacobus Avenue before it comes to an interchange with County Route 659 . From here , US 1 @-@ 9 Truck becomes a six @-@ lane divided highway and comes to an at @-@ grade intersection with Hackensack Avenue . Past this intersection , the road crosses the Hackensack River on a vertical lift bridge and enters Jersey City . Upon entering Jersey City , the road becomes Communipaw Avenue and intersects the northern terminus of Route 440 near the Hudson Mall .
At this intersection , Communipaw Avenue continues to the east and US 1 @-@ 9 Truck turns to the north , becoming an unnamed four @-@ lane undivided road. bisecting Lincoln Park before coming to an intersection with County Route 605 . Here , the road becomes a four @-@ lane divided highway again , passing some urban business areas before running between wetlands to the west and Holy Name Cemetery to the east . The route heads into more commercial areas again before passing urban residences , coming to an intersection that provides access to the Pulaski Skyway . Here , US 1 @-@ 9 Truck turns east on Broadway , running through a business district . A short distance later , it turns north onto an unnamed road with County Route 642 continuing east on Broadway . The route passes under a Conrail Shared Assets Operations railroad line and PATH 's Newark – World Trade Center Line before crossing under the Pulaski Skyway . Immediately after , US 1 @-@ 9 Truck intersects the eastern terminus of Route 7 and turns to the east , with County Route 645 continuing north at this intersection . The truck route becomes a four @-@ lane undivided road that runs to the north of the Pulaski Skyway and passes through industrial sectors , crossing over a railroad line and County Route 646 , known as St. Paul 's Avenue , on a viaduct . A short distance later , US 1 @-@ 9 Truck comes to the Tonnele Circle with US 1 @-@ 9 and Route 139 , where it ends .
The East Coast Greenway runs along the north side of the highway .
= = History = =
What is now U.S. 1 @-@ 9 Truck between Newark and Jersey City was originally the Newark Plank Road ; in 1913 this became the first segment of the Lincoln Highway . The current route of US 1 @-@ 9 Truck was designated to be an extension of pre @-@ 1927 Route 1 in 1922 , a route that was to run from Trenton to Jersey City .
When the U.S. Highway System was established in 1926 , the current truck route became a part of the US 1 @-@ 9 concurrency . A year later , in the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 25 was designated to run along the entire length of the route along with US 1 @-@ 9 as part of its journey from the Benjamin Franklin Bridge in Camden to the Holland Tunnel in Jersey City , while Route 1 was also designated along the portion north of Communipaw Avenue in Jersey City as a part of its routing from Bayonne to Rockleigh .
Following the opening of the Pulaski Skyway in 1932 , US 1 @-@ 9 and Route 25 were moved to the new bridge . After trucks were banned from the Pulaski Skyway in 1934 , the portion of Route 25 between Newark and Route 1 was designated as Route 25T . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , US 1 @-@ 9 Truck was designated to replace all of Route 25T as well as the portion of Route 1 between Route 25T and the Tonnele Circle .
Beginning in late 2008 the New Jersey Department of Transportation replaced the viaduct that carries the route over St. Paul 's Avenue , which was built in 1928 and determined structurally deficient . The $ 271 @.@ 9 million replacement was completed in September 2011 . In addition to replacing the St. Paul 's Avenue viaduct , the approaches to US 1 @-@ 9 Truck between Route 7 and the Tonnele Circle were improved .
In anticipation of a general increase of activity in Port of New York and New Jersey and new development on West Side and Hackensack Riverfront studies are being conducted to make the intersection with Route 440 a multi @-@ level traffic circle and northern and southern ( Route 440 ) approaches to it into a multi @-@ use urban boulevard that includes grade separations and additional medians .
= = Major intersections = =
= Sholes and Glidden typewriter =
The Sholes and Glidden typewriter ( also known as the Remington No. 1 ) was the first commercially successful typewriter . Principally designed by the American inventor Christopher Latham Sholes , it was developed with the assistance of fellow printer Samuel W. Soule and amateur mechanic Carlos S. Glidden . Work began in 1867 , but Soule left the enterprise shortly thereafter , replaced by James Densmore , who provided financial backing and the driving force behind the machine 's continued development . After several short @-@ lived attempts to manufacture the device , the machine was acquired by E. Remington and Sons in early 1873 . An arms manufacturer seeking to diversify , Remington further refined the typewriter before finally placing it on the market on July 1 , 1874 .
During its development , the typewriter evolved from a crude curiosity into a practical device , the basic form of which became the industry standard . The machine incorporated elements which became fundamental to typewriter design , including a cylindrical platen and a four @-@ rowed QWERTY keyboard . Several design deficiencies remained , however . The Sholes and Glidden could print only upper @-@ case letters — an issue remedied in its successor , the Remington No. 2 — and was a " blind writer " , meaning the typist could not see what was being written as it was entered .
Initially , the typewriter received an unenthusiastic reception from the public . Lack of an established market , high cost , and the need for trained operators slowed its adoption . Additionally , recipients of typewritten messages found the mechanical , all upper @-@ case writing to be impersonal and even insulting . The new communication technologies and expanding businesses of the late 19th century , however , had created a need for expedient , legible correspondence , and so the Sholes and Glidden and its contemporaries soon became common office fixtures . The typewriter is credited with assisting the entrance of women into the clerical workplace , as many were hired to operate the new devices .
= = History = =
= = = Early development = = =
The Sholes and Glidden typewriter had its origin in a printing machine designed in 1866 by Christopher Latham Sholes to assist in printing page numbers in books , and serial numbers on tickets and other items . Sholes , a Wisconsin printer , formed a partnership with Samuel W. Soule , also a printer , and together they began development work in Charles F. Kleinsteuber 's machine shop , a converted mill in northern Milwaukee . Carlos S. Glidden , an inventor who frequented the machine shop , became interested in the device and suggested that it might be adapted to print alphabetical characters as well . In July 1867 , Glidden read an article in Scientific American describing " the Pterotype " , a writing machine invented by John Pratt and recently featured in an issue of London Engineering . Glidden showed the article to Sholes , who thought the machine " complicated and liable to get out of order " , and was convinced that a better machine could be designed . To that point , several dozen patents for printing devices had been issued in the United States and abroad . None of the machines , however , had been successful or effective products .
In November 1866 , following their successful collaboration on the numbering machine , Sholes asked Soule to join him and Glidden in developing the new device . Mathias Schwalbach , a German clockmaker , was hired to assist with construction . To test the proposed machine 's feasibility , a key was taken from a telegraph machine and modified to print the letter " W " ; by September 1867 , a model with a full alphabet , numbers , and rudimentary punctuation had been completed , and it was used to compose letters to acquaintances in the hope of selling the invention , or procuring funds for its manufacture . One recipient , James Densmore , immediately bought a 25 % interest for $ 600 , the cost of the machine 's development to that date . Densmore saw the machine for the
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first time in March 1868 , and was unimpressed ; he thought it clumsy and impractical , and declared it " good for nothing except to show that its underlying principles were sound " . Among other deficiencies , the device held paper in a horizontal frame , which limited the thickness of the paper that could be used and made alignment difficult . A patent for the " Type @-@ Writer " was granted on June 23 , 1868 , and , despite the device 's flaws , Densmore rented a building in Chicago in which to begin its manufacture . Fifteen units were produced before a lack of funds forced the venture back to Milwaukee .
= = = Refinement = = =
During 1869 , an improved model was designed which , unlike the previous version , drew upon work done by other inventors . A machine patented in 1833 by Charles Thurber , for example , used a cylindrical platen . Sholes adapted the idea and implemented a rotating drum to which the paper was clipped , replacing the frame of the previous model . Soule and Glidden did not assist development of the new platen and , as their interest in the venture was waning , sold their rights to the original machine to Sholes and Densmore . Prototypes were sent to professionals in various fields , including James O. Clephane , a stenographer whose heavy use destroyed several machines . Clephane 's feedback , although " caustic " , led to the development of an additional 25 to 30 prototypes , each an improvement on its predecessor . In summer 1870 , Densmore traveled to New York to demonstrate the machine to Western Union , which was looking for a method to record telegrams . Western Union ordered several machines , but declined to purchase the rights , as it believed a superior device could be developed for less than Densmore 's asking price of $ 50 @,@ 000 .
To supply the orders and to repay debts , Densmore began to manufacture the machine in summer 1871 . During this time , the machine was revised to improve durability and the platen was redesigned after feedback from Western Union , which wanted the ability to print on a continuous roll , indicated that clipping paper to the platen was impractical . The new design , however , infringed a patent granted to Charles A. Washburn in November 1870 ; Washburn , consequently , received royalties on future production . In 1872 , to manufacture the new machine in earnest , a former wheelwright shop was secured along with several employees . Although the machines worked well , the lack of economies of scale prevented the venture from yielding a profit . In exchange for funding the ventures , Densmore had been acquiring an ever increasing ownership interest . Sholes was eventually bought out for a cash payment of $ 12 @,@ 000 . Glidden kept his one @-@ tenth right of the patent . Densmore consulted with George W. N. Yost , a manufacturer with whom he had been acquainted , who suggested showing the machine to E. Remington and Sons . Remington , an arms manufacturer seeking to diversify after the Civil War , possessed the machining equipment and skilled machinists necessary to further develop the complex machine . A typewritten letter was sent to Remington , where executive Henry H. Benedict was impressed by the novelty and encouraged company president Philo Remington to pursue the device .
= = = Start of an industry = = =
Following a demonstration at Remington 's offices in New York , the company contracted on March 1 , 1873 , to manufacture 1 @,@ 000 machines , with the option to produce an additional 24 @,@ 000 . Although the agreement required Densmore to give Remington $ 10 @,@ 000 and royalty rights , a marketing firm to be formed by Densmore and Yost was allowed to serve as the exclusive sales agent . Remington dedicated a wing of its factory to the typewriter , and spent several months retooling and re @-@ engineering the device ; production began in September and the machine entered the market on July 1 , 1874 . Typewriter production was largely overseen by Jefferson Clough and William K. Jenne , manager of Remington 's sewing machine division . The redesigned machine was sturdier and more reliable than Sholes ' model , but it had taken on some of the characteristics of a sewing machine , including a japanned case with floral ornamentation and a stand with a treadle to operate the carriage return . The typewriter , however , had been rushed into production with insufficient testing , and early models were soon returned for adjustments and repair .
By December 1874 , only 400 typewriters had been sold , due in part to their high price and poor reliability . As businesses were slow to adopt the machine , authors , clergymen , lawyers and newspaper editors were the targeted customers . Individuals , however , generally did not write enough to justify the machine 's price of about $ 125 , the average annual income per person at the time . There were exceptions , however ; Mark Twain was among the first to purchase the machine , which he termed a " curiosity breeding little joker " . Although the machine was exhibited at the Centennial Exhibition in 1876 , it was overshadowed by Alexander Graham Bell 's telephone . Several design and manufacturing improvements followed — including replacing the treadle with a hand lever — and 4 @,@ 000 machines had been sold by 1877 . In 1878 , Remington outsourced marketing to E. & T. Fairbanks & Company , a scale manufacturer , as marketing to that point had produced only lackluster sales .
An improved model , the Remington No. 2 , was also introduced in 1878 . The new machine was able to type upper and lowercase characters , thus remedying a significant drawback of its predecessor . As the only typewriter manufacturer , Remington maintained a monopoly position until the American Writing Machine Company introduced a typewriter to compete with the Remington machines in 1881 . In response to the new competition , Remington lowered the price of the Sholes and Glidden ( referred to in sales literature as the Remington No. 1 ) to $ 80 , and negotiated an agreement with the marketing firm Wyckoff , Seamans & Benedict to take all the machines produced . The arrangement marked the beginning of the typewriter 's commercial success , as the agency 's marketing prowess led to the sale of 1 @,@ 200 machines in its first year . By 1884 , more competitors had appeared , including the Hammond Typewriter Company , the Crandall Type @-@ Writer Company and the Hall Typewriter Company ; in the decade since the introduction of the Sholes and Glidden , a " thriving typewriter industry " had developed .
= = Design = =
The Sholes and Glidden typewriter incorporated several components adapted from existing devices , such as escapement ( a mechanism governing carriage movement ) adapted from clockwork , keys adapted from telegraph machines and type hammers adapted from the piano . In developing the first model , however , Sholes and Soule had not investigated printing machines created by other inventors and , consequently , developed several poor designs which could have been avoided . The failure to research earlier designs also led to the reinvention of features which had already been developed . Soule , for example , suggested a circular typebar orientation . A circular arrangement had been used more than 30 years earlier in a machine designed by Xavier Progin in 1833 .
In the machine 's original 1868 design , paper was placed horizontally on the top of the machine , held in place by a movable square frame ( to provide line and letter spacing ) . Above the paper and centered on the device , an arm held an inked ribbon which crossed over a small metal plate . Depressing a key caused a typebar to rise from underneath the paper , pressing the paper upwards against the ribbon and thus printing an inked character . This method of imprinting required use of very thin , nonstandard paper ( such as tissue paper ) . Two variants were produced with alternative methods of actuating the typebars : one in which the keys and typebars were connected by a series of wires and one in which the keys directly " kicked " the typebars upwards .
The arm and frame components were replaced with a cylindrical platen in 1869 . Unlike modern typewriters , the revised machine entered letters around the cylinder , with axial rotation providing letter spacing and horizontal shifting providing line spacing . Paper was clipped directly to the cylinder , which limited its length and width to the dimensions of the apparatus . The platen was again redesigned in early 1872 to allow the use of paper of any length . The redesigned platen also introduced the modern spacing functionality ( horizontal and axial movement providing letter and line spacing , respectively ) . The cylindrical platen became " an indispensable part of every standard [ typewriter ] " .
By the end of 1872 , the appearance and function of the typewriter had assumed the form that would become standard in the industry and remain largely unchanged for the next century . Although the machine possessed a cylindrical platen and what was essentially a QWERTY keyboard , two design elements that would later become essential were lacking : the ability to write in upper and lowercase letters and " visible " print . Although the former was implemented in the Remington No. 2 , the machine was fundamentally an " upstrike " design , meaning the typebars struck upwards against the underside of the platen . As this occurred inside the machine , the operator could not see what was being entered as it was typed . Although competing brands , such as the Oliver and Underwood , began to market " visible " typewriters in the 1890s , a Remington @-@ branded model did not appear until the Remington No. 10 in 1906 .
= = = QWERTY keyboard = = =
The QWERTY keyboard , so named for the first six characters of the uppermost alphabetic row , was invented during the course of the typewriter 's development . The first model constructed by Sholes used a piano @-@ like keyboard with two rows of characters arranged alphabetically as follows :
3 5 7 9 N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
2 4 6 8 . A B C D E F G H I J K L M
Schwalbach later replaced the piano @-@ like keys with " buttons " and positioned them into four banked rows . The mechanics of the machine , however , made the alphabetical arrangement problematic . The typebars were attached to the circumference of a metal ring , forming a " basket " . When a key was pressed , the corresponding typebar would swing upwards , causing the print head to strike at the center of the ring . Gravity would then return the typebar to its initial position . The implication of this design , however , was that pressing adjoining keys in quick succession would cause their typebars to collide and jam the machine . To mitigate this problem , keys were reordered using analysis of letter frequency and trial and error . Densmore asked his son @-@ in @-@ law , a Pennsylvania school superintendent , what letters and combinations of letters appeared most often in the English language . Typebars corresponding to letters in commonly occurring alphabetical pairs , such as S and T , were placed on opposite sides on the ring . The keyboard ultimately presented to Remington was arranged as follows :
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 - ,
Q W E . T Y I U O P
Z S D F G H J K L M
A X & C V B N ? ; R
After it purchased the device , Remington made several adjustments — including switching the period and " R " keys — which created a keyboard with what is essentially the modern QWERTY layout .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The Sholes and Glidden was the first commercially successful typewriter . Industrialization and corporate growth in the late 19th century produced a business environment for which the device was well suited . New communications technologies , such as the telegraph and telephone , facilitated geographic expansion and increased the speed with which business was conducted . The resulting increase in the volume of correspondence required messages to be produced quickly and legibly . Before the typewriter , clerks and copyists could write relatively quickly in shorthand or longhand . The comprehension of these scripts , however , required either special training or close concentration . Typesetting was used when legibility was important , but it was a slow and expensive process . The typewriter succeeded because it simultaneously addressed both issues .
The public was initially skeptical of the typewriter , and reactions included apathy and antagonism . Outside of large companies , letters generally did not need to be composed quickly ; as the device was reliant upon its operator , it offered no automation . In business settings involving customer interaction , the unfamiliar machines were viewed with suspicion ( as there existed the perception that mechanical devices could be rigged by unscrupulous merchants ) and the presence of such a large object between the customer and employee " interrupted the ' personal touch ' " . Individuals receiving typewritten letters often found them insulting ( as type implied they could not read handwriting ) or impersonal , problems exacerbated by the all upper @-@ case writing . The typewriter also precipitated privacy concerns , as recipients of letters of a personal nature believed a third @-@ party operator or typesetter must have been involved in their composition .
= = = Women and the typewriter = = =
The association of women with the typewriter may be linked to the way in which it was marketed . Before the typewriter was acquired by Remington , Sholes ' daughter was employed to demonstrate the device and to appear in promotional images , which served as the basis for early advertisements . Remington 's sales agents later marketed the machine with tactics including the use of attractive women to demonstrate the device at trade shows and in hotel lobbies . Depictions of female operators suggested the device was " easy enough for a woman " and suited for domestic use . Although also designed to allow Remington to maintain manufacturing efficiencies with its sewing machine division , the typewriter 's aesthetics ( the sewing machine stand and floral ornamentation ) were further intended to facilitate its acceptance into the household .
A " major consequence " of the typewriter 's development was the entrance of women into the clerical work force . Although women were already employed in factories and certain service industries in the 1880s , the typewriter facilitated an influx of women into office settings . Before the Young Women 's Christian Association ( YWCA ) established the first typing school in 1881 , women were trained by the manufacturer and their typing services provided to customers along with the machine . The expansion of correspondence and paper work that demanded the efficiency of typewriters , however , also created demand for additional clerical workers . The low wages accepted by women — often 50 % ( or less ) of those paid to a man — made them more attractive economically to businesses when filling the new positions . As typing and stenography positions could pay up to ten times more than those in factories , women were attracted in large numbers to office work . In 1874 , less than 4 % of clerical workers in the United States were women ; by 1900 , the number had increased to approximately 75 % . Before his death , Sholes remarked of the typewriter , " I do feel that I have done something for the women who have always had to work so hard . This will enable them more easily to earn a living . "
= Marrakesh =
Marrakesh ( also known by the French spelling Marrakech ( / məˈrækɛʃ / or / ˌmærəˈkɛʃ / ; Arabic : مراكش , Murrākuš ; Berber : Meṛṛakec , ⴰⵎⵓⵔⴰⴽⵓⵛ ) is a major city of the Kingdom of Morocco . It is the fourth largest city in the country , after Casablanca , Fes and Tangier . It is the capital city of the mid @-@ southwestern region of Marrakesh @-@ Safi . Located to the north of the foothills of the snow @-@ capped Atlas Mountains , Marrakesh is located 580 km ( 360 mi ) southwest of Tangier , 327 km ( 203 mi ) southwest of the Moroccan capital of Rabat , 239 km ( 149 mi ) south of Casablanca , and 246 km ( 153 mi ) northeast of Agadir .
Marrakesh is possibly the most important of Morocco 's four former imperial cities ( cities that were built by Moroccan Berber empires ) . The region has been inhabited by Berber farmers since Neolithic times , but the actual city was founded in 1062 by Abu Bakr ibn Umar , chieftain and cousin of Almoravid king Yusuf ibn Tashfin . In the 12th century , the Almoravids built many madrasas ( Koranic schools ) and mosques in Marrakesh that bear Andalusian influences . The red walls of the city , built by Ali ibn Yusuf in 1122 – 1123 , and various buildings constructed in red sandstone during this period , have given the city the nickname of the " Red City " or " Ochre City " . Marrakesh grew rapidly and established itself as a cultural , religious , and trading centre for the Maghreb and sub @-@ Saharan Africa ; Jemaa el @-@ Fnaa is the busiest square in Africa .
After a period of decline , the city was surpassed by Fes , but in the early 16th century , Marrakesh again became the capital of the kingdom . The city regained its preeminence under wealthy Saadian sultans Abu Abdallah al @-@ Qaim and Ahmad al @-@ Mansur , who embellished the city with sumptuous palaces such as the El Badi Palace ( 1578 ) and restored many ruined monuments . Beginning in the 17th century , the city became popular among Sufi pilgrims for Morocco 's seven patron saints , who are entombed here . In 1912 the French Protectorate in Morocco was established and T 'hami El Glaoui became Pasha of Marrakesh and held this position nearly throughout the duration of the protectorate until the role was dissolved upon independence of Morocco and the reestablishment of the monarchy in 1956 . In 2009 , Marrakesh mayor Fatima Zahra Mansouri became the second woman to be elected mayor in Morocco .
Like many Moroccan cities , Marrakesh comprises an old fortified city packed with vendors and their stalls ( the medina ) , bordered by modern neighborhoods , the most prominent of which is Gueliz . Today it is one of the busiest cities in Africa and serves as a major economic centre and tourist destination . Tourism is strongly advocated by the reigning Moroccan monarch , Mohammed VI , with the goal of doubling the number of tourists visiting Morocco to 20 million by 2020 . Despite the economic recession , real estate and hotel development in Marrakesh has grown dramatically in the 21st century . Marrakesh is particularly popular with the French , and numerous French celebrities own property in the city . Marrakesh has the largest traditional market ( souk ) in Morocco , with some 18 souks selling wares ranging from traditional Berber carpets to modern consumer electronics . Crafts employ a significant percentage of the population , who primarily sell their products to tourists .
Marrakesh is served by Ménara International Airport and the Marrakesh railway station , which connects the city to Casablanca and northern Morocco . Marrakesh has several universities and schools , including Cadi Ayyad University . A number of Moroccan football clubs are located here , including Najm de Marrakech , KAC Marrakech , Mouloudia de Marrakech and Chez Ali Club de Marrakech . The Marrakesh Street Circuit hosts the World Touring Car Championship , Auto GP and FIA Formula Two Championship races .
= = Etymology = =
The exact meaning of the name is debated . The probable origin of the name Marrakesh is from the Berber ( Amazigh ) words amur ( n ) akush ( ⴰⵎⵓⵔ ⵏ ⴰⴽⵓⵛ ) , which means " Land of God " . According to historian Susan Searight , however , the town 's name was first documented in an 11th @-@ century manuscript in the Qarawiyyin library in Fez , where its meaning was given as " country of the sons of Kush " . The word mur is used now in Berber mostly in the feminine form tamurt . The same word " mur " appears in Mauretania , the North African kingdom from antiquity , although the link remains controversial as this name possibly originates from μαύρος mavros , the ancient Greek word for black . The common English spelling is " Marrakesh " , although " Marrakech " ( the French spelling ) is also widely used . The name is spelled Mṛṛakc in the Berber Latin alphabet , Marraquech in Spanish , and " Mer @-@ reksh " in Moroccan Arabic .
From medieval times until around the beginning of the 20th century , the entire country of Morocco was known as the " Kingdom of Marrakesh " , as the kingdom 's historic capital city was often Marrakesh . The name for Morocco is still " Marrakesh " to this day in Persian and Urdu ( مراكش ) as well as many other South Asian languages . Various European names for Morocco ( Marruecos , Marrocos , Maroc , Marokko , etc . ) are directly derived from the Berber word Murakush . Conversely , the city itself was in earlier times simply called Marocco City ( or similar ) by travelers from abroad . The name of the city and the country diverged after the Treaty of Fez made Morocco a French and Spanish protectorate , but the old interchangeable usage lasted widely until about the interregnum of Mohammed Ben Aarafa ( 1953 – 1955 ) . The latter episode set in motion the country 's return to independence , when Morocco officially became al @-@ Mamlaka al @-@ Maġribiyya ( المملكة المغربية ) ( " The Maghreb Kingdom " ) , its name no longer referring to the city of Marrakesh . Marrakesh is known by a variety of nicknames , including the " Red City " , the " Ochre City " and " the Daughter of the Desert " , and has been the focus of poetic analogies such as one comparing the city to " a drum that beats an African identity into the complex soul of Morocco . "
= = History = =
The Marrakesh area was inhabited by Berber farmers from Neolithic times , and numerous stone implements have been unearthed in the area . Marrakesh was founded in 1062 ( 454 in the Hijri calendar ) by Abu Bakr ibn Umar , chieftain and second cousin of the Almoravid king Yusuf ibn Tashfin ( c . 1061 – 1106 ) . Under the Almoravids , pious and learned warriors from the desert , numerous mosques and madrasas ( Koranic schools ) were built , developing the community into a trading center for the Maghreb and sub @-@ Saharan Africa . Marrakesh grew rapidly and established itself as a cultural and religious center , supplanting Aghmat , which had long been the capital of Haouz . Andalusian craftsmen from Cordoba and Seville built and decorated numerous palaces in the city , developing the Umayyad style characterized by carved domes and cusped arches . This Andalusian influence merged with designs from the Sahara and West Africa , creating a unique style of architecture which was fully adapted to the Marrakesh environment . Yusuf ibn Tashfin completed the city 's first mosque ( the Ben Youssef mosque , named after his son ) , built houses , minted coins , and brought gold and silver to the city in caravans . The city became the capital of the Almoravid Emirate , stretching from the shores of Senegal to the center of Spain and from the Atlantic coast to Algiers .
Marrakesh is one of the great citadels of the Muslim world . The city was fortified by Tashfin 's son , Ali ibn Yusuf , who in 1122 – 1123 built the ramparts which remain to this day , completed further mosques and palaces , and developed an underground water system in the city known as the rhettara to irrigate his new garden . In 1125 , the preacher Ibn Tumert settled in Tin Mal in the mountains to the south of Marrakesh . He preached against the Almoravids and influenced a revolt which succeeded in bringing about the fall of nearby Aghmat , but stopped short of bringing down Marrakesh following an unsuccessful siege in 1130 . The Almohads , Masmouda tribesmen from the High Atlas mountains who practiced orthodox Islam , took the city in 1147 under leader Abd al @-@ Mu 'min . After a long siege and the killing of some 7 @,@ 000 people , the last of the Almoravids were exterminated apart from those who sought exile in the Balearic Islands . As a result , almost all the city 's monuments were destroyed . The Almohads constructed a range of palaces and religious buildings , including the famous Koutoubia Mosque ( 1184 – 1199 ) , and built upon the ruins of an Almoravid palace . It was a twin of the Giralda in Seville and the unfinished Hassan Tower in Rabat , all built by the same designer . The Kasbah housed the residence of the caliph , a title borne by the Almohad rulers from the reign of Abd al @-@ Mu 'min , rivaling the far eastern Abbasid Caliphate . The Kasbah was named after the caliph Yaqub al @-@ Mansur . The irrigation system was perfected to provide water for new palm groves and parks , including the Menara Garden . As a result of its cultural reputation , Marrakesh attracted many writers and artists , especially from Andalusia , including the famous philosopher Averroes of Cordoba .
The death of Yusuf II in 1224 began a period of instability . Marrakesh became the stronghold of the Almohad tribal sheikhs and the ahl ad @-@ dar ( descendants of Ibn Tumart ) , who sought to claw power back from the ruling Almohad family . Marrakesh was taken , lost and retaken by force multiple times by a stream of caliphs and pretenders , such as during the brutal seizure of Marrakesh by the Sevillan caliph Abd al @-@ Wahid II al @-@ Ma 'mun in 1226 , which was followed by a massacre of the Almohad tribal sheikhs and their families and a public denunciation of Ibn Tumart 's doctrines by the caliph from the pulpit of the Kasbah mosque . After al @-@ Ma 'mun 's death in 1232 , his widow attempted to forcibly install her son , acquiring the support of the Almohad army chiefs and Spanish mercenaries with the promise to hand Marrakesh over to them for the sack . Hearing of the terms , the people of Marrakesh sought to make an agreement with the military captains and saved the city from destruction with a sizable payoff of 500 @,@ 000 dinars . In 1269 , Marrakesh was conquered by nomadic Zenata tribes who overran the last of the Almohads . The city then fell into a state of decline , which soon led to the loss of its status as capital to rival city Fes .
In the early 16th century , Marrakesh again became the capital of the kingdom , after a period when it was the seat of the Hintata emirs . It quickly reestablished its status , especially during the reigns of the Saadian sultans Abu Abdallah al @-@ Qaim and Ahmad al @-@ Mansur . Thanks to the wealth amassed by the Sultans , Marrakesh was embellished with sumptuous palaces while its ruined monuments were restored . El Badi Palace , built by Ahmad al @-@ Mansur in 1578 , was a replica of the Alhambra Palace , made with costly and rare materials including marble from Italy , gold dust from Sudan , porphyry from India and jade from China . The palace was intended primarily for hosting lavish receptions for ambassadors from Spain , England and the Ottoman Empire , showcasing Saadian Morocco as a nation whose power and influence reached as far as the borders of Niger and Mali . Under the Saadian dynasty , Marrakesh regained its former position as a point of contact for caravan routes from the Maghreb , the Mediterranean and sub @-@ Saharan African .
For centuries Marrakesh has been known as the location of the tombs of Morocco 's seven patron saints ( sebaatou rizjel ) . When sufism was at the height of its popularity during the late 17th century reign of Moulay Ismail , the festival of these saints was founded by Abu Ali al @-@ Hassan al @-@ Yusi at the request of the sultan . The tombs of several renowned figures were moved to Marrakesh to attract pilgrims , and the pilgrimage associated with the seven saints is now a firmly established institution . Pilgrims visit the tombs of the saints in a specific order , as follows : Sidi Yusuf Ali Sangadji ( 1196 – 97 ) , a leper ; Kadi Iyad or Kadi of Cueta ( 1083 – 1149 ) , a theologian and author of Ash @-@ Shifa ( treatises on the virtues of Muhammad ) ; Sidi Bel Abbas ( 1130 – 1204 ) , known as the patron saint of the city and most revered in the region ; Sidi Muhammad al @-@ Jazuli ( 1465 ) , a well known Sufi who founded the Djazuli brotherhood ; Abdelaziz al @-@ Tebaa ( 1508 ) , a student of Djazuli ; Abdallah al @-@ Ghazwani ( 1528 ) , known as Mawla ; and Sidi Abu al @-@ Qasim Al @-@ Suhayli , ( 1185 ) , also known as Imam Al Suhyani . Until 1867 , European Christians were not authorized to enter the city unless they acquired special permission from the sultan ; east European Jews were permitted .
During the early 20th century , Marrakesh underwent several years of unrest . After the premature death in 1900 of the grand vizier Ba Ahmed , who had been designated regent until the designated sultan Abd al @-@ Aziz became of age , the country was plagued by anarchy , tribal revolts , the plotting of feudal lords , and European intrigues . In 1907 , Marrakesh caliph Moulay Abd al @-@ Hafid was proclaimed sultan by the powerful tribes of the High Atlas and by Ulama scholars who denied the legitimacy of his brother , Abd al @-@ Aziz . It was also in 1907 that Dr. Mauchamp , a French doctor , was murdered in Marrakesh , suspected of spying for his country . France used the event as a pretext for sending its troops from the eastern Moroccan town of Oujda to the major metropolitan center of Casablanca in the west . The French colonial army encountered strong resistance from Ahmed al @-@ Hiba , a son of Sheikh Ma al- ' Aynayn , who arrived from the Sahara accompanied by his nomadic Reguibat tribal warriors . On 30 March 1912 , the French Protectorate in Morocco was established . After the Battle of Sidi Bou Othman , which saw the victory of the French Mangin column over the al @-@ Hiba forces in September 1912 , the French seized Marrakesh . The conquest was facilitated by the rallying of the Imzwarn tribes and their leaders from the powerful Glaoui family , leading to a massacre of Marrakesh citizens in the resulting turmoil .
T 'hami El Glaoui , known as " Lord of the Atlas " , became Pasha of Marrakesh , a post he held virtually throughout the 44 @-@ year duration of the Protectorate ( 1912 – 1956 ) . Glaoui dominated the city and became famous for his collaboration with the general residence authorities , culminating in a plot to dethrone Mohammed Ben Youssef ( Mohammed V ) and replace him with the Sultan 's cousin , Ben Arafa . Glaoui , already known for his amorous adventures and lavish lifestyle , became a symbol of Morocco 's colonial order . He could not , however , subdue the rise of nationalist sentiment , nor the hostility of a growing proportion of the inhabitants . Nor could he resist pressure from France , who agreed to terminate its Moroccan Protectorate in 1956 due to the launch of the Algerian War ( 1954 – 1962 ) immediately following the end of the war in Indochina ( 1946 – 1954 ) , in which Moroccans had been conscripted to fight in Vietnam on behalf of the French Army . After two successive exiles to Corsica and Madagascar , Mohammed Ben Youssef was allowed to return to Morocco in November 1955 , bringing an end to the despotic rule of Glaoui over Marrakesh and the surrounding region . A protocol giving independence to Morocco was then signed on 2 March 1956 between French Foreign Minister Christian Pineau and M ’ Barek Ben Bakkai .
Since the independence of Morocco , Marrakesh has thrived as a tourist destination . In the 1960s and early 1970s the city became a trendy " hippie mecca " . It attracted numerous western rock stars and musicians , artists , film directors and actors , models , and fashion divas , leading tourism revenues to double in Morocco between 1965 and 1970 . Yves Saint Laurent , The Beatles , The Rolling Stones and Jean @-@ Paul Getty all spent significant time in the city ; Laurent bought a property here and renovated the Majorelle Gardens . Expatriates , especially those from France , have invested heavily in Marrakesh since the 1960s , and developed many of the riads and palaces . Old buildings were renovated in the Old Medina , new residences and commuter villages were built in the suburbs , and new hotels began to spring up .
United Nations agencies became active in Marrakesh beginning in the 1970s , and the city 's international political presence has subsequently grown . In 1985 , UNESCO declared the old town area of Marrakesh a UNESCO World Heritage Site , raising international awareness of the cultural heritage of the city . In the 1980s , Patrick Guerand @-@ Hermes purchased the 30 acres ( 12 ha ) Ain el Quassimou , built by the family of Leo Tolstoy . On 15 April 1994 , the Marrakesh Agreement was signed here to establish the World Trade Organization , and in March 1997 Marrakesh served as the site of the World Water Council 's first World Water Forum , which was attended by over 500 international participants .
In the 21st century , property and real estate development in the city has boomed , with a dramatic increase in new hotels and shopping centres , fuelled by the policies of Mohammed VI of Morocco , who aims to increase the number of tourists annually visiting Morocco to 20 million by 2020 . In 2010 , a major gas explosion occurred in the city . On 28 April 2011 , a bomb attack took place in the Jemaa el @-@ Fnaa square , killing 15 people , mainly foreigners . The blast destroyed the nearby Argana Cafe . Police sources arrested three suspects and claimed the chief suspect was loyal to Al @-@ Qaeda , although Al @-@ Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb denied involvement .
= = Geography = =
By road , Marrakesh is located 580 kilometres ( 360 mi ) southwest of Tangier , 327 kilometres ( 203 mi ) southwest of the Moroccan capital of Rabat , 239 kilometres ( 149 mi ) southwest of Casablanca , 196 kilometres ( 122 mi ) southwest of Beni Mellal , 177 kilometres ( 110 mi ) east of Essaouira , and 246 kilometres ( 153 mi ) northeast of Agadir . The city has expanded north from the old centre with suburbs such as Daoudiate , Diour El Massakine , Yamama , Sidi Abbad , Sakar , and Malizia , to the southeast with Sidi Youssef Ben Ali , to the west with Massima , and southwest to Hay Annahda , Berradi and beyond the airport . On the P2017 road leading south out of the city are large villages such as Douar Lahna , Touggana , Lagouassem , and Lahebichate , leading eventually through desert to the town of Tahnaout at the edge of the High Atlas , the highest mountainous barrier in North Africa . The average elevation of the snow @-@ covered High Atlas lies above 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) . It is mainly composed of Jurassic limestone . The mountain range runs along the Atlantic coast , then rises to the east of Agadir and extends northeast into Algeria before disappearing into Tunisia .
The Ourika River valley is located about 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) south of Marrakesh . The " silvery valley of the Ourika river curving north towards Marrakesh " , and the " red heights of Jebel Yagour still capped with snow " to the south are sights in this area . David Prescott Barrows , who describes Marrakesh as Morocco 's " strangest city " , describes the landscape in the following terms : " The city lies some fifteen or twenty miles from the foot of the Atlas mountains , which here rise to their grandest proportions . The spectacle of the mountains is superb . Through the clear desert air the eye can follow the rugged contours of the range for great distances to the north and eastward . The winter snows mantle them with white , and the turquoise sky gives a setting for their grey rocks and gleaming caps that is of unrivaled beauty . "
With 130 @,@ 000 hectares of greenery and over 180 @,@ 000 palm trees in its Palmeraie , Marrakesh is an oasis of rich plant variety . Throughout the seasons , fragrant orange , fig , pomegranate and olive trees display their color and fruits in Agdal Garden , Menara Garden and other gardens in the city . The city 's gardens feature numerous native plants alongside other species that have been imported over the course of the centuries , including giant bamboos , yuccas , papyrus , palm trees , banana trees , cypress , philodendrons , rose bushes , bougainvilleas , pines and various kinds of cactus plants .
= = = Climate = = =
A hot semi @-@ arid climate ( Köppen : BSh ) predominates at Marrakesh . Average temperatures range from 12 ° C ( 54 ° F ) in the winter to 32 – 45 ° C ( 90 – 113 ° F ) in the summer . The relatively wet winter and dry summer precipitation pattern of Marrakesh mirrors precipitation patterns found in Mediterranean climates . However , the city receives less rain than is typically found in a Mediterranean climate , resulting in a semi @-@ arid climate classification . Between 1961 and 1990 the city averaged 281 @.@ 3 millimetres ( 11 @.@ 1 in ) of precipitation annually . Barrows says of the climate , " The region of Marrakesh is frequently described as desert in character , but , to one familiar with the southwestern parts of the United States , the locality does not suggest the desert , but rather an area of seasonal rainfall , where moisture moves underground rather than by surface streams , and where low brush takes the place of the forests of more heavily watered regions . The location of Marrakesh on the north side of the Atlas , rather than the south , forbids its from being described as a desert city , but it remains the northern focus of the Saharan lines of communication , and its history , its types of dwellers , and its commerce and arts , are all related to the great south Atlas spaces that reach further into the Sahara desert . "
= = Demographics = =
According to the 2014 census , the population of Marrakesh was 928 @,@ 850 against 843 @,@ 575 in 2004 . The number of households in 2014 was 217 @,@ 245 against 173 @,@ 603 in 2004 .
= = Economy = =
Marrakesh is a vital component to the economy and culture of Morocco . Improvements to the highways from Marrakesh to Casablanca , Agadir and the local airport have led to a dramatic increase in tourism in the city , which now attracts over two million tourists annually . Because of the importance of tourism to Morocco 's weak economy as a whole , King Mohammed VI has vowed to attract 20 million tourists a year to Morocco by 2020 , doubling the number of tourists from 2012 . The city is popular with the French , and many French celebrities have bought property in the city , including fashion moguls Yves St Laurent and Jean @-@ Paul Gaultier . In the 1990s very few foreigners lived in the city , but real estate developments have dramatically increased in the last 15 years ; by 2005 over 3 @,@ 000 foreigners had purchased properties in the city , lured by its culture and the relatively cheap house prices . It has been cited in French weekly magazine Le Point as the second St Tropez : " No longer simply a destination for a scattering of adventurous elites , bohemians or backpackers seeking Arabian Nights fantasies , Marrakech is becoming a desirable stopover for the European jet set . " However , despite the tourism boom , the majority of the city 's inhabitants are still poor , and as of 2010 , some 20 @,@ 000 households still have no access to water or electricity . Many enterprises in the city are facing colossal debt problems .
Despite the global economic crisis that began in 2007 , investments in real estate progressed substantially in 2011 both in the area of tourist accommodation and social housing . The main developments have been in facilities for tourists including hotels and leisure centres such as golf courses and health spas , with investments of 10 @.@ 9 billion dirham ( US $ 1 @.@ 28 billion ) in 2011 . The hotel infrastructure in recent years has experienced rapid growth . In 2012 , alone , 19 new hotels were scheduled to open , a development boom often compared to Dubai . Royal Ranches Marrakech , one of Gulf Finance House 's flagship projects in Morocco , is a 380 hectares ( 940 acres ) resort under development in the suburbs and one of the world 's first five star Equestrian Resorts . The resort is expected to make a significant contribution to the local and national economy , creating many jobs and attracting thousands of visitors annually ; as of April 2012 it was about 45 % complete . The Avenue Mohammed VI , formerly Avenue de France , is a major city thoroughfare . It has seen rapid development of residential complexes and many luxury hotels . Avenue Mohammed VI contains what is claimed to be Africa 's largest nightclub : Pacha Marrakech , a trendy club that plays house and electro house music . It also has two large cinema complexes , Le Colisée à Gueliz and Cinéma Rif , and a new shopping precinct , Al Mazar .
Trade and crafts are extremely important to the local tourism @-@ fueled economy . There are 18 souks in Marrakesh , employing over 40 @,@ 000 people in pottery , copperware , leather and other crafts . The souks contain a massive range of items from plastic sandals to Palestinian @-@ style scarves imported from India or China . Local boutiques are adept at making western @-@ style clothes using Moroccan materials . The Birmingham Post comments : " The souk offers an incredible shopping experience with a myriad of narrow winding streets that lead through a series of smaller markets clustered by trade . Through the squawking chaos of the poultry market , the gory fascination of the open @-@ air butchers ' shops and the uncountable number of small and specialist traders , just wandering around the streets can pass an entire day . " Marrakesh has several supermarkets including Marjane Acima , Asswak Salam and Carrefour , and three major shopping centers , Al Mazar Mall , Plaza Marrakech and Marjane Square ; a branch of Carrefour opened in Al Mazar Mall in 2010 . Industrial production in the city is centred in the neighborhood of Sidi Ghanem Al Massar , containing large factories , workshops , storage depots and showrooms . Ciments Morocco , a subsidiary of a major Italian cement firm , has a factory in Marrakech . The AeroExpo Marrakech International Exhibition of aeronautical industries and services is held here , as is the Riad Art Expo .
= = Politics and administration = =
Marrakesh , the regional capital , constitutes a prefecture @-@ level administrative unit of Morocco , Marrakech Prefecture , forming part of the region of Marrakech @-@ Safi . Marrakesh is a major centre for law and jurisdiction in Morocco and most of the major courts of the region are located here . These include the regional Court of Appeal , the Commercial Court , the Administrative Court , the Court of First Instance , the Court of Appeal of Commerce , and the Administrative Court of Appeal . Numerous organizations of the region are based here , including the regional government administrative offices , the Regional Council of Tourism office , and regional public maintenance organizations such as the Governed Autonomous Water Supply and Electricity and Maroc Telecom .
Testament to Marrakesh 's development as a modern city , on 12 June 2009 , Fatima @-@ Zahra Mansouri , a then 33 @-@ year @-@ old lawyer and daughter of a former assistant to the local authority chief in Marrakesh , was elected the first female mayor of the city , defeating outgoing Mayor Omar Jazouli by 54 votes to 35 in a municipal council vote . Mansouri became the second woman in the history of Morocco to obtain a mayoral position , after Asma Chaabi , mayor of Essaouira . The Secretary General of her Authenticity and Modernity Party ( PAM ) , Mohamed Cheikh Biadillah , stated that " her election reflects the image of a modern Morocco . " Her appointment was shrouded in controversy and resulted in her temporarily losing her seat the following month after a court ruled that the election had been fixed . The court found that " some ballots were distributed before the legal date and some vote records were destroyed . " Her party called for a 48 @-@ hour strike to " protest the plot against the democratic process . " On 7 July 2011 , Mansouri presented her resignation from the city council of Marrakesh , but reconsidered her decision the next day .
Since the legislative elections in November 2011 , the ruling political party in Marrakesh has , for the first time , been the Justice and Development Party or PDJ which also rules at the national level . The party , which advocates Islamism and Islamic democracy , won five seats ; the National Rally of Independents ( RNI ) took one seat , while the PAM won three . In the partial legislative elections for the Guéliz Ennakhil constituency in October 2012 , the PDJ under the leadership of Ahmed El Moutassadik was again declared the winner with 10 @,@ 452 votes . The PAM , largely consisting of friends of King Mohammed VI , came in second place with 9 @,@ 794 votes .
= = Landmarks = =
= = = Jemaa el @-@ Fnaa = = =
The Jemaa el @-@ Fnaa is one of the best @-@ known squares in Africa and is the centre of city activity and trade . It has been described as a " world @-@ famous square " , " a metaphorical urban icon , a bridge between the past and the present , the place where ( spectacularized ) Moroccan tradition encounters modernity . " It has been part of the UNESCO World Heritage site since 1985 . The name roughly means " the assembly of trespassers " or malefactors . Jemaa el @-@ Fnaa was renovated along with much of the Marrakech city , whose walls were extended by Abu Yaqub Yusuf and particularly by Yaqub al @-@ Mansur in 1147 – 1158 . The surrounding mosque , palace , hospital , parade ground and gardens around the edges of the marketplace were also overhauled , and the Kasbah was fortified . Subsequently with the fluctuating fortunes of the city , Jemaa el @-@ Fnaa saw periods of decline and renewal . Historically this square was used for public decapitations by rulers who sought to maintain their power by frightening the public . The square attracted dwellers from the surrounding desert and mountains to trade here , and stalls were raised in the square from early in its history . The square attracted tradesmen , snake charmers ( " wild , dark , frenzied men with long disheveled hair falling over their naked shoulders " ) , dancing boys of the Chleuh Atlas tribe , and musicians playing pipes , tambourines and African drums . Richard Hamilton said that Jemaa el @-@ Fnaa once " reeked of Berber particularism , of backward @-@ looking , ill @-@ educated countrymen , rather than the reformist , pan @-@ Arab internationalism and command economy that were the imagined future . " Today the square attracts people from a diversity of social and ethnic backgrounds and tourists from all around the world . Snake charmers , acrobats , magicians , mystics , musicians , monkey trainers , herb sellers , story @-@ tellers , dentists , pickpockets , and entertainers in medieval garb still populate the square .
= = = Souks = = =
Marrakesh has the largest traditional Berber market in Morocco and the image of the city is closely associated with its souks . Paul Sullivan cites the souks as the principal shopping attraction in the city : " A honeycomb of intricately connected alleyways , this fundamental section of the old city is a micro @-@ medina in itself , comprising a dizzying number of stalls and shops that range from itsy kiosks no bigger than an elf 's wardrobe to scruffy store @-@ fronts that morph into glittering Aladdin 's Caves once you 're inside . " Historically the souks of Marrakesh were divided into retail areas for particular goods such as leather , carpets , metalwork and pottery . These divisions still roughly exist but with significant overlap . Many of the souks sell items like carpets and rugs , traditional Muslim attire , leather bags , and lanterns . Haggling is still a very important part of trade in the souks .
One of the largest souks is Souk Semmarine , which sells everything from brightly coloured bejewelled sandals and slippers and leather pouffes to jewellery and kaftans . Souk Ableuh contains stalls which specialize in lemons , chilis , capers , pickles , green , red , and black olives , and mint , a common ingredient of Moroccan cuisine and tea . Similarly , Souk Kchacha specializes in dried fruit and nuts , including dates , figs , walnuts , cashews and apricots . Rahba Qedima contains stalls selling hand @-@ woven baskets , natural perfumes , knitted hats , scarves , tee shirts , Ramadan tea , ginseng , and alligator and iguana skins . Criee Berbiere , to the northeast of this market , is noted for its dark Berber carpets and rugs . Souk Siyyaghin is known for its jewellery , and Souk Smata nearby is noted for its extensive collection of babouches and belts . Souk Cherratine specializes in leatherware , and Souk Belaarif sells modern consumer goods . Souk Haddadine specializes in ironware and lanterns .
Ensemble Artisanal is a government @-@ run complex of small arts and crafts which offers a range of leather goods , textiles and carpets . Young apprentices are taught a range of crafts in the workshop at the back of this complex .
= = = City walls and gates = = =
The ramparts of Marrakesh , which stretch for some 19 kilometres ( 12 mi ) around the medina of the city , were built by the Almoravids in the 12th century as protective fortifications . The walls are made of a distinct orange @-@ red clay and chalk , giving the city its nickname as the " red city " ; they stand up to 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) high and have 20 gates and 200 towers along them . Bab Agnaou was built in the 12th century during the Almohad dynasty . The Berber name Agnaou , like Gnaoua , refers to people of Sub @-@ Saharan African origin ( cf . Akal @-@ n @-@ iguinawen – land of the black ) . The gate was called Bab al Kohl ( the word kohl also meaning " black " ) or Bab al Qsar ( palace gate ) in some historical sources . The corner @-@ pieces are embellished with floral decorations . This ornamentation is framed by three panels marked with an inscription from the Quran in Maghrebi script using foliated Kufic letters , which were also used in Al @-@ Andalus . Bab Agnaou was renovated and its opening reduced in size during the rule of sultan Mohammed ben Abdallah . Bab Aghmat is located east of the Jewish and Muslim cemeteries , and is near the tomb of Ali ibn Yusuf . Bab Berrima with its solid towers stands near the Badi Palace . Bab er Robb ( meaning " Lord 's gate " ) is a southern exit from the city , near Bab Agnaou . Built in the 12th century , it provides access to roads leading to the mountain towns of Amizmiz and Asni . Bab el Khémis , situated in the medina 's northeastern corner , is one of the city 's main gates and features a man @-@ made spring .
= = = Gardens = = =
The Menara gardens are located to the west of the city , at the gates of the Atlas mountains . They were built around 1130 by the Almohad ruler Abd al @-@ Mu 'min . The name menara derives from the pavilion with its small green pyramid roof ( menzeh ) . The pavilion was built during the 16th century Saadi dynasty and renovated in 1869 by sultan Abderrahmane of Morocco , who used to stay here in summertime .
The pavilion and a nearby artificial lake are surrounded by orchards and olive groves . The lake was created to irrigate the surrounding gardens and orchards using a sophisticated system of underground channels called a qanat . The basin is supplied with water through an old hydraulic system which conveys water from the mountains located approximately 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) away from Marrakesh . There is also a small amphitheater and a symmetrical pool where films are screened . Carp fish can be seen in the pond .
The Majorelle Garden , on Avenue Yacoub el Mansour , was at one time the home of the landscape painter Jacques Majorelle . Famed designer Yves Saint Laurent bought and restored the property , which features a stele erected in his memory , and the Museum of Islamic Art , which is housed in a dark blue building . The garden , open to the public since 1947 , has a large collection of plants from five continents including cacti , palms and bamboo .
The Agdal Gardens , located south of the medina and also built in the 12th century , are royal orchards surrounded by pise walls . Measuring 400 hectares ( 990 acres ) in size , the gardens feature citrus , apricot , pomegranate , olive and cypress trees . Sultan Moulay Hassan 's harem resided at the Dar al Baida pavilion , which was situated within these gardens . This site is also known for its historic swimming pool , where a Sultan is said to have drowned .
The Koutoubia Gardens are situated behind the Koutoubia Mosque . They feature orange and palm trees , and are frequented by storks . The Mamounia Gardens , more than 100 years old and named after Prince Moulay Mamoun , have olive and orange trees as well as a variety of floral displays .
= = = Palaces and Riads = = =
The historic wealth of the city is manifested in palaces , mansions and other lavish residences . The main palaces are El Badi Palace , the Royal Palace and Bahia Palace . Riads ( Moroccan mansions ) are common in Marrakesh . Based on the design of the Roman villa , they are characterized by an open central garden courtyard surrounded by high walls . This construction provided the occupants with privacy and lowered the temperature within the building . Buildings of note inside the Medina are Riad Argana , Riad Obry , Riad Enija , Riad el Mezouar , Riad Frans Ankone , Dar Moussaine , Riad Lotus , Riad Elixir , Riad les Bougainvilliers , Riad Dar Foundouk , Dar Marzotto , Dar Darma , and Riad Pinco Pallino . Others of note outside the Medina area include Ksar Char Bagh , Amanjena , Villa Maha , Dar Ahlam , Dar Alhind and Dar Tayda .
= = = = El Badi Palace = = = =
The El Badi Palace flanks the eastern side of the Kasbah . It was built by Saadian sultan Ahmad al @-@ Mansur after his success against the Portuguese at the Battle of the Three Kings in 1578 . The lavish palace , which took around a quarter of a century to build , was funded by compensation from the Portuguese and African gold and sugar cane revenue . This allowed Carrara marble to be brought from Italy and other materials to be shipped from France , Spain and India . It is a larger version of the Alhambra 's Court of the Lions . Although the palace is now a ruin with little left but the outer walls , the site has become the location of the annual Marrakech Folklore Festival and other events .
= = = = Royal Palace = = = =
The Royal Palace , also known as Dar el @-@ Makhzen , is located next to the Badi Palace . The Almohads built the palace in the 12th century on the site of their kasba , and it was partly remodeled by the Saadians in the 16th century and the Alaouites in the 17th century . Historically it was one of the palaces owned by the Moroccan king , who employed some of the most talented craftsmen in the city for its construction . The palace is not open to the public , and is now privately owned by French businessman Dominique du Beldi . The rooms are large , with unusually high ceilings for Marrakesh , with zellij ( elaborate geometric terracotta tile work covered with enamel ) and cedar painted ceilings .
= = = = Bahia Palace = = = =
The Bahia Palace , set in extensive gardens , was built in the late 19th century by the Grand Vizier of Marrakesh , Si Ahmed ben Musa ( Bou @-@ Ahmed ) . Bou Ahmed resided here with his four wives , 24 concubines and many children . With a name meaning " brilliance " , it was intended to be the greatest palace of its time , designed to capture the essence of Islamic and Moroccan architectural styles . Bou @-@ Ahmed paid special attention to the privacy of the palace in its construction and employed architectural features such as multiple doors which prevented passers @-@ by from seeing into the interior . The palace took seven years to build , with hundreds of craftsmen from Fes working on its wood , carved stucco and zellij . The palace is set in a two @-@ acre ( 8 @,@ 000 m ² ) garden with rooms opening onto courtyards . The palace acquired a reputation as one of the finest in Morocco and was the envy of other wealthy citizens . Upon the death of Bou @-@ Ahmed in 1900 , the palace was raided by Sultan Abd al @-@ Aziz .
= = = Mosques = = =
= = = = Koutoubia Mosque = = = =
Koutoubia Mosque is the largest mosque in the city , located in the southwest medina quarter of Marrakesh alongside the square . It was completed under the reign of the Almohad Caliph Yaqub al @-@ Mansur ( 1184 – 1199 ) , and has inspired other buildings such as the Giralda of Seville and the Hassan Tower of Rabat . The mosque is made of red stone and brick and measures 80 metres ( 260 ft ) long and 60 metres ( 200 ft ) wide . The minaret was designed to prevent a person at the top of the tower from viewing activity within the king 's harems .
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which is still generally recognised . It has also been suggested that Inocybe lanatodisca is a synonym , but where the species occur together , they can be distinguished from each other , and so it is still recognised as distinct . The form I. maculata f. fulva was named and described in 1991 by Marcel Bon in France . Inocybe maculata is commonly known as the frosty fibrecap .
= = Description = =
Inocybe maculata has a conical or bell @-@ shaped cap which is up to 8 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter . As the mushrooms age , the cap becomes flatter , and the broad umbo becomes prominent . The centre of the cap has white remains of the universal veil , especially on younger mushrooms . The cap is covered in fibres which extend from the centre of the cap to the margin ( which is usually split ) . The cap is typically a chestnut brown in colour , though it is paler towards the margin . As well as chestnut , the camp has been described as " Buckthorn brown " , " snuff brown " , " tawny olive " and " Saccardo 's umber " . Both cap colour and the presences of veil remnants are known to be very variable . In appearance , Inocybe maculata f. fulva has a lighter cap colour ( typically more yellow to reddish @-@ brown ) and less ( or even no ) remnants of the veil on the cap . The gill attachment is adnate , meaning that the gills are attached to the stem along their entire depth . The gills are crowded , with white edges that are finely toothed . Younger mushrooms have gills that are greyish @-@ white that eventually mature to an olive @-@ brown colour . The stem is up to 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) in length , and generally cylindrical in shape , though it is often thicker towards the base . While the stem is initially solid , it later becomes hollow . There is often a small bulb at the base of the stem . The stem has cream colouration , becoming gradually browner with age . The base sometimes white and powdery . The flesh is white .
= = = Microscopic features = = =
Inocybe maculata has thin @-@ walled cheilocystidia , which are clavate ( club @-@ shaped ) , lack encrustation at the apex , and are colourless . The basidia are also clavate , and can be two- , three- or four @-@ spored , and measure from 15 to 30 micrometres ( μm ) by 5 to 9 μm . The sterigmata ( the narrow horns on the end of the basidia which hold the spores ) are 4 to 5 μm long . It lacks pleurocystidia . The species leaves a snuff @-@ brown spore print . The spores themselves are smooth and bean shaped ; they have a yellow @-@ brown to rusty brown colouration , and measure from 9 to 11 μm by 4 @.@ 5 to 5 @.@ 5 μm . The hyphae can have clamp connections , but can also lack them .
= = = Similar species = = =
Inocybe maculata is similar to the variable Inocybe lacera , the split fibrecap , but it can be differentiated by the darker colouration of the cap , and the white remains of the veil in the centre of the cap . The species is also similar in appearance to Inocybe lanatodisca , but can be readily distinguished by odour ( I. lanatodisca has a characteristic sweet , green @-@ corn smell ) and the colour of the cap ( I. lanatodisca has a fulvous cap ) . It is closely related to Inocybe fastigiata , but can again be distinguished by colour ; I. fastigiata has lighter coloured fibrils .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Inocybe maculata is an ectomycorrhizal species , with a wide ecological range . It can be found in all biomes from low @-@ lying deciduous woodland to arctic @-@ alpine areas . It typically grows on the ground in deciduous ( or mixed ) woodland , favouring beech . It grows best on chalky soil , among leaf litter . In North America , it favours sandy soil , clay or moss . It is also encountered on pathsides . As well as beech , the species has been recorded growing in association with hornbeam , hazel , oak and lime . Inocybe maculata f. fulva favours birch , spruce , pine , Populus , willow , ( as well as Dryas and Polygonum in alpine regions ) . Mushrooms grow individually or in scattered groups . Though widespread in the areas it is found , it is not a common species . It can be found from western Europe to eastern Asia ; and in North America , from where it was first collected in the 1960s . Inocybe maculata f. fulva was first identified in France , and has since been found elsewhere in Europe .
= = Edibility = =
The flesh has a mild taste , and a strong , pungent , fruity smell . The mushroom is poisonous , containing muscarine compounds . Consumption of the mushroom could lead to a number of physiological effects , including : salivation , lacrimation , urination , defecation , gastrointestinal problems and emesis ( vomiting ) ; this array of symptoms is also known by the acronym SLUDGE . Other potential effects include a drop in blood pressure , sweating and death due to respiratory failure .
= The Food Wife =
" The Food Wife " is the fifth episode of the twenty @-@ third season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on November 13 , 2011 , and was seen by around 7 @.@ 5 million people during this broadcast . In the episode , Homer feels left out when Marge , Bart , and Lisa join a group of foodies . Their personal blog quickly becomes popular and the trio is invited to a molecular gastronomy restaurant . Feeling pity toward Homer , Marge invites him along . However , after beginning to worry that he will reclaim his position as the parent perceived as the most fun by the children , she sends him to the wrong address . Homer unknowingly arrives at a meth lab , where a gunfight starts as the police burst in .
The episode was written by Matt Selman . It contains several references to different foods and famous chefs , and is largely devoted to the foodie culture , which Selman has said that he " always thought was funny and fascinating . The idea of food as not only something you enjoy eating , but as something that you are so passionate about that you 're kind of bragging about it . " Tim Heidecker and Eric Wareheim , the stars and creators of Tim and Eric Awesome Show , Great Job ! , guest starred in the episode as two foodies and performed a hip hop song that makes fun of foodies . Chefs and media personalities Anthony Bourdain , Gordon Ramsay , and Mario Batali also guest starred in the episode , but as themselves in a dream sequence . Although " The Food Wife " has received generally positive reviews from television critics , particularly for the hip hop song , it has also attracted criticism from certain food critics .
= = Plot = =
Homer takes Bart and Lisa to a video game convention for another fun Saturday . Upon their return home , Marge feels upset that Homer gets to be the " fun dad " , while she is stuck doing unexciting things with the children , not helped by Homer being a sexist stating that 's how it should be . The next Saturday , she decides to take Bart and Lisa to an " X @-@ Games " convention , thinking it will be something fun . However , when they arrive , they are disappointed to find out that it is a Christian event , and the actual name of the convention is " † ( Cross ) Games " . The car engine dies on the way back and they are forced to stop in the neighborhood of Little Ethiopia , where the three go into a restaurant serving Ethiopian food . Although initially averse to the exotic delicacies , Marge is reminded of the fact that she wants to be a fun mom and therefore asks for the most authentic dish on the menu for her and her children . All three of them enjoy the food . At the restaurant , Marge , Bart , and Lisa bump into a group of foodies , who encourage them to start their own food blog , " The Three Mouthketeers " . The blog quickly becomes popular and the three spend much time together trying out new food and writing about it . A jealous Homer makes a quick announcement of his dislike for trying new foods and dishes over dining on such pedestrian , reliable fare as fast food and leftovers , causing the kids to call him narrow minded and boring .
When the trio gets an invitation to an exclusive molecular gastronomy restaurant called El Chemistri , Homer learns the truth and confronts Marge . Realizing that the kids would rather spend time with Marge and having no one respect him , Homer sadly retreats in the garage making baseball bats . Marge invites Homer out of pity , which makes him happy . After announcing this to Bart and Lisa , he reclaims his " fun dad " title , leaving Marge worried about losing her new bond with the children . In one of her dreams that night , she and the children are trying out new food together with chef Anthony Bourdain when Homer jumps in on a hop ball and eats up everything , taking away the children 's attention from Marge . Homer , Bart , Lisa , Bourdain , and other famous chefs that have shown up ( like Mario Batali and Swedish Chef ) then jump away from Marge on hop balls , leaving her by herself . Afterwards , Gordon Ramsay appears next to her , using profanity while telling her that she should not have invited Homer . Before removing her from his dream , Gordon tells Marge to find a way to keep Homer from stealing her thunder by misleading him away from El Chemistri . The next day , she deliberately gives Homer the wrong address to the restaurant . Bart and Lisa learn the truth and confront Marge about her actions .
When Marge and the children arrive at El Chemistri , Homer unknowingly arrives at an illegal meth lab that he thinks is the actual restaurant . While the trio eat their meal ( deconstructed Caesar salad ) with the other foodies clearly enjoying themselves , Marge feels guilty about misdirecting Homer . Meanwhile , Homer meets the meth dealer and other drug addicts , whom he believes to be food hipsters . Just as he is about to have a taste of the meth ( which he thinks is food produced with the help of molecular gastronomy ) , the police burst in and a gunfight ensues between them and the drug addicts . Homer realizes that he had been duped by Marge and is caught up in the fracas . At El Chemistri , Marge receives a panicked text message from Homer requesting help , and she asks the other foodies to help save her husband . They refuse , so she and the kids run off the meth lab . After arriving , Marge throws apple pie from her doggie bag into the mouth of the meth dealer . This causes a flashback inside his mind to his childhood days when his mother used to make apple pie . With the help of this distraction , the police subdue him . Marge apologizes to Homer and though angry with her for leaving him out , he is grateful and promises to let her be the fun parent once in a while . The Simpsons have a family fun day at Krustyland . There , Homer keeps his promise to Marge and giving the kids $ 50 to enjoy themselves , while he spends quality time with her .
= = Production = =
" The Food Wife " was written by executive producer of The Simpsons Matt Selman . The writing process began around September 2010 . According to Selman , the episode mainly revolves around Homer and Marge competing about who is perceived as the most fun by Bart and Lisa , a situation that he thinks parents can identify with in real @-@ life . The episode also focuses heavily on foodies and food blogs . Selman said in an interview with New York magazine 's Grub Street publication that the foodie culture is " just a world that I always thought was funny and fascinating . The idea of food as not only something you enjoy eating , but as something that you are so passionate about that you 're kind of bragging about it . ' I 'm the one who discovered this particular Korean pork @-@ neck soup restaurant , ' and you can kind of claim that as yours . The blogging just feeds into that kind of territorial element that I always thought was inherently funny . And when I write Simpsons episodes , I try to start with a world I think is funny , and think , ' What 's a good story we can tell in that world , using the characters that we have ? ' "
Describing himself as " sort of a foodie " , Selman has said that food is constantly on his mind and that he particularly likes reading food critic Jonathan Gold 's reviews in LA Weekly . He told LA Weekly 's Squid Ink food blog that he likes foodies , despite making fun of them in " The Food Wife " . He commented that on the show , he has often " taken something that I love , found the one little weird , bad thing about it and harped on that " , giving foodies as an example and writing : " You can make fun of them for being pretentious or snobby or taking the fun out of eating . That you 'd rather photograph something than taste it is a funny nuance of the phenomenon . That it 's more about sticking your flag in something than actually enjoying it . We kind of make fun of foodies , but in real life we actually love them . "
Selman was pleased with the finished result of the episode . He noted in the interview with Grub Street that Marge starting to blog about food " does not sound inherently exciting , but the episode itself is actually very exciting , and I 'm super thrilled with the way it 's turned out . " Selman thinks a strong thing about the episode is the fact that , despite Homer 's love for food , Homer is not the one that becomes a foodie as one might expect . He explained that this is because although Homer loves eating , " he 's kind of a blue @-@ collar kind of guy who doesn 't like foreign food , weird food , savoring food , intellectualizing food , blogging about it , photographing it – he just wants to be stuffed all the time . "
= = = Cultural references = = =
Selman wanted to include things in the episode that " only really hard @-@ core foodies would have any idea what we were talking about . This was like a love letter to foodie culture . " Food references featured in the episode include jokes about sriracha sauce and sous @-@ vide cooking , referrals to chefs Wylie Dufresne , Frank Bruni , and Ruth Reichl , a mention of the soup phở from Vietnam and how to pronounce it correctly , and the inclusion of the El Chemistri owner who is based on the Spanish chef José Andrés ( known for using molecular gastronomy ) . Selman has commented that food produced with the help of molecular gastronomy " lends itself to comedy quite nicely . There ’ s a dish [ at El Chemistri ] , for instance , called Regret . The waiter cries into your soup when he serves it . The human tear is the final ingredient . " The fictional character Swedish Chef is also seen in the episode , and the scene where the meth dealer is reminded of his childhood after eating the apple pie is a reference to the Pixar film Ratatouille , which was written and directed by former Simpsons consultant Brad Bird .
In addition to the foodie culture , " The Food Wife " parodies the video game industry and references games such as Assassin 's Creed , God of War , Half @-@ Life , BioShock , Call of Duty , Medal of Honor , Madden NFL , and Angry Birds . In the episode , Homer , Bart , and Lisa visit a video game convention called the Expensive Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E4 ) , which is a reference to the Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) that is presented annually in the United States by the Entertainment Software Association . This marked the first time that the family visited a video game convention in The Simpsons . Selman and other staff members on the show had previously visited E3 during the release of The Simpsons video games such as The Simpsons Game . While appearing on GameTrailers TV with Geoff Keighley on November 11 , 2011 , Selman commented that " We 've been to so many [ E3s ] and we 've been pushed around , and knocked around , and seen so many PR guys [ talk ] about how hard it was working on their game . We 've seen how expensive the food is , and how nuts it is , and the bloggers , and the photos , and just the noises [ ... ] We had to do it on the show . "
In the episode , Homer and his children want to see the unveiling of a new Funtendo console called Zii Zu , which is a reference to Nintendo 's Wii U console . As he and the children make their way through the crowded convention to get to the unveiling , the screen turns into a first @-@ person shooter game through the eyes of Homer . He uses Frisbees and a fire extinguisher as weapons to get forward . According to Selman , the inspiration for this came from the fact that " if you 've been to E3 , you know it 's insane , it 's super @-@ crowded , it 's super @-@ loud , and walking through it feels like a video game , like a nightmarish first @-@ person video game of bloggers and nerds . You just want to get the thing that you want to get to . "
= = = Guest appearances = = =
Tim Heidecker and Eric Wareheim , the stars and creators of the American sketch comedy television series Tim and Eric Awesome Show , Great Job ! , guest starred in the episode as foodies Amus Bruse and Fois Garth , respectively . These two characters are among the foodies that Marge , Bart , and Lisa meet at the Ethiopian restaurant . In the episode , they rhyme a hip hop song that according to Selman is " all bragging about how awesome and cool you are as a foodie . " It was co @-@ written by the duo , and was inspired by the song " Empire State of Mind " . Selman has commented that " In animated TV shows , whenever you 're trying to show people having fun doing their new thing [ in this case , Marge and the children creating content for their blog ] , it just kind of becomes a boring montage . And we 've done so many montages on The Simpsons over 25 years , it 's like , oh , God , no more montages . [ ... ] So we were like , ' Why not do a silly rap song ? ' Rapping is sort of inherently boastful , and there 's something about being a foodie that 's inherently boastful . It 's like the boastfulness links those things . So Tim and Eric perform a food rap song in the show — an extremely silly rap song , and the name is intentionally silly : ' Blogging a Food Blog . ' "
American chef Anthony Bourdain guest starred in the episode as himself . Selman wanted him on the show because he is a big fan and he thinks Marge would have a liking for him . Bourdain 's appearance was cut short because the episode ended up being too long , and as a result , his " bad boy persona is not fully explored , " Selman told Squid Ink . In addition to Bourdain , guest stars in the episode include chefs and media personalities Gordon Ramsay and Mario Batali as themselves . These three all appear in Marge 's dream . When asked by Digital Spy about his appearance , Ramsay said that " I grew up watching The Simpsons and love that they 're foodies , " and joked that " For God 's sake , I had to promise Marge a spot on MasterChef to get on the bloody show ! " Selman wishes that he could have given Batali more than one line , but has admitted that " You just can 't fit everything into a 21 @-@ minute show . "
= = Release = =
The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 13 , 2011 . It was watched by approximately 7 @.@ 5 million people during this broadcast . In the demographic for adults aged 18 – 49 , the episode received a 3 @.@ 4 Nielsen rating ( down five percent from the previous episode ) and an eight percent share . The Simpsons became the highest @-@ rated program in Fox 's Animation Domination lineup that night in terms of both total viewers and in the 18 – 49 demographic , finishing before new episodes of Family Guy , American Dad ! , and Allen Gregory . For the week of November 7 – 13 , " The Food Wife " finished seventeenth in the ratings among all prime @-@ time broadcasts in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = = Critical reviews = = =
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . Ology 's Josh Harrison gave it an eight out of ten rating , writing that " You gotta love these Simpsons episodes that really get into the heart of a subculture . Diving head @-@ first into the world of foodies and food blogging ( after a hilarious geeky pit @-@ stop at a video game expo ) , ' The Food Wife ' shish @-@ kabobs gourmet diehards while highlighting a very real problem between Homer and Marge . " He concluded that the episode is " a definite swing for the fences , and I think it hits its mark completely . " The scenes at the video game convention were praised by Anthony Severino of Game Revolution as well . He commented that the writers " nailed it . Everything from the massive displays , long lines , and even the look of the Los Angeles Convention Center was spot on . The best was how they portrayed people with ' VIP passes ' , you know those things that we journalists get , as douches who think they 're better than the regulars . "
In his review of " The Food Wife " , HitFix 's Alan Sepinwall commended it for " stay [ ing ] true to the characters . Of course the kids would consider Homer to be the fun dad on those occasions when he 's actually making an effort , and of course Marge would feel jealous of this . And if she goes too far in trying to keep this as her special thing , she also recognizes it immediately , feels guilty throughout the meal and then heads off to save the day , complete with a great homage to the climax of Ratatouille . " Sepinwall also praised the episode for being " packed with great jokes " , such as Heidecker and Wareheim 's hip hop song and the scenes at the video game convention where the screen turns into a first @-@ person shooter game . Similarly , Haydens Childs of The A.V. Club praised the episode as " funny and well @-@ observed " , giving it a B + grade , and cited the hip hop song as the highlight of the episode . He also praised Bourdain , Batali , and Ramsay , and stated that he wished Bourdain would have gotten a bigger part in the episode . Childs further wrote that " The best thing about this episode is that it doesn ’ t try to stuff any outlandish plot mechanics or out @-@ of @-@ character character moments down the viewers ’ throats . It sticks to the basics : the family dynamic combined with gentle mocking of a still @-@ current fad . I say ' still @-@ current ' because although it is probably true that food blogging is a bit past its expiration date in some cities , I don ’ t think that it has been overdone everywhere . "
= = = Response from food critics = = =
Reception of " The Food Wife " from food critics has been mixed . Before the episode aired , Robert Sietsema of The Village Voice disapproved of it for being outdated . He commented that " this show should have been done , say , two or three years ago , when food blogging was hot . By now , many food bloggers of our acquaintance have out @-@ migrated to paying gigs , and the concept of the food blog has been co @-@ opted by every major media outlet , rendering real food blogs – the old @-@ fashioned kind , where someone stood alone in their kitchen cooking things , or wandered the hinterlands seeking out unique deliciousness – nearly obsolete . " Sietsema also criticized the scenes showcasing molecular gastronomy because he thought they were out of date , since molecular gastronomy is , " by now , long past its prime " . Chris Shott , a food critic for Washington City Paper 's Young & Hungry column and blog , wrote negatively about the character that owns El Chemistri and is a parody of José Andrés . He commented that " For one thing , the character seems far more subdued than the kooky , wild @-@ eyed power drill @-@ wielding cook we saw on Conan recently . The satire here , involving a deconstructed Caesar salad of foams , gels and airs , is more a riff on molecular gastronomy in general than a send @-@ up of Andrés ' over @-@ the @-@ top personality . "
Food critic Katharine Shilcutt of the Houston Press ' criticized the episode for giving what she thought was an inaccurate depiction of foodies , as people that are " tacky , snotty , slightly racist , hoarders of food experiences that you gather like rare gems and patronizingly hold over other people 's heads . " Shilcutt added that she found it upsetting that what she believes to be the moral of the episode is that " Educated , passionate people are elitists . It reduces all the hard work that people put into creating good , honest food into a joke , and not a terribly funny one . There was no balance in the episode between smug , arrogant , obnoxious foodies and those who have a genuine , guileless interest in food and all its important permutations in our lives . "
Other food critics have written positively about " The Food Wife " . Lesley Balla of LA Weekly 's Squid Ink blog listed her ten favorite quotes from the episode , placing the entire hip hop song about foodies and food blogging at the top . She commented that " Plenty of insider jokes at foodies ' expense season the episode . So was it as funny to a non @-@ food @-@ world person as it was to someone who could identify each culinary personality in Marge 's dream [ ... ] ? Safe to say , yes ; it is still The Simpsons , after all . For foodists , the whole episode is entirely quotable — we 're sure it will be in the food blogosphere for years to come . " Laine Doss , a food blogger for the Miami New Times and New Times Broward @-@ Palm Beach , commented that she " loved Lisa Simpson 's list of cutest vegetarians [ that appears on the blog ] , which included Paul McCartney , Russell Brand , and Edward Cullen . " Doss , as well as Elizabeth Gunnison of Esquire 's Eat Like a Man blog , also commended the hip hop song .
= Ickenham =
Ickenham is a suburban area centred on an old village in Greater London , part of the London Borough of Hillingdon .
While no major historical events have taken place in Ickenham , settlements dating back to the Roman occupation of Britain have been discovered during archaeological surveys , and the area appears in the Domesday Book . Buildings from the 14th , 15th and 16th centuries remain standing and have been restored in recent years .
The village was originally split into four manors , which became two : Ickenham and Swakeleys . The old manorial home of Swakeleys , a 17th @-@ century Jacobean mansion Swakeleys House still stands , and much of the Swakeleys estate was sold for housing in the 1920s . Ickenham 's manorial home , Manor Farm , now forms part of Long Lane Farm . A military station , RAF West Ruislip , was opened in 1917 . Its final use was for the Navy Exchange of the U.S. Naval Activities , United Kingdom command between 1975 and 2006 .
According to the 1901 Census , Ickenham at that time had a population of 329 , which by the 2001 Census had reached 9 @,@ 933 , although census figures show a marked population decline during the 1960s and 1970s . By the 2011 Census , the population had reached 10 @,@ 387 . When Ickenham obtained a railway station on the Metropolitan Railway 's line between Harrow and Uxbridge , it brought with it a rail link to London . A great deal of residential development commenced in the village and it gradually became part of the London commuter belt . Ickenham expanded with the sale and development of much of the Swakeleys estate in 1922 and became part of what was later termed " Metro @-@ land " .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
Ickenham appears in the Domesday Book three times under the name " Ticheham " . Translated from Latin , the second entry reads :
Manor Ickenham answers for 9 ½ hides . 3 men @-@ at @-@ arms and 1 Englishman hold it from Earl Roger . Land for 6 ploughs ; 4 ploughs there ; a further 2 possible . 6 villagers with 1 hide ; 2 others with 1 hide and 1 virgate ; 2 others with 2 virgates ; 4 smallholders with 20 acres ; 3 cottages . Meadow for 4 ploughs ; pasture for the village livestock ; woodland , 200 pigs . Total value £ 4 ; when acquired the same ; before 1066 £ 6 .
The Domesday Book describes the land as being predominantly flat and composed of London clay with the exception of alluvium along the banks of the River Pinn . Of the few archaeological surveys of Ickenham carried out , one in 1994 by the Museum of London found a system of Roman fields , dating back to the 1st and 2nd centuries along with pottery fragments . Research suggest that the area may have been abandoned for a period following the departure of the Romans from Britain around AD 410 .
= = = Early developments = = =
Ickenham was originally divided into the four manors of Ickenham , Tykenham , Swalcliff ( Swakeleys ) and Herses ( Hercies ) . Tykenham and Herses were within the parish of Hillingdon , though Herses subsequently became part of the manor of Swalcliff . These manors were eventually merged to form the main manors of Ickenham and Swakeleys . The original lord of the manor of Ickenham was Geoffrey de Mandeville , from whom it passed to William de Brock and then , in 1334 , to John Charlton whose son John owned Swakeleys from 1350 . By the mid @-@ 14th century , Ickenham was owned by the Shorediche family who retained possession until 1819 .
The Crosier family , major landowners in north @-@ west Middlesex , moved to Ickenham in the 16th century . They established their manorial home as Sherwyns , and owned Home Farm and Sears house in 1624 . After the Shorediche family Milton Farm was bought by William Crosier in 1685 . Edward Hilliard become the direct descendent of the final member of the Crosier family , John Crosier . Under the Hilliards , Milton Farm was sold to become part of the Swakeleys estate in 1816 , and Hill Farm become Northolt Aerodrome in 1916 . The Shorediche family built their manor house on a track off Long Lane . Originally called Ickenham Hall , it was let out to farmers in 1818 and renamed Manor Farm , at which point the Crosier family renamed their manorial home from Sherwyns to Ickenham Hall .
Swakeleys manor , subordinate to Ickenham , was named after Robert Swalcliffe , who owned the manor with his wife Joan in the 14th century . He appears in records as Robert de Swalclyve and Robert de Wykeham , reflecting his ownership of Swakeleys and Wickham Park in Oxfordshire . In 1347 , he owed £ 40 to a money lender , Roger Rikeman , which he was unable to pay , and so his land in Ickenham was passed by Rikeman in 1350 to John de Charlton .
A descendent of John de Charlton , the first Sir Thomas de Charlton , died in 1448 whereupon Swakeleys passed to his son , also named Sir Thomas , who became Speaker of the House of Commons and Member of Parliament for Middlesex . He died in 1465 , at which point his son Sir Richard became owner of the manor . Sir Richard was killed fighting on the side of Richard III during the Battle of Bosworth Field in 1485 . The victor of the battle , Henry VII , named him in his Act of Attainder , though he granted Sir Richard 's wife Elizabeth a life interest in the manor . However , Sir Thomas Bourchier was subsequently granted the manor of Swakeleys and Covelhall ( Cowley ) . Upon Sir Thomas ' death in 1510 , the manor passed to Sir John Peeche as his executor . Sir John had no children , so Swakeleys passed to the Earl of Devon , Henry Courteney in 1521 . The Earl granted a licence to control Swakeleys to Sir William Fitzwilliam in 1531 , who was acting as trustee for Ralph Pexall .
The lords of the manor of Swakeleys resided at Swakeleys House , though the house that stands today was not the first on the site . The original dated to around the 14th century and was probably constructed of wattle and timber . It was subject to extensive remedial work , much lamented at the time , while under the ownership of John Bingley . Bingley later sold the estate to Sir Edmund Wright , a future Lord Mayor of London , in 1629 , and the current house was built of brick in 1638 .
A church in Ickenham is not mentioned in the Domesday Book and it is likely that residents travelled to nearby Harefield for services . The original nave and chancel of St Giles ' church have been dated to 1335 while the nave was extended west in 1959 . The bell turret was built in the 15th century and a brick aisle added in 1575 .
'The Pump ' is a significant local landmark . Donated to the village by Charlotte Gell , this water pump stands close to the village pond at the intersection of Swakeleys Road and Long Lane . After Gell 's death in 1863 , under the provisions of her will a water pump was sunk for the benefit for the community in 1866 . The village pond next to the pump was dug at the same time as the 144 @-@ foot ( 44 m ) well for the pump was sunk to accommodate waste from the construction . An older pond on the other side of the village was filled in with the excavated earth from the new one . In 1857 Gell had also donated some of her land near St Giles 's Church for five almshouses to be built for longstanding servants of the Gell household or Ickenham residents who were members of the Church of England . No more than three people were allowed to live in the houses at one time . The cottages remain and are maintained by the local church . Next to the pump stands the Coach & Horses public house , first licensed for the sale of alcohol in 1759 but of 16th @-@ century origin . The house was used for manorial courts throughout the 19th century until the last was held in 1878 .
= = = Urban development = = =
On 25 September 1905 , following lobbying by Ickenham Parish Council , the Metropolitan Railway opened a small halt on their line between Harrow and Uxbridge . The railway company had been reluctant to open a station in the area due to a perceived lack of demand , and so a compromise was reached with the construction of the halt . The new stop brought with it travellers from London seeking a day out in rural surroundings . Nearby villagers sold flowers from their gardens and served teas to the visitors . The parish council later requested shelters for passengers on the platforms , which were built in December 1905 , followed by a booking hut in 1910 . The original platforms , too short to align with all train carriages , were extended in 1922 . Ickenham Halt was rebuilt as a station in the 1970s .
The marathon event of the 1908 Summer Olympics in London passed through Ickenham and Uxbridge on its way to the White City Stadium .
As a result of the railway , more commuters gradually moved to Ickenham and travelled to work in London . On 5 July 1922 , 1 @,@ 382 acres ( 559 ha ) of the Swakeleys estate was auctioned for development , thereby significantly reducing its size . Roads laid out for the new development were Warren Road , Swakeleys Drive , Court Road , Milton Road , Ivy House Road , The Avenue and Thornhill Road ( originally named Park Road ) . Other land bordering the River Pinn was designated as public open land . Shops were built around Swakeleys Road , while houses were constructed along its length . The road was widened to become a dual carriageway in 1937 . Milton Farm , one of the farms on the former Swakeleys estate was demolished in 1939 . The farm 's pond and listed barn were cleared to make way for housing in what became Milton Road and Milton Court , though marketed as " Ickenham Garden City " .
A military station , operated by the Royal Air Force and later the United States Navy , was opened on part of Home Farm close to the parish boundary with Ruislip in 1917 , later becoming known as RAF West Ruislip . The site was used originally for the British No. 4 Maintenance Unit , together with the RAF Records division . It became involved in the repair of aircraft equipment and later in the servicing of American vehicles from RAF South Ruislip . Between 1955 and 1975 the United States Air Force was based at the Ruislip station , before the U.S. Naval Activities , United Kingdom command leased the site from the Ministry of Defence for the American Naval Exchange .
The original village school was built on Ickenham High Road in 1866 , although by 1920 it had become overcrowded . Older children were moved to the village hall in 1928 under the name Ickenham Temporary Council School . In 1929 the village school closed and its infant pupils also moved to the village hall . The road was widened in 1934 necessitating demolition of the school building along with the original Fox & Geese public house .
The village pump remained in use until December 1914 , while the handle was removed in 1921 by the local council for safe keeping but was never returned . The pump was restored in 2004 in partnership with a local building company , and a similar handle was fitted during the works .
Breakspear Primary School was built in 1937 , followed by Glebe Primary in 1952 on the other side of the railway line . The Roman Catholic secondary school Douay Martyrs was built in 1962 and later expanded onto the former site of Swakeleys School nearby . Swakeleys School had opened in 1929 for older children from the village school . In 1952 the boys moved to the newly opened Abbotsfield School and Swakeleys became a girls ' secondary modern school . The girls ' school moved from Ickenham to share the site of Abbotsfield School for Boys in Hillingdon in 1973 . Vyners School opened as a grammar school on 12 January 1960 and later became a comprehensive . Delays in building work meant the first intake of pupils were taught at St Mary 's Grammar School in Northwood Hills from 9 September 1959 .
The village hall , designed by Clifton Davy , was built on part of Church Farm in 1926 . Opened by Princess Victoria , as well as becoming the temporary village school the hall also became a restaurant during the Second World War and went on to be used as a bank and a polling station . A police telephone box was constructed next to the Pump in February 1936 , and became operational on 4 May 1936 . Church Farm opposite St Giles ' church was demolished after the Second World War and replaced with shops , while new roads were built in the area . By 1951 the population of Ickenham had reached 7 @,@ 107 , and this had risen to 10 @,@ 370 by 1961 and 11 @,@ 214 by 1971 . The ford over the River Pinn on Swakeleys Drive , nicknamed " The Splash " , was replaced in 1957 by a road bridge .
Middlesex County Council bought Ickenham Hall and its grounds in 1948 in order to convert it into a youth centre . In 1968 a theatre was built behind the hall , later named the Compass Theatre by the Theatre Director John Sherratt . A new building connecting the two was built in 1976 .
During the Second World War Swakeleys House was requisitioned by the military and a searchlight battery established in the grounds . The house was Grade I listed in 1956 , and the head gardener 's cottage on the junction of Swakeleys Road and The Avenue was Grade II listed in 1959 .
The village library opened in 1962 on the site of the 16th century cottage and tea garden , The Orchard . Uxbridge Borough Council installed a three @-@ sided clock commemorating the 1953 coronation of Elizabeth II in the library 's tower , having been persuaded not to add it to the eight @-@ sided village pump .
In the 1980s , St Giles ' church celebrated its 650th anniversary and formed a covenant with the neighbouring United Reformed Church . The United Reformed Church moved to its current building in 1936 after the previous chapel building proved too small for the growing congregation . It is now used by a local company as a wood and scrap metal yard . Nearby , many buildings on the RAF station were demolished to make way for a new housing estate named Brackenbury Village . The US Navy eventually left in 2006 and the base was permanently closed . The site was cleared in 2007 and is currently undergoing redevelopment as residential housing under the " Ickenham Park " name .
The local library was closed for a complete refurbishment in 2009 and reopened in March 2010 .
A garden commemorating the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II was opened in September 2012 in Swakeleys Park . The garden , featuring a landscaped area and benches around a stone obelisk , was designed by the local council 's Green Spaces Team . The opening had been scheduled for 26 May 2012 , although this was postponed after vandals destroyed the stone obelisk overnight shortly after it had been installed .
= = Local government = =
Ickenham had a parish council but came within the Uxbridge Rural District until 1925 , when this was absorbed into the Municipal Borough of Uxbridge . This remained until 1965 , when the borough was included in the newly established London Borough of Hillingdon . Within the borough of Hillingdon , Ickenham has its own ward , with Conservative Councillors John Hensley , Raymond Puddifoot and David Simmons representing it .
Ickenham was within the Uxbridge constituency until boundary changes at the 2010 general election meant it became part of the new Ruislip , Northwood and Pinner constituency , represented by Nick Hurd MP .
= = Demography = =
72 % of the population is White British , according to the 2011 census .
= = Education = =
Primary schools in Ickenham include Breakspear School , Breakspear Junior School , and Glebe Primary School . Secondary schools include Douay Martyrs School and Vyners School .
= = Sports clubs and societies = =
Sports clubs in Ickenham include Ickenham Cricket Club and Ickenham Rugby Club . Hillingdon Athletics Club ( an amalgamation of the Ruislip @-@ Northwood and Uxbridge clubs ) , has attracted many athletes from Ickenham since its foundation in the 1960s .
The Ickenham and District Society of Model Engineers was formed in September 1948 and originally met in the old ARP huts , before moving to Ickenham Hall . On 14 May 1949 , the society held their first exhibition of miniature locomotives in a field off Swakeleys Road . A new society clubhouse opened on 18 June 1955 on a site near the Coach & Horses public house where it remains . The miniature railway is open to the public on the first Saturday of each month .
Ickenham 's residents ' association was established in 1924 , and it plays an active role within the community ; in recent years the association has been involved in preventing developments by Tesco and IKEA , which in the association 's view would have adversely affected the town .
= = Transport = =
Ickenham tube station is served by the Metropolitan and Piccadilly lines .
West Ruislip station ( opened as Ruislip & Ickenham ) is on the border of Ruislip and Ickenham and is served by the Central line and Chiltern Main Line .
The London Buses routes U1 and U10 serve Ickenham .
B467 ( Swakeleys Road ) and B466 ( Long Lane ) intersect in the centre of Ickenham . They link the Ickenham area with Harefield , Hillingdon and Ruislip .
= = Landmarks and events = =
= = = Pynchester Moat = = =
The Pynchester Moat is a Scheduled Ancient Monument on the River Pinn just east of Copthall Road West . Although usually dry in the summer months , the moat surrounding the location of a manor house can still be seen . Excavations of the site between 1966 and 1969 found pottery and an oven dating back to the 14th or 15th century . It is believed the manor house at the centre of the moat was " Pynchester " , a building owned by the Hastings family in the 16th century .
The moat is a point of interest on the Celandine Route , a 12 @-@ mile ( 19 km ) walk along the River Pinn from Pinner to the Grand Union Canal at Cowley .
= = = Swakeleys House = = =
Built between 1629 and 1638 for Sir Edmund Wright , the house replaced an existing structure dating back to the 14th century . In later years the Foreign & Commonwealth Office Sports Association bought the house , followed by the London Postal Region Sports Club . Cricket matches between the club and local teams from Ickenham and Uxbridge were played within the grounds . The house was bought by three local residents in the 1980s and restored , whereupon it was leased to Bristol @-@ Myers Squibb for 25 years . Since the expiry of the lease in 2009 , the house has been open to the public for one day a year as part of Open House London .
= = = Ickenham Festival = = =
The biennial Ickenham Festival has taken place in the town since 1976 , originally with the aim of highlighting the variety of societies and groups in the area . The festival normally centres on a charity gala day in June , when various groups including Scouts , church groups and schools parade through the town , finishing with a large fête in the grounds of Swakeleys House . Fireworks mark the end of the festival in the evening . The festival Gala moved to the grounds of Vyners School in 2014 after a dispute with the owner of Swakeleys House .
= 2004 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 2004 Atlantic hurricane season was the costliest Atlantic hurricane season on record until surpassed by the following year . More than half of the 16 tropical cyclones brushed or struck the United States . The season officially began on June 1 , and ended on November 30 . Due to a Modoki El Niño – a rare type of El Niño in which unfavorable conditions are produced over the eastern Pacific instead of the Atlantic basin due to warmer sea surface temperatures farther west along the equatorial Pacific – activity was above average . The first storm , Alex , developed offshore of the Southeastern United States on July 31 . It brushed the Carolinas and the Mid @-@ Atlantic , causing one death and $ 7 @.@ 5 million ( 2004 USD ) in damage . Several storms caused only minor damage , including tropical storms Bonnie , Earl , Hermine , and Matthew . In addition , hurricanes Danielle , Karl , and Lisa , Tropical Depression Ten , Subtropical Storm Nicole and Tropical Storm Otto had no effect on land while tropical cyclones .
Hurricane Charley made landfall in Florida as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale ( SSHWS ) , causing $ 15 @.@ 1 billion in damage in the United States alone . Later in August , Hurricane Frances struck the Bahamas and Florida , causing at least 49 deaths and $ 9 @.@ 5 billion in damage . The most intense storm , and the one that caused the most damage , was Hurricane Ivan . It was a Category 5 hurricane that devastated multiple countries adjacent to the Caribbean Sea , before entering the Gulf of Mexico and causing catastrophic destruction on the Gulf Coast of the United States , especially Alabama and Florida . Throughout the countries it passed through , Ivan left 129 fatalities and over $ 23 @.@ 33 billion in damage . The most significant tropical cyclone in terms of deaths was Hurricane Jeanne . In Haiti , torrential rainfall in the mountainous areas resulted in mudslides and severe flooding , causing at least 3 @,@ 006 fatalities . Jeanne also struck Florida , inflicting extensive destruction . Overall , the storm caused at least $ 8 @.@ 1 billion in damage and 3 @,@ 042 deaths .
Collectively , the storms of this season caused at least 3 @,@ 270 deaths and about $ 57 @.@ 37 billion in damage , making it the costliest Atlantic hurricane season at the time , until the following season . With six hurricanes reaching at least Category 3 intensity , 2004 also had the most major hurricanes since 1996 . However , that record would also be surpassed in 2005 , with seven major hurricanes that year . In the spring of 2005 , four names were retired : Charley , Frances , Ivan , and Jeanne . This tied the then @-@ record most names retired with 1955 and 1995 , while five were retired in 2005 .
= = Seasonal forecasts = =
Since 1984 , forecasts of hurricane activity have been issued before each hurricane season by noted hurricane expert Dr. William M. Gray and his associates at Colorado State University ( CSU ) , and separately by forecasters with the U.S. Government 's National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) . According to CSU , the average season between 1950 and 2000 had 9 @.@ 6 tropical storms , 5 @.@ 9 hurricanes , and 2 @.@ 3 major hurricanes , which are Category 3 or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale . A normal season , as defined by NOAA , has 12 @.@ 1 named storms , of which 6 @.@ 4 reach hurricane strength and 2 @.@ 7 become major hurricanes .
CSU released its first prediction on December 5 , 2003 , which projected an above average season , with 13 named storms , seven hurricanes , and three major hurricanes . This forecast was adjusted upward slightly on April 2 . On May 17 , prior to the start of the season , NOAA forecasters predicted a 50 % probability of activity above the normal range , with twelve to fifteen tropical storms , six to eight of those becoming hurricanes , and two to four those hurricanes reaching major intensity . Dr. Gray released a prediction on May 28 that was similar , with 14 named storms , eight reaching hurricane strength , and three becoming major hurricanes .
After the season began , Dr. Gray announced he had revised his predictions slightly downwards on August 6 , citing mild El Niño conditions . His new forecast was thirteen named storms , seven hurricanes , and three reaching major hurricane intensity . On August 10 , NOAA released an updated prediction as well , with a 90 % probability of above @-@ to @-@ near normal activity , but the same number of storms forecast . CSU issued another forecast on September 3 , indicating sixteen tropical storms , eight hurricanes , and five major hurricanes . The season ended up with sixteen tropical depressions , fifteen named storms , nine hurricanes , and six major hurricanes , which matched CSU 's final prediction on October 1 .
= = Seasonal summary = =
= = = Activity = = =
The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1 , 2004 . However , the first system , Hurricane Alex , did not develop until July 31 . It was an above average season in which 16 tropical cyclones formed . All but one tropical depression attained tropical storm status , and nine of these became hurricanes . Six hurricanes further intensified into major hurricanes . Due to a Modoki El Niño – a rare type of El Niño in which unfavorable conditions are produced over the eastern Pacific instead of the Atlantic basin due to warmer sea surface temperatures farther west along the equatorial Pacific – activity was above average . Five hurricanes and three tropical storms made landfall during the season and caused 3 @,@ 270 deaths and about $ 57 @.@ 37 billion in damage . Additionally , Hurricanes Alex and Tropical Storm Earl also caused losses and fatalities , though neither struck land . The season officially ended on November 30 , 2004 .
Tropical cyclogenesis began at the end of July , with the development of Hurricane Alex on July 31 . However , it did not become a named storm until the following day , which was the fifth @-@ latest start since the 1952 season . August was an unusually active month , with eight named storms , including Alex , Bonnie , Charley , Danielle , Earl , Frances , Gaston , and Hermine . This broke the record for the most named storms in the month of August set in 1933 and 1995 . This new record was tied in 2012 . On average , there are only three tropical storms and one to two hurricanes in August . Of the eight systems that month , five became hurricanes and three strengthened further into major hurricanes . A total of five
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merding and it was a peaceful non @-@ violent farming borough . It was thought to be “ The Ideal Town ” for the company because of its location right along the Pennsylvania Railroad and its mainly blue collar inhabitants . The Air Brake Company employed 3 @,@ 000 citizens from the surrounding Pittsburgh area , but its work force was composed almost entirely of individuals from Wilmerding .
The office buildings were used until the building was vacated in 1985 . It was then donated to the American Production and Inventory Control Society . The Westinghouse Air Brake Company merged with MotivePower Industries Corporation in 1999 to form the Wabtec Corporation ( NYSE : WAB ) . Wabtec still provides employment for more than 1 @,@ 000 residents of the borough .
= = Effect on the community = =
When the Westinghouse Plant was also moved to Wilmerding , housing for the employees became hard to come by . In response to this , the Westinghouse Air Brake Home Building Company was formed in 1919 with $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 USD as startup capital . The 400 houses and large amounts of vacant land that were previously owned by the Westinghouse Air Brake Company were transferred to the new company . The new homes were specifically built with different variations to avoid the lack of variety commonly seen in industrial housing at the time . The Westinghouse Air Brake Home Building Company was so successful that within ten years , there were no vacant lots left on the Southern side of Turtle Creek . The extensive town @-@ building , employment , and prosperity that George Westinghouse brought to Wilmerding is still celebrated today in the community , with a festival called " George Westinghouse Days " , which takes place in early June each year .
= = Inside The Castle = =
The building used to house The George Westinghouse Museum , a model train display , and a Depression glass room , and is operated by Wilmerding Renewed , Inc . The Westinghouse Castle is operated by a non @-@ profit organization and volunteers . In 2007 , the artifacts that were in the Castle museum went to join the Heinz History Center . Since 2007 , the Westinghouse Castle has gathered a collection of Westinghouse products and are now on display in their Westinghouse Museum room .
= Arrowhead ( Herman Melville House ) =
Arrowhead , also known as the Herman Melville House , was the home of American author Herman Melville during his most productive years , 1850 – 1863 . In this Pittsfield , Massachusetts house , Melville wrote some of his major work : the novels Moby @-@ Dick , Pierre ( dedicated to nearby Mount Greylock ) , The Confidence @-@ Man , and Israel Potter ; The Piazza Tales ( a short story collection named for Arrowhead 's porch ) ; and magazine stories such as " I and My Chimney " .
The house , located at 780 Holmes Road in Pittsfield , was built in the 1780s as a farmhouse and inn . It was adjacent to a property owned by Melville 's uncle Thomas , where Melville had developed an attachment to the area through repeated visits . He purchased the property in 1850 with borrowed money and spent the next twelve years farming and writing there . Financial considerations prompted his family 's return to New York City in 1863 , and Melville sold the property to his brother .
The house remained in private hands until 1975 , when the Berkshire County Historical Society acquired the house and a portion of the original 160 @-@ acre ( 65 ha ) property . The Society restored most of the house to Melville 's period and operates it as a house museum ; it is open to the public during warmer months . It has been designated a National Historic Landmark and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
= = Construction and early history = =
Construction of the oldest portions of the house known as Arrowhead took place in the 1780s . Built by Captain David Bush , the wood frame and clapboard house was apparently used as an inn . The Bush family sold the property to Pittsfield doctor John Brewster in 1844 , who in 1850 sold the 160 acres ( 65 ha ) property to the writer Herman Melville . The house at that time consisted of a simple rectangular structure with five window bays across and two deep , with a large central chimney . There is some evidence that the house may originally have had three stories , but at the time of the Melville purchase in 1850 , it only had two and a half .
= = Melville in Pittsfield = =
Herman Melville was born in New York City in 1819 . His maternal grandparents lived in Albany , New York , where his parents took their family in 1830 after a series of financial setbacks . His uncle Thomas Melvill owned property in Pittsfield that the family had visited a few times when Melville was younger . The first significant visit Melville made to his uncle was a brief one in August 1831 . After his father died in January 1832 , Melville 's mother took the family to Pittsfield to escape an outbreak of cholera in July 1832 . It is from the time of this brief stay that Melville 's interest in the Berkshires developed . In 1837 he ran his uncle 's farm while the latter traveled to Illinois to pursue business opportunities . According to Melville 's cousin Priscilla , during this time his attachment to the area deepened considerably .
In the summer of 1850 , Melville , his wife Lizzie , and their son Malcolm vacationed in Pittsfield . The visit to his uncle 's farm was bittersweet , for his uncle had agreed to sell the property , and it would be the family 's last visit there . On August 5 , 1850 , Melville met Nathaniel Hawthorne for the first time , having only recently read his short story collection Mosses from an Old Manse . The two were among several invited to a picnic on Monument Mountain south of Pittsfield with a group that also included Evert Augustus Duyckinck and Oliver Wendell Holmes , Sr. Melville and Hawthorne struck up an instant friendship . Attracted by the Hawthornes , and apparently unwilling to abandon the Berkshires , Melville decided on impulse to purchase the Brewster farm , which abutted his uncle 's property . According to a news report of his purchase , the property " commands one of the most extensive and splended views in Berkshire . " He secured a $ 3 @,@ 000 loan from his father @-@ in @-@ law Lemuel Shaw ( a Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court Chief Justice who was in Lenox for a court session at the time ) , received a $ 1 @,@ 500 mortgage from Brewster , and promised to pay the rest of the $ 6 @,@ 500 purchase price when his New York lease was sold . The sale was finalized on September 14 , 1850 . To raise funds , Melville sold off 80 acres ( 32 ha ) in the 1850s . Shaw assumed the mortgage in 1856 , took title to the property in 1857 , and transferred it to Melville 's wife in 1860 .
= = Melville at Arrowhead = =
Melville called his new home Arrowhead because of the arrowheads that were dug up around the property during planting season . New York publisher Evert Augustus Duyckinck wrote that its " grounds would satisfy an English nobleman — for the noble maples and elms and various seclusions and outlooks " .
It was at Arrowhead that Melville finished his novel Moby @-@ Dick ; though the work was not recognized during the author 's lifetime , it has since become known as one of the greatest American literary masterpieces . Hawthorne 's influence on Melville while writing the book is significant . Melville wrote a review of Mosses from an Old Manse , published by Duyckinck , and in it he believed that these stories revealed a dark side to Hawthorne , " shrouded in blackness , ten times black " . Moby @-@ Dick was dedicated to Hawthorne : " In token of my admiration for his genius , this book is inscribed to Nathaniel Hawthorne . " Hawthorne , in turn , referenced Melville in his book A Wonder @-@ Book for Girls and Boys : " On the higher side of Pittsfield , sits Herman Melville , shaping out the gigantic conception of his ' White Wale ' while the gigantic shape of Graylock [ sic ] looms upon him from his study @-@ window . "
Melville incorporated domestic features of Arrowhead into several stories . The piazza ( or porch ) , after which The Piazza Tales were named , was added to the north side of Arrowhead shortly after Melville purchased the property . Unlike the more typical Berkshires properties that located the porch facing south , Melville chose to face it toward Mount Greylock , to which he dedicated Pierre . Of the piazza he wrote :
Now , for a house , so situated in such a country , to have no piazza for the convenience of those who might desire to feast upon the view , and take their time and ease about it , seemed as much of an omission as if a picture @-@ gallery should have no bench ; for what but picture @-@ galleries are the marble halls of these same limestone hills ? — galleries hung , month after month anew , with pictures ever fading into pictures ever fresh .
In " I and My Chimney " , published in Putnam 's Monthly Magazine in 1856 , he described Arrowhead 's large chimney :
It need hardly be said , that the walls of my house are entirely free from fire @-@ places . These all congregate in the middle — in the one grand central chimney , upon all four sides of which are hearths — two tiers of hearths — so that when , in the various chambers , my family and guests are warming themselves of a cold winter ’ s night , just before retiring , then , though at the time they may not be thinking so , all their faces mutually look towards each other , yea , all their feet point to one centre ; and when they go to sleep in their beds , they all sleep round one warm chimney .
Melville lived , farmed , and wrote at Arrowhead for 13 years , receiving visitors including Hawthorne , Holmes , and Catharine Maria Sedgwick . Other well @-@ known works that he wrote there include the novels Israel Potter and The Confidence @-@ Man , and the stories " Bartleby , the Scrivener " and " Benito Cereno " ( which were collected in The Piazza Tales ) . During that time , however , his writing was not providing him much income . In order to improve the family finances , the Melvilles moved into Pittsfield in 1862 , and sold Arrowhead the following year to his brother Allan . The Melvilles then returned to New York City , where Herman eventually found work as a customs inspector .
= = After Herman Melville = =
Melville continued to visit Arrowhead occasionally during his brother 's ownership of the property . Members of the Melville family owned the house until 1927 . It remained in private hands until 1975 , when the Berkshire County Historical Society purchased the house . In the years between Melville 's ownership and the historical society acquisition , major portions of the property were sold off until only 14 @.@ 2 acres ( 5 @.@ 7 ha ) remained , although a significant amount of it remains open land ; the society later acquired another 30 @.@ 7 acres ( 12 @.@ 4 ha ) . Owners after Herman Melville made substantial additions to the house , principally two ells . The piazza was removed in the 20th century , but a large window was added on the north side of the house to maintain the view of Mount Greylock . Arrowhead was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1962 .
= = Museum = =
The Historical Society , after acquiring the property , worked to restore it to the condition it was in Melville 's time . Numerous interior alterations were undone , windows that had been changed were restored to their original size and configuration , and the piazza was restored . The Society also restored the upstairs study in which Melville did his writing to its original state .
Arrowhead is now a non @-@ profit historic house museum operated by the Berkshire County Historical Society , which uses a portion of the house as office space . The remainder is open to the public for guided tours during the warmer months of the year . It is located at 780 Holmes Road , and is open from Memorial Day to Columbus Day .
= China ( The Office ) =
" China " is the tenth episode of the seventh season of the American comedy television series The Office and the show 's 136th episode overall . It originally aired on NBC on December 2 , 2010 . The episode was written by Halsted Sullivan and Warren Lieberstein , and directed by Charles McDougall . The episode guest stars Mark Proksch as Nate and Hugh Dane as Hank .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) reads an article about China growing as a global power and decides it must be stopped before it takes over the United States . Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) threatens to move Dunder Mifflin to a new building after everyone in the office complains about Dwight Schrute 's ( Rainn Wilson ) building standards . Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) is sick of Andy Bernard 's ( Ed Helms ) annoying text messages .
The episode received largely positive reviews from television critics , many of whom felt that the confrontation between Oscar and Michael was realistic and humorous . " China " was viewed by 7 @.@ 31 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 7 rating among adults between the age of 18 and 49 , marking a slight drop in the ratings when compared to the previous week . Despite this , the episode was the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night that it aired , as well as the highest @-@ rated non @-@ sports NBC broadcast for the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
While at the dentist , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) reads an article about China 's growing global power , and he decides that China must be stopped before it takes over the United States . Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) tries to correct one of the statements , but when Ryan Howard ( B.J. Novak ) checks the fact online , it turns out Michael 's statement was correct . Everyone mocks Oscar for his mistake , as Oscar is usually the smartest one in the office , having built this reputation by often correcting his coworkers . Oscar invites Michael for a cup of coffee , but the other employees realize that Oscar wants to discuss China in more detail , in order to reestablish himself as the office 's intellectual heavyweight . Seeing an opportunity to give Oscar a taste of his own medicine , they start quizzing Michael on different facts about China , but he cannot answer , so he makes note cards to keep track . When Michael and Oscar have their conversation , Ryan , Erin , Jim , Andy , and Kelly also sit in to watch . Michael blanks on one topic , but then changes the subject to conversation itself . The employees toast him , while Oscar is left infuriated .
Everyone in the office complains about Dwight Schrute 's ( Rainn Wilson ) building standards , such as un @-@ plying toilet paper , adding motion sensors to the lights , and placing a roach billboard over the windows to the office . Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) , as office administrator , threatens to move everyone to a different building if nothing is done . She leaves and comes back with pictures of a newer office space and says they can move in three months . Dwight investigates and finds that the office building does not exist . When Dwight plays coy around Pam , she admits to Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) that she lied about the office building and that she is afraid of failing again after failing as an artist and a salesperson . Jim tries in vain to reassure her , and she breaks down in tears . Later Nate ( Mark Proksch ) , Dwight 's building assistant , discreetly gives Pam a book on the state building regulations . Pam shows Dwight that his policies are in violation of the laws written in the book , so Dwight puts everything back to normal . The camera crew confronts Dwight with footage showing that he overheard Pam 's conversation with Jim and instructed Nate to give her the book on the building regulations . Dwight admits that he allowed her to win , but mocks the idea that he did so out of compassion .
Darryl Philbin ( Craig Robinson ) is sick of Andy Bernard 's ( Ed Helms ) pointless text messages . After one text , Darryl tells Andy that he is one bad text away from being blocked , but Andy wagers that he is one good text from a high five , to which Darryl agrees . Darryl then gets a text from Andy telling him to come to the parking lot , where there are pigeons eating an ice cream cone . Darryl laughs and gives Andy a high five .
= = Production = =
" China " was written by producers Halsted Sullivan and Warren Lieberstein , their fourth writing credit on the series . Warren Lieberstein is the brother of Paul Lieberstein , who was the showrunner of the show at the time . The entry was directed by Charles McDougall , his fifth directing credit on the series . " China " is the third episode to feature Nate , played by YouTube star Mark Proksch . After the producers of The Office saw a series of prank videos that Proksch did under the name " Kenny Strasser " , they hired him to become a recurring character .
The Season Seven DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Michael talking more about his fear of China , Nate swapping an " energy @-@ saving cord " for an " un @-@ energy @-@ saving cord " , Dwight making fun of Pam 's concerns , Pam discussing the new office space with Dwight , Jim criticizing Pam 's plan to the camera , Erin talking about moving , and Michael furthering his argument with Oscar in the coffee shop .
= = Cultural references = =
Michael is initially worked up about China after reading an article in Newsweek , an American weekly news magazine . Michael notes that he was forced to read Newsweek in the waiting room at his dentist 's office because some " kid had the magazine I wanted to read " , hinting that the magazine Michael wanted to read was the children 's magazine Highlights for Children . Andy sends Darryl a text that only reads " Megan Fox " , a reference to the actress . Creed notes that he understands , but cannot speak , Pirate slang . Andy attempts to motivate Michael with a pep talk taken from the 1979 movie Rocky II . During Michael and Oscar 's discussion in the lobby of the office building , a copy of Call of Duty can be seen behind the counter . Fans have speculated that this may be a reference to the third season episode " The Coup " , which used the game as a plot device .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on December 2 , 2010 , " China " was viewed by an estimated 7 @.@ 31 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 7 rating / 10 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 7 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 10 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a slight drop in the ratings after one week off due to Thanksgiving . The episode became the highest @-@ rated non @-@ sports related NBC program for the original week it aired and also became the ninth most @-@ watched show for the week of broadcast among adults aged 18 – 49 .
This episode got overwhelmingly positive reviews . Phoebe Reilly of Vulture wrote highly of the episode and called it " the best of the season so far . " James Poniewoznik of Time compared the episode and the season at large to the later work of The Beatles ; he noted that , " after becoming known for a string of ambitious " entries , they both " decide [ d ] to take a step backward stylistically " . For this reason , he enjoyed " China " , and opined that " The China plot , which thankfully focused less on Michael 's craziness than his ( and his coworkers ' ) relationship with Oscar , demonstrated how well @-@ drawn the show has been even when it comes to its more peripheral characters . " He also said the episode was " vintage Office . "
Bonnie Stiernberg of Paste magazine wrote highly of the episode and called it " a half hour of heartwarming comedy " . She was particularly pleased with how Michael was able to overcome Oscar with pathos , and she enjoyed the episode 's subplots . Dan Forcella of TV Fanatic praised the episode and awarded it five stars out of five . He wrote that " If my favorite thing for Jim to do is prank Dwight , my second favorite is when he backs Michael . " Furthermore , he wrote that " While this A story was filled with plenty of laughs , [ ... ] Dwight 's B story was absolutely murderous [ and ] all gold " . He also felt that the C plot was enjoyable , because " Andy is great in small doses " .
Myles McNutt of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B + " grade . He noted that The Office was not suited for political examination , because , as the show is grounded in reality , the concept of the office as " a microcosm for global politics is … uneven . " However , McNutt argued that because the show used the conceit of China as a " red herring [ ... ] to introduce a story about Oscar as ' Actually , ' and the gap between Michael ’ s rhetorical potential and his actual knowledge of just about any subject " , the story " steps back and finds a small moment within [ the larger ] conflict . " McNutt also enjoyed the B @-@ plot with Pam and Dwight , noting that the ending was " honestly quite sweet " .
= Arena Corinthians =
The Arena Corinthians is a sports stadium located in São Paulo , Brazil and owned , operated , and used by Sport Club Corinthians Paulista . It has a seating capacity of 49 @,@ 205 , making it the fifth @-@ largest stadium used by teams in the top tier of the Brazilian League and the eleventh @-@ largest in Brazil .
It hosted six matches during the 2014 FIFA World Cup , including the opening match on 12 June 2014 . Because of a requirement for it to have at least 65 @,@ 000 seats for the World Cup opening match , temporary seats were added to the stadium for the tournament . The temporary seats started to be removed shortly after the last World Cup match .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
In 1980 , Corinthians was planning to build a new 201 @,@ 304 @-@ capacity stadium , as their own Alfredo Shürig Stadium held fewer than 14 @,@ 000 people and city 's Pacaembu Stadium had to be shared with other teams . Plans to build a new stadium required a large area . The club 's president Vicente Matheus asked for a concession from São Paulo 's mayor Olavo Setúbal in the Itaquera region , east of the city centre . The mayor accepted the request 10 November 1978 and a concession for 90 years was granted on 26 December 1978 for a 197 @,@ 095 @.@ 14 square metres ( 2 @,@ 121 @,@ 514 @.@ 4 sq ft ) property . The area was owned at the time by COHAB , an agency for public housing controlled by the São Paulo City government . The original plan was to build the stadium in three to five years . The concession was renewed in 1988 for 90 years , with the condition that any construction made in the area would revert to the city at no cost . However , funding was not obtained and other alternatives were considered , such as a concession for the Pacaembu Stadium and demolishing the Alfredo Schürig Stadium making room for another .
On 31 August 2010 , Corinthians announced the construction of the stadium with an estimated cost of R $ 335 million and an expected gross revenue of R $ 100 million per year . The original plans allow for an expansion to 70 @,@ 000 seats . The club expected to get financing from BNDES and sell the naming rights for the stadium to pay for the construction costs . The main architect of the project was Aníbal Coutinho ; he was assisted by Antônio Paulo Cordeiro from Coutinho , Diegues , Cordeiro ( DDG ) , partnering with Werner Sobek , who rendered structural engineering services . The stadium was planned to be completed by March 2013 .
= = = FIFA World Cup 2014 hosting = = =
Accenture estimated that the World Cup opening would bring R $ 30 @.@ 75 Billion over 10 years to the city 's economy ; the study 's results encouraged Brazil to site the opening match in São Paulo . A study from Fundação Getúlio Vargas estimated R $ 1 Billion in revenue during the World Cup , as 290 thousand tourists were expected for the event . After Morumbi Stadium was deemed unsuitable by FIFA , the Local World Cup Committee looked for alternatives and set on offering Arena Corinthians to host the opening game ; FIFA accepted the suggestion and confirmed the decision on 10 October 2011 . Hosting the opening game required modifications to the project that raised the cost from the original R $ 335 million to R $ 1 @.@ 07 billion to accommodate FIFA 's requirements . Cuts in equipment , furniture and construction costs reduced the cost . Because of FIFA 's agreements with Brazil , none of the construction work related to the World Cup was taxed by the Federal Government ; the final price agreed upon was R $ 820 million .
A new contract was signed on 19 July 2011 with Odebrecht ; R $ 400 million of the total would be financed by BNDES and the remaining R $ 420 million would come from tax credits granted by the City . A 2007 law stated the tax credits could be used by any company that established itself in the Eastern region of the city , providing a credit of R $ 0 @.@ 60 per R $ 1 @.@ 00 invested . A new law was passed by the city legislature to deal specifically with this stadium and reduce the incentives , linking the concession of the credits to hosting the World Cup opening match and limiting the total amount of credits to R $ 420 million . The concession was justified by the expectation that the stadium will generate R $ 950 million in city taxes during the six years after its opening . R $ 530 million in excess of the tax credits were given . The financing contract with BNDES was signed on 29 November 2013 , under their ProCopas Arenas World Cup program . Caixa Econômica Federal is the distributing agent .
The estimated construction cost did not include the R $ 38 @.@ 1 million required for adding temporary bleachers , which were removed after the World Cup was over . They were set on one of the sides and on the north and south ends . The addition of the bleachers would raise the stadium 's capacity up to 72 @,@ 000 seats , but would necessitate the relocation of VIP areas and television equipment reducing capacity . Corinthians paid for additional temporary infrastructure required exclusively for the World Cup , which was estimated to cost between R $ 60 million and 100 million .
The World Cup brought more than 500 @,@ 000 tourists and an estimated R $ 1 billion in revenue to the city .
= = = Project costs and revenue = = =
The stadium eventually cost R $ 965 million , 15 % more than originally estimated . The two @-@ year delay in receiving BNDES funds caused an increase of R $ 108 million to the cost because of the difference in interest between loans taken from regular banks and from the government agency . Temporary structures were included in the total cost , currently estimated to be R $ 77 million . After the sale of the tax credits received , Corinthians will have to pay between R $ 700 and R $ 750 million spread over 12 years . Aníbal Coutinho projected the stadium to generate R $ 150 million per year . Andres Sanchez expects revenue to reach R $ 200 million per year and expenses to be up to R $ 35 million per year . Revenue will come from ticket sales and commercial properties in the arena , especially corporate conventions , fairs and events . On 25 August 2013 , Andres said that out of 16 naming rights properties , he had already secured seven buyers , although no deals had yet been formalised . The club plans to sell the stadium naming rights for R $ 400 million for 20 years .
= = = Construction = = =
The stadium was delivered to Corinthians on 15 April 2014 . Modifications for hosting the World Cup were still underway until the club handed the arena to FIFA for the competition on 20 May 2014 . The peak number of workers on site was 2 @,@ 300 , recorded in November 2012 . The enterprise generated 26 thousand jobs during its construction .
= = = Renovations = = =
After the World Cup , Corinthians is preparing the stadium for their use ; they consider it is 92 % ready for their use just after the tournament . It is expected to be completely retrofitted by February 2015 . The estimated cost is R $ 20 million . One of the largest changes will be the construction of large balconies and the installation of scoreboards behind the goals where the temporary seating installed for the FIFA World Cup stands .
= = = = Landscaping = = = =
The west side will have a large , tree @-@ lined , pedestrian mall with a reflecting pool and new illumination . The reflecting pools will also work as a performance fountain , providing splash and spectacle at programmed moments during stadium events . Around the complex , granite flooring will have stripes evocative of the club 's second uniform , in synchronisation with the external illumination . There will be benches and large gardens ; the media centre will be housed in one of them . The landscaping was designed by John Loomis , who headed the Burj Khalifa project . Lighting was projected by the American firm T. Kondos .
= = = Stadium firsts = = =
The first event held in the arena was an Ivete Sangalo show for 3 @,@ 000 , celebrating the club 's 103rd anniversary on 29 September 2013 . The first public football matches at the stadium consisted of friendlies between former Corinthians ' players on 10 May 2014.More than 100 players played at the event .
The first goal of the new stadium was scored by Rivellino shooting a penalty kick suffered by Palhinha . Rivellino shot at his own goal because all the players on the pitch insisted that the first goal at the Arena was his . The kick went past Ronaldo . The first competitive game was a 2014 Campeonato Brasileiro Série A match between Corinthians and Figueirense on 18 May 2014 . The first international match was the opening match for the FIFA World Cup 2014 between Brazil and Croatia on 12 June 2014 .
= = International events = =
= = = 2014 FIFA World Cup = = =
The stadium was one of the venues for the 2014 FIFA World Cup . Because of FIFA rules , it was called Arena de São Paulo during the tournament . The stadium hosted the opening ceremony followed by the opening match between Brazil and Croatia , three other group stage matches , a Round 16 match and a semi @-@ final . Due to the request of at least 65 @,@ 000 seats for the World Cup opening match , temporary seats were added to the stadium for the tournament , although the final usable capacity only reached 62 @,@ 200 for the opening match .
The addition of temporary seats implied that screens for the World Cup had to be rented specially for the event , because the original screens were too large to be used with the temporary seating installed . FIFA requires screens smaller than the originally projected , with a 90 square metres ( 970 sq ft ) area . Because subsequent matches had lower VIP and press demands , 4 @,@ 000 more seats were added , raising the usable capacity to 66 @,@ 200 .
= = = 2016 Summer Olympics = = =
Arena Corinthians will be one of the venues of the 2016 Summer Olympics football tournament . It was chosen instead of competitors Morumbi Stadium — the chosen venue before Arena Corinthians was built — and Allianz Parque . Sixteen games will be played in the stadium from 3 to 16 August 2016 ; they will be divided equally between men 's and women 's tournaments . Two matches will be played at 17 : 00 and 21 : 30 hours on competition days . Twelve matches will be valid for the preliminary stages and four for the quarterfinals . Semifinals and finals will be played in the Maracanã stadium .
= = Names = =
The stadium was called Estádio do Corinthians by Corinthians when it was announced . The name being used on the club 's official website is Arena Corinthians . The Brazilian Football Confederation uses the name Arena Corinthians . FIFA refers to the Stadium as Arena de São Paulo during the World Cup , but recognises the name Arena Corinthians . The largest media company in Brazil , Rede Globo , uses Arena Corinthians like sports diary Lance ! Local media have tried to give it nicknames . For example , newspaper Folha refer to Arena Corinthians as Itaquerão ; O Estado de S. Paulo uses both the neighbourhood @-@ based nickname and the official name . Rede Record uses Fielzão .
The club plans to sell the stadium naming rights for R $ 400 million for 20 years . A study by Brunoro Sports Business estimated that the value should be R $ 21 million per year . Companies Petrobras , Ambev , Grupo Petrópolis , Etihad Airways , Qatar Foundation , Caixa Econômica Federal , Emirates Airlines , Bradesco , Telefonica , BMG , Itaú Unibanco , Santander Group , Kalunga and Zurich Insurance Group have all been named as possible buyers , but no deal has been announced yet .
= = Architecture = =
Aníbal Coutinho designed the stadium to be one " that would help the supporters , that would help the team to win matches , I wanted to make the supporters get on the pitch " . Aníbal led a team of 25 architects . The complex is in a 197 @,@ 095 @.@ 14 square metres ( 2 @,@ 121 @,@ 514 @.@ 4 sq ft ) property . The built up area is 189 @,@ 000 square metres ( 2 @,@ 030 @,@ 000 sq ft ) with 17 @,@ 500 cubic metres ( 620 @,@ 000 cu ft ) of concrete . 80 % of the structural construction is made of precast elements , 40 % manufactured on a 7 @,@ 500 square metres ( 81 @,@ 000 sq ft ) plant on @-@ site .
The rectangular , 267 by 228 metres ( 876 by 748 ft ) , 43 metres ( 141 ft ) tall stadium has two buildings ; the main building on the west side and another on the east side . When measurements are taken from the pitch , the east side height is 51 metres ( 167 ft ) , the west side is 57 metres ( 187 ft ) and the north and south ends are 15 metres ( 49 ft ) tall . The pitch sits at exactly 777 metres ( 2 @,@ 549 ft ) ; Aníbal Coutinho said , " The number 77 is considered lucky for the club . The club is located at 777 São Jorge St. and it brings to mind the 1977 that they won one of their most celebrated championships of all time . " ( the Campeonato Paulista of 1977 ) .
= = = West and east sectors = = =
The west side has a 6 @,@ 200 square metres ( 67 @,@ 000 sq ft ) façade . VIP seats , television crew equipment , press and most box seats are in the west building . The glass has been designed with a curvature intended to simulate the visual effect of a ball hitting the net . Special , seamless , 26 metres ( 85 ft ) beams have been developed to support the structure . The geometry consulting company Evolute GmbH developed panelling that rationalised the 5 @,@ 400 square metres ( 58 @,@ 000 sq ft ) double @-@ curved freeform glass surface into 855 planar and cylindrical panels , all in hot bent toughened glass . This solution allowed for minimising the number of shapes necessary by 93 % , reducing costs considerably . The photo @-@ voltaic glass powers the air conditioning . The complete glass structure is 6 @,@ 900 square metres ( 74 @,@ 000 sq ft ) counting the sides ; the façade width is 220 metres ( 720 ft ) by 24 metres ( 79 ft ) tall .
The east side of the stadium houses one of the largest video screens of the world , 170 by 20 metres ( 558 by 66 ft ) — 3 @,@ 400 square metres ( 37 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . It has 210 @,@ 000 individual LEDs ; 1 @,@ 320 custom made luminaires are fitted in 4 metres ( 13 ft ) long glass sheets . The screen is manufactured by Osram Traxon and is controlled by an E : cue lighting control . Glass for both façades were provided by Italian company Sunglass SRL , using Asahi Glass Co . ' s Planibel Clear glass .
External walls are covered by 12 @,@ 000 square metres ( 130 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of white Levantina Techlam ceramic tiles , A 12 metres ( 39 ft ) Corinthians symbol , constructed from stainless steel and backlint , will be mounted on the south wall of the east side .
The public circulates using 10 escalators , 15 lifts , two ramps and 13 staircases . 59 concession stands are available , as is an auditorium for 360 people and a 25 @,@ 000 square metres ( 270 @,@ 000 sq ft ) convention center under the west building . A museum dedicated to Corinthians will be set up in the east building .
Interior design is designed by Gensler . There are six changing rooms . Home team changing rooms occupy 1 @,@ 300 square metres ( 14 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , with jacuzzis , cryotherapy and a private area for the coach . The warm @-@ up area has seating for 86 VIP ticket holders , and is separated by soundproof glass . All the public areas have air conditioning and are finished in marble , granite or top tier ceramic tile .
= = = Seating = = =
There are 49 @,@ 205 seats . The stadium has 6 @,@ 000 second tier covered seating and 10 @,@ 000 VIP seats . 89 luxury boxes accommodate 1 @,@ 414 spectators . Distributed on the West building 's 5th and 6th floors , 87 % have 12 seats , 10 % between 21 and 33 seats and 4 units more than 70 seats . The largest units will cover more than 470 square metres ( 5 @,@ 100 sq ft ) . The lowest ring of bleachers encircle the entire arena . It holds 10 @,@ 500 seats on each side , 6 @,@ 000 behind the south goal and 9 @,@ 000 behind the north goal for a total of 35 @,@ 000 + places .
The distance between the first row of seating and the field is 9 metres ( 30 ft ) on all sides . General seating is provided by Bluecube ³ using an exclusive design based on the Integra model . There are four different finishes , ranging from straight chairs without arms to stuffed chairs in leather . Most seats are white . Business level and box seats are finished in black leather and made by Poltrona Frau . The 600 seats have laser @-@ engraved club crests .
= = = Roof = = =
Werner Sobek designed the roof , which is held in place by 48 75 metres ( 246 ft ) -long trusses . The west and east sides are joined by two identical structures that have a free span of 170 metres ( 560 ft ) . The total east @-@ west roof length is 245 @.@ 75 metres ( 806 @.@ 3 ft ) . Aníbal Coutinho intended to bring a paulistano flair to the construction using structures that resemble the São Paulo Museum of Art , a symbol of the city . The height of the roof and weight of the trusses required the use of the largest crawler crane available in Latin America . The steel beams together weigh 4 @,@ 000 tons .
The roof has four layers . On the underside is a layer of corrugated steel sheets . Above them , thermal and acoustic insulation is provided by Polyisocyanurate sheets . A layer of plasterboard is above it . Finally , the entire roof is covered with 40 @,@ 000 square metres ( 430 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of Firestone Ultraply TPO . On the underside , a flexible membrane covers the structure . This final layer helps to collect rainwater for reuse in other areas of the stadium .
The structure was redesigned to duplicate the current noise level supporters create during games . Measurements taken on Pacaembu show that sound levels reach a peak of 113dB when goals are scored . 4 @,@ 500 square metres ( 48 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of glass will be installed on the end closest to the pitch of the west and east roofing . The entire structure measures 32 @,@ 300 square metres ( 348 @,@ 000 sq ft ) and weights 6 @,@ 500 tons .
= = = Scoreboards = = =
Osram will install four scoreboards in the stadium , on the north and south ends , above the bleachers . They will be set in pairs , with one facing the pitch and one facing outside . Each screen is 225 square metres ( 2 @,@ 420 sq ft ) and measures 30 by 7 @.@ 5 metres ( 98 by 25 ft ) . The inside @-@ facing screen will have a 7mm dot pitch and the outside @-@ facing screens will have a 20mm dot pitch . 3 @,@ 500 flat panel televisions are installed throughout the stadium , individually or as video walls , comprising 3 @,@ 100 stations .
= = = Lighting = = =
The pitch lighting is going to use 352 Osram Siteco 2000 @-@ Watt Metal @-@ halide 6000K multivapour lamps , guaranteeing over 90 % colour fidelity . The 5 @,@ 000 lux lighting is completely uniform and is 50 % brighter than FIFA 's recommendation . Osram provides lighting for the entire complex .
= = = Pitch = = =
The field has recommended FIFA dimensions of 105 by 68 metres ( 115 by 74 yd ) . It was prepared by World Sports in partnership with Desso . The field is made up of Perennial Ryegrass , which is grown directly at the site . The original idea was to use black grass to avoid the colours of Palmeiras — Corinthians ' biggest rivals — but it was proved to be technically impossible and the club chose to use grass with a darker hue . To improve fixation , the grass is intertwined with 22 million artificial fibres . Ultraviolet lights are used nightly to ensure that all parts of the pitch will receive equal lighting ; the field is exposed to only two hours of direct sunlight per day .
World Sports uses a blend of three cultivars from DLF @-@ Trifolium , Ph.D. Ryegrass Perenne , from Oregon , US . DLF states that this grass has strong cold and wear tolerance and is disease resistant , combined with fast growth rate . The hue is 8 @.@ 7 on a scale of 1 to 9 , where 9 is dark green . The choice of using ryegrass instead of the most common and usually recommended Bermuda brought advantages like having longitudinal roots , avoiding the cleats to tangle with them , and resistance to yellowing . It also brought challenges ; ryegrass is native to cooler climates and needs temperatures of 23 ° C ( 73 ° F ) for optimum growth . Because the temperature in São Paulo rarely falls below 14 ° C ( 57 ° F ) , a heating system is not used . A cooling systempushes cold water through 40 @,@ 000 metres ( 130 @,@ 000 ft ) of drainage pipes , reducing the grass roots temperature to 6 ° C ( 43 ° F ) . The grass is mowed to between 2 @.@ 2 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 87 in ) and 2 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) .
The drainage system has two operating modes ; gravitational and vacuum @-@ enhanced ( Subair System ) . The vacuum draining system can handle up to 400 @,@ 000 litres ( 88 @,@ 000 imp gal ) per hour , improving oxygen levels in the rooting system and cooling the pitch , even during matches . This is equivalent to 56 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) of rain drained in one hour . The irrigation system has individual sprinkler controls , which are controlled by a computerised system . The system comprises 48 sprinklers — twice the minimum FIFA recommendation .
= = = Information technology and communications = = =
The stadium will have wi @-@ fi and 4G LTE in all its sectors . Using smartphones , the public will be able to access game statistics and watch replays that will be published on a website maintained by the stadium crew . A dedicated team will control centrally all the screens and scoreboards . Supporters will be monitored by a computer system connected to hundreds of security cameras . All services are contracted with Sonda IT .
= = = Hospitality and stores = = =
There are plans for 75 bars — including 13 in the VIP areas — two restaurants and two sport bars in the stadium . All the restaurants and bars are managed by Diverti Arena on a 10 @-@ year contract . Diverti is expected to invest R $ 40 million in the stadium ; all the properties will be fully operational in 2015 . Other commercial properties inside the stadium complex are two clothing stores and kiosks whose operators have not yet been decided upon .
= = Reception = =
The project received awards for the Best Commercial Project and the Grand Prize as the Best Overall Project in Brazil in the largest Corporate Architecture events in Latin America in 2011 ; it competed against 1 @,@ 116 projects . Reception by Corinthians supporters was enthusiastic according to a poll , with 83 % approval of the stadium . Opposition fans have good approval rates of the stadium . Hundreds of supporters frequently visited the construction site .
= = Transport = =
The stadium is 19 kilometres ( 12 mi ) east of the city centre and 21 kilometres ( 13 mi ) away from the São Paulo – Guarulhos International Airport . The nearest subway station is Corinthians @-@ Itaquera , 500 metres ( 550 yd ) from the stadium . It connects to a railway station with the same name . The Artur Alvim subway station is 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) away . If all the stadium 's users boarded trains to leave it , the stadium would be empty in 30 minutes . Created for World Cup matches , an express train connects Luz and the Corinthians @-@ Itaquera CPTM Station , making the trip in 17 minutes . Due to its success , the service was extended to local matches , renamed to ' Expresso Corinthians ' . The metro and train stations can accommodate 114 @,@ 000 passengers per hour . Each metro train can carry 1 @,@ 600 passengers ; trains depart at 85 @-@ second intervals .
The site has 1 @,@ 620 covered parking spaces and 929 open air parking spaces , with another 2 @,@ 214 spaces provided by a shopping mall nearby . There are 61 bus routes that stop close to Arena Corinthians .
= = Other uses = =
Corinthians does not plan to host concerts or other sport events in the stadium because the use for non @-@ football events can destroy the pitch and football ticket sales will compensate for the loss of revenue . The club plans to use the structure to host conventions and trade shows , and to promote tours of the stadium . A 2 @,@ 500 square metres ( 27 @,@ 000 sq ft ) convention centre will be located under the west building .
= = In popular culture = =
EA Sports added all 12 venues used at the 2014 FIFA World Cup , including the Arena Corinthians , to the 2014 FIFA World Cup Brazil video game .
The Arena Corinthians is featured on " You Don 't Have to Live Like a Referee " , the sixteenth episode of the 25th season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons , and the 546th episode of the series . Homer Simpson acts as a FIFA World Cup 2014 referee in a game played at Arena Corinthians .
The second episode of Discovery Channel`s three @-@ episode series Building the World Cup is dedicated to Arena Corinthians .
= = Controversies = =
The circumstances in which Arena Corinthians was chosen as the World Cup stadium for São Paulo , and the resources used for its construction , have been criticised .
= = = World Cup hosts = = =
Jose Serra , governor of São Paulo in 2007 , planned to bring the opening game to his state — specifically to the Morumbi Stadium — as soon as Brazil was confirmed as the host nation of FIFA World Cup 2014 . Mayor Gilberto Kassab supported the option of Morumbi and was assured that president Luis Inácio da Silva wanted the same . Unhappy with Morumbi , FIFA 's secretary general Jérôme Valcke said the Morumbi Stadium could not host the opening game and was the worst among the 12 venues presented to FIFA . He recommended that the city should build a new stadium . FIFA technicians stated that the maximum capacity of the current structure would be 46 @,@ 000 spectators — below the FIFA minimum of 60 @,@ 000 . São Paulo Futebol Clube 's director João Paulo de Jesus Lopes said this was " a lie " . FIFA 's president Sepp Blatter stated that Morumbi could not host the opening game or semifinals without an extensive renovations plan .
The Morumbi Stadium failed to provide proof of funding for a R $ 630 million renovation plan requested by FIFA to secure its status as a World Cup venue ; the stadium was then excluded from the tournament on 16 June 2010 . The Local World Cup Committee suggested to use Arena Corinthians instead . FIFA accepted the suggestion and confirmed the decision on 10 October 2011 . Journalist Wagner Vilaron from O Estado de S. Paulo deemed the exclusion of the Morumbi Stadium from the World Cup and the subsequent choice of Arena Corinthians as a venue for the event to be politically charged . After receiving several negative responses from FIFA about the renovation project for Morumbi , then @-@ CBF @-@ president Ricardo Teixeira lost patience with São Paulo Futebol Clube officers ; he considered that they were delaying the decision by purposely failing to meet the requirements to force the government to spend money on the construction . São Paulo 's opposition to Teixeira in the now defunct Clube dos 13 election — which was won by ruling @-@ side Fábio Koff , aligned with São Paulo 's Juvenal Juvêncio — irritated the CBF president . At the same time , an affinity between Teixeira and then @-@ president of Corinthians , Andrés Sanchez — who was chosen as the head of delegation for the national team during the 2010 FIFA World Cup and on the same side on Clube dos 13 's election — was noticed .
São Paulo 's mayor Gilberto Kassab supported the selection of the Morumbi Stadium and guaranteed that president Luis Inácio da Silva wanted the same ; he blamed FIFA for vetoing the selection . He said Corinthians could not influence FIFA and that CBF wanted Morumbi Stadium to host the opening game . The senior management of São Paulo F.C. criticised the chosen stadium and the selection process on numerous occasions after Morumbi Stadium was excluded from the World Cup . President Juvenal Juvencio said the region had no city structures , hospitals or hotels ; the only way to enter or leave the area would be to use a fire engine and that there was no way to create a VIP area around the stadium . Juvenal blamed ex @-@ governor José Serra for Morumbi Stadium 's deselection . Serra denied the accusations .
Carlos Miguel Aidar , then a candidate for the SPFC presidency , said Arena Corinthians exists because Brazil 's president demanded the construction of a new stadium in São Paulo ; he also said Corinthians will never repay the loans for the stadium , that Odebrecht was the real owner , that FIFA and the Brazilian government only wanted to make money for construction companies , and that Itaquera was " another world , another country , nobody can get there " . Later he visited the Arena by car , recanted his opinion and said the stadium was " marvelous " and could be reached easily .
= = = Public funding allegations = = =
Vinícius Segalla from UOL said tax credits and BNDES resources are public money and that the concession of those resources to Corinthians are unclear . The federal government dismissed the notion , saying that tax credits are intended to encourage economical growth and work opportunities for the areas surrounding the stadia . The city government said tax credits are not subsidies and the stadium will be a boon to the city , especially the east zone .
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en leven van wijn : een bloemlezing uit de Epistels & Zangen van Fredman , ' s @-@ Hertogenbosch : Voltaire . ( In Dutch ) . A selection .
= Music of Italy =
The music of Italy ranges across a broad spectrum of opera and instrumental classical music and a body of popular music drawn from both native and imported sources . Music has traditionally been one of the cultural markers of Italian national and ethnic identity and holds an important position in society and in politics . Italian innovation in musical scales , harmony , notation , and theatre enabled the development of opera in the late 16th century , and much of modern European classical music , such as the symphony and concerto .
Instrumental and vocal classical music is an iconic part of Italian identity , spanning experimental art music and international fusions to symphonic music and opera . Opera is integral to Italian musical culture , and has become a major segment of popular music . The Neapolitan song , canzone Napoletana , and the cantautori singer @-@ songwriter traditions are also popular domestic styles that form an important part of the Italian music industry , alongside imported genres like jazz , rock and hip hop . Italian folk music is an important part of the country 's musical heritage , and spans a diverse array of regional styles , instruments and dances .
= = Characteristics = =
Italian music has been held up in high esteem in history and many pieces of Italian music are considered high art . More than other elements of Italian culture , Italian music is generally eclectic , but unique from other nations ' music . No parochial protectionist movement has ever attempted to keep Italian music pure and free from foreign influence , except briefly under the Fascist regime of the 1920s and 30s . As a result , Italian music has kept elements of the many peoples that have dominated or influenced the country , including French , German , and Spanish . The country 's historical contributions to music are also an important part of national pride . The relatively recent history of Italy includes the development of an opera tradition that has spread throughout the world ; prior to the development of Italian identity or a unified Italian state , the Italian peninsula contributed to important innovations in music including the development of musical notation and Gregorian chant .
= = = Social identity = = =
Italy has a strong sense of national identity through distinctive culture - a sense of an appreciation of beauty and emotionality , which is strongly evidenced in the music . Cultural , political and social issues are often also expressed through music in Italy . Allegiance to music is integrally woven into the social identity of Italians but no single style has been considered a characteristic " national style " . Most folk musics are localized , and unique to a small region or city . Italy 's classical legacy , however , is an important point of the country 's identity , particularly opera ; traditional operatic pieces remain a popular part of music and an integral component of national identity . The musical output of Italy remains characterized by " great diversity and creative independence ( with ) a rich variety of types of expression " .
With the growing industrialization that accelerated during the 20th and 21st century , Italian society gradually moved from an agricultural base to an urban and industrial center . This change weakened traditional culture in many parts of society ; a similar process occurred in other European countries , but unlike them , Italy had no major initiative to preserve traditional musics . Immigration from North Africa , Asia , and other European countries led to further diversification of Italian music . Traditional music came to exist only in small pockets , especially as part of dedicated campaigns to retain local musical identities .
= = = Politics = = =
Music and politics have been intertwined for centuries in Italy . Just as many works of art in the Italian Renaissance were commissioned by royalty and the Roman Catholic Church , much music was likewise composed on the basis of such commissions — incidental court music , music for coronations , for the birth of a royal heir , royal marches , and other occasions . Composers who strayed ran certain risks . Among the best known of such cases was the Neapolitan composer Domenico Cimarosa , who composed the Republican hymn for the short @-@ lived Neapolitan Republic of 1799 . When the republic fell , he was tried for treason along with other revolutionaries . Cimarosa was not executed by the restored monarchy , but he was exiled .
Music also played a role in the unification of the peninsula . During this period , some leaders attempted to use music to forge a unifying cultural identity . One example is the chorus " Va Pensiero " from Giuseppe Verdi 's opera Nabucco . The opera is about ancient Babylon , but the chorus contains the phrase " O mia Patria " , ostensibly about the struggle of the Israelites , but also a thinly veiled reference to the destiny of a not @-@ yet @-@ united Italy ; the entire chorus became the unofficial anthem of the Risorgimento , the drive to unify Italy in the 19th century . Even Verdi 's name was a synonym for Italian unity because " Verdi " could be read as an acronym for Vittorio Emanuele Re d 'Italia , Victor Emanuel King of Italy , the Savoy monarch who eventually became Victor Emanuel II , the first king of united Italy . Thus , " Viva Verdi " was a rallying cry for patriots and often appeared in graffiti in Milan and other cities in what was then part of Austro @-@ Hungarian territory . Verdi had problems with censorship before the unification of Italy . His opera Un ballo in maschera was originally entitled Gustavo III and was presented to the San Carlo opera in Naples , the capital of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies , in the late 1850s . The Neapolitan censors objected to the realistic plot about the assassination of Gustav III , King of Sweden , in the 1790s . Even after the plot was changed , the Neapolitan censors still rejected it .
Later , in the Fascist era of the 1920s and 30s , government censorship and interference with music occurred , though not on a systematic basis . Prominent examples include the notorious anti @-@ modernist manifesto of 1932 and Mussolini 's banning of G.F. Malipiero 's opera La favola del figlio cambiato after one performance in 1934 . The music media often criticized music that was perceived as either politically radical or insufficiently Italian . General print media , such as the Enciclopedia Moderna Italiana , tended to treat traditionally favored composers such as Giacomo Puccini and Pietro Mascagni with the same brevity as composers and musicians that were not as favored — modernists such as Alfredo Casella and Ferruccio Busoni ; that is , encyclopedia entries of the era were mere lists of career milestones such as compositions and teaching positions held . Even the conductor Arturo Toscanini , an avowed opponent of Fascism , gets the same neutral and distant treatment with no mention at all of his " anti @-@ regime " stance . Perhaps the best @-@ known episode of music colliding with politics involves Toscanini . He had been forced out of the musical directorship at La Scala in Milan in 1929 because he refused to begin every performance with the fascist song , Giovinezza . For this insult to the regime , he was attacked and beaten on the street outside the Bologne opera after a performance in 1931 . During the Fascist era , political pressure stymied the development of classical music , although censorship was not as systematic as in Nazi Germany . A series of " racial laws " was passed in 1938 , thus denying to Jewish composers and musicians membership in professional and artistic associations . Although there was not a massive flight of Italian Jews from Italy during this period ( compared to the situation in Germany ) composer Mario Castelnuovo @-@ Tedesco , an Italian Jew , was one of those who emigrated . Some non @-@ Jewish foes of the regime also emigrated — Toscanini , for one .
More recently , in the later part of the 20th century , especially in the 1970s and beyond , music became further enmeshed in Italian politics . A roots revival stimulated interest in folk traditions , led by writers , collectors and traditional performers . The political right in Italy viewed this roots revival with disdain , as a product of the " unprivileged classes " . The revivalist scene thus became associated with the opposition , and became a vehicle for " protest against free @-@ market capitalism " . Similarly , the avant @-@ garde classical music scene has , since the 1970s , been associated with and promoted by the Italian Communist Party , a change that can be traced back to the 1968 student revolts and protests .
= = Classical music = =
Italy has long been a center for European classical music , and by the beginning of the 20th century , Italian classical music had forged a distinct national sound that was decidedly Romantic and melodic . As typified by the operas of Verdi , it was music in which " ... The vocal lines always dominate the tonal complex and are never overshadowed by the instrumental accompaniments ... " Italian classical music had resisted the " German harmonic juggernaut " — that is , the dense harmonies of Richard Wagner , Gustav Mahler and Richard Strauss . Italian music also had little in common with the French reaction to that German music — the impressionism of Claude Debussy , for example , in which melodic development is largely abandoned for the creation of mood and atmosphere through the sounds of individual chords .
European classical music changed greatly in the 20th century . New music abandoned much of the historical , nationally developed schools of harmony and melody in favor of experimental music , atonality , minimalism and electronic music , all of which employ features that have become common to European music in general and not Italy specifically . These changes have also made classical music less accessible to many people . Important composers of the period include Ottorino Respighi , Ferruccio Busoni , Alfredo Casella , Gian Francesco Malipiero , Franco Alfano , Bruno Maderna , Luciano Berio , Luigi Nono , Sylvano Bussotti , Salvatore Sciarrino , Luigi Dallapiccola , Carlo Jachino , Gian Carlo Menotti , Jacopo Napoli , and Goffredo Petrassi .
= = = Opera = = =
Opera originated in Italy in the late 16th century during the time of the Florentine Camerata . Through the centuries that followed , opera traditions developed in Naples and Venice ; the operas of Claudio Monteverdi , Alessandro Scarlatti , and , later , of Gioacchino Rossini , Vincenzo Bellini , and Gaetano Donizetti flourished . Opera has remained the musical form most closely linked with Italian music and Italian identity . This was most obvious in the 19th century through the works of Giuseppe Verdi , an icon of Italian culture and pan @-@ Italian unity . Italy retained a Romantic operatic musical tradition in the early 20th century , exemplified by composers of the so @-@ called Giovane Scuola , whose music was anchored in the previous century , including Arrigo Boito , Ruggiero Leoncavallo , Pietro Mascagni , and Francesco Cilea . Giacomo Puccini , who was a realist composer , has been described by Encyclopaedia Britannica Online as the man who " virtually brought the history of Italian opera to an end " .
After World War I , however , opera declined in comparison to the popular heights of the 19th and early 20th centuries . Causes included the general cultural shift away from Romanticism and the rise of the cinema , which became a major source of entertainment . A third cause is the fact that " internationalism " had brought contemporary Italian opera to a state where it was no longer " Italian " . This was the opinion of at least one prominent Italian musicologist and critic , Fausto Terrefranca , who , in a 1912 pamphlet entitled Giaccomo Puccini and International Opera , accused Puccini of " commercialism " and of having deserted Italian traditions . Traditional Romantic opera remained popular ; indeed , the dominant opera publisher in the early 20th century was Casa Ricordi , which focused almost exclusively on popular operas until the 1930s , when the company allowed more unusual composers with less mainstream appeal . The rise of relatively new publishers such as Carisch and Suvini Zerboni also helped to fuel the diversification of Italian opera . Opera remains a major part of Italian culture ; renewed interest in opera across the sectors of Italian society began in the 1980s . Respected composers from this era include the well @-@ known Aldo Clementi , and younger peers such as Marco Tutino and Lorenzo Ferrero .
= = = Sacred music = = =
Italy , being one of Catholicism 's seminal nations , has a long history of music for the Roman Catholic Church . Until approximately 1800 , it was possible to hear Gregorian Chant and Renaissance polyphony , such as the music of Palestrina , Lassus , Anerio , and others . Approximately 1800 to approximately 1900 was a century during which a more popular , operatic , and entertaining type of church music was heard , to the exclusion of the aforementioned chant and polyphony . In the late 19th century , the Cecilian Movement was started by musicians who fought to restore this music . This movement gained impetus not in Italy but in Germany , particularly in Regensburg . The movement reached its apex around 1900 with the ascent of Don Lorenzo Perosi and his supporter ( and future saint ) , Pope Pius X. The advent of Vatican II , however , nearly obliterated all Latin @-@ language music from the Church , once again substituting it with a more popular style .
= = = Instrumental music = = =
The dominance of opera in Italian music tends to overshadow the important area of instrumental music . Historically , such music includes the vast array of sacred instrumental music , instrumental concertos , and orchestral music in the works of Andrea Gabrieli , Giovanni Gabrieli , Tomaso Albinoni , Arcangelo Corelli , Antonio Vivaldi , Luigi Boccherini , Luigi Cherubini and Domenico Scarlatti . ( Even opera composers occasionally worked in other forms — Giuseppe Verdi 's String Quartet in E minor , for example . Even Donizetti , whose name is identified with the beginnings of Italian lyric opera , wrote 18 string quartets . ) In the early 20th century , instrumental music began growing in importance , a process that started around 1904 with Giuseppe Martucci 's Second Symphony , a work that Malipiero called " the starting point of the renascence of non @-@ operatic Italian music . " Several early composers from this era , such as Leone Sinigaglia , used native folk traditions .
The early 20th century is also marked by the presence of a group of composers called the generazione dell 'ottanta ( generation of 1880 ) , including Franco Alfano , Alfredo Casella , Gian Francesco Malipiero , Ildebrando Pizzetti , and Ottorino Respighi . These composers usually concentrated on writing instrumental works , rather than opera . Members of this generation were the dominant figures in Italian music after Puccini 's death in 1924 . New organizations arose to promote Italian music , such as the Venice Festival of Contemporary Music and the Maggio Musicale Fiorentino . Guido Gatti 's founding of the periodical il Piano and then La rassegna musicale also helped to promote a broader view of music than the political and social climate allowed . Most Italians , however , preferred more traditional pieces and established standards , and only a small audience sought new styles of experimental classical music .
= = = Ballet = = =
Italian contributions to ballet are less known and appreciated than in other areas of classical music . Italy , particularly Milan , was the European center of court choreography as early as the 15th century in the form of such things as ritual masked balls . Early choreographers and composers of ballet include Fabritio Caroso and Cesare Negri . The style of ballet known as the " spectacles all ’ italiana " imported to France from Italy caught on , and the first ballet performed in France ( 1581 ) , Ballet comique de la Royn , was composed by an Italian , Baltazarini di Belgioioso , better known by the French version of his name , Balthasar de Beaujoyeulx . Early ballet was accompanied by considerable instrumentation , with the playing of horns , trombones , kettle drums , dulcimers , bagpipes , etc . Although the music has not survived , there is speculation that dancers , themselves , may have played instruments onstage . Then , in the wake of the French Revolution , Italy again became a center of ballet , largely through the efforts of Salvatore Viganò , a choreographer who worked with some of the most prominent composers of the day . He was made the balletmaster of La Scala in 1812 . The best @-@ known example of Italian ballet from the 19th century is probably Excelsior , with music by Romualdo Marenco and choreography by Luigi Manzotti . It was composed in 1881 and is a lavish tribute to the scientific and industrial progress of the 19th century . It is still performed and was staged as recently as 2002 .
Currently , major Italian opera theaters maintain ballet companies . They exist to provide incidental and ceremonial dancing in many operas , such as Aida or La Traviata . These dance companies usually maintain a separate ballet season and perform the standard repertoire of classical ballet , little of which is Italian . The Italian equivalent of the Russian Bolshoi Ballet and similar companies that exist only to perform ballet , independent of a parent opera theater is La Scala Ballet , which is under the direction of Frèdèric Olivieri . Since 1979 there has existed in Italy a modern dance company , the Aterballetto , based in Reggio Emilia . The company performs worldwide under the leadership of choreographer Mauro Bigonzetti .
= = = Experimental music = = =
Experimental music is a broad , loosely defined field encompassing musics created by abandoning traditional classical concepts of melody and harmony , and by using the new technology of electronics to create hitherto impossible sounds . In Italy , one of the first to devote his attention to experimental music was Ferruccio Busoni , whose 1907 publication , Sketch for a New Aesthetic of Music , discussed the use of electrical and other new sounds in future music . He spoke of his dissatisfaction with the constraints of traditional music :
" We have divided the octave into twelve equidistant degrees … and have constructed our instruments in such as way that we can never get in above or below or between them … our ears are no longer capable of hearing anything else … yet Nature created an infinite gradation — infinite ! Who still knows it nowadays ? "
Similarly , Luigi Russolo , the Italian Futurist painter and composer , wrote of the possibilities of new music in his 1913 manifestoes The Art of Noises and Musica Futurista . He also invented and built instruments such as the intonarumori , mostly percussion , which were used in a precursor to the style known as musique concrète . One of the most influential events in early 20th century music was the return of Alfredo Casella from France in 1915 ; Casella founded the Società Italiana di Musica Moderna , which promoted several composers in disparate styles , ranging from experimental to traditional . After a dispute over the value of experimental music in 1923 , Casella formed the Corporazione delle Nuove Musiche to promote modern experimental music .
In the 1950s , Luciano Berio experimented with instruments accompanied by electronic sounds on tape . In modern Italy , one important organization that fosters research in avantgarde and electronic music is CEMAT , the Federation of Italian Electroacoustic Music Centers . It was founded in 1996 in Rome and is a member of the CIME , the Confédération Internationale de Musique Electroacoustique . CEMAT promotes the activities of the " Sonora " project , launched jointly by the Department for Performing Arts , Ministry for Cultural Affairs and the Directorate for Cultural Relations , Ministry for Foreign Affairs with the object of promoting and diffusing Italian contemporary music abroad .
= = = Classical music in society = = =
Italian classical music grew gradually more experimental and progressive into the mid @-@ 20th century , while popular tastes have tended to stick with well established composers and compositions of the past . The 2004 @-@ 2005 program at the Teatro San Carlo in Naples is typical of modern Italy : of the eight operas represented , the most recent was Puccini . In symphonic music , of the 26 composers whose music was played , 21 of them were from the 19th century or earlier , composers who use the melodies and harmonies typical of the Romantic era . This focus is common to other European traditions , and is known as postmodernism , a school of thought that draws on earlier harmonic and melodic concepts that pre @-@ date the conceptions of atonality and dissonance . This focus on popular historical composers has helped to maintain a continued presence of classical music across a broad spectrum of Italian society . When music is part of a public display or gathering , it is often chosen from a very eclectic repertoire that is as likely to include well @-@ known classical music as popular music .
A few recent works have become a part of the modern repertoire , including scores and theatrical works by composers such as Luciano Berio , Luigi Nono , Franco Donatoni , and Sylvano Bussotti . These composers are not part of a distinct school or tradition , though they do share certain techniques and influences . By the 1970s , avant @-@ garde classical music had become linked to the Italian Communist Party , while a revival of popular interest continued into the next decade , with foundations , festivals and organization created to promote modern music . Near the end of the 20th century , government sponsorship of musical institutions began to decline , and several RAI choirs and city orchestras were closed . Despite this , a number of composers gained international reputations in the early 21st century .
= = Folk music = =
Italian folk music has a deep and complex history . Because national unification came late to the Italian peninsula , the traditional music of its many hundreds of cultures exhibit no homogeneous national character . Rather , each region and community possesses a unique musical tradition that reflects the history , language , and ethnic composition of that particular locale . These traditions reflect Italy 's geographic position in southern Europe and in the centre of the Mediterranean ; Celtic , Roma , and Slavic influences , as well as rough geography and the historic dominance of small city states , have all combined to allow diverse musical styles to coexist in close proximity .
Italian folk styles are very diverse , and include monophonic , polyphonic , and responsorial song , choral , instrumental and vocal music , and other styles . Choral singing and polyphonic song forms are primarily found in northern Italy , while south of Naples , solo singing is more common , and groups usually use unison singing in two or three parts carried by a single performer . Northern ballad @-@ singing is syllabic , with a strict tempo and intelligible lyrics , while southern styles use a rubato tempo , and a strained , tense vocal style . Folk musicians use the dialect of their own regional tradition ; this rejection of the standard Italian language in folk song is nearly universal . There is little perception of a common Italian folk tradition , and the country 's folk music never became a national symbol .
= = = Regions = = =
Folk music is sometimes divided into several spheres of geographic influence , a classification system of three regions , southern , central and northern , proposed by Alan Lomax in 1956 and often repeated . Additionally , Curt Sachs proposed the existence of two quite distinct kinds of folk music in Europe : continental and Mediterranean , and others have placed the transition zone from the former to the latter roughly in north @-@ central Italy , approximately between Pesaro and La Spezia . The central , northern and southern parts of the peninsula each share certain musical characteristics , and are each distinct from the music of Sardinia .
In the Piedmontese valleys and some Ligurian communities of northwestern Italy , the music preserves the strong influence of ancient Occitania . The lyrics of the Occitanic troubadours are some of the oldest preserved samples of vernacular song , and modern bands like Gai Saber and Lou Dalfin preserve and contemporize Occitan music . The Occitanian culture retains characteristics of the ancient Celtic influence , through the use of six- or seven @-@ hole flutes ( fifre ) or the bagpipes ( piva ) . The music of Friuli @-@ Venezia Giulia , in northeastern Italy , shares much more in common with Austria and Slovenia including variants of the waltz and the polka . Much of northern Italy shares with areas of Europe further to the north an interest in ballad singing ( called canto epico lirico in Italian ) and choral singing . Even ballads — usually thought of as a vehicle for a solo voice — may be sung in choirs . In the province of Trento " folk choirs " are the most common form of music making .
Noticeable musical differences in the southern type include increased use of interval part singing and a greater variety of folk instruments . The Celtic and Slavic influences on the group and open @-@ voice choral works of the north yield to a stronger Arabic , Greek , and North African @-@ influenced strident monody of the south . In parts of Apulia ( Grecìa Salentina , for example ) the Griko dialect is commonly used in song . The Apulian city of Taranto is a home of the tarantella , a rhythmic dance widely performed in southern Italy . Apulian music in general , and Salentine music in particular , has been well researched and documented by ethnomusicologists and by Aramirè .
The music of the island of Sardinia is best known for the polyphonic chanting of the tenores . The sound of the tenores recalls the roots of Gregorian chant , and is similar to but distinctive from the Ligurian trallalero . Typical instruments include the launeddas , a Sardinian triplepipe used in a sophisticated and complex manner . Efisio Melis was a well @-@ known master launeddas player of the 1930s .
= = = Songs = = =
Italian folk songs include ballads , lyrical songs , lullabies and children 's songs , seasonal songs based around holidays such as Christmas , life @-@ cycle songs that celebrate weddings , baptisms and other important events , dance songs , cattle calls and occupational songs , tied to professions such as fishermen , shepherds and soldiers . Ballads ( canti epico @-@ lirici ) and lyric songs ( canti lirico @-@ monostrofici ) are two important categories . Ballads are most common in northern Italy , while lyric songs prevail further south . Ballads are closely tied to the English form , with some British ballads existing in exact correspondence with an Italian song . Other Italian ballads are more closely based on French models . Lyric songs are a diverse category that consist of lullabies , serenades and work songs , and are frequently improvised though based on a traditional repertoire .
Other Italian folk song traditions are less common than ballads and lyric songs . Strophic , religious laude , sometimes in Latin , are still occasionally performed , and epic songs are also known , especially those of the maggio celebration . Professional female singers perform dirges similar in style to those elsewhere in Europe . Yodeling exists in northern Italy , though it is most commonly associated with the folk musics of other Alpine nations . The Italian Carnival is associated with several song types , especially the Carnival of Bagolino , Brescia . Choirs and brass bands are a part of the mid @-@ Lenten holiday , while the begging song tradition extends through many holidays throughout the year .
= = = Instrumentation = = =
Instrumentation is an integral part of all facets of Italian folk music . There are several instruments that retain older forms even while newer models have become widespread elsewhere in Europe . Many Italian instruments are tied to certain rituals or occasions , such as the zampogna bagpipe , typically heard only at Christmas . Italian folk instruments can be divided into string , wind and percussion categories . Common instruments include the organetto , an accordion most closely associated with the saltarello ; the diatonic button organetto is most common in central Italy , while chromatic accordions prevail in the north . Many municipalities are home to brass bands , which perform with roots revival groups ; these ensembles are based around the clarinet , accordion , violin and small drums , adorned with bells .
Italy 's wind instruments include most prominently a variety of folk flutes . These include duct , globular and transverse flutes , as well as various variations of the pan flute . Double flutes are most common in Campania , Calabria and Sicily . A ceramic pitcher called the quartara is also used as a wind instrument , by blowing across an opening in the narrow bottle neck ; it is found in eastern Sicily and Campania . Single- ( ciaramella ) and double @-@ reed ( piffero ) pipes are commonly played in groups of two or three . Several folk bagpipes are well @-@ known , including central Italy 's zampogna ; dialect names for the bagpipe vary throughout Italy-- beghet in Bergamo , piva in Lombardy , müsa in Alessandria , Genoa , Pavia and Piacenza , and so forth .
Numerous percussion instruments are a part of Italian folk music , including wood blocks , bells , castanets , drums . Several regions have their own distinct form of rattle , including the raganella cog rattle and the Calabrian conocchie , a spinning or shepherd 's staff with permanently attached seed rattles with ritual fertility significance . The Neapolitan rattle is the triccaballacca , made out of several mallets in a wooden frame . Tambourines ( tamburini , tamburello ) , as are various kinds of drums , such as the friction drum putipù . The Tamburello , while appearing very similar to the contemporary western tambourine , is actually played with a much more articulate and sophisticated technique ( influenced by Middle Eastern playing ) , giving it a wide range of sounds . The mouth @-@ harp , scacciapensieri or care @-@ chaser , is a distinctive instrument , found only in northern Italy and Sicily .
String instruments vary widely depending on locality , with no nationally prominent representative . Viggiano is home to a harp tradition , which has a historical base in Abruzzi , Lazio and Calabria .
Calabria , alone , has 30 traditional musical instruments , some of which have strongly archaic characteristics and are largely extinct elsewhere in Italy . It is home to the four- or five @-@ stringed guitar called the chitarra battente , and a three @-@ stringed , bowed fiddle called the lira , which is also found in similar forms in the music of Crete and Southeastern Europe . A one @-@ stringed , bowed fiddle called the torototela , is common in the northeast of the country . The largely German @-@ speaking area of South Tyrol is known for the zither , and the ghironda ( hurdy @-@ gurdy ) is found in Emilia , Piedmont and Lombardy . Existing , rooted and widespread traditions confirm the production of ephemeral and toy instruments made of bark , reed ( arundo donax ) , leaves , fibers and stems , as it emerges , for example , from Fabio Lombardi 's research .
= = = Dance = = =
Dance is an integral part of folk traditions in Italy . Some of the dances are ancient and , to a certain extent , persist today . There are magico @-@ ritual dances of propitiation as well as harvest dances , including the " sea @-@ harvest " dances of fishing communities in Calabria and the wine harvest dances in Tuscany . Famous dances include the southern tarantella ; perhaps the most iconic of Italian dances , the tarantella is in 6 / 8 time , and is part of a folk ritual intended to cure the poison caused by tarantula bites . Popular Tuscan dances ritually act out the hunting of the hare , or display blades in weapon dances that simulate or recall the moves of combat , or use the weapons as stylized instruments of the dance itself . For example , in a few villages in northern Italy , swords are replaced by wooden half @-@ hoops embroidered with green , similar to the so @-@ called " garland dances " in northern Europe . There are also dances of love and courting , such as the duru @-@ duru dance in Sardinia .
Many of these dances are group activities , the group setting up in rows or circles ; some — the love and courting dances — involve couples , either a single couple or more . The tammuriata ( performed to the sound of the tambourine ) is a couple dance performed in southern Italy and accompanied by a lyric song called a strambotto . Other couples dances are collectively referred to as saltarello . There are , however , also solo dances ; most typical of these are the " flag dances " of various regions of Italy , in which the dancer passes a town flag or pennant around the neck , through the legs , behind the back , often tossing it high in the air and catching it . These dances can also be done in groups of solo dancers acting in unison or by coordinating flag passing between dancers . Northern Italy is also home to the monferrina , an accompanied dance that was incorporated in Western art music by the composer Muzio Clementi .
Academic interest in the study of dance from the perspectives of sociology and anthropology has traditionally been neglected in Italy but is currently showing renewed life at the university and post @-@ graduate level .
= = Popular music = =
The earliest Italian popular music was the opera of the 19th century . Opera has had a lasting effect on Italy 's classical and popular music . Opera tunes spread through brass bands and itinerant ensembles . Canzone Napoletana , or Neapolitan song , is a distinct tradition that became a part of popular music in the 19th century , and was an iconic image of Italian music abroad by the end of the 20th century . Imported styles have also become an important part of Italian popular music , beginning with the French Café @-@ chantant in the 1890s and then the arrival of American jazz in the 1910s . Until Italian Fascism became officially " allergic " to foreign influences in the late 1930s , American dance music and musicians were quite popular ; jazz great Louis Armstrong toured Italy as late as 1935 to great acclaim . In the 1950s , American styles became more prominent , especially rock . The singer @-@ songwriter cantautori tradition was a major development of the later 1960s , while the Italian rock scene soon diversified into progressive , punk , funk and folk @-@ based styles .
= = = Early popular song = = =
Italian opera became immensely popular in the 19th century and was known across even the most rural sections of the country . Most villages had occasional opera productions , and the techniques used in opera influenced rural folk musics . Opera spread through itinerant ensembles and brass bands , focused in a local village . These civic bands ( banda communale ) used instruments to perform operatic arias , with trombones or fluegelhorns for male vocal parts and cornets for female parts .
Regional music in the 19th century also became popular throughout Italy . Notable among these local traditions was the Canzone Napoletana — the Neapolitan Song . Although there are anonymous , documented songs from Naples from many centuries ago , the term , canzone Napoletana now generally refers to a large body of relatively recent , composed popular music — such songs as " ' O sole mio " , " Torna a Surriento " , and " Funiculi Funicula " . In the 18th century , many composers , including Alessandro Scarlatti , Leonardo Vinci , and Giovanni Paisiello , contributed to the Neapolitan tradition by using the local language for the texts of some of their comic operas . Later , others — most famously Gaetano Donizetti — composed Neapolitan songs that garnered great renown in Italy and abroad . The Neapolitan song tradition became formalized in the 1830s through an annual songwriting competition for the yearly Piedigrotta festival , dedicated to the Madonna of Piedigrotta , a well @-@ known church in the Mergellina area of Naples . The music is identified with Naples , but is famous abroad , having been exported on the great waves of emigration from Naples and southern Italy roughly between 1880 and 1920 . Language is an extremely important element of Neapolitan song , which is always written and performed in Neapolitan , the regional minority language of Campania . Neapolitan songs typically use simple harmonies , and are structured in two sections , a refrain and narrative verses , often in contrasting relative or parallel major and minor keys . In non @-@ musical terms , this means that many Neapolitan songs can sound joyful one minute and melancholy the next .
The music of Francesco Tosti was popular at the turn of the 20th century , and is remembered for his light , expressive songs . His style became very popular during the Belle Époque and is often known as salon music . His most famous works are Serenata , Addio and the popular Neapolitan song , Marechiaro , the lyrics of which are by the prominent Neapolitan dialect poet , Salvatore di Giacomo .
Recorded popular music began in the late 19th century , with international styles influencing Italian music by the late 1910s ; however , the rise of autarchia , the Fascist policy of cultural isolationism in 1922 led to a retreat from international popular music . During this period , popular Italian musicians traveled abroad and learned elements of jazz , Latin American music and other styles . These musics influenced the Italian tradition , which spread around the world and further diversified following liberalization after World War II .
Under the isolationist policies of the fascist regime , which rose to power in 1922 , Italy developed an insular musical culture . Foreign musics were suppressed while Mussolini 's government encouraged nationalism and linguistic and ethnic purity . Popular performers , however , travelled abroad , and brought back new styles and techniques . American jazz was an important influence on singers such as Alberto Rabagliati , who became known for a swinging style . Elements of harmony and melody from both jazz and blues were used in many popular songs , while rhythms often came from Latin dances like the tango , rumba and beguine . Italian composers incorporated elements from these styles , while Italian music , especially Neapolitan song , became a part of popular music across Latin America .
= = = Modern pop = = =
Among the best @-@ known Italian pop musicians of the last few decades are Domenico Modugno , Mina , Patty Pravo , Mia Martini , Adriano Celentano and , more recently , Zucchero , Mango , Vasco Rossi , Irene Grandi , Gianna Nannini and international superstar Laura Pausini and Andrea Bocelli . Musicians who compose and sing their own songs are called cantautori ( singer @-@ songwriters ) . Their compositions typically focus on topics of social relevance and are often protest songs : this wave began in the 1960s with musicians like Fabrizio De André , Paolo Conte , Giorgio Gaber , Umberto Bindi , Gino Paoli and Luigi Tenco . Social , political , psychological and intellectual themes , mainly in the wake of Gaber and De André 's work , became even more predominant in the 1970s through authors such as Lucio Dalla , Pino Daniele , Francesco De Gregori , Ivano Fossati , Francesco Guccini , Edoardo Bennato , Rino Gaetano and Roberto Vecchioni . Lucio Battisti , from the late 1960s until the mid @-@ 1990s , merged the Italian music with the British rock and pop and , lately in his career , with genres like the synthpop , rap , techno and eurodance , while Angelo Branduardi and Franco Battiato pursued careers more oriented to the tradition of Italian pop music . There is some genre cross @-@ over between the cantautori and those who are viewed as singers of " protest music " .
Film scores , although they are secondary to the film , are often critically acclaimed and very popular in their own right . Among early music for Italian films from the 1930s was the work of Riccardo Zandonai with scores for the films La Principessa Tarakanova ( 1937 ) and Caravaggio ( 1941 ) . Post @-@ war examples include Goffredo Petrassi with Non c 'e pace tra gli ulivi ( 1950 ) and Roman Vlad with Giulietta e Romeo ( 1954 ) . Another well @-@ known film composer was Nino Rota whose post @-@ war career included the scores for films by Federico Fellini and , later , The Godfather series . Other prominent film score composers include Ennio Morricone , Riz Ortolani and Piero Umiliani .
= = = Modern dance = = =
Italy has been an important country with regards to electronic dance music , especially ever since the creation of Italo disco in the late 1970s to early 1980s . The genre , originating from disco , blended " melancholy melodies " with pop and electronic music , making usage of synthesizers and drum machines , which often gave it a futuristic sound . According to an article in The Guardian , in cities such as Verona and Milan , producers would work with singers , using mass @-@ made synthesizers and drum machines , and incorporating them into a mix of experimental music with a " classic @-@ pop sensibility " which would be aimed for nightclubs . The songs produced would often be sold later by labels and companies such as the Milan @-@ based Discomagic . Italo disco influenced several electronic groups , such as the Pet Shop Boys , Erasure and New Order , as well as genres such as Eurodance , Eurobeat and freestyle . By circa 1988 , however , the genre had merged into other forms of European dance and electronic music , one of which was Italo house . Italo house blended elements of Italo disco with traditional house music ; its sound was generally uplifting , and made strong usage of piano melodies . By the latter @-@ half of the 1990s , a subgenre of Eurodance known as Italo dance emerged . Taking influences from Italo disco and Italo house , Italo dance generally included synthesizer riffs , a melodic sound , and the usage of vocoders . Over the years , there have been several important Italian dance music composers and producers , such as Giorgio Moroder , who won three Academy Awards for his music . He is credited by Allmusic as " One of the principal architects of the disco sound " .
= = = Imported styles = = =
During the Belle Époque , the French fashion of performing popular music at the café @-@ chantant spread throughout Europe . The tradition had much in common with cabaret , and there is overlap between café @-@ chantant , café @-@ concert , cabaret , music hall , vaudeville and other similar styles , but at least in its Italian manifestation , the tradition remained largely apolitical , focusing on lighter music , often risqué , but not bawdy . The first café @-@ chantant in Italy was the Salone Margherita , which opened in 1890 on the premises of the new Galleria Umberto in Naples . Elsewhere in Italy , the Gran Salone Eden in Milan and the Music Hall Olympia in Rome opened shortly thereafter . Café @-@ chantant was alternately known as the Italianized caffè @-@ concerto . The main performer , usually a woman , was called a chanteuse in French ; the Italian term , sciantosa , is a direct coinage from the French . The songs , themselves , were not French , but were lighthearted or slightly sentimental songs composed in Italian . That music went out of fashion with the advent of World War I.
The influence of US pop forms has been strong since the end of World War II . Lavish Broadway @-@ show numbers , big bands , rock and roll , and hip hop continue to be popular . Latin music , especially Brazilian bossa nova , is also popular , and the Puerto Rican genre of reggaeton is rapidly becoming a mainstream form of dance music . It is now not uncommon for modern Italian pop artists such as Laura Pausini , Eros Ramazzotti , Zucchero or Andrea Bocelli to release new songs in English or Spanish in addition to , or instead of , Italian . Thus , musical revues , which are standard fare on current Italian television , can easily go , in a single evening , from a big @-@ band number with dancers to an Elvis impersonator to a current pop singer doing a rendition of a Puccini aria .
Jazz found its way into Europe during World War I through the presence of American musicians in military bands playing syncopated music . Yet , even before that , Italy received an inkling of new music from across the Atlantic in the form of Creole singers and dancers who performed at the Eden Theater in Milan in 1904 ; they billed themselves as the " creators of the cakewalk . " The first real jazz orchestras in Italy , however , were formed during the 1920s by bandleaders such as Arturo Agazzi and enjoyed immediate success . In spite of the anti @-@ American cultural policies of the Fascist regime during the 1930s , American jazz remained popular .
In the immediate post @-@ war years , jazz took off in Italy . All American post @-@ war jazz styles , from bebop to free jazz and fusion have their equivalents in Italy . The universality of Italian culture ensured that jazz clubs would spring up throughout the peninsula , that all radio and then television studios would have jazz @-@ based house bands , that Italian musicians would then start nurturing a home grown kind of jazz , based on European song forms , classical composition techniques and folk music . Currently , all Italian music conservatories have jazz departments , and there are jazz festivals each year in Italy , the best known of which is the Umbria Jazz Festival , and there are prominent publications such as the journal , Musica Jazz .
Italian pop rock has produced major stars like Zucchero , and has resulted in many top hits . The industry media , especially television , are important vehicles for such music ; the television show Sabato Sera is characteristic . Italy was at the forefront of the progressive rock movement of the 1970s , a style that primarily developed in Europe but also gained audiences elsewhere in the world . It is sometimes considered a separate genre , Italian progressive rock . Italian bands such as The Trip , Area , Premiata Forneria Marconi ( PFM ) , Arti e Mestieri , Banco del Mutuo Soccorso , New Trolls , Goblin , Osanna , Saint Just and Le Orme incorporated a mix of symphonic rock and Italian folk music and were popular throughout Europe and the United States as well . Other progressive bands such as Perigeo , Balletto di Bronzo , Museo Rosenbach , Rovescio della Medaglia , Biglietto per l 'Inferno or Alphataurus remained little known , but their albums are today considered classics by collectors . A few avant @-@ garde rock bands or artists ( Area , Picchio dal Pozzo , Opus Avantra , Stormy Six , Saint Just , Giovanni Lindo Ferretti ) gained notoriety for their innovative sound . Progressive rock concerts in Italy tended to have a strong political undertone and an energetic atmosphere .
The Italian hip hop scene began in the early 1990s with Articolo 31 from Milan , whose style was mainly influenced by East Coast rap . Other early hip hop crews were typically politically oriented , like 99 Posse , who later became more influenced by British trip hop . More recent crews include gangster rappers like Sardinia 's La Fossa . Other recently imported styles include techno , trance , and electronica performed by artists including Gabry Ponte , Eiffel 65 , and Gigi D`Agostino . Hip hop is especially characteristic of southern Italy , a fact which some observers have contributed to the view of southern culture as more " African " than " European " , as well as the southern concept of rispettu ( respect , honor ) , a form of verbal jousting ; both facts have helped identify southern Italian music with the African American hip hop style . Additionally , there are many bands in Italy that play a style called patchanka , which is characterized by a mixture of traditional music , punk , reggae , rock and political lyrics . Modena City Ramblers are one of the more popular bands known for their mix of Irish , Italian , punk , reggae and many other forms of music .
Italy has also become a home for a number of Mediterranean fusion projects . These include Al Darawish , a multicultural band based in Sicily and led by Palestinian Nabil Ben Salaméh . The Luigi Cinque Tarantula Hypertext Orchestra is another example , as is the TaraGnawa project by Phaleg and Nour Eddine . Mango is one of the best @-@ known artists who fused pop with world and mediterranean sounds , albums such as Adesso , Sirtaki and Come l 'acqua are examples of his style . The Neapolitan popular singer , Massimo Ranieri has also released a CD , Oggi o dimane , of traditional canzone Napoletana with North African rhythms and instruments .
= = Industry = =
A recent economics report says that the music industry in Italy made € 2 @.@ 3 billion in 2004 . That sum refers to the sale of CDs , music electronics , musical instruments , and ticket sales for live performances ; it represents a 4 @.@ 35 % growth over 2004 . The actual sale of music albums has decreased slightly , but there has been a compensatory increase in paid @-@ for digitally downloaded music from industry @-@ approved sites . By way of comparison , the Italian recording industry ranks eighth in the world ; Italians own 0 @.@ 7 music albums per capita as opposed to the USA , in first @-@ place with 2 @.@ 7 . The report cites a 20 % increase in 2004 over 2003 in paid royalties for on @-@ air as well as live music .
Nationwide , there are three state @-@ run and three private TV networks . All provide live music at least some of the time , thus giving work to musicians , singers , and dancers . Many large cities in Italy have local TV stations , as well , which may provide live folk or dialect music often of interest only to the immediate area . Book and CD superstores have entered the Italian market over the last decade . The largest of these chains is Feltrinelli , originally a publishing house in the 1950s . In 2001 , it geared up to the level of Multimedia Store and now sells massive quantities of recorded music . There are , as of 2006 , 14 such mega @-@ stores in Italy , with more planned . FNAC is another large chain , originally French . It has six large outlets in Italy . These stores also serve as venues for music performance , hosting several concerts a week .
= = Venues , festivals and holidays = =
Venues for music in Italy include concerts at the many music conservatories , symphony halls and opera houses . Italy also has many well @-@ known international music festivals each year , including the Festival of Spoleto , the Festival Puccini and the Wagner Festival in Ravello . Some festivals offer venues to younger composers in classical music by producing and staging winning entries in competitions . The winner , for example , of the " Orpheus " International Competition for New Opera and Chamber music — besides winning considerable prize money — gets to see his or her musical work performed at The Spoleto Festival . There are also dozens of privately sponsored master classes in music each year that put on concerts for the public . Italy is also a common destination for well @-@ known orchestras from abroad ; at almost any given time during the busiest season , at least one major orchestra from elsewhere in Europe or North America is playing a concert in Italy . Additionally , public music may be heard at dozens of pop and rock concerts throughout the year . Open @-@ air opera may even be heard , for example , at the ancient Roman amphitheater , the Arena of Verona . Military bands , too , are popular in Italy . At a national level , one of the best @-@ known of these is the concert band of the Guardia di Finanza ( Italian Customs / Border Police ) ; it performs many times a year .
Many theaters also routinely stage not just Italian translations of American musicals , but true Italian musical comedy , which are called by the English term musical . In Italian , that term describes a kind of musical drama not native to Italy , a form that employs the American idiom of jazz @-@ pop @-@ and rock @-@ based music and rhythms to move a story along in a combination of songs and dialogue .
Music in religious rituals , especially Roman Catholic , manifests itself in a number of ways . Parish bands , for example , are quite common throughout Italy . They may be as small as four or five members to as many as 20 or 30 . They commonly perform at religious festivals specific to a particular town , usually in honor of the town 's patron saint . The historic orchestral / choral masterpieces performed in church by professionals are well @-@ known ; these include such works as the Stabat Mater by Giovanni Battista Pergolesi and Verdi 's Requiem . The Second Vatican Council from 1962 to 1965 revolutionized music in the Roman Catholic Church , leading to an increase in the number of amateur choirs that perform regularly for services ; the Council also encouraged the congregational singing of hymns , and a vast repertoire of new hymns has been composed in the last 40 years .
There is not a great deal of native Italian Christmas music . The most popular Italian Christmas carol is " Tu scendi dalle stelle " , the modern Italian words to which were written by Pope Pius IX in 1870 . The melody is a major @-@ key version of an older , minor @-@ key Neapolitan carol " Quanno Nascette Ninno " . Other than that , Italians largely sing translations of carols that come from the German and English tradition ( " Silent Night " , for example ) . There is no native Italian secular Christmas music , which accounts for the popularity of Italian @-@ language versions of " Jingle Bells " and " White Christmas " .
The Sanremo Music Festival is an important venue for popular music in Italy . It has been held annually since 1951 and is currently staged at the Teatro Ariston in Sanremo . It runs for one week in February , and gives veteran and new performers a chance to present new songs . Winning the contest has often been a springboard to industry success . The festival is televised nationally for three hours a night , is hosted by the best @-@ known Italian TV personalities , and has been a vehicle for such performers as Domenico Modugno , perhaps the best @-@ known Italian pop singer of the last 50 years .
Television variety shows are the widest venue for popular music . They change often , but Buona Domenica , Domenica In , and I raccomandati are popular . The longest running musical broadcast in Italy is La Corrida , a three @-@ hour weekly program of amateurs and would @-@ be musicians . It started on the radio in 1968 and moved to TV in 1988 . The studio audience bring cow @-@ bells and sirens and are encouraged to show good @-@ natured disapproval . The city with the highest number of rock concerts ( of national and international artists ) is Milan , with a number close to the other European music capitals , as Paris , London and Berlin .
= = Education = =
Many institutes of higher education teach music in Italy . About 75 music conservatories provide advanced training for future professional musicians . There are also many private music schools and workshops for instrument building and repair . Private teaching is also quite common in Italy . Elementary and high school students can expect to have one or two weekly hours of music teaching , generally in choral singing and basic music theory , though extracurricular opportunities are rare . Though most Italian universities have classes in related subjects such as music history , performance is not a common feature of university education .
Italy has a specialized system of high schools ; students attend , as they choose , a high school for humanities , science , foreign languages , or art — and music ( in the " liceo musicale " , where instruments , musical theory , composing and musical history are taught as the main subject ) . Italy does have ambitious , recent programs to expose children to more music . Furthermore , with the recent education reform a specific Liceo musicale e coreutico ( 2nd level secondary school , ages 14 – 15 to 18 @-@ 19 ) is explicitly indicated by the law decrees . Yet this kind of school has not been set up and is not effectively operational . The state @-@ run television network has started a program to use modern satellite technology to broadcast choral music into public schools .
= = Scholarship = =
Scholarship in the field of collecting , preserving and cataloguing all varieties of music is vast . In Italy , as elsewhere , these tasks are spread over a number of agencies and organizations . Most large music conservatories maintain departments that oversee the research connected with their own collections . Such research is coordinated on a national and international scale via the internet . One prominent institution in Italy is IBIMUS , the Istituto di Bibliografia Musicale , in Rome . It works with other agencies on an international scale through RISM , the Répertoire International des Sources Musicales , an inventory and index of source material . Also , the Discoteca di Stato ( National Archives of Recordings ) in Rome , founded in 1928 , holds the largest public collection of recorded music in Italy with some 230 @,@ 000 examples of classical music , folk music , jazz , and rock , recorded on everything from antique wax cylinders to modern electronic media .
The scholarly study of traditional Italian music began in about 1850 , with a group of early philological ethnographers who studied the impact of music on a pan @-@ Italian national identity . A unified Italian identity only just started to develop after the political integration of the peninsula in 1860 . The focus at that time was on the lyrical and literary value of music , rather than the instrumentation ; this focus remained until the early 1960s . Two folkloric journals helped to encourage the burgeoning field of study , the Rivista Italiana delle Tradizioni Popolari and Lares , founded in 1894 and 1912 , respectively . The earliest major musical studies were on the Sardinian launeddas in 1913 @-@ 1914 by Mario Giulio Fara ; on Sicilian music , published in 1907 and 1921 by Alberto Favara ; and studies of the music of Emilia Romagna in 1941 by Francesco Balilla Pratella .
The earliest recordings of Italian traditional music came in the 1920s , but they were rare until the establishment of the
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day of the battle of the Somme , the barrage outpaced the infantry , allowing the defenders to recover and emerge from their dugouts , with disastrous results for the attackers . The creeping barrage demonstrated its effectiveness a year later , in 1917 , during the battle of Arras . A weakness of the creeping barrage was that the infantry was subordinated to the artillery schedule , while the infantry commanders had less control over the tactical situation and were therefore in danger of forgetting how to manoeuvre their troops around the battlefield . The importance of the barrage was such that traditional infantry tactics , including a reliance on the infantry 's own firepower to support its movement forward , was sometimes forgotten .
Once the infantry had reached the German trenches , the artillery shifted from the creeping barrage to the standing barrage , a static barrage that would protect the infantry from counter @-@ attack while they consolidated the position . A variant was the box barrage , in which three or four barrages formed a box — or more often three sides of a box — around a position to isolate and prevent reinforcements being brought up into the front line . This was normally used to protect trench raids , although it could also be used offensively against a German unit . Another type of barrage was the SOS barrage , fired in response to a German counterattack . An SOS barrage could be brought down by firing a flare signal of a pre arranged colour , as a German barrage tended to cut the telephone lines . A pre @-@ registered barrage would then descend on No Man 's Land .
With the introduction of the tank the artillery was no longer required to aid the infantry by destroying obstacles and machine gun positions . Instead , the artillery assisted by neutralising the German artillery with Counter battery fire . British Army researchers under Lieutenant William Lawrence Bragg developed sound ranging , a method of determining the location of hostile artillery from the sound of its guns firing . A Counter Battery Staff Officer ( CBSO ) was appointed at each corps to co @-@ ordinate the counter battery effort , collating reports from sound ranging and Royal Flying Corps observers . By the end of the war , it was realised that the important effect of the barrage was to demoralise and suppress the enemy , rather than physical destruction ; a short , intense bombardment immediately followed by an infantry assault was more effective than the weeks of grinding bombardment used in 1916 .
= = = Communications = = =
The Royal Engineers Signal Service , formed in 1912 , was given responsibility for communications that included signal dispatch , telegraph , telephone and later wireless communications , from army headquarters to brigade and down to battery level for the artillery . For most of the war , the Army 's primary methods of communication were signal dispatch ( employing runners , messengers on horseback , dogs , and carrier pigeons ) , visual signalling , telegraph , and telephone . At the start of the war , the Army had a small number of wireless sets , which in addition to being heavy and unreliable , operated on longwave . In 1915 , trench wireless sets were introduced , but the transmissions were easily intercepted by the listening Germans .
Civilian telephones were used at the outset of the war , but they were found to be unreliable in the damp , muddy conditions that prevailed . Consequently , the field telephone was designed ; a device that operated with its own switchboard . Apart from voice communication , it featured a buzzer unit with a Morse code key , so that it could be used to send and receive coded messages . This facility proved useful when , in the midst of bombardment , exploding shells drowned out voice communication . The telephones were connected by lines that sustained continual damage as a result of shell fire and the movement of troops . The lines were generally buried , with redundant lines set in place to compensate for breakages .
The primary types of visual signalling were Semaphore flags , lamps and flags , lamps and lights , and the heliograph . In open warfare , visual signalling ( employing signal flags and the heliograph ) was the norm . A competent signaller could transmit 12 words a minute with signal flags ( during daylight ) and signal lights ( at night ) . Signal lights , which were secured in a wooden case , employed a battery @-@ operated Morse code key . These signalling techniques had certain disadvantages , however . In trench warfare , operators using these methods were forced to expose themselves to enemy fire ; while messages sent to the rear by signal lights could not be seen by enemy forces , replies to such messages were readily spotted , and operators were , once again , exposed to enemy fire .
During the war , the Army also trained animals for use in the trenches . Dogs carried messages ; horses , mules and dogs were used to lay telephone and telegraph cables . Carrier pigeons , who transported messages back from the front line , were also carried in tanks so that they could deliver messages during an attack . Over 20 @,@ 000 pigeons and 370 handlers were used during the war , and at times , they were the sole means of communication .
= = = Royal Flying Corps = = =
At the start of the war , the Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) in the Field , commanded by Sir David Henderson consisted of five squadrons — one observation balloon squadron ( RFC No 1 Squadron ) and four aeroplane squadrons ( Nos 2 , 3 , 4 and 5 ) . These units were first used for aerial spotting on 13 September 1914 , but only became efficient when they perfected the use of wireless communication at Aubers Ridge on 9 May 1915 . Aerial photography was attempted during 1914 , but again , it only became effective the following year . In August 1915 , General Hugh Trenchard replaced Henderson . The British use of air power evolved during the war , from a reconnaissance force to a fighting force that attempted to gain command of the air above the trenches and carry out bombing raids on targets behind the line . The early aircraft of the RFC were inferior to their German rivals ; in April 1917 , ( known as Bloody April ) , the RFC lost over 300 aircrew and 245 aircraft . Not until late 1917 , with the introduction of the Sopwith Camel and the S.E.5 , were they able to compete successfully for control of the air .
On 17 August 1917 , General Jan Smuts presented a report to the War Council concerning the future of air power . Given its potential for the ' devastation of enemy lands and the destruction of industrial targets and centres of population on a vast scale ' . He recommended a new air service be formed that would be on a level with the Army and Royal Navy . The formation of the new service , however , would make use of the under @-@ utilised men and machines of the Royal Naval Air Service ( RNAS ) , as well as ending the inter @-@ service rivalries that at times had adversely affected aircraft procurement . On 1 April 1918 , the RFC and the RNAS were amalgamated to form a new service , the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) . The RAF was under the control of the equally new Air Ministry . By 1918 , photographic images could be taken from 15 @,@ 000 ft ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) and interpreted by over 3 @,@ 000 personnel . Planes did not carry parachutes until 1918 , though they had been available since before the war . After starting with some 2 @,@ 073 personnel in 1914 , the RAF had 4 @,@ 000 combat aircraft and 114 @,@ 000 personnel by the beginning of 1919 .
= = = Corps of Royal Engineers = = =
On 1 August 1914 , the Royal Engineers consisted of 25 @,@ 000 officers and men in the regular army and reserves ; by the same date in 1917 , it had grown to a total of 250 @,@ 000 . In 1914 , when the BEF arrived in France , there were two Engineer field companies attached to each infantry division , which was increased to three companies by September 1914 . Each division also had a Signals company , which was responsible for communications between Corps , Division and Brigade headquarters .
Royal Engineer tunnelling companies were formed in response to the German blowing of 10 small mines in December 1914 , at Givenchy . The first British mine was detonated at Hill 60 on 17 February 1915 . Mining was used increasingly during the Battle of Aubers Ridge in May 1915 , and the battle of Loos in September 1915 . In July 1916 , on the first day of the battle of the Somme , what became known as the Lochnagar Crater was created by a mine at La Boisselle .
Twenty @-@ one companies were eventually formed and were employed digging subways , cable trenches , Sapping , dugouts as well as offensive or defensive mining . At the end of the war , Engineers were directly responsible for maintaining buildings and designing the infantry front @-@ line fortifications and artillery positions , the telephones , wireless and other signalling equipment , railways , roads , water supply , bridges and transport . They also operated the railways and inland waterways .
= = = Machine Gun Corps = = =
In September 1915 , the Machine Gun Corps ( MGC ) was formed to provide heavy machine @-@ gun teams after a proposal was made to the War Office for the formation of a single specialist machine @-@ gun company for each infantry brigade — a goal to be achieved by withdrawing guns and gun teams from the battalions . Created in October 1915 , the MGC consisted of infantry machine @-@ gun companies , cavalry machine @-@ gun squadrons and motor machine @-@ gun batteries . In the trenches , the Corps ' guns were deployed with an interlocking field of fire and proved to be a devastating defensive weapon against attacking infantry . They were also used in an indirect fire support role , in which they fired over the heads and from the flanks of the advancing infantry and behind the German trenches to stop reinforcements and supplies from getting to the front .
= = = Tank Corps = = =
The Tank Corps was formed as the Heavy Section Machine Gun Corps in 1916 . Tanks were used for the first time in action in the battle of the Somme on 15 September 1916 . The intention being that they would crush the barbed wire for the infantry , then cross the trenches and exploit any breakthrough behind the German lines . In November 1916 , they were renamed the Heavy Branch MGC and in June 1917 , the Tank Corps .
Originally formed in Companies of the Heavy Branch MGC , designated A , B , C and D ; each company of four sections had six tanks , three male and three female versions ( artillery or machine guns ) , with one tank held as a company reserve . In November 1916 , each company was reformed as a battalion of three companies , with plans to increase the Corps to 20 battalions , each Tank Battalion had a complement of 32 officers and 374 men .
Tanks were primarily used on the Western Front . The first offensive of the war in which tanks were used en masse was the battle of Cambrai in 1917 ; 476 tanks started the attack , and the German front collapsed . At midday the British had advanced five miles behind the German line . The battle of Amiens in 1918 saw the value of the tank being appreciated ; 10 heavy and two light battalions of 414 tanks were included in the assault . 342 Mark Vs and 72 Whippets were backed up by a further 120 tanks designed to carry forward supplies for the armour and infantry . By the end of the first day of the attack , they had penetrated the German line by 6 – 8 mi ( 9 @.@ 7 – 12 @.@ 9 km ) , 16 @,@ 000 prisoners were taken . In September 1918 , the British Army was the most mechanised army in the world . Some 22 @,@ 000 men had served in the Tank Corps by the end of the war .
A detachment of eight obsolescent Mark I tanks was sent to Southern Palestine in early 1917 and saw action against Turkish forces there .
= = = Army Service Corps = = =
The Army Service Corps ( ASC ) operated the transport system to deliver men , ammunition and matériel to the front . From 12 @,@ 000 men at the start of the war , the Corps increased in size to over 300 @,@ 000 by November 1918 . In addition they had under command Indian , Egyptian , Chinese ( Chinese Labour Corps ) and other native labourers , carriers and stores men . They provided horsed and mechanical transport companies , the Army Remount Service and ASC Labour companies . In August 1914 , they delivered 4 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 lb ( 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 kg ) of bread to the front which increased to 90 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 lb ( 41 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 kg ) by November 1918 .
= = = Royal Army Medical Corps = = =
The Royal Army Medical Corps ( RAMC ) supplied the doctors , casualty evacuation , field ambulances and hospitals for the army . The Corps was assisted in its work by voluntary help from the British Red Cross , St John 's Ambulance and the Friends Ambulance Unit .
The only person to be awarded the Victoria Cross twice during the war was a doctor in the RAMC , Captain Noel Godfrey Chavasse , VC and Bar , MC .
While not strictly a member of the RAMC , stretcher bearer Lance Corporal William Harold Coltman VC , DCM & Bar , MM & Bar , was the most decorated other rank of the war .
= = Life in the trenches = =
By the end of 1914 , the war on the Western Front had reached stalemate and the trench lines extended from the Belgian coast to the Swiss frontier . By September 1915 , the length of the British front line stretched some 70 mi ( 110 km ) . Soldiers were in the front or reserve line trenches for about eight days at a time , before being relieved .
There were three trenches in a typical front line sector ; the fire trench , the support trench and the reserve trench , all joined by communication trenches . The trenches varied in depth , but they were usually about four or five feet deep , or in areas with a high water table a wall of sandbags would be built to allow the defenders to stand upright , fire trenches were provided with a fire step , so the occupants could return fire during an attack ( see diagram ) . Ideally , the bottom of the trench was lined with duckboards to prevent men from sinking into the mud and dugouts were cut into the walls , these gave shelter from the elements and shrapnel , although in the British Army dugouts were usually reserved for the officers and senior NCOs . The men were then expected to sleep wherever they could and in wet weather they lived under groundsheets or in tents at the bottom of the trench on the duckboards .
At the front , soldiers were in constant danger from artillery shells , mortar bombs and bullets and as the war progressed they also faced aerial attack . Some sectors of the front saw little activity throughout the war , making life comparatively easy . Other sectors were in a perpetual state of violent activity . However , quiet sectors still amassed daily casualties through snipers , artillery fire and disease . The harsh conditions , where trenches were often wet and muddy and the constant company of lice and rats which fed on unburied bodies , often carried disease . Many troops suffered from trench foot , trench fever and trench nephritis . They could also contract frostbite in the winter months and heat exhaustion in the summer . The men were frequently wet and extremely muddy , or dry and exceedingly dusty . Food could not usually be cooked in the front line trenches as any smoke would draw enemy fire , hot food had to be carried along communication trenches in clumsy " hayboxes " , sometimes arriving late or not at all .
= = = Daily routine = = =
Daily routine of life in the trenches began with the morning ' stand @-@ to ' . An hour before dawn everyone was roused and ordered to man their positions to guard against a dawn raid by the Germans . With stand @-@ to over , it was time for the men to have breakfast and perform ablutions . Once complete , the NCOs would assign daily chores , before the men attended to the cleaning of rifles and equipment , filling sandbags , repairing trenches or digging latrines . Once the daily tasks had been completed the men who were off @-@ duty would find a place to sleep . Due to the constant bombardments and the sheer effort of trying to stay alive , sleep deprivation was common . Soldiers also had to take it in turns to be on sentry duty , watching for enemy movements .
Each side 's front line was constantly under observation by snipers and lookouts during daylight ; movement was therefore restricted until after the dusk stand @-@ to and night had fallen . Under the cover of darkness , troops attended to vital maintenance and resupply , with rations and water being brought to the front line , fresh units swapped places with troops moving to the rear for rest and recuperation . Trench raiding was also carried out and construction parties formed to repair trenches and fortifications , while wiring parties were sent out to repair or renew the barbed wire in no man 's land . An hour before dawn , everyone would stand @-@ to once more .
= = = Moving into the front line = = =
A set procedure was used by a division that was moving into the front line . Once they had been informed that they were moving forward , the brigadiers and battalion commanders would be taken to the forward areas to reconnoitre the sections of the front that were to be occupied by their troops . Meanwhile , the battalion transport officers would be taken to the headquarters of the division that they were relieving to observe the methods used for drawing rations and ammunition , and the manner in which they were supplied to the troops at the front . Detachments from the divisional artillery group would move forward and were attached to the artillery batteries of the division they were relieving . Five days later , the infantry battalions that were destined for the front line sent forward their specialists from the Lewis gun teams , and the grenade officer , the machine gun officer , the four company commanders , and some of the signallers to take over the trench stores and settle into the trench routine before the battalions moved in . Overnight , the battalions would move into the line , and the artillery would take over the guns that were already in position , leaving theirs behind to be taken over by the batteries that had been relieved .
= = Discipline = =
= = = Legal authority = = =
The Army was ultimately under political authority . Since the Glorious Revolution of 1688 the Crown has not technically been permitted a standing army in the United Kingdom – it derives its existence from the Army Act , passed by Parliament each year ( every five years since the late 1950s ) . The House of Commons took these responsibilities seriously : a letter from Haig clarifying the position on shell @-@ shock had to be read out in the House of Commons on 14 March 1918 . Most disciplinary regulations in World War One derived from the 1881 Army Act , although some offences were more severely dealt with on active service , e.g. in principle looting or wilful disobedience carried the death penalty .
= = = Lesser offences = = =
Lesser offences were dealt with by commanding officers . For petty offences , a company commander could have men fined or confined to barracks for fatigue duty A battalion Commanding Officer could give detention , order up to 28 days Field Punishment , or demote corporals to the ranks ( officers and senior NCOs were dealt with by court martial other than for very trivial offences ) . Enlisted men could also lose leave or seniority .
Field punishment ( FP ) had replaced flogging ( abolished at home in 1868 and on active service in 1881 , although still used in military prisons until 1907 ) . FP No.1 ( in which the man was shackled to fixed object , e.g. a large wheel ) was awarded to 60 @,@ 210 cases , equivalent to one man in 50 ( although in practice there were many repeat offenders ) . FP No.1 could be very unpleasant depending on the weather , was abhorred by some as barbaric , and in some units was ritualised ( e.g. by locking a man in a shed and throwing the handcuffs in with him ) ; there were also cases of Australian troops releasing British troops whom they found tied up , although in other units it was regarded as a necessary sanction for serious offences . FP No.2 meant that a man was shackled but not fixed in place .
Striking an inferior was an offence but it was not uncommon in some units for officers to turn a blind eye to NCOs keeping discipline by violence , or even to do so themselves .
= = = Courts martial = = =
Men who committed serious offences were tried by Field General Court Martial , sometimes resulting in execution . Despite " assertions " that these were " kangaroo courts " ( e.g. in the book " Shot at Dawn " which says that men " did not receive even the rudiments of a just hearing " ) the release of records in 1990 @-@ 4 showed this to be untrue . They in fact had strict rules of procedure and a duty to uncover the facts . Unlike a General Court Martial in peacetime , there was no legally qualified Judge @-@ Advocate to advise the court , but from the start of 1916 a " Court Martial Officer " – usually an officer with legal experience in civilian life – was often present to do so .
The accused was entitled to object to the composition of the panel ( e.g. if one of the officers was connected with the case or enjoyed a poor relationship with the accused ) and to present his case , defended by an officer ( a " Prisoner 's Friend " ) if he chose , although " Prisoners Friends " became more common as the war went on . The officer who convened a court martial could not sit on it , and the most junior officer voted first ( to lessen the chance of his deferring to a superior 's opinion ) . However , the courts were explicitly intended to be " speedy " and were sometimes encouraged by higher authority to make an example of certain offences , and in practice the leniency of the court and the ability of the accused to defend himself varied widely . Some pleaded guilty or chose not to present a defence or call witnesses , and in most cases the offence was " so blatant that little defence could be put forward " .
Eighty @-@ nine per cent of courts martial returned a guilty verdict , the vast majority of cases being for offences such as Absence Without Leave ( the most common offence ) , drunkenness and insubordination . Terms of imprisonment were often suspended , to discourage soldiers from committing an offence to escape the front lines , but also to give a convicted man a chance to earn a reprieve for good conduct .
Of the 252 officers tried , 76 per cent were found guilty , the most common offence ( 52 per cent of cases ) being drunkenness . Although three officers were executed , an officer was most likely to receive a severe reprimand ( 60 per cent of cases – a severe blow to his career ) or be cashiered ( 30 per cent of cases – stripped of his commission , which brought total social disgrace and barred him from any employment under the Crown , even working for the local council – but a cashiered officer could still be conscripted as a private to a different unit ) .
= = = Executions = = =
A death sentence had to be passed unanimously , and confirmed in writing by various officers as the verdict passed up the chain of command . A man 's battalion and brigade commander tended to comment on his own record , but senior generals tended to be more concerned with the type of offence and the state of discipline in that unit . The Judge Advocate General at GHQ also checked the records for irregularities , before final confirmation ( or otherwise ) by the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the relevant theatre .
Of the 3 @,@ 080 men sentenced to death , 346 men were actually executed , the vast majority of these ( 266 ) for desertion , the next largest reasons for execution being murder ( 37 — these men would probably have been hanged under civilian law at the time ) and cowardice ( 18 ) . Convictions for mutiny were rare — only one man was shot for the Etaples disturbances in 1917 . Of the men shot , 91 were already under a previous suspended sentence , and nine under two sentences . Of the 91 , 40 were already under a suspended death sentence , 38 of them for desertion , and one man had already been " sentenced to death " twice for desertion .
It was felt at the time that , precisely because most soldiers in combat were afraid , an example needed to be made of men who deserted . Front line soldiers also sometimes felt that those who left their mates " in the lurch " by deserting " deserved to be shot " . One historian writes that there is " virtually no evidence " that soldiers thought the death penalty unjust , although another writes that some soldiers deplored the death penalty , while most thought it justified . Desertion normally meant an absence of 21 days or other evidence to indicate intent of not returning , e.g. wearing civilian clothes or failing to report for a key deployment . Those executed were normally not boys – the average age was in the mid @-@ twenties and 40 percent had been in serious trouble before . Thirty percent were regulars or reservists , 40 percent were Kitchener volunteers , 19 percent were Irish , Canadian or New Zealand volunteers , but only nine percent were conscripts , suggesting indulgence to the conscripts , many of them under 21 , who made up the bulk of the army by late in the war . Only executed men 's records survive , so it is hard to comment on the reasons why men were reprieved , but it has been suggested that the policy of commuting 90 percent of death sentences may well have been deliberate mercy in the application of military law designed for a small regular army recruited from the rougher elements of society . Only 7 @,@ 361 of the 38 @,@ 630 desertions were in the field . Most were away from the front line — 14 of the executed deserters were arrested in the United Kingdom — and many deserters had never served in the front line at all .
In the latter part of the war , executed men 's families were usually told white lies by the authorities ; their families received pensions and were buried in the same graves as other dead soldiers .
Death for desertion was abolished in 1930 over objections in the House of Lords from Lords Allenby and Plumer , two of the most distinguished British commanders of World War One ; calls for its restoration in World War Two were vetoed on political grounds .
By contrast , of 393 men sentenced to death for falling asleep on sentry duty in all theatres in World War I , only two were executed ( sentries were usually posted in pairs to keep one another awake ; these two , who served in Mesopotamia , were made an example of because they were found sitting asleep together , suggesting that they had colluded ) .
Australians made up seven percent of the British Expeditionary Force but 25 percent of deserters , while an Australian was nine times more likely to be imprisoned than a British soldier . Haig asked for permission to shoot Australians , but their government refused .
British discipline of the First World War was not especially severe compared to most other armies of the time ( e.g. the Russians and Italians ) . The French admitted to only 133 executions and the Germans 48 , but these figures may not be reliable as both armies had problems with discipline .
= = = Shell shock and pardons = = =
At the time Posttraumatic stress disorder ( known as " shell shock " because it was initially wrongly thought to be caused by concussion damage to the membranes of brain ) was beginning to be recognised and was admissible in defence – it was classified as a war injury , although there were concerns that soldiers accused of offences tried falsely to claim shell shock as a defence . One historian writes that " in no case was a soldier whom the medical staff certified as suffering from shell shock actually executed " , that " there appear to have been very few cases where men who alleged shell shock , but whose claim was denied , were actually executed " , and that the suggestions of modern campaigners that most of the executed men suffered from shell shock are " palpably untrue " . However , another historian has pointed out that there was a great deal of chance in whether a soldier 's claim of shell @-@ shock would be taken seriously , and gives examples of soldiers being given cursory medical examinations or none ; specific references to shell @-@ shock are uncommon , and records usually refer to dizziness , " queer turns " , bad nerves etc . Such trauma was still poorly understood at that time .
There were enquiries in 1919 , 1922 , 1925 and 1938 , which examined documents now lost and witnesses now dead . The books " For the Sake of Example " ( 1983 ) by Babington and " Shot at Dawn " ( 1989 ) by Sykes & Putkowski were openly intended to start a campaign for pardons . This campaign was rejected in February 1993 because there was no evidence of procedural error ( i.e. they had been correctly convicted according to the law at the time ) and it was felt not right to impose modern values on to the past . The case was rejected again in 1998 after a detailed two @-@ year review , which found " no white cases , very many black cases and a handful of grey cases " in which medical evidence was ignored or not called . The decisions were reversed by the Government in 2006 and all men given pardons and recognised as victims of World War I. However , their sentences were not overturned as it was impossible after this length of time to re @-@ examine the evidence in every case .
= = = Other discipline = = =
It has been pointed out that we have only anecdotal accounts , but no figures , for men who were shot on the spot by officers and NCOs for " cowardice in the face of the enemy " .
There were over 13 @,@ 000 Royal Military Police ( “ redcaps ” ) . They were unpopular , at a time when the police were often unpopular with young men from big cities . Besides policing , a large part of their job was maintaining discipline on the march and keeping roads running smoothly , and collecting stragglers from a battle . During the March 1918 retreat 25 @,@ 000 stragglers were rounded up and sent back to fighting units . Royal Military Police also fought on occasion if headquarters areas were threatened by an enemy advance . Although soldiers sometimes told lurid tales of men who refused to fight being shot by Military Police , no reliable first @-@ hand accounts exist of this happening .
There were occasional examples of men making unwanted homosexual advances , homosexuality being then criminal under both military and civil law , to escape the front lines , but prosecutions for this crime were rare , and there is also evidence of men turning a blind eye to homosexual relationships .
= = = Positive motivation = = =
Men were also motivated by positive means . New medals were instituted : the Military Cross was created in December 1914 for warrant officers and officers up to captain , the Military Medal for enlisted men in March 1916 ( although to the regret of some men , it did not carry a cash bounty like the Distinguished Conduct Medal ) . The Order of the British Empire ( of which the MBE is one grade ) was instituted in 1917 . By 1918 , medals for bravery were often awarded within a week to ensure that the man lived long enough to receive it .
Race meetings , concert parties ( including drag acts – good drag queens were in great demand ) , trips to the seaside and football matches were organised to keep men entertained . There were various unofficial publications , including the “ Wipers Times ” – these give an insight into the views of ordinary soldiers and junior officers . Overt patriotism was rare , and politicians such as ( Prime Minister ) Asquith and Ramsay MacDonald ( an opponent of the war , later Labour Prime Minister ) were satirised .
= = Western front = =
Under the command of Field Marshal Sir John French , the BEF began to deploy to France within days of the declaration of war . The first encounter with the Germans came at Mons on 23 August 1914 , after which the Allies began the Great Retreat , the BEF was involved in the battle of Le Cateau . The BEF had a small role in halting the German advance at the Marne , before participating in the Aisne counter @-@ offensive , in September which was followed by a period known as the " Race to the Sea " during which the BEF redeployed to Flanders .
For the BEF , 1914 ended with " First Ypres " which marked the beginning of a long struggle for the Ypres salient . British casualties in the fighting between 14 October and 30 November were 58 @,@ 155 ( 7 @,@ 960 dead , 29 @,@ 562 wounded and 17 @,@ 873 missing ) . It is often said that the pre @-@ war professional army died at the first battle of Ypres . The army had arrived in France with 84 @,@ 000 infantry . By the end of the battle , the BEF had suffered 86 @,@ 237 casualties , mostly to the infantry .
Trench warfare prevailed in 1915 , and the BEF — as the junior partner on the Western Front — fought a series of small battles , at times coordinated with the larger French offensives , like the battle of Neuve Chapelle which is always associated with the shell crisis , the battle of Aubers Ridge , the battle of Festubert in May and the battle of Givenchy in June . On 22 April 1915 , the Germans launched the second battle of Ypres , employing poison gas for the first time on the Western Front and capturing much of the high ground that ringed the salient . By September 1915 , the British Army had grown with the first of Kitchener 's New Army divisions entering the line , and as part of the third battle of Artois , the army launched a major attack , the battle of Loos , utilising its own newly developed chemical weapons for the first time . The resulting failure marked the end for Field Marshal French . On 19 December 1915 , General Sir Douglas Haig replaced him as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the BEF .
For the British Army , 1916 was dominated by the battle of the Somme which started disastrously on 1 July . The first day on the Somme remains the bloodiest day in the history of the British Army when over 19 @,@ 000 soldiers were killed and nearly 40 @,@ 000 were wounded , all for little or no gain . The only real success was in the south where , using imaginative tactics and helped by the French , the 18th ( Eastern ) Division and 30th Division took all their objectives , including Montauban , and the 7th Division captured Mametz . At Thiepval , the 36th ( Ulster ) Division seized the Schwaben Redoubt but was forced to withdraw because of lack of progress elsewhere . There followed nearly five months of attrition during which the Fourth Army of General Henry Rawlinson and the Fifth Army of General Hubert Gough advanced an average of 5 mi ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) at a cost of 420 @,@ 000 casualties .
In February 1917 , the German Army began to withdraw to the Hindenburg Line and it was these formidable defences that elements of the British Army assaulted in the battle of Arras in April . For this battle , the British Prime Minister — David Lloyd George — had placed Haig and the BEF under the orders of new French Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief ( Robert Nivelle ) , who planned a major French Army offensive in Champagne . When the battle officially ended on 16 May , British troops had made significant advances , but had been unable to achieve a major breakthrough at any point . Having failed to deliver a breakthrough , Haig now embarked on his favoured plan to launch an offensive in Flanders . In a successful preliminary operation , General Herbert Plumer 's Second Army seized the Messines ridge south of Ypres . The battle of Passchendaele , which began on 31 July 1917 , was one of the harshest ordeals endured by British and Dominion troops during the war , with the battlefield reduced to a quagmire . It was not until 6 November that Passchendaele ridge was captured , by which time the British Army had sustained 310 @,@ 000 casualties . For the British Army , 1917 ended with the battle of Cambrai which demonstrated the potential of tanks operating en masse . The Third Army commander — General Julian Byng — planned an ambitious breakthrough and achieved an unprecedented advanced of 5 mi ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) on the first day but lacked the reserves to either continue or consolidate . A German counter @-@ offensive succeeded in recapturing most of the lost ground .
The final year of the war — 1918 — started with disaster and ended in triumph . On 21 March 1918 , German General Erich Ludendorff launched the Spring Offensive and the main weight of the first blow — Operation Michael — fell on the British Fifth Army of General Gough which was forced to retreat . In response to the crisis facing the Allies , French general Ferdinand Foch was made Supreme Commander for Allied forces on the Western Front , placing the BEF under his strategic direction . The next German attack came south of Ypres in the battle of the Lys river and here too the British Army fell back . Haig issued his famous Order of the Day , " With our backs to the wall and believing in the justice of our cause , each one of us must fight on to the end . " A third major German offensive , falling mainly on the French , was finally halted on the Marne in June 1918 . On 8 August 1918 , General Rawlinson 's Fourth Army launched the battle of Amiens which marked the start of the Hundred Days Offensive , the final Allied offensive on the Western Front . Over the following weeks , all five armies of the BEF went on the offensive from the Somme to Flanders . Fighting continued right up until the Armistice with Germany came into effect at 11 : 00 am on 11 November 1918 .
In the final offensive , the BEF captured 188 @,@ 700 prisoners and 2 @,@ 840 guns which was only 7 @,@ 800 prisoners and 935 guns less than those taken by the French , Belgian and American armies combined .
= = Other campaigns = =
= = = Ireland = = =
The Easter Rising was a rebellion staged in Ireland during Easter Week , 1916 . It was mounted by Irish republicans with the aims of ending British rule in Ireland and establishing an Irish Republic . Organised by the Military Council of the Irish Republican Brotherhood , the rising lasted from 24 – 30 April 1916 . Members of the Irish Volunteers , joined by the smaller Irish Citizen Army , along with 200 members of Cumann na mBan , seized key locations in Dublin and proclaimed an Irish Republic independent of Britain .
Army reinforcements were moved into Dublin and , by 28 April , the 1 @,@ 600 rebels were facing 18 to 20 @,@ 000 soldiers , the rising was suppressed after seven days of fighting , its leaders were court martialled and executed . Easter Rising casualties were 450 killed , 2 @,@ 614 wounded , and nine missing , almost all in Dublin . The only significant action elsewhere was at Ashbourne , 10 mi ( 16 km ) north of Dublin . Military casualties were 116 dead , 368 wounded and 9 missing . The Irish and Dublin police forces had 16 killed and 29 wounded , 254 non @-@ combatant civilians died .
= = = Salonika = = =
A new front was opened in Salonika at the request of the Greek government , intending to support Serbian forces and oppose Bulgaria . The first troops of the British Salonika Army , arrived in Salonika in October 1916 , too late to prevent the Serbian Army from retreating into Albania and Greece . French , British and Russian troops arrived in Salonika between 1916 and 1917 and became known as the Allied Army of the Orient or Allied Army of the East , under the overall command of French General Maurice Sarrail .
With the objective of destroying the Bulgarian Army , the French and British launched a new offensive in April 1917 , without any significant success . A stalemate ensued without any movement by either side ; the front became known as Europe 's biggest internment camp for the Allies by the Germans . This situation lasted until 18 September 1918 , when the British and Greek Armies , under the command of General George Milne attacked in the Lake Doiran Sector . The Bulgarian Army — now in retreat — signed an armistice on 30 September 1918 .
= = = Italy = = =
Italy joined the war on the Allies ' side on 5 May 1915 , declaring war on Austria @-@ Hungary on 23 May 1915 and on Germany on 28 August 1916 . The British Army 's involvement in the Italian campaign did not start until late 1917 , when troops were sent to help prevent a defeat on the Italian front . On 24 October 1917 in the battle of Caporetto the Second Italian Army collapsed and the Italians were forced to retreat to the Piave River , where they could be reinforced with five British and six French Divisions from the Western Front , complete with supporting arms and commanded by General Herbert Plumer . The reinforced Italians successfully managed to halt the Austro @-@ Hungarian advance at the battle of the Piave river . During the Allied counter @-@ attack in October 1918 , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Army collapsed after taking heavy losses at the battle of Vittorio Veneto . An armistice was signed shortly afterwards on 3 November 1918 .
= = = China = = =
In 1914 , the British Army was involved in what became known as the Siege of Tsingtao when the 2nd Battalion South Wales Borderers landed in China in support of Japanese forces in the capture of the German port of Tsingtao . The British were part of a 23 @,@ 000 @-@ strong task force which included a mixed British – Indian Brigade of 1 @,@ 500 troops and the battleship HMS Triumph . A bombardment of the port started on 31 October 1914 , and by 7 November , the Japanese 18th Division , 29th Infantry Brigade and the British – Indian Brigade , had stormed and captured the garrison and its 4 @,@ 000 troops .
= = = East Africa = = =
1914 also witnessed the commencement of the East African Campaign against von Lettow @-@ Vorbeck 's elusive German and African askari forces . Most British operations in Africa were carried out by African askari units such as the King 's African Rifles ( KAR ) , South African or Indian Army units . The British force was led , in turn , by General Horace Smith @-@ Dorrien , South African General Jan Smuts , and British General Arthur Reginald Hoskins . The force was composed of units of the KAR and the 27th Bangalore Brigade from the British Indian Army , with the 2nd Battalion , Loyal Regiment ( North Lancashire ) under command . The German forces of von Lettow @-@ Vorbeck 's Schutztruppe remained undefeated and surrendered on 25 November 1918 , 14 days after the Armistice in Europe .
The casualty rate amongst British and Empire troops , excluding the Africans , was 6 @,@ 000 dead and 3 @,@ 000 wounded . More troops died from diseases than from enemy action , and illness accounted for 70 % of the total casualties .
= = = Gallipoli = = =
Turkey had entered the war on the German side on 31 October 1914 . One of its first acts was to close the Dardanelles Straits to the Allies . In April 1915 , following the failure of the Royal Navy 's attempt to capture the Dardanelles , British and ANZAC forces landed on the Gallipoli peninsula , under the command of General Ian Hamilton . The main British attacks were the first , second and third battles of Krithia . These were a series of attacks against the Turkish defences aimed at capturing the original objectives of 25 April 1915 . They all failed to achieve their objectives . In August , another landing was made at Suvla Bay . The Suvla landing was reinforced by the arrival of the 10th Division from Kitchener 's New Army , 53rd , 54th first @-@ line Territorial divisions and the dismounted yeomanry of the 2nd Mounted Division . The 29th Division was also moved from Helles to Suvla for one more push . The final British attempt to resuscitate the offensive came on 21 August , with attacks at Scimitar Hill and Hill 60 . Control of these hills would have united the Anzac and Suvla fronts , but neither battle achieved success . When fighting at Hill 60 ceased on 29 August , the battle for the Sari Bair heights , and indeed , the battle for the peninsula , was effectively over ; by January 1916 , the Allies had withdrawn .
Estimates of casualties vary enormously , but of the around 480 @,@ 000 Allied troops involved in the campaign , 180 @,@ 000 were wounded and 44 @,@ 000 died , 20 @,@ 000 of the dead being British .
= = = Mesopotamia = = =
The British force fighting in Mesopotamia was principally drawn from the British Indian Army , with only one solely British formation , the 13th ( Western ) Division . Its objective was to secure the Royal Navy 's oil supply from Persia . On 7 November 1914 , the British Indian force — led by General Sir John Nixon — invaded Mesopotamia , and on 23 November , entered Basrah . After this initial invasion , there followed a disastrous and humiliating defeat for the British by the Turks at the Siege of Kut @-@ al @-@ Amara from 7 December 1915 – 29 April 1916 , when the entire garrison of 13 @,@ 000 British and Indian troops surrendered . The British reorganised and raised the number of available troops to 250 @,@ 000 . The British eventually regained momentum upon General Frederick Stanley Maude becoming commander , and a new offensive began in December 1916 . On 24 February 1917 , Kut @-@ al @-@ Amara fell to the joint British and Indian force , and Baghdad was captured in March 1917 . A week after the capture of Baghdad , General Maude issued the Proclamation of Baghdad , which contained the famous line , " our armies do not come into your cities and lands as conquerors or enemies , but as liberators " . Lieutenant General Sir William Marshall succeeded Maude following the latter 's death from cholera on 18 November 1917 . He continued with the River War until October 1918 , when the British captured the Mosul oil fields , a development that led to the collapse of the Turkish forces . The Armistice of Mudros with Turkey was signed on 30 October 1918 . During the campaign , 100 @,@ 000 British and Indian casualties were caused . Of these , 53 @,@ 000 died , with 13 @,@ 000 of the dead succumbing to disease .
= = = Sinai and Palestine = = =
The Sinai and Palestine Campaign was fuelled by criticism of the policy of a static defence of the Suez canal , which employed six infantry divisions and five mounted brigades . After the repulse of the Turkish First Suez Offensive , nine divisions were sent to the Western Front and one to Mesopotamia .
The British Army in the Sinai and Palestine subsequently included the 10th , 42nd , 52nd , 53rd , 54th , 60th , 74th and 75th divisions . British yeomanry formed part of the ANZAC Mounted Division , Australian Mounted Division and Yeomanry Mounted Divisions . With the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade , mounted troops formed the Desert Column . The whole force — known as the Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) — was under the command of General Sir Archibald Murray in Cairo .
Murray made steady progress against the Turkish forces , which were defeated in the battles of Romani , Magdhaba and Rafa . However , he was repulsed at the first and second battle of Gaza in 1917 . The defeat in the Second Battle of Gaza prompted the War Office to change the command of the EEF , and on 28 June 1917 , Murray was replaced by General Sir Edmund Allenby , who reinvigorated the campaign .
Allenby reorganised his forces along more conventional lines . The EEF now included the Desert Mounted Corps , under Lieutenant General Sir Harry Chauvel ; XX Corps under Lieutenant General Sir Phillip Chetwode and XXI Corps under Lieutenant General Edward Bulfin . In October 1917 , they defeated the Turkish forces in the third battle of Gaza and the Battle of Mughar Ridge , which succeeded in causing the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies to withdraw towards Jerusalem and Haifa respectively . This led to the capture of Jerusalem in December 1917 .
In February and April 1918 , Australian mounted troops took part in two raids east across the Jordan River near Es Salt , a village
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in Palestine 14 mi ( 23 km ) west of Amman . Although these raids were unsuccessful , they encouraged Turkish commanders to believe that the main British effort would be launched across the Jordan , when in fact it would be launched along the coastal plain . The EEF was greatly weakened at this time by the crisis in France , which led to the despatch of the 52nd and 74th Divisions to the Western Front , the breaking up of the Yeomanry Mounted Division , and the replacement of most of the British infantry in four of the remaining divisions with Indian troops . In September 1918 , Allenby 's forces won the decisive Megiddo Offensive , which precipitated the Armistice of Mudros with the Ottoman Empire , which was signed on 31 October 1918 .
Total Allied casualties in the Sinai and Palestine campaign were 60 @,@ 000 of which 20 @,@ 000 were killed . Some 15 @,@ 000 of the dead were British .
= = = Persia = = =
Following the abdication of the Russian Tsar in 1917 , the Caucasus Front collapsed , leaving Central Asia — and beyond it India — open to the Turkish Army . The War Office responded with a plan to send a force of hand @-@ picked British officers and NCOs to organise any remaining Russian forces or civilians who were ready to fight the Turkish forces . This force became known as Dunsterforce after its commander , Major General Lionel Charles Dunsterville , the inspiration for the titular character of Rudyard Kipling 's novel Stalky & Co .. It arrived in Baku in August 1918 . It was hoped that Dunsterforce could raise an army from the Christian Georgian , Armenian and Assyrian people who had supported the Russians and had historically feared the Turks . While Dunsterforce had some success the task proved beyond its ability .
= = = Fighting the Senussi Arabs = = =
In late November 1915 , in response to the growing threat from a pro @-@ Turkish Islamic Arab sect known as the Senussi , a composite British body known as the ' Western Frontier Force ' was sent into the Libyan Desert to Mersa Matruh , under the command of British Indian Army officer Major General Alexander Wallace . A series of sharp battles against the Arabs ensued at Um Rakhum , Gebel Medwa , and Halazin during December and January . The Western Desert Force , now under Major General William Peyton , re @-@ occupied Sidi Barrani and Sallum in February and March 1916 . Shipwrecked British seamen from HMT Moorina and HMS Tara , who had been held at Bir Hakeim , were rescued by a contingent of armoured cars led by the Duke of Westminster .
= = Aftermath = =
The British Army during World War I was the largest military force that Britain had put into the field up to that point . On the Western Front , the British Expeditionary Force ended the war as the strongest fighting force , more experienced than the United States Army and its morale was in better shape than the French Army .
The cost of victory , however , was high . The official " final and corrected " casualty figures for the British Army — including the Territorial Force — were issued on 10 March 1921 . The losses for the period between 4 August 1914 and 30 September 1919 included 573 @,@ 507 " killed in action , died from wounds and died of other causes " and 254 @,@ 176 missing ( minus 154 @,@ 308 released prisoners of war ) , for a net total of 673 @,@ 375 dead and missing . Casualty figures also indicated that there were 1 @,@ 643 @,@ 469 wounded .
For some , the fighting did not end in 1918 . The British Army dispatched troops to Russia during the Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War , which was followed by the Anglo @-@ Irish War in January 1919 and the Third Anglo @-@ Afghan War in May 1919 . The Third Afghan War was followed by the 1920 conflict between British forces and Somaliland dervishes . Those not involved in fighting or occupation duties were demobilised . The demobilisation of 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 men that followed the end of the war had , within a year , reduced the British Army to 800 @,@ 000 men ; by November 1920 , two years after the signing of the Armistice , this figure had fallen to 370 @,@ 000 men .
The Ten Year Rule was introduced in August 1919 , which stipulated that the British Armed Forces should draft their estimates " on the assumption that the British Empire would not be engaged in any great war during the next ten years " . In 1928 , Winston Churchill , as Chancellor of the Exchequer , successfully urged the Cabinet to make the rule self @-@ perpetuating and hence it was in force unless specifically countermanded . There were cuts in defence spending as a result of this rule , falling from £ 766 million in 1919 – 1920 , to £ 189 million in 1921 – 1922 , and to £ 102 million in 1932 .
The British Army tried to learn the lessons of the First World War , and adopt them into its pre @-@ war doctrine . In the 1920s , and much of the 1930s , the General Staff tried to establish a small , mechanised , professional army and formed the Experimental Mechanized Force but , with the lack of any identified threat , its main function reverted to garrison duties around the British Empire .
= Croatia – Hungary relations =
Croatia – Hungary relations refer to the bilateral relationship between Croatia and Hungary . Diplomatic relations among two states were established on January 18 , 1992 following Croatia 's independence from SFR Yugoslavia .
Croatia has an embassy in Budapest and consulates in Pécs and Nagykanizsa , while Hungary has an embassy in Zagreb and consulates in Rijeka and Split .
In 1102 the previously @-@ independent Kingdom of Croatia and Kingdom of Hungary entered personal union and were ruled by the same King , Ladislaus I. Following the Ottoman conquests and a disastrous defeat at the Battle of Mohács in 1527 , Croatian nobility elected the Holy Roman Emperor Ferdinand I as the new king of Croatia . The Hungarian nobility was divided but the Habsburgs annexed the Kingdom of Hungary , keeping Croatia and Hungary under a single crown . During the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 Croatia sided with the Austrians so Croatian Ban Josip Jelačić helped Austria to defeat the Hungarian forces in 1849 and ushering in a period of Germanization . By the 1860s the failure of this policy became apparent , leading to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and the creation of a personal union between the crowns of the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary . The issue of Croatia 's status in Hungary was resolved by the Croatian – Hungarian Settlement of 1868 , when the kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia were united into Kingdom of Croatia @-@ Slavonia . Following the breakup of Austria @-@ Hungary after its defeat in World War I , Croatian Parliament declared independence on 29 October 1918 and decided to join the newly formed State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs , ending Habsburg rule and the personal union with Hungary after 816 years . Through the Treaty of Trianon , Hungary lost Međimurje and the southern part of Baranya to Croatia . Since World War II , relations between two states have been defined by cooperation with Nazis , Soviets and Yugoslavia until the revolutions of 1989 and the breakup of Yugoslavia . Hungary recognised Croatian independence with the rest of the European Economic Community in 1992 , and supported Croatia during the Croatian War of Independence .
Croatian and Hungarian high @-@ ranking officials usually meet several times a year . Trade between Croatia and Hungary amounted $ 1 @.@ 020 bln in 2012 , largely consisting of Hungarian exports to Croatia . Hungarian tourists contribute significantly to Croatian tourism ; in 2009 , a total of 323 @,@ 000 visited Croatia , including the Hungarian Prime Minister Viktor Orbán who spends his summer holidays in Dalmatia for last few decades . Both countries coordinate the development of cross @-@ border infrastructure . Pan @-@ European corridors Vb and Vc connect Budapest to the Adriatic Sea via Zagreb and Osijek . Both countries have sizable minorities living across their common border , and both have passed laws to protect their minority rights .
Croatia and Hungary are parties to 96 bilateral treaties and members of a number of multinational organizations , including NATO and the European Union .
= = Present = =
= = = Diplomatic relations = = =
Croatia and Hungary established diplomatic relations on 16 and 18 January 1992 , after Hungary recognised the independence of Croatia on 15 January 1992 . As of December 2011 Croatia maintains an embassy in Budapest ( headed by ambassador Ivan Band | aić ) , a consulate general in Pécs and a consulate in Nagykanizsa . The Nagykanizsa consulate is led by an honorary consul . Hungary maintains an embassy in Zagreb and consulates in Rijeka and Split . The embassy is headed by ambassador Gábor Iván ; the offices also include an army and air attaché office in the Republic of Croatia ( headed by László Hajas ) and the Office for Economic Affairs of the Embassy of the Republic of Hungary in the Republic of Croatia ( headed by András Péter Závoczky , Counsellor for Economy and Trade ) .
Croatian and Hungarian high @-@ ranking officials ( including heads of state , prime ministers and foreign ministers ) meet several times a year . In addition , Croatian and Hungarian governments have occasionally held joint sessions since January 2006 .
= = = Economy and infrastructure = = =
Trade between Croatia and Hungary amounted to € 625 @,@ 083 in 2009 , a decrease from € 894 @,@ 270 in 2008 . In 2009 Croatian exports to Hungary reached € 132 @,@ 474 , while Hungarian exports to Croatia were worth € 492 @,@ 609 . Overall , the 2009 trade volume represented 2 @.@ 75 percent of total Croatian foreign trade . Croatian – Hungarian trade comprises only a small fraction of total Hungarian foreign trade , reaching 0 @.@ 54 percent of the total in 2009 . Hungarian investments in Croatia rose sharply in 2003 , reaching the fourth ranking in that year following investments exceeding USD630 million , largely in tourism and manufacturing . The largest single investment that year was the purchase of more than 25 percent of the stock of INA for USD500 million by the MOL Group . By 2011 , the MOL Group increased its stake in INA to 47 @.@ 16 percent .
Hungarian tourists contribute significantly to the Croatian tourist industry ; in 2009 , a total of 323 @,@ 000 Hungarians visited Croatia as tourists . A total of 1 @.@ 644 million overnight stays were made by Hungarian tourists in that year alone , ranking Hungarian tourists seventh in the number of nights spent in Croatia ( behind the Germans , Slovenes , Italians , Austrians , Czechs and Dutch ) . At the same time , the Hungarian tourists spent more than 143 million kuna ( c . € 19 million ) in Croatia , representing a sharp increase from 69 @.@ 5 million kuna ( c . € 9 @.@ 3 million ) spent in 2008 . In 2009 , 103 @,@ 000 Croatians visited Hungary ( excluding family and friend visits ) in 356 @,@ 000 overnight stays , spending 204 @,@ 000 kuna ( c . € 27 @,@ 000 ) . This spending represented a 250 @-@ percent increase from 2008 .
Croatia and Hungary coordinate the development of infrastructure , especially transportation routes . Pan @-@ European corridors Vb and Vc connect Budapest to the Adriatic Sea via Zagreb and Rijeka ( Vb ) and to Osijek and Ploče ( Vc ) . The Pan @-@ European corridor Vb comprises road and rail links between the Hungarian and Croatian capitals and the Port of Rijeka . The corridor 's road component primarily consists of the M7 , the A4 and the A6 motorways ( as well as several other connecting motorway sections ) completed on 22 October 2008 . The rail component of the corridor largely uses the route completed in 1873 , but it is planned to be rebuilt to increase its capacity . The Pan @-@ European corridor Vc primarily consists of the M6 and the A5 motorways ; however , as of December 2011 the motorway is not completed . Other infrastructure jointly developed by Croatia and Hungary includes a € 395 million gas pipeline and two electric @-@ power lines . On the 355 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 220 @.@ 9 mi ) border between Croatia and Hungary there are six international @-@ road border crossings , three rail border crossings and five local @-@ traffic border crossings . Citizens of Croatia and Hungary may cross the border with a valid passport or an identity card for stays of up to 90 days .
= = = Minorities and migrations = = =
According to the 2001 census there are 16 @,@ 595 Hungarians living in Croatia , representing 0 @.@ 37 percent of the population . In 2000 , there were 15 @,@ 597 Croats living in Hungary , accounting for 0 @.@ 15 percent of the total population . The Hungarian minority in Croatia is recognised by the Constitution of Croatia ; minority rights ( including official use of Hungarian by local governments and education in Hungarian ) are safeguarded by legislation enacted by the Sabor . Seven municipalities in Croatia introduced Hungarian for official use ( either in part of their territory or the entire municipality ) , depending on the distribution of the Hungarian population there . There are five Hungarian minority organizations in Croatia , and the Hungarian minority is guaranteed one seat in the Croatian Parliament .
The Hungarian government recognised Croats as a minority native to Hungary ; it has decided to implement the optional regulations of the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages with respect to the Croatian language and establish a minority self @-@ government for the Croatian minority in Hungary , guaranteeing cultural autonomy . The Croatian minority set up 127 local and 7 county self @-@ governments in Hungary . There are concerns that Croatian minority rights in Hungary are being diminished , but the president of Croatia has assessed that both Croatian and Hungarian minority policies were appropriate . The Croatian minority in Hungary is particularly active in Pécs , where the Scientific Institute of Croats in Hungary and the Croatian Theatre have been established . The number of migrants between Croatia and Hungary is very low ; in 2009 , only 22 people emigrated from Hungary to Croatia while a single person emigrated from Croatia to Hungary .
= = = Cultural and scientific cooperation = = =
Croatia and Hungary have agreed to the Cultural Cooperation Programme , which defines cooperation and cultural exchange in the fields of music , theatre and dance , and with respect to the arts , museums , galleries , literature , publishing , libraries , archives , film and cultural @-@ heritage protection . The programme was agreed to on 7 November 2011 in Budapest by secretaries of the Croatian Ministry of Culture and the Hungarian Ministry of National Resources . The programme pertains to the 2012 – 2014 period and represents a continuation of cultural cooperation through cultural exchange , outside the framework of formal agreements . Cultural , educational and scientific cooperation between the two countries is covered by a treaty of 16 March 1994 , with additional treaties regulating diploma recognitions since 16 June 1997 and additional treaties and protocols on scientific and technological cooperation signed in 2002 and 2009 . The scientific and educational cooperation entails the awarding of scholarships and bilateral research projects .
= = = Bilateral treaties and multinational organizations = = =
Croatia and Hungary have either signed or succeeded 133 different treaties and other agreements . Some were originally signed by Hungary and SFR Yugoslavia , while Croatia succeeded relevant documents pursuant to decisions of the Badinter Arbitration Committee . As of December 2011 96 remain in force , regulating various aspects of relations between the countries ( including minority rights , diplomatic relations , cultural and scientific cooperation , trade and economic relations , Drava river navigation , border control and air transport ) . Free @-@ trade agreements were signed , but have since been repealed through adoption of similar agreements with the European Union . There were also agreements made with a limited period of application , pertaining to sporting @-@ event security .
Croatia and Hungary are members of several multinational organizations , including the United Nations , the Organization for Security and Co @-@ operation in Europe , the Council of Europe , NATO , the World Trade Organization and the Central European Initiative . In addition , Hungary is a member of the European Union ( EU ) . On 9 December 2011 , Croatia signed an EU accession treaty and is expected to become a member on 1 July 2013 . Both countries are also taking part in the formulation and implementation of the Danube Strategy , focusing on transport , environmental and economic development of the Danube area and involving all countries along its banks .
= = History = =
= = = Personal union = = =
When Stjepan II died in 1091 , ending the Trpimirović dynasty rule in the medieval kingdom of Croatia , Ladislaus I of Hungary claimed the Croatian crown . Opposition to the claim led to a war and the personal union of Croatia and Hungary in 1102 , ruled by Coloman . For the next four centuries , Croatia was ruled by the Sabor ( parliament ) and a Ban of Croatia ( viceroy ) appointed by the king . This period saw an increasing threat of Ottoman conquest and a struggle against the Republic of Venice for control of coastal areas . The Venetians gained control over most of Dalmatia by 1428 except for the city @-@ state of Dubrovnik , which became independent . Ottoman conquests led to the 1493 Battle of Krbava Field and the 1526 Battle of Mohács , both ending in decisive Ottoman victories against Hungarian and Croatian armies . King Louis II died at Mohács ; in 1527 , the assembly of Croatian nobility meeting at Cetin chose Ferdinand I of the House of Habsburg as the new ruler of Croatia under the conditions that he provide protection to Croatia against the Ottoman Empire and respect its political rights . In political disarray , the divided Hungarian nobility elected two kings simultaneously : János Szapolyai and Ferdinand I. With the conquest of Buda by the Ottomans in 1541 , the remaining part of Hungary not ruled by the Ottomans ( known as the Royal Hungary ) was annexed by the Habsburgs ; they ruled as Kings of Hungary , thus keeping the kingdoms of Hungary and Croatia under a single crown .
= = = Habsburg rule = = =
During the 1830s and 1840s romantic nationalism appeared in Croatia , inspiring the Croatian National Revival ( a political and cultural campaign advocating the unity of all South Slavs in the empire ) . Its primary focus was the establishment of a standard language as a counterweight to Hungarian and the promotion of Croatian literature and culture . During the Hungarian Revolution of 1848 , Croatia sided with the Austrians ; Ban Josip Jelačić helped defeat the Hungarian forces in 1849 , ushering in a period of Germanization . By the 1860s the policy 's failure became apparent , leading to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Compromise of 1867 and the creation of a personal union between the crowns of the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary . The treaty left the issue of Croatia 's status to Hungary ; this was resolved by the Croatian – Hungarian Settlement of 1868 , when the kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia were united . The Kingdom of Dalmatia remained under de facto Austrian control , while Rijeka retained its status of Corpus separatum introduced in 1779 . After Austria @-@ Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina following the 1878 Treaty of Berlin , the Croatian Military Frontier was abolished and the territory returned to Croatia in 1881 . Renewed efforts to reform Austria @-@ Hungary , entailing federalisation with Croatia as a federal unit , were halted by World War I. On 29 October 1918 the Croatian Sabor declared independence and decided to join the newly formed State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs , ending Habsburg rule and the personal union with Hungary after 816 years .
= = = Treaty of Trianon and World War II = = =
The Treaty of Trianon was signed in 1920 , at the end of World War I , between the Allies of World War I and Hungary ( as one of the successor states of Austria @-@ Hungary ) . The treaty regulated the status of the independent Hungarian state and defined its borders . Compared to the prewar Kingdom of Hungary ( as a part of Austria @-@ Hungary ) , post @-@ Trianon Hungary lost 72 percent of its territory . The principal beneficiaries of the territorial division of the prewar Kingdom of Hungary were Romania , Czechoslovakia and the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes . The treaty established the southern border of Hungary along the Drava and Mura rivers ( except in Baranya , where only the northern part of the county was retained by Hungary ) . On 4 December 1918 the State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs ( comprising present @-@ day Croatia ) joined the Kingdom of Serbia to form the Kingdom of Serbs , Croats , and Slovenes .
The invasion of Yugoslavia by the Axis Powers began on 6 April 1941 , during World War II , and ended with the unconditional surrender of the Royal Yugoslav Army on 17 April 1941 . During that time , on 12 April the Hungarian Third Army crossed the border ( advancing into Međimurje and southern Baranya ) . Those territorial gains were reversed by Yugoslav partisans and the Red Army in 1944 and 1945 , and confirmed by the Paris Peace Treaties of 1947 . As World War II was replaced by the Cold War , Hungarian – Croatian relations were substantially dictated by the Soviet Union ; it dominated the Eastern Bloc , which included Hungary and Communist @-@ ruled Yugoslavia ( which in turn comprised Croatia as its constituent part ) , as defined by the Tito – Stalin split . This situation ended with the revolutions of 1989 , the end of Communism in Hungary and the breakup of Yugoslavia .
= = = Fall of Communism and Croatian independence = = =
Hungary recognised Croatian independence on 15 January 1992 ( with the rest of the European Economic Community member states ) , and established diplomatic relations with Croatia three days later . During the Croatian War of Independence , Croatia obtained arms from several countries ( including Hungary ) , despite a United Nations @-@ imposed arms embargo . As of December 2011 , Hungary and Croatia have 96 treaties and agreements in force regulating a wide range of activities and relations ( including diplomatic , cultural , economic , energy , transport , education , minority and other issues ) . Furthermore , Hungary supported the Croatian NATO membership request and Croatian accession to the European Union .
= Francis Poulenc =
Francis Jean Marcel Poulenc ( French : [ fʁɑ ̃ sis ʒɑ ̃ maʁsɛl pulɛ ̃ k ] ; 7 January 1899 – 30 January 1963 ) was a French composer and pianist . His compositions include mélodies , solo piano works , chamber music , choral pieces , operas , ballets , and orchestral concert music . Among the best @-@ known are the piano suite Trois mouvements perpétuels ( 1919 ) , the ballet Les biches ( 1923 ) , the Concert champêtre ( 1928 ) for harpsichord and orchestra , the opera Dialogues des Carmélites ( 1957 ) , and the Gloria ( 1959 ) for soprano , choir and orchestra .
His wealthy family intended Poulenc for a business career and did not allow him to enrol at a music college . Largely self @-@ educated musically , he studied with the pianist Ricardo Viñes , who became his mentor after the composer 's parents died . Poulenc soon came under the influence of Erik Satie , under whose tutelage he became one of a group of young composers known collectively as Les Six . In his early works Poulenc became known for his high spirits and irreverence . During the 1930s a much more serious side to his nature emerged , particularly in the religious music he composed from 1936 onwards , which he alternated with his more light @-@ hearted works .
In addition to composing , Poulenc was an accomplished pianist . He was particularly celebrated for his performing partnerships with the baritone Pierre Bernac ( who also advised him in vocal writing ) and the soprano Denise Duval , touring in Europe and America with each , and making many recordings . He was among the first composers to see the importance of the gramophone , and he recorded extensively from 1928 onwards .
In his later years , and for decades after his death , Poulenc had a reputation , particularly in his native country , as a humorous , lightweight composer , and his religious music was often overlooked . During the 21st century more attention has been given to his serious works , with many new productions of Dialogues des Carmélites and La Voix humaine worldwide , and numerous live and recorded performances of his songs and choral music .
= = Life = =
= = = Early years = = =
Poulenc was born in the 8th arrondissement of Paris , the younger child and only son of Émile Poulenc and his wife , Jenny , née Royer . Poulenc senior was joint owner of the Établissements Poulenc Frères , a successful manufacturer of pharmaceuticals ( later Rhône @-@ Poulenc ) . He was a member of a pious Roman Catholic family from Espalion in the département of Aveyron . Jenny Poulenc was from a Parisian family with wide artistic interests . In Poulenc 's view , the two sides of his nature grew out of this background : a deep religious faith from his father 's family and a worldly and artistic side from his mother 's . The critic Claude Rostand later described Poulenc as " half monk and half naughty boy " .
Poulenc grew up in a musical household ; his mother was a capable pianist , with a wide repertoire ranging from classical to less elevated works that gave him a lifelong taste for what he called " adorable bad music " . He took piano lessons from the age of five ; when he was eight he first heard the music of Debussy and was fascinated by the originality of the sound . Other composers whose works influenced his development were Schubert and Stravinsky : the former 's Winterreise and the latter 's The Rite of Spring made a deep impression on him . At his father 's insistence , Poulenc followed a conventional school career , studying at the Lycée Condorcet in Paris rather than at a music conservatory .
In 1916 a childhood friend , Raymonde Linossier ( 1897 – 1930 ) , introduced Poulenc to Adrienne Monnier 's bookshop , the Maison des Amis des Livres . There he met the avant @-@ garde poets Guillaume Apollinaire , Max Jacob , Paul Éluard and Louis Aragon . He later set many of their poems to music . In the same year he became the pupil of the pianist Ricardo Viñes . The biographer Henri Hell comments that Viñes 's influence on his pupil was profound , both as to pianistic technique and the style of Poulenc 's keyboard works . Poulenc later said of Viñes :
He was a most delightful man , a bizarre hidalgo with enormous moustachios , a flat @-@ brimmed sombrero in the purest Spanish style , and button boots which he used to rap my shins when I didn 't change the pedalling enough . ... I admired him madly , because , at this time , in 1914 , he was the only virtuoso who played Debussy and Ravel . That meeting with Viñes was paramount in my life : I owe him everything ... In reality it is to Viñes that I owe my fledgling efforts in music and everything I know about the piano .
When Poulenc was sixteen his mother died ; his father died two years later . Viñes became more than a teacher : he was , in the words of Myriam Chimènes in the Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians , the young man 's " spiritual mentor " . He encouraged his pupil to compose , and he later gave the premieres of three early Poulenc works . Through him Poulenc became friendly with two composers who helped shape his early development : Georges Auric and Erik Satie .
Auric , who was the same age as Poulenc , was an early developer musically ; by the time the two met , Auric 's music had already been performed at important Parisian concert venues . The two young composers shared a similar musical outlook and enthusiasms , and for the rest of Poulenc 's life Auric was his most trusted friend and guide . Poulenc called him " my true brother in spirit " . Satie , an eccentric figure , isolated from the mainstream French musical establishment , was a mentor to several rising young composers , including Auric , Louis Durey and Arthur Honegger . After initially dismissing Poulenc as a bourgeois amateur , he relented and admitted him to the circle of protégés , whom he called " Les Nouveaux Jeunes " . Poulenc described Satie 's influence on him as " immediate and wide , on both the spiritual and musical planes " . The pianist Alfred Cortot commented that Poulenc 's Trois mouvements perpétuels were " reflections of the ironical outlook of Satie adapted to the sensitive standards of the current intellectual circles " .
= = = First compositions and Les Six = = =
Poulenc made his début as a composer in 1917 with his Rapsodie nègre , a ten @-@ minute , five @-@ movement piece for baritone and chamber group ; it was dedicated to Satie and premiered at one of a series of concerts of new music run by the singer Jane Bathori . There was a fashion for African arts in Paris at the time , and Poulenc was delighted to run across some published verses purportedly Liberian , but full of Parisian boulevard slang . He used one of the poems in two sections of the rhapsody . The baritone engaged for the first performance lost his nerve on the platform , and the composer , though no singer , jumped in . This jeu d 'esprit was the first of many examples of what Anglophone critics came to call " leg @-@ Poulenc " . Ravel was amused by the piece and commented on Poulenc 's ability to invent his own folklore . Stravinsky was impressed enough to use his influence to secure Poulenc a contract with a publisher , a kindness that Poulenc never forgot .
In 1917 Poulenc got to know Ravel well enough to have serious discussions with him about music . He was dismayed by Ravel 's judgments , which exalted composers whom Poulenc thought little of above those he greatly admired . He told Satie of this unhappy encounter ; Satie replied with a dismissive epithet for Ravel who , he said , talked " a load of rubbish " . For many years Poulenc was equivocal about Ravel 's music , though always respecting him as a man . Ravel 's modesty about his own music particularly appealed to Poulenc , who sought throughout his life to follow Ravel 's example .
From January 1918 to January 1921 Poulenc was a conscript in the French army in the last months of the First World War and the immediate post @-@ war period . Between July and October 1918 he served at the Franco @-@ German front , after which he was given a series of auxiliary posts , ending as a typist at the Ministry of Aviation . His duties allowed him time for composition ; the Trois mouvements perpétuels for piano and the Sonata for Piano Duet were written at the piano of the local elementary school at Saint @-@ Martin @-@ sur @-@ le @-@ Pré , and he completed his first song cycle , Le bestiaire , setting poems by Apollinaire . The sonata did not create a deep public impression , but the song cycle made the composer 's name known in France , and the Trois mouvements perpétuels rapidly became an international success . The exigencies of music @-@ making in wartime taught Poulenc much about writing for whatever instruments were available ; then , and later , some of his works were for unusual combinations of players .
At this stage in his career Poulenc was conscious of his lack of academic musical training ; the critic and biographer Jeremy Sams writes that it was the composer 's good luck that the public mood was turning against late @-@ romantic lushness in favour of the " freshness and insouciant charm " of his works , technically unsophisticated though they were . Four of Poulenc 's early works were premiered at the Salle Huyghens in Montparnasse , where between 1917 and 1920 the cellist Félix Delgrange presented concerts of music by young composers . Among them were Auric , Durey , Honegger , Darius Milhaud and Germaine Tailleferre , who , with Poulenc , became known collectively as " Les Six " . After one of their concerts , the critic Henri Collet published an article titled , " The Five Russians , the Six Frenchmen and Satie " . According to Milhaud :
In completely arbitrary fashion Collet chose the names of six composers , Auric , Durey , Honegger , Poulenc , Tailleferre and myself , for no other reason than that we knew each other , that we were friends and were represented in the same programmes , but without the slightest concern for our different attitudes and our different natures . Auric and Poulenc followed the ideas of Cocteau , Honegger was a product of German Romanticism and my leanings were towards a Mediterranean lyrical art ... Collet 's article made such a wide impression that the Groupe des Six had come into being .
Cocteau , though similar in age to Les Six , was something of a father @-@ figure to the group . His literary style , " paradoxical and lapidary " in Henri Hell 's phrase , was anti @-@ romantic , concise and irreverent . It greatly appealed to Poulenc , who made his first setting of Cocteau 's words in 1919 and his last in 1961 . When members of Les Six collaborated with each other , they contributed their own individual sections to the joint work . Their 1920 piano suite L 'Album des Six consists of six separate and unrelated pieces . Their 1921 ballet Les mariés de la tour Eiffel contains three sections by Milhaud , two apiece by Auric , Poulenc and Tailleferre , one by Honegger and none by Durey , who was already distancing himself from the group .
In the early 1920s Poulenc remained concerned at his lack of formal musical training . Satie was suspicious of music colleges , but Ravel advised Poulenc to take composition lessons ; Milhaud suggested the composer and teacher Charles Koechlin . Poulenc worked with him intermittently from 1921 to 1925 .
= = = 1920s : increasing fame = = =
From the early 1920s Poulenc was well received abroad , particularly in Britain , both as a performer and a composer . In 1921 Ernest Newman wrote in The Manchester Guardian , " I keep my eye on Francis Poulenc , a young man who has only just arrived at his twenties . He ought to develop into a farceur of the first order . " Newman said that he had rarely heard anything so deliciously absurd as parts of Poulenc 's song cycle Cocardes , with its accompaniment played by the unorthodox combination of cornet , trombone , violin and percussion . In 1922 Poulenc and Milhaud travelled to Vienna to meet Alban Berg , Anton Webern and Arnold Schönberg . Neither of the French composers was influenced by their Austrian colleagues ' revolutionary twelve tone system , but they admired the three as its leading proponents . The following year Poulenc received a commission from Serge Diaghilev for a full @-@ length ballet score . He decided that the theme would be a modern version of the classical French fête galante . This work , Les biches , was an immediate success , first in Monte Carlo in January 1924 and then in Paris in May , under the direction of André Messager ; it has remained one of Poulenc 's best @-@ known scores . Poulenc 's new celebrity after the success of the ballet was the unexpected cause of his estrangement from Satie : among the new friends Poulenc made was Louis Laloy , a writer whom Satie regarded with implacable enmity . Auric , who had just enjoyed a similar triumph with a Diaghilev ballet , Les Fâcheux , was also repudiated by Satie for becoming a friend of Laloy .
As the decade progressed , Poulenc produced a range of compositions , from songs to chamber music and another ballet , Aubade . Henri Hell suggests that Koechlin 's influence occasionally inhibited Poulenc 's natural simple style , and that Auric offered useful guidance to help him appear in his true colours . At a concert of music by the two friends in 1926 , Poulenc 's songs were sung for the first time by the baritone Pierre Bernac , from whom , in Henri Hell 's phrase , " the name of Poulenc was soon to be inseparable . " Another performer with whom the composer came to be closely associated was the harpsichordist Wanda Landowska . He heard her as the soloist in Falla 's El retablo de maese Pedro ( 1923 ) , an early example of the use of a harpsichord in a modern work , and was immediately taken with the sound . At Landowska 's request he wrote a concerto , the Concert champêtre , which she premiered in 1929 with the Orchestre Symphonique de Paris conducted by Pierre Monteux .
The biographer Richard D E Burton comments that , in the late 1920s , Poulenc might have seemed to be in an enviable position : professionally successful and independently well @-@ off , having inherited a substantial fortune from his father . He bought a large country house , Le Grande Coteau , at Noizay , Indre @-@ et @-@ Loire , 140 miles ( 230 km ) south @-@ west of Paris , where he retreated to compose in peaceful surroundings . Yet he was troubled , struggling to come to terms with his sexuality , which was predominantly gay . His first serious affair was with the painter Richard Chanlaire , to whom he sent a copy of the Concert champêtre score inscribed , " You have changed my life , you are the sunshine of my thirty years , a reason for living and working " . Nevertheless , while this affair was in progress Poulenc proposed marriage to his friend Raymonde Linossier . As she was not only well aware of his homosexuality but was also romantically attached elsewhere , she refused him , and their relationship became strained . He suffered the first of many periods of depression , which affected his ability to compose , and he was devastated in January 1930 , when Linossier died suddenly at the age of 32 . On her death he wrote , " All my youth departs with her , all that part of my life that belonged only to her . I sob ... I am now twenty years older " . His affair with Chanlaire petered out in 1931 , though they remained lifelong friends .
= = = 1930s : new seriousness = = =
At the start of the decade , Poulenc returned to writing songs , after a two @-@ year break from doing so . His " Epitaphe " , to a poem by Malherbe , was written in memory of Linossier , and is described by the pianist Graham Johnson as " a profound song in every sense " . The following year Poulenc wrote three sets of songs , to words by Apollinaire and Max Jacob , some of which were serious in tone , and others reminiscent of his earlier light @-@ hearted style , as were others of his works of the early 1930s . In 1932 his music was among the first to be broadcast on television , in a transmission by the BBC in which Reginald Kell and Gilbert Vinter played his Sonata for Clarinet and Bassoon . At about this time Poulenc began a relationship with Raymond Destouches , a chauffeur ; as with Chanlaire earlier , what began as a passionate affair changed into a deep and lasting friendship . Destouches , who married in the 1950s , remained close to Poulenc until the end of the composer 's life .
Two unrelated events in 1936 combined to inspire a reawakening of religious faith and a new depth of seriousness in Poulenc 's music . His fellow composer Pierre @-@ Octave Ferroud was killed in a car crash so violent that he was decapitated , and almost immediately afterwards , while on holiday , Poulenc visited the sanctuary of Rocamadour . He later explained :
A few days earlier I 'd just heard of the tragic death of my colleague ... As I meditated on the fragility of our human frame , I was drawn once more to the life of the spirit . Rocamadour had the effect of restoring me to the faith of my childhood . This sanctuary , undoubtedly the oldest in France ... had everything to captivate me ... The same evening of this visit to Rocamadour , I began my Litanies à la Vierge noire for female voices and organ . In that work I tried to get across the atmosphere of " peasant devotion " that had struck me so forcibly in that lofty chapel .
Other works that followed continued the composer 's new @-@ found seriousness , including many settings of Éluard 's surrealist and humanist poems . In 1937 he composed his first major liturgical work , the Mass in G Major for soprano and mixed choir a cappella , which has become the most frequently performed of all his sacred works . Poulenc 's new compositions were not all in this serious vein ; his incidental music to the play La Reine Margot , starring Yvonne Printemps , was pastiche 16th @-@ century dance music , and became popular under the title Suite française . Music critics generally continued to define Poulenc by his light @-@ hearted works , and it was not until the 1950s that his serious side was widely recognised .
In 1936 Poulenc began giving frequent recitals with Bernac . At the École Normale in Paris they gave the premiere of Poulenc 's Cinq poèmes de Paul Éluard . They continued to perform together for more than twenty years , in Paris and internationally , until Bernac 's retirement in 1959 . Poulenc , who composed 90 songs for his collaborator , considered him one of the " three great meetings " of his professional career , the other two being Éluard and Landowska . In Johnson 's words , " for twenty @-@ five years Bernac was Poulenc 's counsellor and conscience " , and the composer relied on him for advice not only on song @-@ writing , but on his operas and choral music .
Throughout the decade , Poulenc was popular with British audiences ; he established a fruitful relationship with the BBC in London , which broadcast many of his works . With Bernac , he made his first tour of Britain in 1938 . His music was also popular in America , seen by many as " the quintessence of French wit , elegance and high spirits " . In the last years of the 1930s , Poulenc 's compositions continued to vary between serious and light @-@ hearted works . Quatre Motets pour un temps de pénitence ( Four Penitential Motets ) ( 1938 – 39 ) and the song " Bleuet " ( 1939 ) , an elegiac meditation on death , contrast with the song cycle Fiançailles pour rire ( Light @-@ Hearted Betrothal ) , which Henri Hell considers to capture the spirit of Les Biches .
= = = 1940s : war and post @-@ war = = =
Poulenc was briefly a soldier again during the Second World War ; he was called up on 2 June 1940 and served in an anti @-@ aircraft unit at Bordeaux . After France surrendered to Germany , Poulenc was demobilised from the army on 18 July 1940 . He spent the summer of that year with family and friends at Brive @-@ la @-@ Gaillarde in south @-@ central France . In the early months of the war , he had composed little new music , instead re @-@ orchestrating Les biches and reworking his 1932 Sextet for Piano and Winds . At Brive @-@ la @-@ Gaillarde he began three new works , and once back at his home in Noizay in October he started on a fourth . These were music for Babar the Elephant , the Cello Sonata , the ballet Les Animaux modèles and the song cycle Banalités .
For most of the war , Poulenc was in Paris , giving recitals with Bernac , concentrating on French songs . Under Nazi rule he was in a vulnerable position , as a known homosexual ( Destouches narrowly avoided arrest and deportation ) , but in his music he made many gestures of defiance of the Germans . He set to music verses by poets prominent in the French resistance , including Aragon and Éluard . In Les Animaux modèles , premiered at the Opéra in 1942 , he included the tune , repeated several times , of the anti @-@ German song " Vous n 'aurez pas l 'Alsace et la Lorraine " . He was a founder @-@ member of the Front National ( pour musique ) which the Nazi authorities viewed with suspicion for its association with banned musicians such as Milhaud and Paul Hindemith . In 1943 he wrote a cantata for unaccompanied double choir intended for Belgium , Figure humaine , setting eight of Éluard 's poems . The work , ending with " Liberté " , could not be given in France while the Nazis were in control ; its first performance was broadcast from a BBC studio in London in March 1945 , and it was not sung in Paris until 1947 . The music critic of The Times later wrote that the work " is among the very finest choral works of our time and in itself removes Poulenc from the category of petit maître to which ignorance has generally been content to relegate him . "
In January 1945 , commissioned by the French government , Poulenc and Bernac flew from Paris to London , where they received an enthusiastic welcome . The London Philharmonic Orchestra gave a reception in the composer 's honour ; he and Benjamin Britten were the soloists in a performance of Poulenc 's Double Piano Concerto at the Royal Albert Hall ; with Bernac he gave recitals of French mélodies and piano works at the Wigmore Hall and the National Gallery , and recorded for the BBC . Bernac was overwhelmed by the public 's response ; when he and Poulenc stepped out on the Wigmore Hall stage , " the audience rose and my emotion was such that instead of beginning to sing , I began to weep . " After their fortnight 's stay , the two returned home on the first boat @-@ train to leave London for Paris since May 1940 .
In Paris , Poulenc completed his scores for Babar the Elephant and his first opera , Les mamelles de Tirésias , a short opéra bouffe of about an hour 's duration . The work is a setting of Apollinaire 's play of the same name , staged in 1917 . Sams describes the opera as " high @-@ spirited topsy @-@ turveydom " concealing " a deeper and sadder theme – the need to repopulate and rediscover a France ravaged by war " . It was premiered in June 1947 at the Opéra @-@ Comique , and was a critical success , but did not prove popular with the public . The leading female role was taken by Denise Duval , who became the composer 's favourite soprano , frequent recital partner and dedicatee of some of his music . He called her the nightingale who made him cry ( " Mon rossignol à larmes " ) .
Shortly after the war , Poulenc had a brief affair with a woman , Fréderique ( " Freddy " ) Lebedeff , with whom he had a daughter , Marie @-@ Ange , in 1946 . The child was brought up without knowing who her father was ( Poulenc was supposedly her " godfather " ) but he made generous provision for her , and she was the principal beneficiary of his will .
In the post @-@ war period Poulenc crossed swords with composers of the younger generation who rejected Stravinsky 's recent work and insisted that only the precepts of the Second Viennese School were valid . Poulenc defended Stravinsky and expressed incredulity that " in 1945 we are speaking as if the aesthetic of twelve tones is the only possible salvation for contemporary music " . His view that Berg had taken serialism as far as it could go and that Schoenberg 's music was now " desert , stone soup , ersatz music , or poetic vitamins " earned him the enmity of composers such as Pierre Boulez . Those disagreeing with Poulenc attempted to paint him as a relic of the pre @-@ war era , frivolous and unprogressive . This led him to focus on his more serious works , and to try to persuade the French public to listen to them . In the US and Britain , with their strong choral traditions , his religious music was frequently performed , but performances in France were much rarer , so that the public and the critics were often unaware of his serious compositions .
In 1948 Poulenc made his first visit to the US , in a two @-@ month concert tour with Bernac . He returned there frequently until 1961 , giving recitals with Bernac or Duval and as soloist in the world premiere of his Piano Concerto ( 1949 ) , commissioned by the Boston Symphony Orchestra .
= = = 1950 – 63 : The Carmelites and last years = = =
Poulenc began the 1950s with a new partner in his private life , Lucien Roubert , a travelling salesman . Professionally Poulenc was productive , writing a seven @-@ song cycle setting poems by Éluard , La Fraîcheur et le feu ( 1950 ) , and the Stabat Mater , in memory of the painter Christian Bérard , composed in 1950 and premiered the following year .
In 1953 Poulenc was offered a commission by La Scala and the Milanese publisher Casa Ricordi for a ballet . He considered the story of St Margaret of Cortona but found a dance version of her life impracticable . He preferred to write an opera on a religious theme ; Ricordi suggested Dialogues des Carmélites , an unfilmed screenplay by Georges Bernanos . The text , based on a short story by Gertrud von Le Fort , depicts the Martyrs of Compiègne , nuns guillotined during the French Revolution for their religious beliefs . Poulenc found it " such a moving and noble work " , ideal for his libretto , and he began composition in August 1953 .
During the composition of the opera , Poulenc suffered two blows : the Bernanos estate made unforeseen difficulties about allowing him the rights to set the text , and simultaneously Roubert became gravely ill . Intense worry pushed Poulenc into a nervous breakdown , and in November 1954 he was in a clinic at L 'Haÿ @-@ les @-@ Roses , outside Paris , heavily sedated . When he recovered , he resumed work on Dialogues des Carmélites in between extensive touring with Bernac in England . As his personal wealth had declined since the 1920s he required the substantial income earned from his recitals .
While working on the opera Poulenc composed little else ; exceptions were two mélodies , and a short orchestral movement , " Bucolique " in a collective work , Variations sur le nom de Marguerite Long ( 1954 ) , to which his old friends from Les Six Auric and Milhaud also contributed . As Poulenc was writing the last pages of his opera in October 1955 , Roubert died , at the age of forty @-@ seven . The composer wrote to a friend , " Lucien was delivered from his martyrdom ten days ago and the final copy of Les Carmélites was completed ( take note ) at the very moment my dear breathed his last . "
The opera was first given in January 1957 at La Scala in Italian translation . Between then and the French premiere Poulenc introduced one of his most popular late works , the Flute Sonata , which he and Jean @-@ Pierre Rampal performed in June at the Strasbourg Festival . Three days later , on 21 June , came the Paris premiere of Dialogues des Carmélites at the Opéra . It was a tremendous success , to the composer 's considerable relief . At around this time Poulenc began his last romantic relationship , with Louis Gautier , a former soldier ; they remained partners to the end of Poulenc 's life .
In 1958 Poulenc embarked on a collaboration with his old friend Cocteau , in an operatic version of the latter 's 1930 monodrama La Voix humaine . The work was produced in February 1959 at the Opéra @-@ Comique , under Cocteau 's direction , with Duval as the tragic deserted woman speaking to her former lover by telephone . In May Poulenc 's 60th birthday was marked , a few months late , by his last concert with Bernac before the latter 's retirement from public performance .
Poulenc visited the US in 1960 and 1961 . Among his works given during these trips were the American premiere of La Voix humaine at Carnegie Hall , New York , with Duval , and the world premiere of his Gloria , a large @-@ scale work for soprano , four @-@ part mixed chorus and orchestra , conducted in Boston by Charles Munch . In 1961 Poulenc published a book about Chabrier , a 187 @-@ page study of which a reviewer wrote in the 1980s , " he writes with love and insight of a composer whose views he shared on matters like the primacy of melody and the essential seriousness of humour . " The works of Poulenc 's last twelve months included Sept répons pour les ténèbres for voices and orchestra , the Clarinet Sonata and the Oboe Sonata .
On 30 January 1963 , at his flat opposite the Jardin du Luxembourg , Poulenc suffered a fatal heart attack . His funeral was at the nearby church of Saint @-@ Sulpice . In compliance with his wishes , none of his music was performed ; Marcel Dupré played works by Bach on the grand organ of the church . Poulenc was buried at Père Lachaise Cemetery , alongside his family .
= = Music = =
Poulenc 's music is essentially diatonic . In Henri Hell 's view , this is because the main feature of Poulenc 's musical art is his melodic gift . In the words of Roger Nichols in the Grove dictionary , " For [ Poulenc ] the most important element of all was melody and he found his way to a vast treasury of undiscovered tunes within an area that had , according to the most up @-@ to @-@ date musical maps , been surveyed , worked and exhausted . " The commentator George Keck writes , " His melodies are simple , pleasing , easily remembered , and most often emotionally expressive . "
Poulenc said that he was not inventive in his harmonic language . The composer Lennox Berkeley wrote of him , " All through his life , he was content to use conventional harmony , but his use of it was so individual , so immediately recognizable as his own , that it gave his music freshness and validity . " Keck considers Poulenc 's harmonic language " as beautiful , interesting and personal as his melodic writing ... clear , simple harmonies moving in obviously defined tonal areas with chromaticism that is rarely more than passing " . Poulenc had no time for musical theories ; in one of his many radio interviews he called for " a truce to composing by theory , doctrine , rule ! " He was dismissive of what he saw as the dogmatism of latter @-@ day adherents to dodecaphony , led by René Leibowitz , and greatly regretted that the adoption of a theoretical approach had affected the music of Olivier Messiaen , of whom he had earlier had high hopes . To Hell , almost all Poulenc 's music is " directly or indirectly inspired by the purely melodic associations of the human voice " . Poulenc was a painstaking craftsman , though a myth grew up – " la légende de facilité " – that his music came easily to him ; he commented , " The myth is excusable , since I do everything to conceal my efforts . "
The pianist Pascal Rogé commented in 1999 that both sides of Poulenc 's musical nature were equally important : " You must accept him as a whole . If you take away either part , the serious or the non @-@ serious , you destroy him . If one part is erased you get only a pale photocopy of what he really is . " Poulenc recognised the dichotomy , but in all his works he wanted music that was " healthy , clear and robust – music as frankly French as Stravinsky 's is Slav " .
= = = Orchestral and concertante = = =
Poulenc 's principal works for large orchestra comprise two ballets , a Sinfonietta and four keyboard concertos . The first of the ballets , Les biches , was first performed in 1924 and remains one of his best @-@ known works . Nichols writes in Grove that the clear and tuneful score has no deep , or even shallow , symbolism , a fact " accentuated by a tiny passage of mock @-@ Wagnerian brass , complete with emotive minor 9ths " . The first two of the four concertos are in Poulenc 's light @-@ hearted vein . The Concert champêtre for harpsichord and orchestra ( 1927 – 28 ) , evokes the countryside seen from a Parisian point of view : Nichols comments that the fanfares in the last movement bring to mind the bugles in the barracks of Vincennes in the Paris suburbs . The Concerto for two pianos and orchestra ( 1932 ) is similarly a work intended purely to entertain . It draws on a variety of stylistic sources : the first movement ends in a manner reminiscent of Balinese gamelan , and the slow movement begins in a Mozartian style , which Poulenc gradually fills out with his own characteristic personal touches . The Organ Concerto ( 1938 ) is in a much more serious vein . Poulenc said that it was " on the outskirts " of his religious music , and there are passages that draw on the church music of Bach , though there are also interludes in breezy popular style . The second ballet score , Les Animaux modèles ( 1941 ) , has never equalled the popularity of Les biches , though both Auric and Honegger praised the composer 's harmonic flair and resourceful orchestration . Honegger wrote , " The influences that have worked on him , Chabrier , Satie , Stravinsky , are now completely assimilated . Listening to his music you think – it 's Poulenc . " The Sinfonietta ( 1947 ) is a reversion to Poulenc 's pre @-@ war frivolity . He came to feel , " I dressed too young for my age ... [ it ] is a new version of Les biches but young girls [ biches ] that are forty @-@ eight years old – that 's horrible ! " The Concerto for piano and orchestra ( 1949 ) initially caused some disappointment : many felt that it was not an advance on Poulenc 's pre @-@ war music , a view he came to share . The piece has been re @-@ evaluated in more recent years , and in 1996 the writer Claire Delamarche rated it as the composer 's finest concertante work .
= = = Piano = = =
Poulenc , a highly accomplished pianist , usually composed at the piano and wrote many pieces for the instrument throughout his career . In Henri Hell 's view , Poulenc 's piano writing can be divided into the percussive and the gentler style reminiscent of the harpsichord . Hell considers that the finest of Poulenc 's music for piano is in the accompaniments to the songs , a view shared by Poulenc himself . The vast majority of the piano works are , in the view of the writer Keith W Daniel , " what might be called ' miniatures ' " . Looking back at his piano music in the 1950s , the composer viewed it critically : " I tolerate the Mouvements perpétuels , my old Suite en ut [ in C ] , and the Trois pieces . I like very much my two collections of Improvisations , an Intermezzo in A flat , and certain Nocturnes . I condemn Napoli and the Soirées de Nazelles without reprieve . "
Of the pieces cited with approval by Poulenc , the fifteen Improvisations were composed at intervals between 1932 and 1959 . All are brief : the longest lasts a little more than three minutes . They vary from swift and balletic to tender lyricism , old @-@ fashioned march , perpetuum mobile , waltz and a poignant musical portrait of the singer Édith Piaf . Poulenc 's favoured Intermezzo was the last of three . Numbers one and two were composed in August 1934 ; the A flat followed in March 1943 . The commentators Marina and Victor Ledin describe the work as " the embodiment of the word ' charming ' . The music seems simply to roll off the pages , each sound following another in such an honest and natural way , with eloquence and unmistakable Frenchness . " The eight nocturnes were composed across nearly a decade ( 1929 – 38 ) . Whether or not Poulenc originally conceived them as an integral set , he give the eighth the title " To serve as Coda for the Cycle " ( Pour servir de Coda au Cycle ) . Although they share their generic title with the nocturnes of Field , Chopin and Fauré , Poulenc 's do not resemble those of the earlier composers , being " night @-@ scenes and sound @-@ images of public and private events " rather than romantic tone poems .
The pieces Poulenc found merely tolerable were all early works : Trois mouvements perpétuels dates from 1919 , the Suite in C from 1920 and the Trois pièces from 1928 . All consist of short sections , the longest being the " Hymne " , the second of the three 1928 pieces , which lasts about four minutes . Of the two works their composer singled out for censure , Napoli ( 1925 ) is a three @-@ movement portrait of Italy , and Les Soirées de Nazelles is described by the composer Geoffrey Bush as " the French equivalent of Elgar 's Enigma Variations " – miniature character sketches of his friends . Despite Poulenc 's scorn for the work , Bush judges it ingenious and witty . Among the piano music not mentioned , favourably or harshly , by Poulenc , the best known pieces include the two Novelettes ( 1927 – 28 ) , the set of six miniatures for children , Villageoises ( 1933 ) , a piano version of the seven @-@ movement Suite française ( 1935 ) , and L 'embarquement pour Cythère for two pianos ( 1953 ) .
= = = Chamber = = =
In Grove , Nichols divides the chamber works into three clearly differentiated periods . The first four sonatas come from the early group , all written before Poulenc was twenty @-@ two . They are for two clarinets ( 1918 ) , piano duo ( 1918 ) , clarinet and bassoon ( 1922 ) and horn , trumpet and trombone ( 1922 ) . They are early examples of Poulenc 's many and varied influences , with echoes of rococo divertissements alongside unconventional harmonies , some influenced by jazz . All four are characterised by their brevity – less than ten minutes each – their mischievousness and their wit , which Nichols describes as acid . Other chamber works from this period are the Rapsodie nègre from 1917 ( mainly instrumental , with brief vocal episodes ) and the Trio for Oboe , Bassoon and Piano ( 1926 ) .
The chamber works of Poulenc 's middle period were written in the 1930s and 1940s . The best known is the Sextet for Piano and Wind ( 1932 ) , in Poulenc 's light @-@ hearted vein , consisting of two lively outer movements and a central divertimento ; this was one of several chamber works that the composer became dissatisfied with and revised extensively some years after their first performance ( in this case in 1939 – 40 ) . The sonatas in this group are for violin and piano ( 1942 – 43 ) and for cello and piano ( 1948 ) . Writing for strings did not come easily to Poulenc ; these sonatas were completed after two unsuccessful earlier attempts , and in 1947 he destroyed the draft of a string quartet . Both sonatas are predominantly grave in character ; that for violin is dedicated to the memory of Federico García Lorca . Commentators including Hell , Schmidt and Poulenc himself have regarded it , and to some extent the cello sonata , as less effective than those for wind . The Aubade , " Concerto choréographique " for piano and 18 instruments ( 1930 ) achieves an almost orchestral effect , despite its modest number of players . The other chamber works from this period are arrangements for small ensembles of two works in Poulenc 's lightest vein , the Suite française ( 1935 ) and the Trois mouvements perpétuels ( 1946 ) .
The final three sonatas are for woodwind and piano : for flute ( 1956 – 57 ) , clarinet ( 1962 ) , and oboe ( 1962 ) . They have , according to Grove , become fixtures in their repertoires because of " their technical expertise and of their profound beauty " . The Elégie for horn and piano ( 1957 ) was composed in memory of the horn player Dennis Brain . It contains one of Poulenc 's rare excursions into dodecaphony , with the brief employment of a twelve @-@ note tone row .
= = = Songs = = =
Poulenc composed songs throughout his career , and his output in the genre is extensive . In Johnson 's view , most of the finest were written in the 1930s and 1940s . Though widely varied in character , the songs are dominated by Poulenc 's preference for certain poets . From the outset of his career he favoured verses by Guillaume Apollinaire , and from the mid @-@ 1930s the writer whose work he set most often was Paul Éluard . Other poets whose works he frequently set included Jean Cocteau , Max Jacob , and Louise de Vilmorin . In the view of the music critic Andrew Clements , the Éluard songs include many of Poulenc 's greatest settings ; Johnson calls the cycle Tel Jour , Telle Nuit ( 1937 ) the composer 's " watershed work " , and Nichols regards it as " a masterpiece worthy to stand beside Fauré 's La bonne chanson " . Clements finds in the Éluard settings a profundity " worlds away from the brittle , facetious surfaces of Poulenc 's early orchestral and instrumental music " . The first of the Deux poèmes de Louis Aragon ( 1943 ) , titled simply " C " , is described by Johnson as " a masterpiece known the world over ; it is the most unusual , and perhaps the most moving , song about the ravages of war ever composed . "
In an overview of the songs in 1973 , the musical scholar Yvonne Gouverné said , " With Poulenc , the melodic line matches the text so well that it seems in some way to complete it , thanks to the gift which the music has for penetrating the very essence of a given poem ; nobody has better crafted a phrase than Poulenc , highlighting the colour of the words . " Among the lighter pieces , one of the composer 's most popular songs is a setting of Jean Anouilh 's " Les Chemins de l 'Amour " ( 1940 ) as a Parisian waltz ; by contrast his " monologue " " La Dame de Monte Carlo " , ( 1961 ) a depiction of an elderly woman addicted to gambling , shows the composer 's painful understanding of the horrors of depression .
= = = Choral = = =
Apart from a single early work for unaccompanied choir ( " Chanson à boire " , 1922 ) , Poulenc began writing choral music in 1936 . In that year he produced three works for choir : Sept chansons ( settings of verses by Éluard and others ) , Petites voix ( for children 's voices ) , and his religious work Litanies à la vierge noire , for female or children 's voices and organ . The Mass in G major ( 1937 ) for unaccompanied choir is described by Gouverné as having something of a baroque style , with " vitality and joyful clamour on which his faith is writ large " . Poulenc 's new @-@ found religious theme continued with Quatre motets pour un temps de pénitence ( 1938 – 39 ) , but among his most important choral works is the secular cantata Figure humaine ( 1943 ) . Like the Mass , it is unaccompanied , and to succeed in performance it requires singers of the highest quality . Other a capella works include the Quatre motets pour le temps de Noël ( 1952 ) , which make severe demands on choirs ' rhythmic precision and intonation .
Poulenc 's major works for choir and orchestra are the Stabat Mater ( 1950 ) , the Gloria ( 1959 – 60 ) , and Sept répons des ténébres ( 1961 – 62 ) . All these works are based on liturgical texts , originally set to Gregorian chant . In the Gloria , Poulenc 's faith expresses itself in an exuberant , joyful way , with intervals of prayerful calm and mystic feeling , and an ending of serene tranquillity . Poulenc wrote to Bernac in 1962 , " I have finished Les Ténèbres . I think it is beautiful . With the Gloria and the Stabat Mater , I think I have three good religious works . May they spare me a few days in Purgatory , if I narrowly avoid going to hell . " Sept répons des ténèbres , which Poulenc did not live to hear performed , uses a large orchestra , but , in Nichols 's view , it displays a new concentration of thought . To the critic Ralph Thibodeau , the work may be considered as Poulenc 's own requiem and is " the most avant @-@ garde of his sacred compositions , the most emotionally demanding , and the most interesting musically , comparable only with his magnum opus sacrum , the opera , Dialogues des Carmélites . "
= = = Opera = = =
Poulenc turned to opera only in the latter half of his career . Having achieved fame by his early twenties , he was in his forties before attempting
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his first opera . He attributed this to the need for maturity before tackling the subjects he chose to set . In 1958 he told an interviewer , " When I was 24 I was able to write Les biches [ but ] it is obvious that unless a composer of 30 has the genius of a Mozart or the precociousness of Schubert he couldn 't write The Carmelites – the problems are too profound . " In Sams 's view , all three of Poulenc 's operas display a depth of feeling far distant from " the cynical stylist of the 1920s " : Les mamelles de Tirésias ( 1947 ) , despite the riotous plot , is full of nostalgia and a sense of loss . In the two avowedly serious operas , Dialogues des Carmélites ( 1957 ) and La Voix humaine ( 1959 ) , in which Poulenc depicts deep human suffering , Sams sees a reflection of the composer 's own struggles with depression .
In terms of musical technique the operas show how far Poulenc had come from his naïve and insecure beginnings . Nichols comments in Grove that Les mamelles de Tirésias , deploys " lyrical solos , patter duets , chorales , falsetto lines for tenor and bass babies and ... succeeds in being both funny and beautiful " . In all three operas Poulenc drew on earlier composers , while blending their influence into music unmistakably his own . In the printed score of Dialogues des Carmélites he acknowledged his debt to Mussorgsky , Monteverdi , Debussy and Verdi . The critic Renaud Machart writes that Dialogues des Carmélites is , with Britten ’ s Peter Grimes , one of the extremely rare operas written since the Second World War to appear on opera programmes all over the world .
Even when he wrote for a large orchestra , Poulenc used the full forces sparingly in his operas , often scoring for woodwinds or brass or strings alone . With the invaluable input of Bernac he showed great skill in writing for the human voice , fitting the music to the tessitura of each character . By the time of the last of the operas , La Voix humaine , Poulenc felt able to give the soprano stretches of music with no orchestral accompaniment at all , though when the orchestra plays , Poulenc calls for the music to be " bathed in sensuality " .
= = = Recordings = = =
Poulenc was among the composers who recognised in the 1920s the important role that the gramophone would play in the promotion of music . The first recording of his music was made in 1928 , with the mezzo @-@ soprano Claire Croiza accompanied by the composer at the piano , in the complete song cycle La bestiaire for French Columbia . He made numerous recordings , mainly for the French division of EMI . With Bernac and Duval he recorded many of his own songs , and those of other composers including Chabrier , Debussy , Gounod and Ravel . He played the piano part in recordings of his Babar the Elephant with Pierre Fresnay and Noël Coward as narrators . In 2005 , EMI issued a DVD , " Francis Poulenc & Friends " , featuring filmed performances of Poulenc 's music , played by the composer , with Duval , Jean @-@ Pierre Rampal , Jacques Février and Georges Prêtre .
A 1984 discography of Poulenc 's music lists recordings by more than 1 @,@ 300 conductors , soloists and ensembles , including the conductors Leonard Bernstein , Charles Dutoit , Milhaud , Eugene Ormandy , Prêtre , André Previn and Leopold Stokowski . Among the singers , in addition to Bernac and Duval , the list includes Régine Crespin , Dietrich Fischer @-@ Dieskau , Nicolai Gedda , Peter Pears , Yvonne Printemps and Gérard Souzay . Instrumental soloists include Britten , Jacques Février , Pierre Fournier , Emil Gilels , Yehudi Menuhin and Arthur Rubinstein .
Complete sets of Poulenc 's solo piano music have been recorded by Gabriel Tacchino , who had been Poulenc 's only piano student ( released on the EMI label ) , Pascal Rogé ( Decca ) , Paul Crossley ( CBS ) , Eric Parkin ( Chandos ) and Olivier Cazal ( Naxos ) . Integral sets of the chamber music have been recorded by the Nash Ensemble ( Hyperion ) , and a variety of young French musicians ( Naxos ) .
The world premiere of Dialogues des Carmélites ( in Italian , as Dialoghi delle Carmelitane ) was recorded and has been released on CD . The first studio recording was soon after the French premiere , and since then there have been at least ten live or studio recordings on CD or DVD , most of them in French but one in German and one in English .
= = Reputation = =
The two sides to Poulenc 's musical nature caused misunderstanding during his life and have continued to do so . The composer Ned Rorem observed , " He was deeply devout and uncontrollably sensual " ; this still leads some critics to underrate his seriousness . His uncompromising adherence to melody , both in his lighter and serious works , has similarly caused some to regard him as unprogressive . Although he was not much influenced by new developments in music , Poulenc was always keenly interested in the works of younger generations of composers . Lennox Berkeley recalled , " Unlike some artists , he was genuinely interested in other people 's work , and surprisingly appreciative of music very far removed from his . I remember him playing me the records of Boulez 's Le marteau sans maître with which he was already familiar when that work was much less well @-@ known than it is today . " Boulez has not taken a reciprocal view , remarking in 2010 , " There are always people who will take an easy intellectual path . Poulenc coming after Sacre [ du Printemps ] . It was not progress . " Other composers have found more merit in Poulenc 's work ; Stravinsky wrote to him in 1931 : " You are truly good , and that is what I find again and again in your music " .
In his last years Poulenc observed , " if people are still interested in my music in 50 years ' time it will be for my Stabat Mater rather than the Mouvements perpétuels . " In a centenary tribute in The Times Gerald Larner commented that Poulenc 's prediction was wrong , and that in 1999 the composer was widely celebrated for both sides of his musical character : " both the fervent Catholic and the naughty boy , for both the Gloria and Les Biches , both Les Dialogues des Carmélites and Les Mamelles de Tirésias . " At around the same time the writer Jessica Duchen described Poulenc as " a fizzing , bubbling mass of Gallic energy who can move you to both laughter and tears within seconds . His language speaks clearly , directly and humanely to every generation . "
= Luís Alves de Lima e Silva , Duke of Caxias =
Luís Alves de Lima e Silva , Duke of Caxias ( 25 August 1803 – 7 May 1880 ) , nicknamed " the Peacemaker " and " Iron Duke " , was an army officer , politician and monarchist of the Empire of Brazil . Like his father and uncles , Caxias pursued a military career . In 1823 he fought as a young officer in the Brazilian War for Independence against Portugal , then spent three years in Brazil 's southernmost province , Cisplatina , as the government unsuccessfully resisted that province 's secession in the Cisplatine War . Though his own father and uncles renounced Emperor Dom Pedro I during the protests of 1831 , Caxias remained loyal . Pedro I abdicated in favor of his young son Dom Pedro II , whom Caxias instructed in swordsmanship and horsemanship and eventually befriended .
During Pedro II 's minority the governing regency faced countless rebellions throughout the country . Again breaking with his father and other relatives sympathetic to the rebels , from 1839 to 1845 Caxias commanded loyalist forces suppressing such uprisings as the Balaiada , the Liberal rebellions of 1842 and the Ragamuffin War . In 1851 , under his command , the Brazilian army prevailed against the Argentine Confederation in the Platine War ; a decade later Caxias , as army marshal ( the army 's highest rank ) , led Brazilian forces to victory in the Paraguayan War . As a reward he was raised to the titled nobility , becoming successively a baron , count , and marquis , finally becoming the only person created duke during Pedro II 's 58 @-@ year reign .
In the early 1840s Caxias became a member of the Reactionary Party , which evolved into the Party of Order and finally the Conservative Party . He was elected senator in 1846 . The Emperor appointed him president of the Council of Ministers ( prime minister ) in 1856 ; he briefly held that office again in 1861 , but fell when his party lost its parliamentary majority . Over the decades Caxias witnessed the growth and zenith of his party , then its slow decline as internal conflict divided it . In 1875 he headed a cabinet for the last time , and after years of failing health he died in May 1880 .
In the years after his death and mainly following the downfall of the Brazilian monarchy , Caxias ' reputation was initially overshadowed by that of Manuel Luís Osório , Marquis of Erval , but with time surpassed even Erval 's renown . In 1925 his birthday was established as the Day of the Soldier , a day of honor for the Brazilian army . On 13 March 1962 he was officially designated the army 's protector — its soldierly ideal and the most important figure in its tradition . Historians have regarded Caxias positively , several ranking him as the greatest of Brazil 's military officers .
= = Early years = =
= = = Birth = = =
Luís Alves de Lima e Silva was born on 25 August 1803 on a farm called São Paulo ( today within the city of Duque de Caxias ) located in Rio de Janeiro , then a captaincy ( later province ) of the Portuguese colony of Brazil . He was the first son and second of ten children of Francisco de Lima e Silva and Mariana Cândido de Oliveira Belo . His godparents were his paternal grandfather , José Joaquim de Lima da Silva , and his maternal grandmother , Ana Quitéria Joaquina . Luís Alves ' early years were spent on the São Paulo farm owned by his maternal grandfather and namesake , Luís Alves de Freitas . The young boy may have initially been schooled at home , as was common then . He may have been taught to read and write by his grandmother , Ana Quitéria .
Luís Alves ' grandfather , José Joaquim , was a Portuguese military officer who had emigrated in 1767 to Brazil . He settled in the city of Rio de Janeiro , capital of both the Rio de Janeiro captaincy and of Brazil . He had neither noble rank nor noble ancestry and lacked patrons in an environment in which advancement depended upon exchanges of favors and family connections . Having fought against the Spaniards on Brazil 's southern frontiers , he secured a place for himself in Rio de Janeiro 's upper class when he married a member of a local and influential family .
The arrival of the Portuguese Royal Family in Rio de Janeiro in 1808 changed the lives of the Lima family . King Dom João VI embarked upon a series of wars of conquest which resulted in the expansion of Brazil 's territory with the annexation of Cisplatina to the south and of French Guiana to the north . By 1818 , Luís Alves ' relatives , who were military officers and had served in the wars , had been ennobled . His grandfather , José Joaquim , became a member of the Order of Christ and Fidalgo Cavaleiro da Casa Real ( Knight Nobleman of the Royal House ) . His father , Francisco de Lima , and uncles were also granted honors . Within two generations , the Lima family had risen from mere commoners to the ranks of Portugal 's untitled nobility .
= = = Military education = = =
On 22 May 1808 , Luís Alves was enlisted at the age of five as a cadet in the 1st Regiment of Infantry of Rio de Janeiro . Historian Adriana Barreto de Souza explained that this did " not mean that he began to serve as a child , the connection to the regiment was simply honorific " , his perquisite as the son of a military officer . This infantry regiment was informally known as the " Lima [ family ] Regiment " because so many members of the family served in it , including his father and grandfather .
In 1811 , Luís Alves moved with his parents from his grandparents ' farm to Rio de Janeiro and was enrolled at the Seminário São Joaquim ( Saint Joachim School ) , which became Pedro II School in 1837 . On 4 May 1818 , he was admitted into the Royal Military Academy . The entire course ( which ran from the first to seventh year ) was mandatory for artillerymen and engineers but infantrymen were only required to take first- and fifth @-@ year classes . Luís Alves took the first- and fifth @-@ year classes in 1818 and 1819 , respectively . Though he could have skipped the other years , he chose to take second @-@ year classes in 1820 and third @-@ year classes in 1821 . The subjects he studied in the Royal Military Academy ranged from arithmetic , algebra and geometry to tactics , strategy , camping , fortification in campaign and terrain reconnaissance . He was promoted to alferes ( equivalent to a modern @-@ day second lieutenant ) on 12 October 1818 , and to lieutenant ( modern @-@ day first lieutenant ) on 4 November 1820 .
Though an accomplished student , Luís Alves was often reprimanded for bullying new students . With time , he matured , eventually being regarded by his peers as a very reasonable and honest person . He had an ordinary appearance , with a round face , brown hair , brown eyes and average height . Luís Alves ' unremarkable features were compensated by his bearing . Historian Thomas Whigham described him as someone who " learned the art of giving orders early in life . Immaculate in his dress , he was soft spoken , polite , and smoothly in control of himself . He seemed to radiate calm composure and authority . "
= = Wars and military crises = =
= = = Independence of Brazil = = =
Luís Alves would normally have begun the fourth @-@ year classes at the Royal Military Academy in March 1822 . Instead , he dropped out in December 1821 and enlisted in the 1st Fusilier Battalion . Prince Dom Pedro , son and heir of King João VI , had just embarked upon the struggle against Portugal that would lead to the independence of Brazil on 7 September 1822 . The prince was later acclaimed Dom Pedro I , the first Brazilian emperor , on 12 October . Those Brazilian and Portuguese forces who remained loyal to Portugal refused to accept this outcome , which led to a war fought on several fronts across Brazil .
On 18 January 1823 , Pedro I created the Emperor 's Battalion , a handpicked elite infantry unit that included Luís Alves , who was named as adjutant to the company 's commander , his uncle , Colonel José Joaquim de Lima e Silva . The Emperor 's Battalion was sent to the province of Bahia in the northeast on 28 January and placed , along with other troops , under the command of French Brigadier Pierre Labatut . The Brazilian imperial forces besieged Bahia 's capital , Salvador , which was held by the Portuguese . During the siege , Luís Alves fought in at least three attacks ( on 28 March , 3 May and 3 June ) against Portuguese positions around Salvador , all successful . In the engagement on 28 March , he led a charge on an enemy bunker .
During the Bahia campaign , high @-@ ranking officers mutinied against Labatut , who was taken prisoner and sent back to Rio de Janeiro . It is unlikely that Luís Alves was involved , but his uncle , Joaquim de Lima , was almost certainly part of the conspiracy and was chosen by the officers to replace Labatut . The campaign resumed , and the Portuguese withdrew from Salvador and set sail back to Portugal . On 2 July , the victorious Brazilians entered the city . The Emperor 's Battalion returned to Rio de Janeiro , and Luís Alves was later promoted to captain on 22 January 1824 .
= = = Cisplatine War and the abdication crisis = = =
The Portuguese garrison in Montevideo , the capital of Cisplatina ( then Brazil 's southernmost province ) , was the last to surrender . In 1825 , secessionists in the province rebelled . The United Provinces of the Río de la Plata ( later Argentina ) attempted to annex Cisplatina . Brazil declared war , triggering the Cisplatine War . The Emperor 's Battalion , to which Luís Alves was attached , was sent to guard Montevideo , then besieged by rebel forces . Luís Alves fought in engagements against the insurgents during 1827 ( 7 February , 5 July , 7 July , 14 July , 5 August and 7 August ) .
The war came to a disastrous end in 1828 , as Brazil relinquished Cisplatina , which became the independent nation of Uruguay . Nonetheless , Luís Alves was promoted to the rank of major on 2 December 1828 and made second @-@ in @-@ command of the Emperor 's Battalion in early 1829 . During his stay in Montevideo , he met María Ángela Furriol González Luna . How far their relationship progressed is unknown , but there may have been a failed engagement . He returned to Rio de Janeiro and witnessed the increasing deterioration in Emperor Pedro I 's political position . A growing opposition to Pedro I 's policies eventually erupted into mass protests at the Field of Santana in downtown Rio de Janeiro on 6 April 1831 . The situation became more ominous when several military units , led by Luís Alves ' father and uncles , joined the protests .
The Emperor considered appointing Luís Alves to command the Emperor 's Battalion and asked him which side he would choose . According to historian Francisco Doratioto , Luís Alves answered that " between the love of his father and his duty to the crown , he would stay with the latter . " Pedro I expressed gratitude for his loyalty , but instead ordered him to take the Emperor 's Battalion to the Field of Santana and join the rebels , preferring abdication to bloodshedding . Decades later , Luís Alves said in the Brazilian Senate : " I marched along with the Emperor 's Battalion to the Field of Santana , out of devotion to competent orders [ from Pedro I ] . I was not a revolutionary . I esteemed the Abdication . I judged that it would be of advantage to Brazil , but I did not concur directly or indirectly with it . "
= = = Era of troubles = = =
A regency of three was elected to rule until the five @-@ year @-@ old Dom Pedro II reached the age of majority and the ability to rule in his own right . One of the regents chosen was Luís Alves ' father . The regency had little effective authority , resulting in nine years of chaos , during which the country was plagued by rebellions and coup attempts initiated by unruly political factions . The army , " demoralized by the far from exemplary part it had played in the April Revolution [ i.e. Pedro I 's abdication ] , " said historian C. H. Haring , " became the ready tool of any popular agitator or demagogue , and often the source of riot and sedition . " The government severely reduced the size of the standing army and effectively replaced it with the newly created National Guard , a militia force . In July 1831 , without troops to command , Luís Alves and other officers joined the Volunteer Soldier @-@ Officers Battalion as soldiers . As second in command of that unit , he put down a mutiny of navy artillerymen in the Ilha das Cobras ( Island of the Snakes ) on 7 October . A year later , on 18 October 1832 , he was appointed commander of the Permanent Municipal Guard Corps , a police force in the city of Rio de Janeiro .
On 6 January 1833 , at age 29 , he married Ana Luísa de Loreto Carneiro Viana , the sixteen @-@ year @-@ old younger sister of an army officer friend , and a member of an aristocratic family of Rio de Janeiro . The union was contrary to the wishes of the bride 's mother , who saw Luís Alves and his family as upstarts . Newspapers connected to political enemies of his family took advantage of this disagreement to level serious , but unfounded , accusations against him , including that he had kidnapped Ana Luísa . Despite the invective , their marriage was a happy one and three children resulted : Luísa de Loreto Viana de Lima , Ana de Loreto Viana de Lima and Luís Alves de Lima e Silva , born in 1833 , 1836 and 1847 , respectively .
In the late 1830s , Luís Alves was appointed instructor in swordsmanship and horsemanship to the young Pedro II . Ties of duty had drawn the two men together , but a long @-@ lasting friendship and personal devotion also developed . Pedro II said many years later that he regarded Luís Alves as " loyal and my friend " . According to historian Heitor Lira , Luís Alves was " one of the rare , sincere and profoundly convicted monarchists and friends of the King [ i.e. , the Emperor ] and of the Dynasty [ the House of Braganza ] . He placed his sword not only in service to a united and strong Brazil , but also to a worthy and respected Monarch " .
= = Quelling rebellions = =
= = = Balaiada = = =
As the commander of the Permanent Municipal Guard Corps , Luís Alves brought order to the streets of Rio de Janeiro , through his own skill and through partnership with the city 's chief of police , Eusébio de Queirós . Luís Alves was promoted from major to lieutenant colonel on 12 September 1837 . Eusébio de Queirós was a member of the Partido Regressista ( Reactionary Party ) , which had come to power that year . Bernardo Pereira de Vasconcelos , one of the leading Reactionaries and a government minister , attempted to attract Luís Alves to his party .
After being promoted to colonel on 2 December 1839 , Luís Alves was sent by the Reactionary cabinet to the province of Maranhão to quell a rebellion which became known as the Balaiada . He was appointed to the highest civilian and military positions in the province : presidente ( president or governor ) and comandante das armas ( military commander ) , thus giving him authority over the National Guard and army ( brought back to full strength by the Reactionary administration ) units in the province , respectively .
Luís Alves arrived in São Luís , Maranhão 's capital , on 4 February 1840 . After several battles and skirmishes , he defeated the rebels . For his achievement , Luís Alves was promoted to brigadier ( present @-@ day brigadier general ) on 18 July 1841 and raised by Pedro II to the titled nobility as Barão de Caxias ( Baron of Caxias ) . He was given the rare honor of choosing his title ; he decided to commemorate his recapture of Caxias , Maranhão 's second richest town , which had fallen into rebel hands . Francisco de Lima wrote to his son with news of the Liberals ' demand that Pedro II 's majority be immediately declared . Meanwhile , Honório Hermeto Carneiro Leão ( later Marquis of Paraná , a distant cousin of Caxias ' wife and a leader of the Reactionary Party ) sent letters to Luís Alves attempting to undermine the influence Francisco de Lima had on him and to dissuade him from supporting the unconstitutional proposal to declare the Emperor of age .
= = = Liberal rebellions of 1842 = = =
Upon his return from Maranhão , Caxias saw that the political climate had changed . Francisco de Lima 's Liberal Party had pushed through the premature declaration of the Emperor 's majority on 23 July 1840 . In May 1842 , the Liberals rebelled in the provinces of Rio de Janeiro , São Paulo and Minas Gerais in retaliation for the Emperor 's decision — on the advice of a Council of State dominated by Reactionaries — to call for new elections , annulling the previous election tainted by widespread fraud by the Liberal Party .
Named as the province 's vice @-@ president and military commander , Caxias arrived in São Paulo on 21 May 1842 . After he defeated the rebels there , he was appointed military commander of Minas Gerais and marched to that province . With the aid of National Guard units from Rio de Janeiro under its president , Honório Hermeto , Caxias was once again successful , and by late August , the rebellion was crushed . Caxias was honored by Pedro II , who made him his aide @-@ de @-@ camp on 23 July 1842 . Two days later , Caxias was promoted to brevet ( acting ) field marshal ( present @-@ day divisional general ) .
To distinguish itself from what the Reactionaries perceived as the " unruly " Liberals , sometime around 1843 ( and certainly by 1844 ) , the Reactionary Party became known as the Partido da Ordem ( Party of Order ) and its members as saquaremas . Caxias increasingly identified himself with the saquarema ideology : liberalism , preservation of the authority of the state , and support for representative parliamentary monarchy . Although his move toward the saquarema camp was not clear at the time he accepted the appointment to put down the rebellion in Maranhão in 1839 , his victory over the Liberal rebels in 1842 further solidified his allegiance to the Party of Order .
= = = Ragamuffin War = = =
When the republican secessionist rebellion known as the Ragamuffin War began in Rio Grande do Sul in 1835 , one of Caxias ' uncles joined the rebels . His father , Francisco de Lima , and possibly another uncle ( the Minister of War at the time ) , also secretly supported the rebellion . On 28 September 1842 , Caxias was appointed president and military commander of the province of Rio Grande do Sul . The 16 @-@ year @-@ old Pedro II allowed Caxias to prove once more that he was unlike his father and uncles and gave him a short and direct order : " End this revolution , as you have ended the others . " Caxias brought with him a fellow saquarema and a famous poet , Domingos Gonçalves de Magalhães ( later Viscount of Araguaia ) , to serve as his secretary , as he had previously in Maranhão .
Caxias had made a short trip to Rio Grande do Sul in 1839 to inspect the troops fighting the Ragamuffins . Upon his return to the province in November 1842 , he found that the rebels , severely weakened after years of struggle , had been forced to resort to guerrilla warfare . When threatened , the rebels escaped to safety in nearby Uruguay ( formerly Cisplatina ) . As in Maranhão , São Paulo and Minas Gerais , Caxias planted spies within the enemy 's ranks to gather information and to foment dissension . Historian Roderick J. Barman said that he " displayed military , organizational , and political talents essential to what is now termed ' counterinsurgency ' . "
In early 1843 , Honório Hermeto became the head of the cabinet , and so long as the saquaremas remained in power , Caxias was secure in his position . After Honório Hermeto quarreled with Pedro II a year later , he and the saquaremas resigned . The Liberals replaced the saquaremas in government , but Caxias was retained in his command . The War of the Ragamuffins took far longer to put down than had previous rebellions , but through careful negotiation and military victories , Caxias finally managed to pacify the province . The end of the armed conflict was declared on 1 March 1845 . He was made a permanent field marshal on 25 March , and raised to the rank of count on 2 April . Caxias ran for a Senate seat , and being among the three candidates with the most votes , he was selected by the Emperor in late 1845 as the senator representing Rio Grande do Sul . He took his Senate seat on 11 May 1846 .
= = Conservatism = =
= = = Platine War = = =
After years in opposition in the parliament , in September 1848 , the Party of Order was called upon by Pedro II to form a new cabinet . The saquarema cabinet was composed of men with whom Caxias had close relationships , among them Eusébio de Queirós , who had helped him bring order to the streets of Rio de Janeiro in the late 1830s . Caxias was now a wealthy planter who owned slaves and was very much a part of the landed aristocracy that formed the backbone of the Party of Order . With the help of his wealthy mother @-@ in @-@ law , he purchased his first property — a coffee farm — in 1838 . He acquired more lands in 1849 , further expanding his plantation . Due to growing international demand , coffee had become the most valuable export commodity for Brazil .
In 1851 , Juan Manuel de Rosas , dictator of the Argentine Confederation , declared war on Brazil . Caxias was appointed commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Brazilian land forces . The Minister of Foreign Affairs , Paulino Soares de Sousa ( later Viscount of Uruguai ) , forged an anti @-@ Rosas alliance between Brazil , Uruguay and rebel Argentine provinces . When Paulino Soares asked who should be appointed as Brazil 's representative among the allied forces , Caxias suggested Honório Hermeto . Honório Hermeto , who had been ostracized by his peers after his fall in 1844 , was the saquarema closest to Caxias .
An army commanded by Caxias crossed into Uruguay in September 1851 . The allies decided to divide their forces into two armies : a multinational force that included a single Brazilian division , and a second army composed entirely of Brazilians under Caxias . Against the wishes of Honório Hermeto , Caxias chose Manuel Marques de Sousa ( later Count of Porto Alegre ) to lead the former force . Caxias met and befriended Marques de Sousa , who had served under his command in the War of the Ragamuffins , during his trip to Rio Grande do Sul in 1839 . The Brazilian division , led by Marques de Sousa , along with Uruguayan and Argentine rebel troops , invaded Argentina . On 3 February 1852 , in the Battle of Caseros , the allies defeated an army led by Rosas , who fled to the United Kingdom , thus ending the war . Caxias spent 17 January aboard the frigate Dom Afonso alongside John Pascoe Grenfell , taking stock of the port area of Buenos Aires , the Argentine capital , selecting the best place to launch an amphibious attack . His plan was aborted once the news of the victory at Caseros arrived . As a reward for his role in the victory , Caxias was promoted to lieutenant general on 3 March , and raised to marquis on 26 June .
= = = Conciliation Cabinet = = =
Caxias 's father died in December 1853 . For years , father and son had clashed , taking opposite sides . The marquis ultimately prevailed , adhering closely to his grandfather José Joaquim de Lima 's steadfast loyalty to the Crown and respect for the law . By the time of his death , Francisco de Lima , a senator in his own right , had long since lost his former influence and had not held any office of importance for years . Nevertheless , Caxias and Francisco de Lima maintained a loving and respectful relationship to the very end , as may be seen in the few surviving letters between them . His relationship with other family members , however , was marred by resentment , as he told his wife years later : " We are placed in the foreground of our society , causing even envy to your relatives and to mine as well . "
Around 1853 ( and certainly by 1855 ) , the old Party of Order had become more widely known as the Conservative Party . On 14 June 1855 , the marquis accepted the portfolio of Minister of War and joined the " Conciliation Cabinet " headed by Honório Hermeto ( now Marquis of Paraná ) . Caxias and Paraná had known each other since 1831 and had formed a deep friendship and strong bond based on trust and views in common . Paraná had been facing overwhelming opposition in parliament from members of his , and Caxias 's , own party . Under the guise of correcting flaws in elections so that all parties would have legitimate access to representation in parliament , Paraná attempted to pass electoral reforms that would , in practice , allot cabinets even more influence to meddle in elections through coercion and patronage . The saquaremas understood the threat : it would undermine their own party ( or in fact any party ) by strengthening the executive branch to the detriment of the legislative .
In search of broader support , Paraná appointed as ministers politicians who had few , or no , links to the saquaremas . Caxias himself was a saquarema , but according to Needell , he " was first and foremost a military man . Personal fealty to the Empire came before any other . As so many did , he identified this loyalty with fealty to the Crown in abstraction and to Dom Pedro personally . " He was a choice that could please all sides . Caxias , said Needell , " was not so much a political man as a man profoundly loyal to the Monarchy with which he ... had come to identify with the Conservative Party . Thus , Paraná may have appointed Caxias to reassure traditional Conservatives without endangering the more independent political position Paraná was taking . "
= = = Presidencies of the Council of Ministers = = =
Paraná succeeded in passing electoral reform , which was called the Lei dos Círculos ( Law of the Circles ) . As predicted , and feared , it gave greater powers to the president ( prime minister ) of the Council of Ministers to meddle in elections . Unexpectedly , Paraná fell ill and died on 3 September 1856 . Caxias replaced him , but was reluctant to face the legislature , elected under the electoral reform , that was slated to convene the next year . He resigned , along with the other cabinet ministers , on 4 May 1857 . The Law of the Circles and the controversy surrounding it split the Conservative Party : one faction was the saquarema ultraconservative ( or tradionalist ) wing , then called the vermelhos ( reds ) or puritanos ( puritans ) , led by Eusébio de Queirós , Uruguai and Joaquim Rodrigues Torres , Viscount of Itaboraí . The second bloc comprised the conservador moderado ( moderate Conservative ) wing , composed mostly of younger politicians who owed their positions to electoral reform .
The moderate Conservatives were Conservatives in name only , and did not support the saquarema ideology and leadership . During the years following 1857 , successive cabinets quickly collapsed , unable to muster a majority in the Chamber of Deputies , as the two Conservative wings undercut each other in a fight for dominance . The Emperor asked Caxias to head a new cabinet on 2 March 1861 . Among his ministers were José Maria da Silva Paranhos ( later Viscount of Rio Branco ) , whom Caxias had met and befriended during the Platine War while serving as secretary to Paraná .
Caxias tried to secure support from the traditional saquarema leadership . They attempted , however , to use him as a figurehead and to further their own agendas . He commented to Paranhos : " I see what you meant , with respect to the bizarre behavior of these gentlemen , who do not wish to govern the country , when they are invited to do so , because they prefer to govern the Government . They are completely mistaken about me , since I am not disposed to serve them as a hobbyhorse . " Lacking support in parliament , Caxias ' cabinet resigned on 24 May 1862 after losing its majority in the Chamber of Deputies ( the national legislature 's lower house ) . Pedro II asked members of the Liga Progressista ( Progressive League ) — a new party consisting of moderate Conservatives and Liberals — to form a new cabinet . Barely a month later , Caxias ' only son died at age 14 of unknown causes . There was a small consolation at the end of 1862 when , on 2 December , he was made brevet marechal de exército ( army marshal ) , the highest rank in the Brazilian army .
= = Paraguayan War = =
= = = Siege of Uruguaiana = = =
In December 1864 , the dictator of Paraguay , Francisco Solano López , took advantage of Brazil 's military intervention in Uruguay to establish his country as a regional power . The Paraguayan army invaded the Brazilian province of Mato Grosso ( currently the state of Mato Grosso do Sul ) , triggering the Paraguayan War . Four months later , Paraguayan troops invaded Argentine territory in preparation for an attack on Rio Grande do Sul .
The situation in Rio Grande do Sul was chaotic , and the local military commanders were incapable of mounting an effective resistance to the Paraguayan army . Pedro II , aware of the danger , decided to go to the front to shore up operations . As the Emperor 's military aide @-@ de @-@ camp , Caxias followed him into the combat zone . The marquis had warned the Progressive cabinet that Brazil was unprepared to intervene in Uruguay and even less prepared to resist a foreign invasion . His warnings were ignored , and he complained , with a bit of irony , to his friend João Maurício Vanderlei , Baron of Cotejipe , a former colleague in the Conciliation cabinet : " I am almost mad with the mistakes that I am seeing being made , but since I am a red [ ultraconservative or traditional saquarema ] I am not listened to , since everything is progress in our country . "
The imperial party arrived in Rio Grande do Sul 's capital , Porto Alegre , in July 1865 . From there , they traveled inland until they reached Uruguaiana in September . This Brazilian town was occupied by a Paraguayan army . By the time Caxias and his party arrived , the town was under siege by a combined force of Brazilian , Argentine and Uruguayan units . The Paraguayans surrendered without further bloodshed , freeing the Emperor and Caxias to return to the imperial capital .
= = = Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief = = =
The allies invaded Paraguay in April 1866 , but after initial success , their advance was blocked by fortifications at Humaitá by land and along the Paraguay River . The Progressive cabinet decided to create a unified command over Brazilian forces operating in Paraguay , and it turned to the 63 @-@ year @-@ old Caxias ( made permanent army marshal on 13 January ) as the new leader on 10 October 1866 . He told his wife that the reason he had accepted the post was because the war " was an evil that has reached more or less all , from the Emperor to the most unfortunate slave . "
Caxias arrived in Paraguay on 18 November , and assumed the supreme command of land and naval forces in the war . His first measure was to arrange the dismissal of Vice @-@ Admiral Joaquim Marques Lisboa ( later the Marquis of Tamandaré and also a member of the Progressive League ) by the government , and appoint fellow Conservative Vice @-@ Admiral Joaquim José Inácio ( later the Viscount of Inhaúma ) to lead the navy . From October 1866 until July 1867 , all offensive operations were suspended . During this period , Cax
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alarm , so he was searched with a hand wand . The Hazmi brothers checked in together at the ticket counter at 07 : 29 . Hani Hanjour checked in separately and arrived at the passenger security checkpoint at 07 : 35 . Hanjour was followed minutes later at the checkpoint by Salem and Nawaf al @-@ Hazmi , who also set off the metal detector 's alarm . The screener at the checkpoint never resolved what set off the alarm . As seen in security footage later released , Nawaf Hazmi appeared to have an unidentified item in his back pocket . Utility knives up to four inches were permitted at the time by the Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) as carry @-@ on items . The passenger security checkpoint at Dulles International Airport was operated by Argenbright Security , under contract with United Airlines .
The hijackers were all selected for extra screening of their checked bags . Hanjour , al @-@ Mihdhar , and Moqed were chosen by the Computer Assisted Passenger Prescreening System criteria , while the brothers Nawaf and Salem al @-@ Hazmi were selected because they did not provide adequate identification and were deemed suspicious by the airline check @-@ in agent . Hanjour , Mihdhar , and Nawaf al @-@ Hazmi did not check any bags for the flight . Checked bags belonging to Moqed and Salem al @-@ Hazmi were held until they boarded the aircraft .
Flight 77 was scheduled to depart for Los Angeles at 08 : 10 ; 58 passengers boarded through Gate D26 , including the five hijackers . Excluding the hijackers , of the 59 other passengers and crew on board , there were 26 men , 22 women , and five children ranging in age from three to eleven . On the flight , Hani Hanjour was seated up front in 1B , while Salem and Nawaf al @-@ Hazmi were seated in first class in seats 5E and 5F . Majed Moqed and Khalid al @-@ Mihdhar were seated further back in 12A and 12B , in economy class . Flight 77 left the gate on time and took off from Runway 30 at Dulles at 08 : 20 .
= = = Hijacking = = =
The 9 / 11 Commission estimated that the flight was hijacked between 08 : 51 and 08 : 54 , shortly after American Airlines Flight 11 struck the World Trade Center and not too long after United Airlines Flight 175 had been hijacked . The last normal radio communications from the aircraft to air traffic control occurred at 08 : 50 : 51 . Unlike the other three flights , there were no reports of anyone being stabbed or a bomb threat and the pilots were not immediately killed but shoved to the back of the plane with the rest of the passengers . At 08 : 54 , the plane began to deviate from its normal , assigned flight path and turned south . Two minutes later at 08 : 56 , the plane 's transponder was switched off . The hijackers set the flight 's autopilot on a course heading east towards Washington , D.C.
The FAA was aware at this point that there was an emergency on board the airplane . By this time , Flight 11 had already crashed into the North Tower of the World Trade Center and Flight 175 was known to have been hijacked and was within minutes of striking the South Tower . After learning of this second hijacking involving an American Airlines aircraft and the hijacking involving United Airlines , American Airlines ' executive vice president Gerard Arpey ordered a nationwide ground stop for the airline . The Indianapolis Air Traffic Control Center , as well as American Airlines dispatchers , made several failed attempts to contact the aircraft . At the time the airplane was hijacked , it was flying over an area of limited radar coverage . With air controllers unable to contact the flight by radio , an Indianapolis official declared that the Boeing 757 had possibly crashed at 09 : 09 .
Two people on the aircraft made phone calls to contacts on the ground . At 09 : 12 , flight attendant Renee May called her mother , Nancy May , in Las Vegas . During the call , which lasted nearly two minutes , May said her flight was being hijacked by six persons , and staff and passengers had been moved to the rear of the airplane . May asked her mother to contact American Airlines , which she and her husband promptly did ; American Airlines was already aware of the hijacking . Between 09 : 16 and 09 : 26 , passenger Barbara Olson called her husband , United States Solicitor General Theodore Olson , and reported that the airplane had been hijacked and that the assailants had box cutters and knives . She reported that the passengers , including the pilots , had been moved to the back of the cabin and that the hijackers were unaware of her call . A minute into the conversation , the call was cut off . Theodore Olson contacted the command center at the Department of Justice , and tried unsuccessfully to contact Attorney General John Ashcroft . About five minutes later , Barbara Olson called again , told her husband that the " pilot " ( possibly Hanjour on the cabin intercom ) had announced the flight was hijacked , and asked , " what do I tell the pilot to do ? " Ted Olson asked her location and she reported the plane was flying low over a residential area . He told her of the attacks on the World Trade Center . Soon afterward , the call cut off again .
An airplane was detected again by Dulles controllers on radar screens as it approached Washington , turning and descending rapidly . Controllers initially thought this was a military fighter , due to its high speed and maneuvering . Reagan Airport controllers asked a passing Air National Guard Lockheed C @-@ 130 Hercules to identify and follow the aircraft . The pilot , Lt. Col. Steven O 'Brien , told them it was a Boeing 757 or 767 , and its silver fuselage meant that it was probably an American Airlines jet . He had difficulty picking out the airplane in the " East Coast haze " , but then saw a " huge " fireball , and initially assumed it had hit the ground . Approaching the Pentagon , he saw the impact site on the building 's west side and reported to Reagan control , " Looks like that aircraft crashed into the Pentagon , sir . "
= = = Crash = = =
According to the 9 / 11 Commission Report , as Flight 77 was 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) west @-@ southwest of the Pentagon , it made a 330 @-@ degree turn . At the end of the turn , it was descending through 2 @,@ 200 feet ( 670 m ) , pointed toward the Pentagon and downtown Washington . Hani Hanjour advanced the throttles to maximum power and dived toward the Pentagon . While level above the ground and seconds from the crash , the wings knocked over five street lampposts and the right wing struck a portable generator , creating a smoke trail seconds before smashing into the Pentagon . Flight 77 , flying at 530 mph ( 853 km / h , 237 m / s , or 460 knots ) over the Navy Annex Building adjacent to Arlington National Cemetery , crashed into the western side of the Pentagon in Arlington County , Virginia , just south of Washington , D.C. , at 09 : 37 : 46 . The plane hit the Pentagon at the first @-@ floor level , and at the moment of impact , the airplane was rolled slightly to the left , with the right wing elevated . The front part of the fuselage disintegrated on impact , while the mid and tail sections moved for another fraction of a second , with tail section debris penetrating furthest into the building . In all , the airplane took eight @-@ tenths of a second to fully penetrate 310 feet ( 94 m ) into the three outermost of the building 's five rings and unleashed a fireball that rose 200 feet ( 61 m ) above the building .
At the time of the attacks , approximately 18 @,@ 000 people worked in the Pentagon , which was 4 @,@ 000 fewer than before renovations began in 1998 . The section of the Pentagon that was struck , which had recently been renovated at a cost of $ 250 million , housed the Naval Command Center .
In all , there were 189 deaths at the Pentagon site , including the 125 in the Pentagon building in addition to the 64 on board the aircraft . Passenger Barbara Olson was en route to a taping of Politically Incorrect . A group of children , their chaperones , and National Geographic Society staff members were also on board , embarking on an educational trip west to the Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary near Santa Barbara , California . The fatalities at the Pentagon included 55 military personnel and 70 civilians . Of those 125 killed , 92 were on the first floor , 31 were on the second floor , and two were on the third . Seven Defense Intelligence Agency civilian employees were killed while the Office of the Secretary of Defense lost one contractor . The Army suffered 75 fatalities — 53 civilians ( 47 employees and six contractors ) and 22 soldiers — while the Navy suffered 42 fatalities — nine civilians ( six employees and three contractors ) and 33 sailors . Lieutenant General Timothy Maude , an Army Deputy Chief of Staff , was the highest @-@ ranking military officer killed at the Pentagon ; also killed was retired Rear Admiral Wilson Flagg , a passenger on the plane . LT Mari @-@ Rae Sopper , JAGC , USNR , was also on board the flight , and was the first Navy Judge Advocate ever to be killed . Another 106 were injured on the ground and were treated at area hospitals .
On the side where the plane hit , the Pentagon is bordered by Interstate 395 and Washington Boulevard . Motorist Mary Lyman , who was on I @-@ 395 , saw the airplane pass over at a " steep angle toward the ground and going fast " and then saw the cloud of smoke from the Pentagon . Omar Campo , another witness , was cutting the grass on the other side of the road when the airplane flew over his head , and later recalled :
I was cutting the grass and it came in screaming over my head . I felt the impact . The whole ground shook and the whole area was full of fire . I could never imagine I would see anything like that here .
Afework Hagos , a computer programmer , was on his way to work and stuck in a traffic jam near the Pentagon when the airplane flew over . " There was a huge screaming noise and I got out of the car as the plane came over . Everybody was running away in different directions . It was tilting its wings up and down like it was trying to balance . It hit some lampposts on the way in . " Daryl Donley witnessed the crash and took some of the first photographs of the site .
USA Today reporter Mike Walter was driving on Washington Boulevard when he witnessed the crash , which he recounted ,
I looked out my window and I saw this plane , this jet , an American Airlines jet , coming . And I thought , ' This doesn 't add up , it 's really low . ' And I saw it . I mean it was like a cruise missile with wings . It went right there and slammed right into the Pentagon .
Terrance Kean , who lived in a nearby apartment building , heard the noise of loud jet engines , glanced out his window , and saw a " very , very large passenger jet " . He watched " it just plow right into the side of the Pentagon . The nose penetrated into the portico . And then it sort of disappeared , and there was fire and smoke everywhere . " Tim Timmerman , who is a pilot himself , noticed American Airlines markings on the aircraft as he saw it hit the Pentagon . Other drivers on Washington Boulevard , Interstate 395 , and Columbia Pike witnessed the crash , as did people in Pentagon City , Crystal City , and other nearby locations .
Former Georgetown University basketball coach John Thompson had originally booked a ticket on Flight 77 . As he would tell the story many times in the following years , including a September 12 , 2011 interview on Jim Rome 's radio show , he had been scheduled to appear on that show on September 12 , 2001 . Thompson was planning to be in Las Vegas for a friend 's birthday on September 13 , and initially insisted on traveling to Rome 's Los Angeles studio on the 11th . However , this did not work for the show , which wanted him to travel on the day of the show . After a Rome staffer personally assured Thompson that he would be able to travel from Los Angeles to Las Vegas immediately after the show , Thompson changed his travel plans . He felt the impact from the crash at his home near the Pentagon .
= = Rescue and recovery = =
Rescue efforts began immediately after the crash . Almost all the successful rescues of survivors occurred within half an hour of the impact . Initially , rescue efforts were led by the military and civilian employees within the building . Within minutes , the first fire companies arrived and found these volunteers searching near the impact site . The firemen ordered them to leave as they were not properly equipped or trained to deal with the hazards . The Arlington County Fire Department ( ACFD ) assumed command of the immediate rescue operation within 10 minutes of the crash . ACFD Assistant Chief James Schwartz implemented an incident command system ( ICS ) to coordinate response efforts among multiple agencies . It took about an hour for the ICS structure to become fully operational . Firefighters from Fort Myer and Reagan National Airport arrived within minutes . Rescue and firefighting efforts were impeded by rumors of additional incoming planes . Chief Schwartz ordered two evacuations during the day in response to these rumors .
As firefighters attempted to extinguish the fires , they watched the building in fear of a structural collapse . One firefighter remarked that they " pretty much knew the building was going to collapse because it started making weird sounds and creaking " . Officials saw a cornice of the building move and ordered an evacuation . Minutes later , at 10 : 10 , the upper floors of the damaged area of the Pentagon collapsed . The collapsed area was about 95 feet ( 29 m ) at its widest point and 50 feet ( 15 m ) at its deepest . The amount of time between impact and collapse allowed everyone on the fourth and fifth levels to evacuate safely before the structure collapsed . After the collapse , the interior fires intensified , spreading through all five floors . After 11 : 00 , firefighters mounted a two @-@ pronged attack against the fires . Officials estimated temperatures of up to 2 @,@ 000 ° F ( 1 @,@ 090 ° C ) . While progress was made against the interior fires by late afternoon , firefighters realized a flammable layer of wood under the Pentagon 's slate roof had caught fire and begun to spread . Typical firefighting tactics were rendered useless by the reinforced structure as firefighters were unable to reach the fire to extinguish it . Firefighters instead made firebreaks in the roof on September 12 to prevent further spreading . At 18 : 00 on the 12th , Arlington County issued a press release stating the fire was " controlled " but not fully " extinguished " . Firefighters continued to put out smaller fires that ignited in the succeeding days .
Various pieces of aircraft debris were found within the wreckage at the Pentagon . While on fire and escaping from the Navy Command Center , Lt. Kevin Shaeffer observed a chunk of the aircraft 's nose cone and the nose landing gear in the service road between rings B and C. Early in the morning on Friday , September 14 , Fairfax County Urban Search and Rescue Team members Carlton Burkhammer and Brian Moravitz came across an " intact seat from the plane 's cockpit " , while paramedics and firefighters located the two black boxes near the punch out hole in the A @-@ E drive , nearly 300 feet ( 91 m ) into the building . The cockpit voice recorder was too badly damaged and charred to retrieve any information , though the flight data recorder yielded useful information . Investigators also found a part of Nawaf al @-@ Hazmi 's driver 's license in the North Parking Lot rubble pile . Personal effects belonging to victims were found and taken to Fort Myer .
= = = Remains = = =
Army engineers determined by 5 : 30 p.m. on the first day that no one remained alive in the damaged section of the building . In the days after the crash , news reports emerged that up to 800 people had died . Army troops from Fort Belvoir were the first teams to survey the interior of the crash site and noted the presence of human remains . Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) Urban Search and Rescue teams , including Fairfax County Urban Search and Rescue assisted the search for remains , working through the National Interagency Incident Management System ( NIIMS ) . Kevin Rimrodt , a Navy photographer surveying the Navy Command Center after the attacks , remarked that " there were so many bodies , I 'd almost step on them . So I 'd have to really take care to look backwards as I 'm backing up in the dark , looking with a flashlight , making sure I 'm not stepping on somebody " . Debris from the Pentagon was taken to the Pentagon 's north parking lot for more detailed search for remains and evidence .
Remains that were recovered from the Pentagon were photographed , and turned over to the Armed Forces Medical Examiner office , located at Dover Air Force Base in Delaware . The medical examiner 's office was able to identify remains belonging to 179 of the victims . Investigators eventually identified 184 of the 189 people who died in the attack . The remains of the five hijackers were identified through a process of elimination , and were turned over as evidence to the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) . On September 21 , the ACFD relinquished control of the crime scene to the FBI . The Washington Field Office , National Capital Response Squad ( NCRS ) , and the Joint Terrorism Task Force ( JTTF ) led the crime scene investigation at the Pentagon .
By October 2 , 2001 , the search for evidence and remains was complete and the site was turned over to Pentagon officials . In 2002 , the remains of 25 victims were buried collectively at Arlington National Cemetery , with a five @-@ sided granite marker inscribed with the names of all the victims in the Pentagon . The ceremony also honored the five victims whose remains were never found .
= = = Flight recorders = = =
At around 3 : 40 a.m. on September 14 , a paramedic and a firefighter who were searching through the debris of the impact site found two dark boxes , about 1 @.@ 5 feet ( 46 cm ) by 2 feet ( 61 cm ) long . They called for an FBI agent , who in turn called for someone from the National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) . The NTSB employee confirmed that these were the flight recorders ( " black boxes " ) from American Airlines Flight 77 . Dick Bridges , deputy manager for Arlington County , Virginia , said the cockpit voice recorder was damaged on the outside and the flight data recorder was charred . Bridges said the recorders were found " right where the plane came into the building . "
The cockpit voice recorder was transported to the NTSB lab in Washington , D.C. , to see what data was salvageable . In its report , the NTSB identified the unit as an L @-@ 3 Communications , Fairchild Aviation Recorders model A @-@ 100A cockpit voice recorder — a device which records on magnetic tape . No usable segments of tape were found inside the recorder ; according to the NTSB 's report , " [ t ] he majority of the recording tape was fused into a solid block of charred plastic " . On the other hand , all the data from the flight data recorder , which used a solid @-@ state drive , was recovered .
= = = Continuity of operations = = =
At the moment of impact , Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld was in his office on the other side of the Pentagon , away from the crash site . He ran to the site and assisted the injured . Rumsfeld returned to his office , and went to a conference room in the Executive Support Center where he joined a secure videoteleconference with Vice President Dick Cheney and other officials . On the day of the attacks , DoD officials considered moving their command operations to Site R , a backup facility in Pennsylvania . Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld insisted he remain at the Pentagon , and sent Deputy Secretary Paul Wolfowitz to Site R. The National Military Command Center ( NMCC ) continued to operate at the Pentagon , even as smoke entered the facility . Engineers and building managers manipulated the ventilation and other building systems that still functioned to draw smoke out of the NMCC and bring in fresh air .
During a press conference held inside the Pentagon at 18 : 42 , Rumsfeld announced , " The Pentagon 's functioning . It will be in business tomorrow . " Pentagon employees returned the next day to offices in mostly unaffected areas of the building . By the end of September , more workers returned to the lightly damaged areas of the Pentagon .
= = Aftermath = =
Early estimates on rebuilding the damaged section of the Pentagon were that it would take three years to complete . However , the project moved forward at an accelerated pace and was completed by the one @-@ year anniversary of the attack . The rebuilt section of the Pentagon includes a small indoor memorial and chapel at the point of impact . An outdoor memorial , commissioned by the Pentagon and designed by Julie Beckman and Keith Kaseman , was completed on schedule for its dedication on September 11 , 2008 . Since September 11 , American Airlines continues to fly from Dulles International Airport to Los Angeles International Airport . The flight number 77 has been renumbered to 1736 , now using an Airbus 319 , departing at 8 : 30 in the morning .
= = = Security camera video = = =
On May 16 , 2006 , the Department of Defense released filmed footage that was recorded by a security camera of American Airlines Flight 77 crashing into the Pentagon , with a plane visible in one frame , as a " thin white blur " and an explosion following . The images were made public in response to a December 2004 Freedom of Information Act request by Judicial Watch . Some still images from the video had previously been released and publicly circulated , but this was the first official release of the edited video of the crash .
A nearby Citgo service station also had security cameras , but a video released on September 15 , 2006 did not show the crash because the camera was pointed away from the crash site .
The Doubletree Hotel , located nearby in Crystal City , Virginia , also had a security camera video . On December 4 , 2006 , the FBI released the video in response to a FOIA lawsuit filed by Scott Bingham . The footage is " grainy and the focus is soft , but a rapidly growing tower of smoke is visible in the distance on the upper edge of the frame as the plane crashes into the building " .
= = = Memorials = = =
On September 12 , 2002 , Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld and General Richard Myers , Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , dedicated the Victims of Terrorist Attack on the Pentagon Memorial at Arlington National Cemetery . The memorial specifically honors the five individuals for whom no identifiable remains were found . This included Dana Falkenberg , age three , who was aboard American Airlines Flight 77 with her parents and older sister . A portion of the remains of 25 other victims are also buried at the site . The memorial is a pentagonal granite marker 4 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) high . On five sides of the memorial along the top are inscribed the words " Victims of Terrorist Attack on the Pentagon September 11 , 2001 " . Aluminum plaques , painted black , are inscribed with the names of the 184 victims of the terrorist attack . The site is located in Section 64 , on a slight rise , which gives it a view of the Pentagon .
At the National September 11 Memorial , the names of the Pentagon victims are inscribed on the South Pool , on Panels S @-@ 1 and S @-@ 72 – S @-@ 76 .
The Pentagon Memorial , located just southwest of The Pentagon in Arlington County , Virginia , is a permanent outdoor memorial to the 184 people who died as victims in the building and on American Airlines Flight 77 during the September 11 attacks . Designed by Julie Beckman and Keith Kaseman of the architectural firm of Kaseman Beckman Advanced Strategies with engineers Buro Happold , the memorial opened on September 11 , 2008 , seven years after the attack .
= = Nationalities of people on the plane = =
Note : This list does not include the nationalities of the five hijackers .
= The Shortest Way with the Dissenters =
The Shortest @-@ Way with the Dissenters ; Or , Proposals for the Establishment of the Church is a pamphlet by Daniel Defoe , first published in 1702 . Defoe was prompted to write the pamphlet by the increased hostility towards Dissenters in the wake of the accession of Queen Anne to the throne .
It is written in the same style as the Tory publications that attacked Dissenters , and was assumed by some people to be a genuine vindication of their view . The pamphlet raised embarrassing questions about the handling of the issue by the Tory ministry , and led to Defoe 's arrest for seditious libel . His imprisonment , during which he fell into bankruptcy , was to have a lasting influence on his subsequent writings . In the years after his release , Defoe published several pamphlets that attempted to explain its purpose and his own views .
= = Background = =
In 1702 , King William III died , and Queen Anne succeeded to the thrones of England , Scotland and Ireland . She was markedly less tolerant than William of the device known as " occasional conformity " , whereby Dissenters could qualify as members of the Church of England — and thereby hold public office — by attending a church service once a year . Defoe was supportive of religious freedom , though he was critical of the device and considered it hypocrisy . He had written against it in a pamphlet entitled An enquiry into occasional conformity : Shewing that the dissenters are no way concern 'd in it ( 1698 )
In the same year , hostility towards Dissenters increased . A Bill against occasional conformity was passed through the House of Commons and debated in the Lords . Figures such as Henry Sacheverell , a High church clergyman , warned against Dissenters assuming positions of political power . His lead was followed by the Tory press , who published a number of sermons and pamphlets making similar arguments . In December , Defoe published his own pamphlet , The Shortest Way , assuming the same stylistic conventions as the Sacheverell and the Tory publications .
= = Synopsis = =
The Shortest Way with the Dissenters ; or , Proposals for the Establishment of the Church is a pamphlet consisting of twenty @-@ nine pages . It opens with the fable of the Cock and the Horses . The Cock , lacking any perch in the stable , is forced to rest on the ground and in fear of the Horses moving around and stepping on him , advises : “ Pray , Gentlefolks ! let us stand still ! for fear we should tread upon one another ! ” The speaker then applies this to the contemporary situation , with the Cock representing the Dissenters .
The next section accuses the Dissenters of involvement with various notorious and hideous events of the past century , including the English Civil War and Monmouth 's Rebellion . The accusations become increasingly sinister , and at points the speaker directly addresses the Dissenters ( " You have butchered one King ! deposed another King ! and made a Mock King of a third ! " ) . A brief history is given of how past monarchs — from James I to William III — have treated the Dissenters ; in the opinion of the speaker , it is too leniently .
The major section comprises a series of arguments for why the Dissenters should be treated favourably ( " They are very numerous " , " That this is a time of war " ) . The speaker denounces each in turn and offers several counter @-@ arguments , each gradually escalating in their severity . A vision is given of what will happen to the Church of England if it is not defended against the Dissenters . The pamphlet ends with a rallying call to action against the Dissenters in defence of the church ( " Now let us Crutcifie the Thieves . " )
= = Genre and style = =
The Shortest Way has traditionally been classified as a satire , although this has been disputed by scholars . Miriam Laurenbaum has suggested that it is instead a form of hoax or " banter " , and that Defoe does not use many of the features necessary for it to be considered a true satire . Paul Alkon describes the critical tradition surrounding the work as " asking mainly whether it is inadequate irony , deficient satire , or misused impersonation . " Ashley Marshall suggests that " The Shortest @-@ Way is best understood not as insufficiently ironic but as a counterfeit , an intentional fake not meant to be decoded . "
The difficulty for Defoe 's contemporaries in assessing whether the work was ironic was the proximity of the speaker 's voice to that of the High Anglicans whose views are being ridiculed . The pamphlet mixes both real observation and fabrication , and assumes the rhetorical style of his target . Defoe uses and imitates the language and metaphor of fanatical churchman , particularly Sacheverell 's sermons ; the speaker 's comparison of the Dissenters to vipers is one that Sacheverell often made . Although The Shortest Way does not parody the genre of the Anglican sermon , it does deploy some of the same structures ; the initial Aesopic fable of the Cock and the Horses is expanded upon in a way that parallels the use of a biblical quotation to initiate a sermon .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Upon its publication , The Shortest Way provoked immediate and passionate reactions from both sides of the debate . Some made use of it as a genuine vindication of the anti @-@ Dissenter opinion , although speculation later occurred over whether it was ironic . The pamphlet generated a great deal of publicity over the handling of the issue by the Tory ministry . This resulted in the issuing of a warrant by the High Tory Secretary of State for the Southern Department , the Earl of Nottingham , for the arrest of Defoe on the charge of seditious libel , the order being given to " … make Strict and diligent Search for Daniel Fooe and him having found you are to apprehend and seize together with his Papers for high Crime and misdemeanours and to bring him before me … "
Defoe was finally imprisoned on 21 May 1703 , after avoiding his summons and evading capture . He was fined , made to stand in the pillory on three occasions and remained in prison till November ; in the meantime , his business affairs sank into ruin . The whole affair left a lasting impression on him , which can be felt in his writings . In the years following his arrest and release , Defoe made several attempts to explain The Shortest Way and his own viewpoint . Amongst the series of explanatory pamphlets doing this are An Explanation of a Late Pamphlet , Entituled , The Shortest Way … ( 1703 ) and A Dialogue Between a Dissenter and the Observator ( 1703 ) . The suspected involvement of the Tory Speaker of the House , Robert Harley , in obtaining the release of Defoe is credited as the beginning of their professional relationship , in which Defoe worked as a propagandist for Harley , after he succeeded Nottingham as Secretary of State in 1704 .
Modern scholarly reception has considered The Shortest Way in negative terms , as a failed satire , or as using irony so slight as to be undetectable . Such a conclusion cites the contemporary reaction to the work , how it failed to deliver its objectives and also caused its author such problems . If critics have offered praise , it is the extent to which Defoe managed to impersonate the style of his subjects , so as to be indistinguishable from them . The Shortest Way is frequently contrasted with another work of irony in the eighteenth century , which is considered to have succeeded in its use of the device , Jonathan Swift 's A Modest Proposal ( 1729 ) .
= England national football team manager =
The role of an England national football team manager was first established in May 1947 with the appointment of Walter Winterbottom . Before this , the England team was selected by the " International Selection Committee " , a process in which the Football Association ( FA ) would select coaches and trainers from the league to prepare the side for single games , but where all decisions ultimately remained under the control of the committee . A 1 – 0 defeat by Switzerland prompted FA secretary Stanley Rous to raise Winterbottom from " National Director of coaching " to " Manager " .
Eighteen men have occupied the post since its inception ; four of those were in short @-@ term caretaker manager roles : Joe Mercer ( seven games in charge ) , Howard Wilkinson ( two games , a year apart from one another ) , Peter Taylor ( one game ) and Stuart Pearce ( one game ) . In comparison , Winterbottom held the position for the longest to date ; a tenure of 16 years , comprising four World Cups and a total of 139 matches . Alf Ramsey is the only manager to have won a major tournament , winning the 1966 World Cup with his " Wingless Wonders " . No other manager has progressed beyond the semi @-@ finals of a major competition before or since , with only two managers achieving a semi @-@ final appearance , Bobby Robson at the 1990 World Cup , and Terry Venables in the 1996 European Championship .
Swedish coach Sven @-@ Göran Eriksson became the first foreign manager of the team in January 2001 amid much acrimony ; he helped the team to three successive quarter @-@ finals in major championships . Italian manager Fabio Capello replaced Steve McClaren in December 2007 , after England failed to qualify for the 2008 European Championship . Capello 's side endured a lacklustre performance during the 2010 World Cup , but the FA confirmed that he would remain in the role . However , Capello resigned in February 2012 , following a disagreement with the FA over their removal of John Terry 's captaincy . He was replaced , on a caretaker basis , by Stuart Pearce , before Roy Hodgson was named as Capello 's permanent replacement in May 2012 . Hodgson resigned on the 27 June 2016 after England were knocked out of UEFA Euro 2016 by Iceland in the round of 16 . Sam Allardyce was announced as his successor a month later .
The England manager 's job is subject to intense press scrutiny , often including revelations about the incumbent 's private life . Due to the high level of expectation of both the public and media the role has been described as " the impossible job " or compared in importance in national culture to that of the British Prime Minister .
= = Position = =
= = = Role = = =
The England manager 's role means he has sole responsibility for all on @-@ the @-@ field elements of the England team . Among other activities , this includes selecting the national team squad , the starting team , captain , tactics , substitutes and penalty @-@ takers . Before 1946 , the " Select Committee " ( as appointed by the FA ) would manage all issues barring the actual match day team selection , formation and tactics which was left to the head coach for the event . However interference was common , and not only from the FA . After the Second World War , with the relaunch of competitive international calendar , the manager 's role expanded to take in all elements : from the selection of hotel and training camp venues , through to food and travel arrangements .
The manager is given a free hand in selecting his coaching ( " back room " ) staff . For example , in 2008 Fabio Capello appointed four Italians ( Franco Baldini as general manager , Italo Galbiati as assistant coach , Franco Tancredi as goalkeeping coach and Massimo Neri as fitness coach ) ; he then appointed Englishman Stuart Pearce , the England Under 21s coach , as an England coach , with Capello stating " From the start I made it clear that I wanted an English coach as part of my coaching team . "
The England manager may also involve himself in wider issues beyond the on @-@ the @-@ field team issues . The England manager is expected to advise the FA on how to approach the complex bidding system that surrounds the arrangement of fixtures for a qualifying campaign . On a more tactical level , a host of other details can be influenced ; Capello is even believed to have instructed the Wembley ball boys to return balls at speed when they go out of play .
= = = Appointment = = =
The process of appointing a new England manager is undertaken by an FA committee , comprising board members and other high @-@ ranking FA officials . For example , the members of the selection panel which appointed Sven @-@ Göran Eriksson in 2001 were : chief executive Adam Crozier , chairman Geoff Thompson , vice @-@ chairman Dave Richards , club chairmen and FA board members David Dein and Peter Ridsdale , and technical director Howard Wilkinson .
All eighteen England managers had played the game professionally . Of the sixteen Englishmen to hold the post of manager , six were never capped for the senior England team as a player ( Winterbottom , Greenwood , Wilkinson , Graham Taylor , McClaren , Allardyce ) . Of the eight that did , four earned caps numbering in double @-@ figures : Robson ( 20 ) , Ramsey ( 32 ) , Hoddle ( 53 ) , and Keegan ( 63 ) . Two also served as England captains , Ramsey ( 3 ) and Keegan ( 31 ) . Of the two foreign managers , only Capello played for a national team , earning 32 caps for Italy .
= = = National significance = = =
The England manager 's job has been compared in importance to that of the Prime Minister . Passion for football as England 's national sport is coupled with patriotism and Wembley Stadium as the " home " of football . The dismissal or appointment of an England manager is front page news and the subject of intense interest . Large sums are wagered on England winning , and during tournaments the country is festooned in St George 's flags ; during the 2006 World Cup , 27 % of English adults bought a flag in one month alone . Shops and offices will be deserted as vast numbers of people watch the game .
The England manager 's job is made more complex by his dependence on the co @-@ operation of clubs and their managers in releasing players for friendlies , and " club versus country " conflict is said to have happened when permission is refused , given reluctantly , or negotiated . There are also repeated comments that the length of the English season ( the top flight plays 38 league matches ) is unhelpful for preparing tired players for major tournaments , but the self @-@ interest of the Premier League makes a reduction in the number of games unlikely , particularly in light of the 2008 proposal for Game 39 , a match played between Premier League clubs outside the country . This combination of factors , coupled with England 's mediocre record in major championships has led to the England manager 's job being described as the " impossible job " .
= = History = =
= = = Full @-@ time era begins = = =
Before 1946 , the England national football team had been under the leadership of a Football Association official and a trainer , usually from a London club . Appointed in 1946 , initially as chief coach , Walter Winterbottom had been a member of the FA " International Selection Committee " . The England squad was selected by an FA committee during his tenure , with Winterbottom 's role restricted to selecting the starting team together with the coaching and tactics . In his first game as manager , he led England to a 7 – 2 victory over Ireland at Windsor Park , Belfast in the 1946 – 47 British Home Championship . Success in the Home Championship in 1950 resulted in England 's qualification to the 1950 World Cup in Brazil . During the tournament , England suffered a shock defeat against the United States , and went out of the tournament with another 1 – 0 defeat , this time to Spain .
England experienced another surprise upset under Winterbottom 's guidance in 1953 when Hungary defeated England 6 – 3 at Wembley Stadium . Winterbottom said afterwards , " ... The press tended to think we would win easily , but I tried to point out that the Hungarians were actually a great side . " He guided England to first place in the 1954 British Home Championship , which qualified the team for the 1954 World Cup in Switzerland , but saw his side knocked out in the quarter @-@ finals , going down 4 – 2 against Uruguay . Four wins from four matches enabled England 's qualification for the 1958 World Cup only for Winterbottom 's side to fail in the group play @-@ off stage , losing 1 – 0 to USSR . England lost to Brazil in the quarter @-@ final of the 1962 World Cup in Chile and , under attack from the British press , Winterbottom resigned five months later . He remains the longest serving manager of England .
= = = World Cup success = = =
Alf Ramsey took control of the team in 1962 , but unlike Winterbottom , Ramsey had been a club manager , winning the League championship with Ipswich Town . Upon his appointment , he declared England would win the 1966 World Cup . His first match in charge resulted in a 5 – 2 loss at Parc des Princes against France . England automatically qualified for the 1966 World Cup as hosts and , after a goalless draw in the first match against Uruguay , four consecutive victories saw England through to the final against West Germany . A 4 – 2 victory , after extra time , won England the World Cup for the only time . As a result of his and England 's achievements , Ramsey was awarded a knighthood in 1967 . The following year England finished third in the 1968 European Championship in Rome , but Ramsey reflected " We are world champions . Third place is not our real position . "
Automatic qualification for the 1970 World Cup was secured as world champions so Ramsey led England on a pre @-@ tournament tour of South America . The effects of altitude on the team led Ramsey to appoint the first full @-@ time team doctor , Neil Phillips , who helped prepare the squad for the forthcoming tournament in Mexico . England were defeated in the quarter @-@ final by West Germany ; with a 2 – 0 lead with 25 minutes of the match remaining , Ramsey substituted Bobby Charlton and goalscorer Martin Peters , but West Germany went on to win 3 – 2 after extra time . Ramsey was heavily criticised in the British press for the substitutions . Losing out to West Germany again , this time in a two @-@ legged qualifying quarter final in the 1972 European Championship , Ramsey prepared England for qualification for the 1974 World Cup . Needing a win against Poland , Ramsey 's tactical use of substitutions was again called into question as the match ended in a 1 – 1 draw . England had failed to qualify for the World Cup , and Ramsey was sacked the following May .
= = = Turbulent times = = =
Joe Mercer took control of the team on a caretaker basis for seven matches , before the FA appointed Don Revie on a five @-@ year contract . It was a year before Revie 's England suffered a defeat but despite this , he changed his starting line @-@ up for every game . His relationship with the FA had broken down and his team @-@ building exercises , including carpet bowls and indoor golf , led to disconsolation in the squad . A 2 – 0 defeat to the Netherlands at Wembley turned the press against him ; some commentators compared the loss to the 6 – 3 defeat by Hungary in 1953 . Convinced he was to be replaced by Bobby Robson , he announced he was to become manager of the United Arab Emirates team . Selling his story to the Daily Mail , he subsequently resigned on 11 July 1977 . Revie was charged with bringing the game into disrepute and was banned by the FA in a " kangaroo court " for ten years . On appeal to the High Court , the ban was overturned but the judge ordered Revie to pay two @-@ thirds of the costs . Brian Clough applied for the position in 1977 , but the FA rejected him and Ron Greenwood was appointed , initially as a temporary replacement for Revie , but later in 1977 on a permanent basis . Bobby Moore described him as " the encyclopaedia of football " , and he guided England to Euro 1980 without a defeat during qualification .
The team exited the tournament at the group qualifying stage and Greenwood turned his attention to qualification for the 1982 World Cup in Spain . Defeats in Switzerland and Romania led Greenwood to consider resignation , but a victory over Hungary convinced him to stay . A 2 – 1 defeat in Oslo , which led to commentator Bjørge Lillelien 's famous outburst concluding with " Your boys took a hell of a beating ! " , meant England required at least a point in their final qualifying game against Hungary . A Paul Mariner goal secured victory and qualification for the team . Wins over France , Czechoslovakia and Kuwait allowed England into the second round group but two 0 – 0 draws ended in England going out of the tournament , without having lost a game . Greenwood retired immediately after the World Cup and on 7 July 1982 , two days after England were knocked out of the 1982 World Cup , Bobby Robson was appointed England manager , selecting former West Bromwich Albion team @-@ mate Don Howe as his chief coach .
= = = Robson and " The Hand of God " = = =
Robson 's tenure included 28 qualifying matches , of which only one , against Denmark in 1983 , resulted in a defeat . This contributed to England 's failure to qualify for the 1984 European Championships , and Robson offered his resignation . It was rejected by the FA chairman , Bert Millichip , and Robson went on to lead the England team to qualify for the 1986 World Cup in Mexico . England were defeated in the quarter @-@ final by Argentina with a brace of goals from Diego Maradona ; the infamous " Hand of God " goal , and the " Goal of the Century " he scored five minutes later .
Robson 's England dropped only one point in qualifying for Euro 1988 , which included an 8 – 0 win over Turkey . However , this was followed by failure at the tournament itself , held in West Germany , where England were knocked out in the group stage . They finished bottom of their qualifying group , succumbing to defeats against Ireland , the Netherlands and the USSR . Robson was vilified by the British press , and after a draw in a friendly with Saudi Arabia , one newspaper demanded : " In the name of Allah , go " . Robson led England without conceding a goal through the six @-@ match qualification for the 1990 FIFA World Cup .
As in the 1986 World Cup , Robson was denied the service of his captain , Bryan Robson , who suffered an achilles tendon injury which prevented him playing in the latter stages of the tournament . England topped their qualifying group , accumulating four points from their three games . However their progress was not without controversy . England changed formation from their traditional 4 – 4 – 2 to incorporate a sweeper , with some sources suggesting this was due to player revolt after the 1 – 1 draw in the first match with the Republic of Ireland . Robson denies this claim in his autobiography . This was followed by victories over Belgium and Cameroon in the knock @-@ out stages , to set up a semi @-@ final with West Germany .
England lost the match on a penalty shoot @-@ out , after the score had been level at 1 – 1 following extra time . Robson 's last public appearance before his death from cancer was at the Sir Bobby Robson Trophy match in July 2009 , played between veterans from that 1990 semi @-@ final as a tribute to his life and in aid of his cancer charity .
= = = Controversial times = = =
Robson had announced before the tournament that he would step down from the post after the finals and Graham Taylor was appointed , having been approached in April 1990 by the FA . Failure to proceed past the group stage of Euro 1992 with a 2 – 1 defeat against Sweden led to newspaper headlines such as " Swedes 2 Turnips 1 " and Taylor 's nickname of " Turnip Head " . Following defeat to the Netherlands in the penultimate qualifying match for the 1994 World Cup , for only the third time in its history , England had failed to qualify for the World Cup . The qualifying campaign was recorded in an television documentary , and Taylor 's remark " Do I not like that " soon after entered popular culture .
Failure in the qualification resulted in Taylor resigning , and Terry Venables took over the helm in 1994 . As England were hosts for Euro 96 , he did not manage the team in a competitive match for over two years . In January 1996 , he announced that he would resign after the tournament as a result of several court cases , but led England to the semi @-@ finals , where they were defeated by Germany on penalties . He was replaced by Glenn Hoddle , whose unorthodox off @-@ the @-@ field approach in bringing in faith healer Eileen Drewery to help the team drew significant criticism . Hoddle suggested she was " more of an agony aunt " but during the 1998 World Cup , the press suggested Drewery had influenced Hoddle in squad selection . England were knocked out of the tournament in the second round , once again on penalties , this time against Argentina . Hoddle 's diary portraying his version of events at the World Cup was subsequently published , drawing further criticism .
An interview with Matt Dickinson , a reporter from The Times , suggested that Hoddle had a " controversial belief that the disabled , and others , are being punished for sins in a former life . " Hoddle 's comments were criticised by several notable politicians , including Sports Minister Tony Banks and Prime Minister Tony Blair . Hoddle stated that he was not prepared to resign and claimed his words were misinterpreted and pointed out his contributions and commitment to organisations helping the disabled . The Football Association terminated Hoddle 's contract soon afterwards , which was welcomed by representatives of disabled groups .
Howard Wilkinson was caretaker manager for two games , before the appointment of Kevin Keegan in February 1999 . Initially combining the job with a role at Fulham , Keegan was made full @-@ time coach in May . He led England to qualification for the 2000 European Championship following success in a two @-@ legged play @-@ off against Scotland . Two 3 – 2 losses resulted in England leaving the tournament at the group stage . A loss to Germany in the last international match at the old Wembley Stadium in the first 2002 World Cup qualifying match led to Keegan 's resignation . Keegan resigned in the Wembley toilets , an hour after the team was booed off by the England fans ; he told the FA officials that tactically he felt " a little short at this level " . Wilkinson again returned as caretaker for one more match , followed by Peter Taylor who presided over a friendly loss to Italy .
= = = Foreign management = = =
The FA then took the unprecedented , and widely criticised step of appointing the first non @-@ Englishman as coach , in the form of Swede Sven @-@ Göran Eriksson . Eriksson had a good record in European domestic football , with success in Portugal and Italy , and had led clubs to win the UEFA Cup on two occasions . He led England to qualify for the 2002 World Cup with David Beckham scoring the vital equaliser against Greece , deep into injury time . England were knocked out by Brazil in the quarter @-@ finals and Eriksson came under fire for his " ice @-@ cool " appearance on the touchline failing to inspire his team , senior player Gareth Southgate contemptuously remarking after the tournament that " we needed Winston Churchill but we got Iain Duncan Smith " .
Eriksson led England to qualification for the 2004 European Championship but once more the team fell at the quarter @-@ final stage , again losing on penalties , this time to Portugal . Losing 1 – 0 to Northern Ireland in Belfast during the qualification for the 2006 World Cup led to fans chanting " Sack the Swede " , frustrated again at the lack of obvious emotion in Eriksson while his coach , Steve McClaren was much more animated .
In January 2006 , the FA announced that Eriksson would stand down after the World Cup . With the team losing in the quarter @-@ final again to Portugal and again on penalties , Eriksson duly left the post in July . The search for Eriksson 's replacement was controversial . It became clear that the FA wanted to appoint Luiz Felipe Scolari , but the approach was botched , and Scolari turned down the offer . Ultimately , Eriksson was replaced by the man who had coached the side under him , Steve McClaren .
Qualification for the 2008 European Championship proved too much , England losing the final qualifier against Croatia 3 – 2 in November 2007 , when a draw would have been enough to take England to the finals . The British press turned on McClaren , former Scottish international Alan Hansen stating that " ... what McClaren should be held accountable for is that with a squad of this quality he failed to qualify from what seemed a reasonably straightforward group ... " . McClaren was sacked the day following the defeat to Croatia , and was replaced in December 2007 by Italian Fabio Capello .
Capello led England to qualification for the 2010 World Cup finals , winning nine of the team 's ten qualifying matches . However , the team 's performance in the tournament proper was less impressive . Two lacklustre draws in the group stage against the United States and Algeria were followed by an ignominious 4 – 1 defeat by traditional rivals Germany in the Round of 16 . The team 's performance was at least partly attributed to selection and tactical errors by Capello and led to calls for his dismissal . However , on 2 July , the FA confirmed that he would remain in the role until 2012 , with Capello himself confirming his intention to step down and retire after Euro 2012 .
Conflicting reports came out of the FA as to whether the next manager would be English . On 15 August 2010 , the FA 's Adrian Bevington stated to the BBC that " we should have an English manager after ( Euro 2012 ) " , but on 22 September , the FA 's Director of Football Development , Trevor Brooking , stated that " We would like to go English ( but ) we 've got to see what English people are available " . Two weeks later , Capello 's England qualified for Euro 2012 with a 2 – 2 draw away against Montenegro . In February 2012 , Capello resigned following the FA 's decision to remove the captaincy of the national side from John Terry , with Englishman Stuart Pearce taking over the role on a caretaker basis .
= = = FA appoints an Englishman = = =
Following a 3 – 2 defeat at Wembley by the Netherlands in March , Pearce was replaced on 1 May 2012 by then @-@ West Bromwich Albion manager Roy Hodgson on a four @-@ year contract . The build @-@ up to UEFA Euro 2012 saw Hodgson lead England to two 1 – 0 victories over Norway in Oslo and Belgium at Wembley . Despite being based in Kraków in Poland , England 's first fixture in Euro 2012 was in Donetsk against France , which ended in a 1 – 1 draw . Subsequent victories over Sweden and tournament co @-@ hosts Ukraine resulted in a quarter @-@ final match against Italy . The game ended goalless after extra time , sending the game to a penalty shootout which Italy won 4 – 2 . Hodgson claimed that England 's exit from major tournaments had become a " national obsession " . With a 2 – 0 victory over Poland in October 2013 , Hodgson led England to automatic qualification for the 2014 World Cup .
However , in the 2014 FIFA World Cup , England lost two consecutive group matches , against Italy and Uruguay , by 2 – 1 on each occasion . This was the first time England had lost two group matches since the 1950 World Cup ( when they lost against the United States and Spain ) and the first time England had been eliminated at the group stage since the 1958 World Cup . This was also the first time that England had not won a match at the tournament since 1958 , and England 's points total of one from three matches was its worst ever in the World Cup .
England qualified for the UEFA Euro 2016 in September 2015 , following a 6 – 0 win over San Marino . On 5 September 2015 , England beat San Marino 6 – 0 at San Marino Stadium , Serravalle , to qualify for the France Euro 2016 . On 27 June 2016 , after England were knocked out by Iceland in the round of 16 , Hodgson resigned as manager .
On 22 July , Sam Allardyce was appointed England manager on a two @-@ year contract .
= = Media reaction = =
The reaction of the British media to the England national team manager reflects the changing nature of the British media generally . In recent times , managers have been attacked personally , for their personal beliefs , or private lives .
= = = Personal attacks = = =
The press had long campaigned for changes in management style and / or replacement of the manager himself , but a watershed was reached under the tenure of Graham Taylor , whose unsuccessful reign led to the manager being pilloried in the tabloids . Most notably , The Sun newspaper reacted to a damaging defeat by Sweden in the Euro 92 tournament , by the accompaniment of the headline " Swedes 2 Turnips 1 " with a photographic montage of a turnip superimposed on Taylor 's head . Taylor was thereafter often referred to in the media as " Graham Turnip " or " Turnip Taylor " .
Subsequent footballing ignominies were then followed by other depictions of Taylor as a vegetable ; England 's first game after Euro 92 ended in a 1 – 0 defeat to Spain , and The Sun pictured Taylor as a " Spanish onion " . When he resigned , following the loss of the 1994 FIFA World Cup spot to Norway , they reverted to the turnip image , accompanying the front page headline , " That 's yer allotment " .
Following Roy Hodgson 's appointment , The Sun mocked his rhotacism speech impediment with a " Bwing on the Euwos ! " front page headline . The FA called the headline " unacceptable " and more than 100 people complained to the Press Complaints Commission .
= = = Issues @-@ based = = =
Glenn Hoddle attracted the media spotlight for two key issues unrelated to on @-@ the @-@ pitch affairs . In the first , his reliance upon purported faith healer Eileen Drewery was questioned . Drewery became part of the official England staff , and players were pressured to see her , even though many of them were sceptical . However , far more opprobrium was caused by Hoddle 's comments about disabled people :
Public opinion , based upon the immediate media furore resulted in ( according to one BBC poll ) 90 % of respondents believing Hoddle should not continue as English coach . However , the BBC survey showed that while many considered his comments insensitive to the disabled , others defended his right to express his religious beliefs by claiming that to sack him would constitute religious discrimination .
= = = Private life = = =
Eriksson 's private life came under scrutiny , with an number of well @-@ publicised accusations of trysts with women including Ulrika Jonsson , and FA secretary Faria Alam , despite his on @-@ going relationship with Nancy Dell '
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1994 online chat , " You all know there aren 't words , per se , to a lot of the early stuff . I can 't even remember them . " In truth , Stipe carefully crafted the lyrics to many early R.E.M. songs . Stipe explained in 1984 that when he started writing lyrics they were like " simple pictures " , but after a year he grew tired of the approach and " started experimenting with lyrics that didn 't make exact linear sense , and it 's just gone from there . " In the mid @-@ 1980s , as Stipe 's pronunciation while singing became clearer , the band decided that its lyrics should convey ideas on a more literal level . Mills explained , " After you 've made three records and you 've written several songs and they 've gotten better and better lyrically the next step would be to have somebody question you and say , are you saying anything ? And Michael had the confidence at that point to say yes . . . " Songs like " Cuyahoga " and " Fall on Me " on Lifes Rich Pageant dealt with such concerns as pollution . Stipe incorporated more politically oriented concerns into his lyrics on Document and Green . " Our political activism and the content of the songs was just a reaction to where we were , and what we were surrounded by , which was just abject horror , " Stipe said later . " In 1987 and ' 88 there was nothing to do but be active . " Stipe has since explored other lyrical topics . Automatic for the People dealt with " mortality and dying . Pretty turgid stuff " , according to Stipe , while Monster critiqued love and mass culture .
Peter Buck 's style of playing guitar has been singled out by many as the most distinctive aspect of R.E.M. ' s music . During the 1980s , Buck 's " economical , arpeggiated , poetic " style reminded British music journalists of 1960s American folk rock band The Byrds . Buck has stated " [ Byrds guitarist ] Roger McGuinn was a big influence on me as a guitar player " , but said it was Byrds @-@ influenced bands , including Big Star and The Soft Boys , that inspired him more . Comparisons were also made with the guitar playing of Johnny Marr of alternative rock contemporaries The Smiths . While Buck professed being a fan of the group , he admitted he initially criticized the band simply because he was tired of fans asking him if he was influenced by Marr , whose band had in fact made their debut after R.E.M. Buck generally eschews guitar solos ; he explained in 2002 , " I know that when guitarists rip into this hot solo , people go nuts , but I don 't write songs that suit that , and I am not interested in that . I can do it if I have to , but I don 't like it . " Mike Mills ' melodic approach to bass playing is inspired by Paul McCartney of The Beatles and Chris Squire of Yes ; Mills has said , " I always played a melodic bass , like a piano bass in some ways . . . I never wanted to play the traditional locked into the kick drum , root note bass work . " Mills has more musical training than his band mates , which he has said " made it easier to turn abstract musical ideas into reality . "
= = Legacy = =
R.E.M. was pivotal in the creation and development of the alternative rock genre . AllMusic stated , " R.E.M. mark the point when post @-@ punk turned into alternative rock . " In the early 1980s , the musical style of R.E.M. stood in contrast to the post @-@ punk and new wave genres that had preceded it . Music journalist Simon Reynolds noted that the post @-@ punk movement of the late 1970s and early 1980s " had taken whole swaths of music off the menu " , particularly that of the 1960s , and that " After postpunk 's demystification and New Pop 's schematics , it felt liberating to listen to music rooted in mystical awe and blissed @-@ out surrender . " Reynolds declared R.E.M. , a band that recalled the music of the 1960s with its " plangent guitar chimes and folk @-@ styled vocals " and who " wistfully and abstractly conjured visions and new frontiers for America " , one of " the two most important alt @-@ rock bands of the day . " With the release of Murmur , R.E.M. had the most impact musically and commercially of the developing alternative genre 's early groups , leaving in its wake a number of jangle pop followers .
R.E.M. ' s early breakthrough success served as an inspiration for other alternative bands . Spin referred to the " R.E.M. model " — career decisions that R.E.M. made which set guidelines for other underground artists to follow in their own careers . Spin 's Charles Aaron wrote that by 1985 , " They 'd shown how far an underground , punk @-@ inspired rock band could go within the industry without whoring out its artistic integrity in any obvious way . They 'd figured out how to buy in , not sellout @-@ in other words , they 'd achieved the American Bohemian Dream . " Steve Wynn of Dream Syndicate said , " They invented a whole new ballgame for all of the other bands to follow whether it was Sonic Youth or the Replacements or Nirvana or Butthole Surfers . R.E.M. staked the claim . Musically , the bands did different things , but R.E.M. was first to show us you can be big and still be cool . " Biographer David Buckley stated that between 1991 and 1994 , a period that saw the band sell an estimated 30 million albums , R.E.M. " asserted themselves as rivals to U2 for the title of biggest rock band in the world . " Over the course of its career , the band has sold over 85 million records worldwide .
Later alternative bands such as Nirvana , Pavement , Radiohead , Coldplay , Pearl Jam and Live , have drawn inspiration from R.E.M. ' s music . " When I was 15 years old in Richmond , Virginia , they were a very important part of my life , " Pavement 's Bob Nastanovich said , " as they were for all the members of our band . " Pavement devoted the song " Unseen Power of the Picket Fence " from the No Alternative compilation ( 1993 ) to discussing Chronic Town and Reckoning . Kurt Cobain of Nirvana was a vocal fan of R.E.M. , and had plans to collaborate on a musical project with Stipe before his death in April 1994 . Cobain told Rolling Stone in an interview earlier that year , " I don ’ t know how that band does what they do . God , they ’ re the greatest . They ’ ve dealt with their success like saints , and they keep delivering great music . "
= = Campaigning and activism = =
Throughout R.E.M. ' s career , its members sought to highlight social and political issues . According to the Los Angeles Times , R.E.M. was considered to be one of the United States ' " most liberal and politically correct rock groups . " The band 's members were " on the same page " politically , sharing a liberal and progressive outlook . Mills admitted that there was occasionally dissension between band members on what causes they might support , but acknowledged " Out of respect for the people who disagree , those discussions tend to stay in @-@ house , just because we 'd rather not let people know where the divisions lie , so people can 't exploit them for their own purposes . " An example is that in 1990 Buck noted that Stipe was involved with People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals , but the rest of the band were not .
R.E.M. helped raise funds for environmental , feminist and human rights causes , and were involved in campaigns to encourage voter registration . During the Green tour , Stipe took time during sets to inform the audience about a variety of pressing socio @-@ political issues . Through the late 1980s and 1990s , the band ( particularly Stipe ) increasingly used its media coverage on national television to mention a variety of causes it felt were important . One example is when the band attended the 1991 MTV Video Music Awards , during which Stipe wore a half @-@ dozen white shirts emblazoned with slogans including " rainforest " , " love knows no colors " , and " handgun control now " .
R.E.M. helped raise awareness of Aung San Suu Kyi and human rights violations in Burma , when they worked with the Freedom Campaign and the US Campaign for Burma . Stipe himself ran ads for the 1988 supporting Democratic presidential candidate and Massachusetts governor Michael Dukakis over then @-@ Vice President George H. W. Bush . In 2004 , the band participated in the Vote for Change tour that sought to mobilize American voters to support Democratic presidential candidate John Kerry . R.E.M. ' s political stance , particularly coming from a wealthy rock band under contract to a label owned by a multinational corporation , received criticism from former Q editor Paul Du Noyer , who criticized the band 's " celebrity liberalism " , saying , " It 's an entirely pain @-@ free form of rebellion that they 're adopting . There 's no risk involved in it whatsoever , but quite a bit of shoring up of customer loyalty . "
From the late 1980s , R.E.M. was involved in the local politics of its hometown of Athens , Georgia . Buck explained to Sounds in 1987 , " Michael always says think local and act local — we have been doing a lot of stuff in our town to try and make it a better place . " The band often donated funds to local charities and to help renovate and preserve historic buildings in the town . R.E.M. ' s political clout was credited with the narrow election of Athens mayor Gwen O 'Looney twice in the 1990s .
= = Members = =
Bill Berry – drums , percussion , backing vocals ( 1980 – 1997 ; guest performances in 2003 , 2005 , 2006 , 2007 , 2008 )
Peter Buck – guitar , mandolin , banjo ( 1980 – 2011 )
Mike Mills – bass guitar , backing vocals , piano , keyboards ( 1980 – 2011 )
Michael Stipe – lead vocals ( 1980 – 2011 )
Additional musicians
Buren Fowler – guitar ( 1984 – 1985 )
Peter Holsapple – guitar , keyboard , piano ( 1989 – 1991 )
Scott McCaughey – guitar , bass , keyboards , synthesizers , piano , vocals ( 1994 – 2011 )
Nathan December – guitar ( 1995 )
Ken Stringfellow – bass , guitar , keyboards , synthesizers , piano , vocals ( 1998 – 2007 )
Joey Waronker – drums ( 1998 – 2002 )
Barrett Martin – drums ( 2001 )
Bill Rieflin – drums ( 2003 – 2011 )
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Murmur ( 1983 )
Reckoning ( 1984 )
Fables of the Reconstruction ( 1985 )
Lifes Rich Pageant ( 1986 )
Document ( 1987 )
Green ( 1988 )
Out of Time ( 1991 )
Automatic for the People ( 1992 )
Monster ( 1994 )
New Adventures in Hi @-@ Fi ( 1996 )
Up ( 1998 )
Reveal ( 2001 )
Around the Sun ( 2004 )
Accelerate ( 2008 )
Collapse into Now ( 2011 )
= Terrible Towel =
The Terrible Towel is a rally towel associated with the Pittsburgh Steelers , an American football team in the National Football League ( NFL ) . The Terrible Towel has spread in popularity ; for example , fans take their Towel to famous sites while on vacation . The Towel has been taken to the peak of Mount Everest , and even into space on the International Space Station . It is widely recognized as a symbol of the Steelers and the city of Pittsburgh .
Proceeds from sales of the Towel have raised over US $ 3 million for Allegheny Valley School , which cares for people with mental disabilities and physical disabilities . The Terrible Towel is credited with being the first " rally towel " and its success has given rise to similar products promoting other teams .
Numerous versions have been produced ; almost all are black and gold in color with the words " Myron Cope 's Official The Terrible Towel " printed on the front . In October 2009 a pink Terrible Towel was introduced to promote Breast Cancer Awareness .
= = Origin = =
In 1975 the Steelers won the AFC Central title and qualified for the playoffs . WTAE was the team 's flagship radio station . Two weeks prior to the Steelers ' first playoff game , WTAE 's Vice President and General Manager , Ted J. Atkins , and President of Sales , Larry Garrett , said that they needed the assistance of Myron Cope , the Steelers radio broadcaster , in inventing a " gimmick " which would attract sponsors to his daily commentaries and talk show . Initially , Cope did not want to participate , saying " I am not a gimmick guy , never have been a gimmick guy . " However , after Garrett 's suggestion that a successful gimmick would be good leverage for a raise in Cope 's upcoming contract renewal , Cope replied , " I 'm a gimmick guy . "
The three men , along with other radio station advertising personnel , began brainstorming ideas . One idea , a black mask including coach Chuck Noll 's motto " Whatever it takes " , was deemed too expensive . Cope said the gimmick should be something " lightweight and portable and already owned by just about every fan . " Garrett suggested using towels . Cope agreed , suggesting the words " The Terrible Towel " be printed on the front . It was agreed that the towels would be gold or yellow , with the writing in black — the colors of the Steelers . Franklin C. Snyder , who was head of WTAE 's radio and television stations , held the final approval of the idea . He approved the idea on the stipulation that black towels would also be allowed , in order to avoid accusations of racism from the FCC ; Cope and Garrett agreed .
In the weeks leading up to the game , Cope advertised the idea of the towel to fans on the radio and evening television news , using the phrase " The Terrible Towel is poised to strike ! " However , Atkins grew nervous that fans would think the towel was a jinx if the Steelers lost the game . Cope agreed to poll players on their view of the towel . Linebacker Jack Ham told Cope , " I think your idea stinks " ; Ernie " Fats " Holmes was also against the idea . Also against the idea of the Towel was Andy Russell , who mirrored Cope 's original thoughts , " We 're not a gimmick team . We 've never been a gimmick team . " Cope simply replied , " Russell , you 're sick . " Growing nervous about the negative feedback , Cope , who had already advertised the towel on the news multiple times , polled the rest of the players with a " banana @-@ republic vote " .
The Towel made its debut on December 27 , 1975 , in a playoff game against the Baltimore Colts . Prior to the game , Cope , whose idea had been mocked by the local Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette , watched the gathering fans through his binoculars from the broadcast booth . He saw less than a dozen towels while players were going through pre @-@ game warm @-@ ups . Cope recalls , " Nearing kickoff , the Steelers gathered in their tunnel for introductions , whereupon the crowd exploded — and suddenly , by my estimation , 30 @,@ 000 Terrible Towels twirled from the fists of fans around the stadium ! " The Steelers went on to defeat the Colts 28 – 10 . In the following weeks , the team defeated the Oakland Raiders and Dallas Cowboys , to capture the franchise 's second consecutive Super Bowl victory . Even while the Steelers struggled through the 1980s , the Towel remained a large part of the franchise . During the Towel 's debut game Andy Russell , who had opposed the idea of the Towel , returned a fumble 93 ‒ yards for a touchdown . The play inspired local fan Lisa Benz to write about the Towel , which she later sent to Cope . In part , her poem read :
= = Appearance = =
The Towel has been redesigned multiple times , as well as spawning its own line of paraphernalia . The line , known as " Terrible Stuff " , includes T @-@ shirts , license plates , pillows , earrings , and beach towels ; all include The Terrible Towel logo . When originally released , the towel was available in gold and black , was a simple design and had the words " the terrible towel " printed on the front . The current version of the Towel , introduced in 1998 , adds the words " Myron Cope 's Official " on the top and " A Pittsburgh Original " at the bottom and are of a Gold color . Towels with a plethora of variations are also in production ; such variations include Towels featuring the Steelers logo , embroidered lettering , and towels with reversed colors featuring yellow writing on a black towel . Throughout the years there have also been many special edition Towels . After the Steelers won Super Bowl XL in 2005 , a Towel with the words " Super Bowl XL Champions " , the date , final score , and Super Bowl XL logo was released . The victory also spawned the production of a Towel featuring the logos of the six Super Bowls that the franchise has won . During the Steelers ' 75th anniversary season in 2007 , a special edition Towel with the logo of the Steelers ' benchmark season was added to the line @-@ up of Towels . The original 1975 – 1997 Terrible Towel is sold as a throwback on the Steelers official website . A giant Terrible Towel measuring 54 ' x 90 ' was introduced at the 2014 home opener at Heinz Field and was " waved " by the 144 fans holding it .
= = Rights , marketing and proceeds = =
Upon the sudden popularity of the Terrible Towel , Pittsburgh @-@ area department stores sold out all gold and black hand towels . Because the hand towels were often sold as a set , with matching bath towels , stores were left with un @-@ even sets . In the fall of 1978 , Bernard Pollock , divisional marketing manager of Gimbel 's Department Store came up with the idea of putting a Terrible Towel logo on hand towels and sold the idea to Cope . The first Terrible Towels hit the marketplace on December 20 , 1978 at $ 6 apiece . Gimbel 's could not stock them fast enough . Gimbel 's has since gone out of business . The original version of The Terrible Towel was manufactured by Fieldcrest and distributed by St. Mary 's Inc. of New York and was available in two colors : Gold and Black . The current manufacturer of the Towel is Little Earth Productions , Inc. of Pittsburgh , who took over from McArthur Towel & Sports Co. of Baraboo , Wisconsin in 2013 . The current cost of a towel is approximately $ 10 .
In 1996 , Cope gave the rights to The Terrible Towel to the Allegheny Valley School in Coraopolis , Pennsylvania . The school provides care for more than 900 people with mental retardation and physical disabilities , including Cope 's autistic son , Danny . Proceeds from the Terrible Towel have helped raise more than $ 2 @.@ 2 million for the school . During the 2005 season , when the Steelers won their fifth Super Bowl , more than 1 million Towels were sold ; some fans bought 200 Towels at a time .
= = Widespread recognition = =
Upon its invention , Cope commented on the multi @-@ functional ability of The Terrible Towel , " I 'll tell ' em they can use the towel to wipe their seats clean . They can use it as a muffler against the cold . They can drape it over their heads if it rains . " However , the towel is often used by fans who do not attend games . Fans often drape the towel over their radios or television sets ; some even dress their pets or babies with it .
It has become a tradition for Steelers fans to take Terrible Towels on vacation , taking pictures next to well @-@ known tourist destinations . Fans have taken the Towel to locations such as the Great Wall of China , the South Pole , Vatican City , and to the top of Mount Kilimanjaro . Hampton native Kevin Cherilla took his Terrible Towel during his climb to the peak of Mount Everest .
Military personnel have taken pictures with the Towel while stationed in Iraq and Afghanistan as part of the War on Terrorism . Fans waved Terrible Towels at the gold medal match for Women 's beach volleyball at the 2008 Olympic Games . Prior to the 2008 AFC Championship Game astronaut Colonel Mike Fincke , a Pittsburgh Native , waved the Terrible Towel from the International Space Station . The Terrible Towel is seen in the Scrubs season five episode " My Bright Idea " , hanging on the cork board of Carla and Turk 's apartment as she comes out of the bathroom after performing what she believes to be another unsuccessful pregnancy test . During her campaign for the 2008 Presidential Election , Hillary Clinton received a Terrible Towel during a visit to Pittsburgh . During the 2009 G @-@ 20 Pittsburgh summit , visiting dignitaries received Terrible Towels in gift bags from the city . The Terrible Towel is displayed prominently and waved by Rapper Wiz Khalifa in the music video for his song Black and Yellow , which debuted during the 2010 NFL season . The Terrible Towel made an episode in season 12 of Dancing with the Stars on March 21 , 2011 . After Hines Ward danced , Hall of Fame Pittsburgh Steelers running back Franco Harris is seen twirling the towel .
= = = Honoring Cope = = =
In 2005 , Cope retired after 35 years as the Steelers radio announcer — the longest tenure of any broadcaster with a single team in NFL history . Cope was honored by the Steelers with the release of a limited special edition Towel , featuring his name and catch phrases . Cope was made an honorary co @-@ captain for the Steelers for a Monday night game against the Baltimore Ravens . Cope led the fans in a towel wave at half time ; the Towel that Cope used is now in the Pro Football Hall of Fame .
In response to how he would like to be remembered , Cope responded , " When I kick the bucket , there 'll be a little story that 'll say , ' Creator of Towel Dead ' " . On February 27 , 2008 , Cope died of respiratory failure in Pittsburgh . The following day , an article from the Associated Press concerning Cope 's death was entitled " Former Steelers broadcaster , Terrible Towel creator Cope dies " . Upon Cope 's death , over 350 fans gathered downtown Pittsburgh in snowy weather for a tribute to the inventor . The ceremony concluded with one minute of silent Towel waving . Days later , Saturday Night Live cast member Seth Meyers waved a Terrible Towel on Saturday Night Live , in tribute to Cope .
When Mr. Cope died in 2008 , his daughter draped his coffin with a quilt made from Terrible Towels that were sewn together by a fan . She chose the quilt because it represents the many different people who touched their lives .
= = = Opposition = = =
Before a 1994 playoff game against the Steelers ' long @-@ time rival Cleveland Browns , Steelers defensive tackle Brentson Buckner accidentally dropped a Towel that he was waving during the player introductions . Browns running back Earnest Byner stepped on the Towel yelling , " We don 't care about your towel . We 're going to beat you this time . " This act " provok [ ed ] other Steelers and Browns to mingle . Not affectionately . " The Steelers won the game 29 – 9 .
During a December 4 , 2005 , game at Heinz Field , T. J. Houshmandzadeh of the Cincinnati Bengals wiped his feet on a Towel after he scored a touchdown . Although the Bengals managed a 7 @-@ point victory in that regular season game , the Steelers came back to defeat them 31 – 17 in the playoffs , on their way to a victory in Super Bowl XL . The Bengals did not reach the playoffs again until the 2009 @-@ 10 season , after Houshmandzadeh had left the team .
Before the September 29 , 2008 , Steelers game at Heinz Field , Baltimore Ravens wide receiver Derrick Mason stomped on a Terrible Towel . The Ravens then went on to lose all three of their 2008 season games against the Steelers , including the 2008 AFC Championship Game .
On October 8 , 2008 , the Steelers played the Jacksonville Jaguars at Jacksonville Municipal Stadium . At that point of their season , the Jaguars were 2 @-@ 2 @-@ 0 , and feeling very hopeful for the season following a defeat at home of their division rival Colts . The game was very close going into the second half , and the Steelers were still stinging from a Mathis interception and runback for a touchdown . Shortly after the start of the third quarter , Jaguars mascot Jaxson de Ville stood alongside some cheerleaders , and produced a Terrible Towel , which he used to rub his armpits and buttocks . Shortly after that , the Steelers ran away with the game and the Jaguars lost 26 @-@ 21 . The Jaguars went on to lose eight of their remaining eleven games in the season .
On December 21 , 2008 , LenDale White and Keith Bulluck of the Tennessee Titans stepped on a Terrible Towel after the Titans 's 31 – 14 victory . Pittsburgh 's Larry Foote responded , " They deserved to do that , they whooped us , they deserve to celebrate and , hopefully , we 'll see them again . " While Hines Ward said , " [ T. J. Houshmandzadeh ] did kind of the same thing and you see where they went . " Former Steelers head coach Bill Cowher , by this point working for CBS as an analyst on The NFL Today , mentioned on The NFL Today that such antics can come back to haunt teams . Tennessee was the top seed in the playoffs , however following the incident the Titans proceeded to lose eight consecutive games , including an ' 08 divisional playoff game and their ' 09 Week 1 game against the Steelers , 13 @-@ 10 . After the Titan 's 8th consecutive loss — a 59 @-@ 0 blowout to the New England Patriots , the Titans worst loss ever — Titans coach Jeff Fisher expressed regret for his team 's behavior towards the Towel , and a number of Titans players autographed a Terrible Towel and mailed it to Allegheny Valley School – the Pittsburgh charity that now owns the trademark . The Titans won their next 5 games .
On January 27 , 2009 , at a public sendoff in Phoenix for the Arizona Cardinals before they faced the Steelers in Super Bowl XLIII , Phoenix Mayor Phil Gordon produced a towel and called the Cardinals mascot , Big Red to the stage , where he used the towel to wipe his armpits . Gordon then blew his nose on the towel . The Cardinals then proceeded to lose the Super Bowl to the Steelers , 27 @-@ 23 .
On October 11 , 2009 , the Pittsburgh Steelers played the Detroit Lions at Ford Field . Nearing the end of the fourth quarter the Steelers were up by 8 points and the Lions were marching down the field . At this time the Lions mascot Roary The Lion , stepped on , bit and ripped apart a Terrible Towel . Following this the Lions suffered three straight sacks to put them in a long fourth and twenty @-@ eight situation . The Lions did not convert and the Steelers won the game 28 @-@ 20 .
Several Blue and White " Terrific Towels " were made for the Indianapolis Colts ' in the 2009 season playoffs , one of which received some airtime during their AFC championship victory . The Colts subsequently lost Super Bowl XLIV to the New Orleans Saints .
After a 13 @-@ 10 Ravens win in Pittsburgh on November 18 , 2012 Ray Rice walked off the field waving a Terrible Towel over his head and singing Steelers rally song " Renegade " with teammates . Rice publicly stated after the game that no disrespect was intended . Two weeks later on December 2 , the Ravens lost to the Steelers 23 @-@ 20 despite being at home and facing Pittsburgh 's third @-@ string quarterback , Charlie Batch . Losing 4 of their last 5 games notwithstanding , Baltimore would go on to win the AFC North and follow that with a playoff run to become Super Bowl XLVII Champions , giving them the distinction of being the first and only team in NFL history to have shown disrespect toward the Terrible Towel and win the Super Bowl . However , prior to the 2014 season , Ray Rice was suspended due to a domestic violence incident in the offseason and was subsequently released and has not been signed by another team since .
On an October 5 , 2014 game between the Steelers and the Jacksonville Jaguars at EverBank Field , in which the Steelers won 17 @-@ 9 , Jaguars mascot Jaxson de Ville was seen holding a Terrible Towel on one hand and a handwritten sign that reads " Towels Carry Ebola " on the other hand , mentioning the deadly outbreak that started in West Africa . The next day , the Jaguars issued an apology for the incident , but would go on to lose 13 of their next 17 games .
On February 7 , 2016 , the Florida Panthers ' mascot , Stanley C Panther , blew his nose into a Terrible Towel , with the Pittsburgh Penguins down 0 @-@ 2 with around 6 mins left in the 3rd period . After this , the Penguins then tied the game in regulation , and won it in overtime . According to Elias Sports Bureau , this was the first time in Pittsburgh Penguins franchise history that they have overcome a 2 @-@ 0 deficit to win with 6 mins left in the game . Kris Letang scored the OT winner , and Sidney Crosby tied the game with the goaltender pulled late in regulation . Including the game against the Penguins , the Panthers are 1 @-@ 4 since the incident .
= = Similar gimmicks = =
During his coaching career from 1922 to 1964 , E. A. Diddle of Western Kentucky University began carrying a red towel with him during the basketball games he coached . Diddle would wave and throw the towel during games , and the concept was adopted by fans of the college . It became an official part of the school logo in 1971 . Fans of the undefeated 1972 Miami Dolphins cheered the team by waving the " Horrible Hanky " — white handkerchiefs . However , the handkerchiefs were deemed " too dainty " for football , and the tradition faded . " Hate the Yankees Hankies " , in reference to the franchise 's rivalry with the New York Yankees , were handkerchiefs distributed to Cleveland Indians fans in September 1977 in a promotion .
The Terrible Towel is traditionally known as the first " rally towel " ; its popularity has spawned similar traditions for other teams . Fans of the Minnesota Twins cheer the team with the " Homer Hanky " during the playoffs . The Philadelphia Phillies have distributed white towels to fans during home games . During a 2006 playoff game against the Steelers , the Indianapolis Colts handed out blue towels to rally fans , however , Pittsburgh went on to win the game . In a 2000 preseason game , played in Mexico City , many fans that filled the 100 @,@ 000 seat Aztec Stadium waved Towels . Cope , glad that the Allegheny Valley School would receive a sizable donation from the proceeds , was later disappointed to learn the towels waved by the fans were " knockoffs " made by local artists , and therefore no proceeds would go to the school . In 2008 , the NFL approved a white towel entitled the Trophy Towel , which will be sold to fans and given to the winning team of Super Bowl XLIII . Members of the Steelers criticized the idea , broadcaster Bill Hillgrove — who worked with Cope — called the idea " a cheap imitation . " Steelers player Aaron Smith stated , " It started here , so why would anyone else want to have a towel ? Why not kazoos ? " During the 2010 Memorial Cup the host committee made up 8 @,@ 000 yellow towels to represent the host team , the Brandon Wheat Kings , who played the Moncton Wildcats . Many fans brought the towels back for games after that .
= Invasion of Dominica =
The Invasion of Dominica ( 7 September 1778 ) was a successful French invasion of the island of Dominica in the British West Indies , during the Anglo @-@ French War . The action took place before British authorities in the Caribbean were aware that France had entered the war as an ally of the United States of America . The French governor in the West Indies , François Claude Amour , marquis de Bouillé , was notified on 17 August that France was at war , and organized the invasion , infiltrating spies to rally sympathetic French @-@ speaking Dominican support .
Early on 7 September 1778 , French forces landed on the southeastern coast of the island . They rapidly took over some of the island 's defenses , and eventually gained control of the high ground overlooking the island capital , Roseau . Lieutenant Governor William Stuart then surrendered the remaining forces . Dominica remained in French hands until the end of the war , when it was returned to British control .
= = Background = =
Following the pivotal Battles of Saratoga in October 1777 and the ensuing surrender of British General John Burgoyne 's army , France decided to openly enter the American War of Independence as an ally of the young United States of America . France 's objectives in entering the war included the recovery of territories that had been lost to Britain in the Seven Years ' War . One key territory that was of particular interest was the West Indies island of Dominica , which lay between French @-@ held Martinique and Guadeloupe , and had been captured by Britain in 1761 . Recapture of the island would improve communication among the islands , and deny the use of Dominican ports to privateers who preyed on French shipping .
On Dominica , Governor Thomas Shirley had been concerned about the island 's security since the war began in 1775 . Operating against instructions from colonial authorities in London to minimize expenses for defence , he had pushed forward the improvement of a fort at Cachacrou and other sites . This work was incomplete when Shirley took leave in June 1778 , sailing for England . Command was left with Lieutenant Governor William Stuart , and work to improve the defenses was still incomplete in August 1778 , when François Claude Amour , marquis de Bouillé , the governor of the French West Indies , received word that war had been declared .
= = Prelude = =
The French frigate Concorde reached Martinique on August 17 with orders from Paris to take Dominica at the earliest opportunity , and de Bouillé made immediate plans for such an operation . He had maintained contacts in the Dominican population , which had remained largely French during the years of British administration . As a result he had an accurate picture of the condition of the Dominican defenses , and knew that the island 's garrison numbered fewer than " fifty soldiers fit for duty " . He was also concerned with the whereabouts of the British Leeward Islands fleet of Admiral Samuel Barrington , which was significantly more powerful than his own . Unbeknownst to de Bouillé , Barrington , who had only recently assumed his post , was under orders to retain most of his fleet at Barbados until further instructions were received . The British regular forces on the island , which in total numbered about 100 , were distributed among defences in the capital Roseau , the hills that overlooked it , and at Cachacrou .
De Bouillé carefully maintained a facade of peace in his dealings with Dominican authorities while he began preparing his forces on Martinique . On 2 September he and Stuart signed an agreement that formally prohibited privateering crews from plundering . The next day de Bouillé sent one of his officers to Dominica to see whether a Royal Navy frigate was still anchored in Prince Rupert 's Bay ( near present @-@ day Portsmouth ) . Stuart , suspicious of the man , had him questioned and then released . On 5 September de Bouillé was informed that the frigate had sailed for Barbados . He immediately moved to launch his invasion . Some Frenchmen ( some British sources suggest they were French soldiers infiltrated onto the island ) gained entry to the battery at Cachacrou that evening , plied its garrison with drink , and poured sand into the touchholes of the fort 's cannons , temporarily rendering them useless . De Bouillé had in fact infiltrated some agents onto the island who had convinced some of the local French @-@ speaking militia to abandon their duties when called up .
= = Invasion = =
After sunset on 6 September , 1 @,@ 800 French troops and 1 @,@ 000 volunteers departed Martinique aboard the frigates Tourterelle , Diligente , and Amphitrite , the corvette Étourdie , and a flotilla of smaller vessels . ( Sources describing the action give significantly varying numbers for the size of the French force . The numbers here are from de Bouillé 's report of the action ; some British sources claim his force numbered as much as 4 @,@ 500 . ) The first point of attack was the battery at Cachacrou , where the British garrison , befuddled by drink and with inoperative cannons , was overcome without significant resistance around dawn on 7 September . Two of the 48th Regiment 's soldiers were driven over the ramparts and fell to their deaths . After securing the battery the French fired cannons and sent signal rockets skyward to signal their allies . These actions also alerted Stuart at Roseau , and the alarm was immediately raised . Many of the French Dominican militia failed to muster , as arranged . About 100 militia ended up mustering for duty , and were deployed among Roseau 's defenses .
The French proceeded to land more troops between Cachacrou and Roseau , with the objective of gaining the high ground above the capital . The main force of 1 @,@ 400 men was landed about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south of Roseau near Pointe Michel , with heavy fire from the hill batteries resulting in 40 casualties . De Bouillé landed with another 600 at Loubiere , between Pointe Michel and Roseau , while another 500 landed north of Roseau , and the fleet 's frigates moved to bombard Roseau 's defenses . The French briefly captured the coastal fort at Loubiere , but were three times driven out by fire from above . They ended up withdrawing until forces were able to reach and capture the hill batteries . By noon , the French occupied the high ground above the capital , and Stuart realized the situation was hopeless .
Negotiations followed , and Stuart and de Bouillé signed the terms of capitulation at about 3 : 00 pm . The proceedings were interrupted by one of the French frigates , whose captain , apparently unaware of the proceedings , fired on Fort Young , where the British flag was still flying . The two commanders rushed to the fort to prevent further exchanges of gunfire before they completed the agreement . The French then formally took control of Roseau . The British regulars were made prisoners of war , and the militia were released to return home . De Bouillé , who was interested in keeping on good terms with the population , did not allow his troops to plunder the town . Instead , he levied a fee of £ 4 @,@ 400 on the island 's population that was distributed among his men .
= = Aftermath = =
De Bouillé in official correspondence claimed the French suffered no casualties . Stuart reported that the French appeared to be concealing the casualties that occurred during the invasion . De Bouillé left a garrison of 800 ( 700 French regulars and 100 free black militia ) on the island , turned its command over to the Marquis de Duchilleau , and returned to Martinique .
News of Dominica 's fall was received with surprise in London . Considering a single ship of the line might have prevented the attack , Admiral Barrington was widely blamed for the loss , and criticized for adhering too closely to his orders . The orders and reinforcements whose late arrival had held Barrington at Barbados were to launch an attack on St. Lucia , which took place in December 1778 . These events were the first in a series of military actions resulting in the change of control of Caribbean islands during the war , in which de Bouillé was often involved . Thomas Shirley was appointed Governor of the Leeward Islands in 1781 , and was taken prisoner by de Bouillé in the 1782 British surrender of Saint Kitts .
Dominica remained in French hands until 1784 , when , much to de Bouillé 's annoyance , it was returned to British control under the terms of the 1783 Treaty of Paris . The fact that the French had supplied natives and mixed @-@ blood locals with arms during the invasion caused problems for the British . These local forces , who were previously somewhat pacific , resisted British attempts to expand their holdings on the island , leading to expanded conflict in 1785 .
= Flexible @-@ fuel vehicle =
A flexible @-@ fuel vehicle ( FFV ) or dual @-@ fuel vehicle ( colloquially called a flex @-@ fuel vehicle ) is an alternative fuel vehicle with an internal combustion engine designed to run on more than one fuel , usually gasoline blended with either ethanol or methanol fuel , and both fuels are stored in the same common tank . Modern flex @-@ fuel engines are capable of burning any proportion of the resulting blend in the combustion chamber as fuel injection and spark timing are adjusted automatically according to the actual blend detected by a fuel composition sensor . Flex @-@ fuel vehicles are distinguished from bi @-@ fuel vehicles , where two fuels are stored in separate tanks and the engine runs on one fuel at a time , for example , compressed natural gas ( CNG ) , liquefied petroleum gas ( LPG ) , or hydrogen .
The most common commercially available FFV in the world market is the ethanol flexible @-@ fuel vehicle , with about 49 million automobiles , motorcycles and light duty trucks manufactured and sold worldwide by mid 2015 , and concentrated in four markets , Brazil ( 29 @.@ 5 million by mid 2015 ) , the United States ( 17 @.@ 4 million by the end of 2014 ) , Canada ( 1 @.@ 6 million by 2014 ) , and Europe , led by Sweden ( 243 @,@ 100 ) . The Brazilian flex fuel fleet includes over 4 million flexible @-@ fuel motorcycles produced since 2009 through March 2015 . In addition to flex @-@ fuel vehicles running with ethanol , in Europe and the US , mainly in California , there have been successful test programs with methanol flex @-@ fuel vehicles , known as M85 flex @-@ fuel vehicles . There have been also successful tests using P @-@ series fuels with E85 flex fuel vehicles , but as of June 2008 , this fuel is not yet available to the general public . These successful tests with P @-@ series fuels were conducted on Ford Taurus and Dodge Caravan flexible @-@ fuel vehicles .
Though technology exists to allow ethanol FFVs to run on any mixture of gasoline and ethanol , from pure gasoline up to 100 % ethanol ( E100 ) , North American and European flex @-@ fuel vehicles are optimized to run on E85 , a blend of 85 % anhydrous ethanol fuel with 15 % gasoline . This upper limit in the ethanol content is set to reduce ethanol emissions at low temperatures and to avoid cold starting problems during cold weather , at temperatures lower than 11 ° C ( 52 ° F ) . The alcohol content is reduced during the winter in regions where temperatures fall below 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) to a winter blend of E70 in the U.S. or to E75 in Sweden from November until March . Brazilian flex fuel vehicles are optimized to run on any mix of E20 @-@ E25 gasoline and up to 100 % hydrous ethanol fuel ( E100 ) . The Brazilian flex vehicles are built @-@ in with a small gasoline reservoir for cold starting the engine when temperatures drop below 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) . An improved flex motor generation was launched in 2009 which eliminated the need for the secondary gas tank .
= = Terminology = =
As ethanol FFVs became commercially available during the late 1990s , the common use of the term " flexible @-@ fuel vehicle " became synonymous with ethanol FFVs . In the United States flex @-@ fuel vehicles are also known as " E85 vehicles " . In Brazil , the FFVs are popularly known as " total flex " or simply " flex " cars . In Europe , FFVs are also known as " flexifuel " vehicles . Automakers , particularly in Brazil and the European market , use badging in their FFV models with the some variant of the word " flex " , such as Volvo Flexifuel , or Volkswagen Total Flex , or Chevrolet FlexPower or Renault Hi @-@ Flex , and Ford sells its Focus model in Europe as Flexifuel and as Flex in Brazil . In the US , only since 2008 FFV models feature a yellow gas cap with the label " E85 / Gasoline " written on the top of the cap to differentiate E85s from gasoline only models .
Flexible @-@ fuel vehicles ( FFVs ) are based on dual @-@ fuel systems that supply both fuels into the combustion chamber at the same time in various calibrated proportions . The most common fuels used by FFVs today are unleaded gasoline and ethanol fuel . Ethanol FFVs can run on pure gasoline , pure ethanol ( E100 ) or any combination of both . Methanol has also been blended with gasoline in flex @-@ fuel vehicles known as M85 FFVs , but their use has been limited mainly to demonstration projects and small government fleets , particularly in California .
Bi @-@ fuel vehicles . The term flexible @-@ fuel vehicles is sometimes used to include other alternative fuel vehicles that can run with compressed natural gas ( CNG ) , liquefied petroleum gas ( LPG ; also known as autogas ) , or hydrogen . However , all these vehicles actually are bi @-@ fuel and not flexible @-@ fuel vehicles , because they have engines that store the other fuel in a separate tank , and the engine runs on one fuel at a time . Bi @-@ fuel vehicles have the capability to switch back and forth from gasoline to the other fuel , manually or automatically . The most common available fuel in the market for bi @-@ fuel cars is natural gas ( CNG ) , and by 2008 there were 9 @,@ 6 million natural gas vehicles , led by Pakistan ( 2 @.@ 0 million ) , Argentina ( 1 @.@ 7 million ) , and Brazil ( 1 @.@ 6 million ) . Natural gas vehicles are a popular choice as taxicabs in the main cities of Argentina and Brazil . Normally , standard gasoline vehicles are retrofitted in specialized shops , which involve installing the gas cylinder in the trunk and the CNG injection system and electronics .
Multifuel vehicles are capable of operating with more than two fuels . In 2004 GM do Brasil introduced the Chevrolet Astra 2 @.@ 0 with a " MultiPower " engine built on flex fuel technology developed by Bosch of Brazil , and capable of using CNG , ethanol and gasoline ( E20 @-@ E25 blend ) as fuel . This automobile was aimed at the taxicab market and the switch among fuels is done manually . In 2006 Fiat introduced the Fiat Siena Tetra fuel , a four @-@ fuel car developed under Magneti Marelli of Fiat Brazil . This automobile can run as a flex @-@ fuel on 100 % ethanol ( E100 ) ; or on E @-@ 20 to E25 , Brazil 's normal ethanol gasoline blend ; on pure gasoline ( though no longer available in Brazil since 1993 , it is still used in neighboring countries ) ; or just on natural gas . The Siena Tetrafuel was engineered to switch from any gasoline @-@ ethanol blend to CNG automatically , depending on the power required by road conditions . Another existing option is to retrofit an ethanol flexible @-@ fuel vehicle to add a natural gas tank and the corresponding injection system . This option is popular among taxicab owners in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro , Brazil , allowing users to choose among three fuels ( E25 , E100 and CNG ) according to current market prices at the pump . Vehicles with this adaptation are known in Brazil as " tri @-@ fuel " cars .
Flex @-@ fuel hybrid electric and flex @-@ fuel plug @-@ in hybrid are two types of hybrid vehicles built with a combustion engine capable of running on gasoline , E @-@ 85 , or E @-@ 100 to help drive the wheels in conjunction with the electric engine or to recharge the battery pack that powers the electric engine . In 2007 Ford produced 20 demonstration Escape Hybrid E85s for real @-@ world testing in fleets in the U.S. Also as a demonstration project , Ford delivered in 2008 the first flexible @-@ fuel plug @-@ in hybrid SUV to the U.S. Department of Energy ( DOE ) , a Ford Escape Plug @-@ in Hybrid , which runs on gasoline or E85 . GM announced that the Chevrolet Volt plug @-@ in hybrid , launched in the U.S. in late 2010 , would be the first commercially available flex @-@ fuel plug @-@ in capable of adapting the propulsion to several world markets such as the U.S. , Brazil or Sweden , as the combustion engine can be adapted to run on E85 , E100 or diesel respectively . The Volt was initially expected to be flex @-@ fuel @-@ capable in 2013 . Lotus Engineering unveiled the Lotus CityCar at the 2010 Paris Motor Show . The CityCar is a plug @-@ in hybrid concept car designed for flex @-@ fuel operation on ethanol , or methanol as well as regular gasoline .
= = History = =
The Ford Model T , produced from 1908 through 1927 , was fitted with a carburetor with adjustable jetting , allowing use of gasoline or ethanol , or a combination of both . Other car manufactures also provided engines for ethanol fuel use . Henry Ford continued to advocate for ethanol as fuel even during the prohibition . However , cheaper oil caused gasoline to prevail , until the 1973 oil crisis resulted in gasoline shortages and awareness on the dangers of oil dependence . This crisis opened a new opportunity for ethanol and other alternative fuels , such as methanol , gaseous fuels such as CNG and LPG , and also hydrogen . Ethanol , methanol and natural gas CNG were the three alternative fuels that received more attention for research and development , and government support .
Since 1975 , and as a response to the shock caused by the first oil crisis , the Brazilian government implemented the National Alcohol Program -Pró @-@ Álcool- ( Portuguese : Programa Nacional do Álcool ) , a nationwide program financed by the government to phase out automotive fuels derived from fossil fuels in favor of ethanol made from sugar cane . It began with a low blend of anhydrous alcohol with regular gasoline in 1976 , and since July 2007 the mandatory blend is 25 % of alcohol or gasohol E25 . In 1979 , and as a response to the second oil crisis , the first vehicle capable of running with pure hydrous ethanol ( E100 ) was launched to the market , the Fiat 147 , after testing with several prototypes developed by Fiat , Volkswagen , GM and Ford . The Brazilian government provided three important initial drivers for the ethanol industry : guaranteed purchases by the state @-@ owned oil company Petrobras , low @-@ interest loans for agro @-@ industrial ethanol firms , and fixed gasoline and ethanol prices . After reaching more than 4 million cars and light trucks running on pure ethanol by the late 1980s , the use of E100 @-@ only vehicles sharply declined after increases in sugar prices produced shortages of ethanol fuel .
After extensive research that began in the 90s , a second push took place in March 2003 , when the Brazilian subsidiary of Volkswagen launched to the market the first full flexible @-@ fuel car , the Gol 1 @.@ 6 Total Flex . Several months later was followed by other Brazilian automakers , and by 2010 General Motors , Fiat , Ford , Peugeot , Renault , Volkswagen , Honda , Mitsubishi , Toyota , Citroën , Nissan and Kia Motors were producing popular models of flex cars and light trucks . The adoption of ethanol flex fuel vehicles was so successful , that production of flex cars went from almost 40 thousand in 2003 to 1 @.@ 7 million in 2007 . This rapid adoption of the flex technology was facilitated by the fuel distribution infrastructure already in place , as around 27 @,@ 000 filling stations countrywide were available by 1997 with at least one ethanol pump , a heritage of the Pró @-@ Álcool program .
In the United States , initial support to develop alternative fuels by the government was also a response to the first oil crisis , and some time later , as a goal to improve air quality . Also , liquid fuels were preferred over gaseous fuels not only because they have a better volumetric energy density but also because they were the most compatible fuels with existing distribution systems and engines , thus avoiding a big departure from the existing technologies and taking advantage of the vehicle and the refueling infrastructure . California led the search of sustainable alternatives with interest focused in methanol . Ford Motor Company and other automakers responded to California 's request for vehicles that run on methanol . In 1981 , Ford delivered 40 dedicated methanol fuel ( M100 ) Escorts to Los Angeles County , but only four refueling stations were installed . The biggest challenge in the development of alcohol vehicle technology was getting all of the fuel system materials compatible with the higher chemical reactivity of the fuel . Methanol was even more of a challenge than ethanol but much of the early experience gained with neat ethanol vehicle production in Brazil was transferable to methanol . The success of this small experimental fleet of M100s led California to request more of these vehicles , mainly for government fleets . In 1983 , Ford built 582 M100 vehicles ; 501 went to California , and the remaining to New Zealand , Sweden , Norway , United Kingdom , and Canada .
As an answer to the lack of refueling infrastructure , Ford began development of a flexible @-@ fuel vehicle in 1982 , and between 1985 and 1992 , 705 experimental FFVs were built and delivered to California and Canada , including the 1.6L Ford Escort , the 3.0L Taurus , and the 5.0L LTD Crown Victoria . These vehicles could operate on either gasoline or methanol with only one fuel system . Legislation was passed to encourage the US auto industry to begin production , which started in 1993 for the M85 FFVs at Ford . In 1996 , a new FFV Ford Taurus was developed , with models fully capable of running on either methanol or ethanol blended with gasoline . This ethanol version of the Taurus became the first commercial production of an E85 FFV . The momentum of the FFV production programs at the American car companies continued , although by the end of the 1990s , the emphasis shifted to the FFV E85 version , as it is today . Ethanol was preferred over methanol because there is a large support from the farming community , and thanks to the government 's incentive programs and corn @-@ based ethanol subsidies available at the time . Sweden also tested both the M85 and the E85 flexifuel vehicles , but due to agriculture policy , in the end emphasis
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was given to the ethanol flexifuel vehicles . Support for ethanol also comes from the fact that it is a biomass fuel , which addresses climate change concerns and greenhouse gas emissions , though nowadays these benefits are questioned and depend on the feedstock used for ethanol production and their indirect land use change impacts .
The demand for ethanol fuel produced from field corn in the United States was stimulated by the discovery in the late 90s that methyl tertiary butyl ether ( MTBE ) , an oxygenate additive in gasoline , was contaminating groundwater . Due to the risks of widespread and costly litigation , and because MTBE use in gasoline was banned in almost 20 states by 2006 , the substitution of MTBE opened a new market for ethanol fuel . This demand shift for ethanol as an oxygenate additive took place at a time when oil prices were already significantly rising . By 2006 , about 50 percent of the gasoline used in the U.S. contained ethanol at different proportions , and ethanol production grew so fast that the US became the world 's top ethanol producer , overtaking Brazil in 2005 . This shift also contributed to a sharp increase in the production and sale of E85 flex vehicles since 2002 .
= = Flexible @-@ fuel vehicles by country = =
= = = Brazil = = =
Flexible @-@ fuel technology started being developed by Brazilian engineers near the end of the 1990s . The Brazilian flexible fuel car is built with an ethanol @-@ ready engine and one fuel tank for both fuels . The small gasoline reservoir for starting the engine with pure ethanol in cold weather , used in earlier neat ethanol vehicles , was kept to avoid start up problems in the central and southern regions , where winter temperatures normally drop below 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) . An improved flex motor generation was launched in 2009 and allowed to eliminate the need for this secondary gas reservoir tank . Another improvement was the reduction of fuel consumption and tailpipe emissions , between 10 % to 15 % as compared to flex motors sold in 2008 . In March 2009 Volkswagen do Brasil launched the Polo E @-@ Flex , the first flex fuel model without an auxiliary tank for cold start .
A key innovation in the Brazilian flex technology was avoiding the need for an additional dedicated sensor to monitor the ethanol @-@ gasoline mix , which made the first American M85 flex fuel vehicles too expensive .
Brazilian flex cars are capable of running on just hydrated ethanol ( E100 ) , or just on a blend of gasoline with 20 to 25 % anhydrous ethanol ( the mandatory blend since 1993 ) , or on any arbitrary combination of both fuels .
The flexibility of Brazilian FFVs empowers the consumers to choose the fuel depending on current market prices . As ethanol fuel economy is lower than gasoline because of ethanol 's energy content is close to 34 % less per unit volume than gasoline , flex cars running on ethanol get a lower mileage than when running on pure gasoline . However , this effect is partially offset by the usually lower price per liter of ethanol fuel . As a rule of thumb , Brazilian consumers are frequently advised by the media to use more alcohol than gasoline in their mix only when ethanol prices are 30 % lower or more than gasoline , as ethanol price fluctuates heavily depending on the result of seasonal sugar cane harvests .
In March 2003 Volkswagen do Brasil launched in the market the Gol 1 @.@ 6 Total Flex , the first commercial flexible fuel vehicle capable of running on any blend of gasoline and ethanol . GM do Brasil followed three months later with the Chevrolet Corsa 1 @.@ 8 Flexpower , using an engine developed by a joint @-@ venture with Fiat called PowerTrain . Passenger flex @-@ fuel vehicles became a commercial success in the country , and as of December 2013 , a total of 15 car manufacturers produce flex @-@ fuel engines for the Brazilian market , dominating all light vehicle segments except sports cars , off @-@ road vehicles and minivans .
The production of flex @-@ fuel cars and light commercial vehicles since 2003 reached the milestone of 10 million vehicles in March 2010 . At the end of 2012 registrations of flex @-@ fuel cars and light trucks represented 87 % of all passenger and light duty vehicles sold in the country in 2012 , and climbed to a 94 % market share of all new passenger vehicles sales in 2013 . Production passed the 20 million @-@ unit mark in June 2013 . By the end of 2014 , flex @-@ fuel cars represented 54 % of the Brazilian registered stock of light @-@ duty vehicles , while gasoline only vehicles represented 34 @.@ 3 % . As of June 2015 , flex @-@ fuel light @-@ duty vehicle sales totaled 25 @.@ 5 million units .
The rapid success of flex vehicles was made possible by the existence of 33 @,@ 000 filling stations with at least one ethanol pump available by 2006 , a heritage of the early Pró @-@ Álcool ethanol program . These facts , together with the mandatory use of E25 blend of gasoline throughout the country , allowed Brazil in 2008 to achieve more than 50 % of fuel consumption in the gasoline market from sugar cane @-@ based ethanol .
According to two separate research studies conducted in 2009 , at the national level 65 % of the flex @-@ fuel registered vehicles regularly used ethanol fuel , and the usage climbed to 93 % in São Paulo , the main ethanol producer state where local taxes are lower , and prices at the pump are more competitive than gasoline . However , as a result of higher ethanol prices caused by the Brazilian ethanol industry crisis that began in 2009 , combined with government subsidies to keep gasoline price lower than the international market value , by November 2013 only 23 % flex @-@ fuel car owners were using ethanol , down from 66 % in 2009 .
One of the latest innovation within the Brazilian flexible @-@ fuel technology is the development of flex @-@ fuel motorcycles . The first flex @-@ fuel motorcycle was launched by Honda in March 2009 , the CG 150 Titan Mix . In September 2009 , Honda launched a second flexible @-@ fuel motorcycle , the on @-@ off road NXR 150 Bros Mix . By December 2012 the five available models of flexible @-@ fuel motorcycles from Honda and Yamaha reached a cumulative production of 2 @,@ 291 @,@ 072 units , representing 31 @.@ 8 % of all motorcycles manufactured in Brazil since 2009 , and 48 @.@ 2 % of motorcycle production in 2012 . Flexible @-@ fuel motorcycle production passed the 3 million @-@ unit milestone in October 2013 . The 4 million mark was reached in March 2015 .
= = = Europe = = =
= = = = Sweden = = = =
Flexible @-@ fuel vehicles were introduced in Sweden as a demonstration test in 1994 , when three Ford Taurus were imported to show the technology existed . Because of the existing interest , a project was started in 1995 with 50 Ford Taurus E85 flexifuel in different parts of Sweden : Umeå , Örnsköldsvik , Härnösand , Stockholm , Karlstad , Linköping , and Växjö . From 1997 to 1998 an additional 300 Taurus were imported , and the number of E85 fueling grew to 40 . Then in 1998 the city of Stockholm placed an order for 2 @,@ 000 of FFVs for any car manufacturer willing to produce them . The objective was to jump @-@ start the FFV industry in Sweden . The two domestic car makers Volvo Group and Saab AB refused to participate arguing there were not in place any ethanol filling stations . However , Ford Motor Company took the offer and began importing the flexifuel version of its Focus model , delivering the first cars in 2001 , and selling more than 15 @,@ 000 FFV Focus by 2005 , then representing an 80 % market share of the flexifuel market .
In 2005 both Volvo and Saab introduced to the Sweden market their flexifuel models . Saab began selling its 9 @-@ 5 2 @.@ 0 Biopower , joined in 2006 by its 9 @-@ 5 2 @.@ 3 Biopower . Volvo introduced its S40 and V50 with flexible @-@ fuel engines , joined in late 2006 by the new C30 . All Volvo models were initially restricted to the Sweden market , until 2007 , when these three models were launched in eight new European markets . In 2007 , Saab also started selling a BioPower version of its popular Saab 9 @-@ 3 line . In 2008 the Saab @-@ derived Cadillac BLS was introduced with E85 compatible engines , and Volvo launched the V70 with a 2 @.@ 5 @-@ litre turbocharged Flexifuel engine .
All flexible @-@ fuel vehicles in Sweden use an E75 winter blend instead of E85 to avoid engine starting problems during cold weather . This blend was introduced since the winter 2006 @-@ 07 and E75 is used from November until March . For temperature below − 15 ° C ( 5 ° F ) E85 flex vehicles require an engine block heater . The use of this device is also recommended for gasoline vehicles when temperatures drop below − 23 ° C ( − 9 ° F ) . Another option when extreme cold weather is expected is to add more pure gasoline in the tank , thus reducing the ethanol content below the E75 winter blend , or simply not to use E85 during extreme low temperature spells .
Sweden has achieved the largest E85 flexible @-@ fuel vehicle fleet in Europe , with a sharp growth from 717 vehicles in 2001 to 243 @,@ 136 through December 2014 . As of 2008 a total of 70 % of all flexifuel vehicles operating in the EU were registered in Sweden . The recent and accelerated growth of the Swedish fleet of E85 flexifuel vehicles is the result of the National Climate Policy in Global Cooperation Bill passed in 2005 , which not only ratified the Kyoto Protocol but also sought to meet the 2003 EU Biofuels Directive regarding targets for use of biofuels , and also let to the 2006 government 's commitment to eliminate oil imports by 2020 .
In order to achieve these goals several government incentives were implemented . Ethanol , as the other biofuels , was exempted of both , the CO2 and energy taxes until 2009 , resulting in a 30 % price reduction at the pump of E85 fuel over gasoline . Furthermore , other demand side incentives for flexifuel vehicle owners include a US $ 1 @,@ 800 bonus to buyers of FFVs , exemption from the Stockholm congestion tax , up to 20 % discount on auto insurance , free parking spaces in most of the largest cities , owner annual registration taxes , and a 20 % tax reduction for flexifuel company cars . Also , a part of the program , the Swedish Government ruled that 25 % of their vehicle purchases ( excluding police , fire and ambulance vehicles ) must be alternative fuel vehicles . By the first months of 2008 , this package of incentives resulted in sales of flexible @-@ fuel cars representing 25 % of new car sales .
On the supply side , since 2005 the gasoline fuelling stations selling more than 3 million liters of fuel a year are required to sell at least one type of biofuel , resulting in more than 1 @,@ 200 gas stations selling E85 by August 2008 . Despite all the sharp growth of E85 flexifuel cars , by 2007 they represented just two percent of the four million Swedish vehicles . In addition , this law also mandated all new filling stations to offer alternative fuels , and stations with an annual volume of more than one million liters are required to have an alternative fuel pump by December 2009 . Therefore , the number of E85 pumps is expected to reach by 2009 nearly 60 % of Sweden 's 4 @,@ 000 filling stations .
The Swedish @-@ made Koenigsegg CCXR , a limited edition and version of the CCX , is currently the fastest and most powerful flexible fuel vehicle with its twin @-@ supercharged V8 producing 1018 hp when running on biofuel , as compared to 806 hp on 91 octane US unleaded gasoline .
= = = = Other European countries = = = =
Flexifuel vehicles are sold in 18 European countries , including Austria , Belgium , Czech Republic , Denmark , Estonia , Finland , France , Germany , Hungary , Ireland , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , Poland , Spain , Sweden , Switzerland , and the United Kingdom . Ford , Volvo and Saab are the main automakers offering flexifuel autos in the region .
= = = = = France = = = = =
Biofuel cars in general get strong tax incentives in France , including a 0 or 50 % reduction on the tax on new vehicles , and a 40 % reduction on CO2 tax for new cars . For company cars there is a corporate car tax free for 2 years and a recovery of 80 % of the value added tax ( VAT ) on E85 vehicles . Also , E85 fuel price is set significantly lower than diesel or gasoline , resulting in E85 at € 0 @.@ 80 , diesel at € 1 @.@ 15 , and gasoline at € 1 @.@ 30 per liter , as of April 2007 . By May 2008 , France had 211 pumps selling E85 , even though the government made plans for the installation of up to 500 E85 pumps by year end 2007 . French automakers Renault and PSA ( Citroen & Peugeot ) announced they will start selling FFV cars beginning in the summer 2007 .
= = = = = Germany = = = = =
Biofuel emphasis in Germany is on biodiesel , and no specific incentives have been granted for E85 flex @-@ fuel cars , however there is complete exemption of taxes on all biofuels while there is a normal tax of € 0 @.@ 65 per liter of petroleum fuels . The distribution of E85 began in 2005 , and with 219 stations as of September 2008 , Germany ranks second after Sweden with the most E85 fueling stations in the EU . As of July 2012 retail prices of E85 was € 1 @.@ 09 per liter , and gasoline was priced at € 1 @.@ 60 per liter ( for gasoline RON 95 ) , then providing enough margin to compensate for ethanol 's lower fuel economy . Ford has offered the Ford Focus since August 2005 in Germany . Ford is about to offer also the Mondeo and other models as FFV versions between 2008 and 2010 . The Saab 9 @-@ 5 and Saab 9 @-@ 3 Biopower , the Peugeot 308 Bioflex , the Citroën C4 Bioflex , the Audi A5 , two models of the Cadillac BLS , and five Volvo models are also available in the German market by 2008 . Since 2011 , Dacia offers the Logan MCV with an 1.6l 16v flexfuel engine .
= = = = = Ireland = = = = =
Ireland is the third best seller European market of E85 flex @-@ fuel vehicles , after Sweden and France . Bioethanol ( E85 ) in Ireland is made from whey , a waste product of cheese manufacturing . The Irish government established several incentives , including a 50 % discount in vehicle registration taxes ( VRT ) , which can account for more than one third of the retail price of a new car in Ireland ( around € 6 @,@ 500 ) . The bioethanol element of the E85 fuel is excise @-@ free for fuel companies , allowing retail prices to be low enough to offset the 25 per cent cut in fuel economy that E @-@ 85 cars offer , due to ethanol 's lower energy content than gasoline . Also , the value added tax ( VAT ) on the fuel can also be claimed back . E @-@ 85 fuel is available across the country in more than 20 of Maxol service stations . In October 2005 , the 1 @.@ 8 Ford Focus FFV became the first flexible @-@ fuel vehicle to be commercially sold in Ireland . Later Ford launched the C @-@ max and the Mondeo flexifuel models . Saab and Volvo also have E85 models available .
From 1 January 2011 E85 fuel is no longer excise @-@ free in Ireland . Maxol has announced they will not provide E85 when their current supplies have run out .
= = = = = Spain = = = = =
The first flexifuel vehicles were introduced in Spain by late 2007 , with the acquisition of 80 cars for use in the Spaniard official government fleet . At that time the country had only three gas stations selling E85 , making necessary to deploy an official E85 fueling station in Madrid to attend these vehicles . Despite the introduction in the Spaniard market of several flexifuel models , by the end of 2008 still persists the problems of adequate E85 fueling infrastructure , as only 10 gas stations were selling E85 fuel to the public in the entire country .
= = = = = United Kingdom = = = = =
The UK government established several incentives for E85 flex @-@ fuel vehicles . These include a fuel duty rebate on E85 fuel of 20 p per liter , until 2010 ; a £ 10 to 15 reduction in the vehicle excise duty ( VED ) ; and a 2 % annual company car tax discount for flex @-@ fuel cars . Despite the small number of E85 pump stations available , limited to the Morrisons supermarket chain stations , most automakers offer the same models in the UK that are available in the European market . In 2005 the Ford Focus Flexi @-@ Fuel became the first flexible @-@ fuel car sold in the UK , though E85 pumps were not opened until 2006 . Volvo now offers its flexifuel models S80 , S40 , C30 , V50 and V70 . Other models available in the UK are the Ford C @-@ Max Flexi @-@ Fuel , and the Saab models 9 @-@ 5 and 9 @-@ 3 Flex @-@ Fuel Biopower , and the new Saab Aero X BioPower E100 bioethanol .
= = = United States = = =
Since 1998 a total of 17 @.@ 7 million E85 flex @-@ fuel vehicles had been sold or lease in the United States through the end of 2014 . About 11 million flex @-@ fuel cars and light trucks were still in operation as of early 2013 , up from 7 @.@ 3 million in 2008 , 4 @.@ 1 million in 2005 , and 1 @.@ 4 million on U.S roads in 2001 . For the 2011 model year there are about 70 vehicles E85 capable , including sedans , vans , SUVs and pick @-@ up trucks . Many of the models available in the market are trucks and sport @-@ utility vehicles getting less than 20 mpg @-@ US ( 12 L / 100 km ; 24 mpg @-@ imp ) when filled with gasoline . Actual consumption of E85 among flex @-@ fuel vehicle owners is limited . Nevertheless , the U.S. Department of Energy estimated that in 2011 only 862 @,@ 837 flex @-@ fuel fleet @-@ operated vehicles were regularly fueled with E85 . As a result , from all the ethanol fuel consumed in the country in 2009 , only 1 % was E85 consumed by flex @-@ fuel vehicles .
The E85 blend is used in gasoline engines modified to accept such higher concentrations of ethanol , and the fuel injection is regulated through a dedicated sensor , which automatically detects the amount of ethanol in the fuel , allowing to adjust both fuel injection and spark timing accordingly to the actual blend available in the vehicle 's tank . Because ethanol contains close to 34 % less energy per unit volume than gasoline , E85 FFVs have a lower mileage per gallon than gasoline . Based on EPA tests for all 2006 E85 models , the average fuel economy for E85 vehicles was 25 @.@ 56 % lower than unleaded gasoline .
The American E85 flex @-@ fuel vehicle was developed to run on any mixture of unleaded gasoline and ethanol , anywhere from 0 % to 85 % ethanol by volume . Both fuels are mixed in the same tank , and E85 is sold already blended . In order to reduce ethanol evaporative emissions and to avoid problems starting the engine during cold weather , the maximum blend of ethanol was set to 85 % . There is also a seasonal reduction of the ethanol content to E70 ( called winter E85 blend ) in very cold regions , where temperatures fall below 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) during the winter . In Wyoming for example , E70 is sold as E85 from October to May .
E85 flex @-@ fuel vehicles are becoming increasingly common in the Midwest , where corn is a major crop and is the primary feedstock for ethanol fuel production . Regional retail E85 prices vary widely across the US , with more favorable prices in the Midwest region , where most corn is grown and ethanol produced . Depending of the vehicle capabilities , the break @-@ even price of E85 has to be between 25 and 30 % lower than gasoline .
= = = = Barriers to widespread adoption = = = =
A 2005 survey found that 68 % of American flex @-@ fuel car owners were not aware they owned an E85 flex . This was because the exteriors of flex and non @-@ flex vehicles look exactly the same ; there is no sale price difference between them ; the lack of consumers ' awareness about E85s ; and also the initial decision of American automakers of not putting any kind of exterior labeling , so buyers could be unaware they are purchasing an E85 vehicle . Since 2008 , all new FFV models in the US feature a bright yellow gas cap to remind drivers of the E85 capabilities and proper flex @-@ fuel badging .
Some critics have argued that American automakers have been producing E85 flex models motivated by a loophole in the Corporate Average Fuel Economy ( CAFE ) requirements , that allows for a fuel economy credit for every flex @-@ fuel vehicle sold , whether or not in practice these vehicles are fueled with E85 . This loophole might allow the car industry to meet the CAFE targets in fuel economy just by spending between US $ 100 and US $ 200 that it cost to turn a conventional vehicle into a flex @-@ fuel , without investing in new technology to improve fuel economy , and saving them the potential fines for not achieving that standard in a given model year . The CAFE standards proposed in 2011 for the period 2017 @-@ 2025 will allow flexible @-@ fuel vehicles to receive extra credit but only when the carmakers present data proving how much E85 such vehicles have actually consumed .
A major restriction hampering sales of E85 flex vehicles , or fueling with E85 , is the limited infrastructure available to sell E85 to the public with only 2 % of the motor fuel stations offering E85 by March 2014 . As of November 2015 , there were only 3 @,@ 218 fueling stations selling E85 to the public in the entire U.S. , while about 156 @,@ 000 retail motor fuel outlets do not offer any ethanol blend . In addition , there has been a great concentration of E85 stations in the Corn Belt states . The main constraint for a more rapid expansion of E85 availability is that it requires dedicated storage tanks at filling stations , at an estimated cost of US $ 60 @,@ 000 for each dedicated ethanol tank . The Obama Administration set the goal of installing 10 @,@ 000 blender pumps nationwide until 2015 , and to support this target the US Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) issued a rule in May 2011 to include flexible fuel pumps in the Rural Energy for America Program ( REAP ) . This ruling will provide financial assistance to fuel station owners to install E85 and blender pumps .
= = = = Flex fuel conversion kit = = = =
A flex fuel conversion kit is a kit that allows a conventional equipment manufactured vehicle to be altered to operate on propane , natural gas , methane gas , ethanol , or electricity are classified as aftermarket AFV conversions . All vehicle conversions , except those that are completed for a vehicle to run on electricity , must meet current applicable U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) standards .
= = = = Latest developments = = = =
In 2008 , Ford delivered the first flex @-@ fuel plug @-@ in hybrid as part of a demonstration project , a Ford Escape Plug @-@ in Hybrid capable of running on E85 or gasoline . General Motors announced that the new Chevrolet Volt plug @-@ in hybrid , launched in the United States market in December 2010 , would be flex @-@ fuel @-@ capable in 2013 . General Motors do Brasil announced that it will import from five to ten Volts to Brazil during the first semester of 2011 as part of a demonstration and also to lobby the federal government to enact financial incentives for green cars . If successful , GM would adapt the Volt to operate on ethanol fuel , as most new cars sold in Brazil are flex @-@ fuel .
In 2008 , Chrysler , General Motors , and Ford pledged to manufacture 50 percent of their entire vehicle line as flexible fuel in model year 2012 , if enough fueling infrastructure develops . The Open Fuel Standard Act ( OFS ) , introduced to Congress in May 2011 , is intended to promote a massive adoption of flex @-@ fuel vehicles capable of running on ethanol or methanol . The bill requires that 50 percent of automobiles made in 2014 , 80 percent in 2016 , and 95 percent in 2017 , would be manufactured and warranted to operate on non @-@ petroleum @-@ based fuels , which includes existing technologies such as flex @-@ fuel , natural gas , hydrogen , biodiesel , plug @-@ in electric and fuel cell .
As of December 2014 , almost half of new vehicles produced by Chrysler , Ford , and General Motors are flex @-@ fuel , meaning roughly one @-@ quarter of all new vehicles sold by 2015 are capable of using up to E85 . However , obstacles to widespread use of E85 fuel remain . A 2014 analysis by the Renewable Fuels Association ( RFA ) found that oil companies prevent or discourage affiliated retailers from selling E85 through rigid franchise and branding agreements , restrictive supply contracts , and other tactics . The report showed independent retailers are five times more likely to offer E85 than retailers carrying an oil company brand .
= = = Other countries = = =
= = = = Australia = = = =
In January 2007 GM brought UK @-@ sourced Saab 9 @-@ 5 Biopower E85 flex @-@ fuel vehicles to Australia as a trial , in order to measure interest in ethanol @-@ powered vehicles in the country . Saab Australia placed the vehicles with the fleets of the Queensland Government , the media , and some ethanol producers . E85 is not available widely in Australia , but the Manildra Group provided the E85 blend fuel for this trial .
Saab Australia became the first car maker to produce an E85 flex @-@ fuel car for the Australian market with the Saab 9 @-@ 5 BioPower . One month later launched the new 9 @-@ 3 BioPower , the first vehicle in Australia to give drivers a choice of three fuels , E85 , diesel or gasoline , and both automobiles are sold for a small premium . Australia 's largest independent fuel retailer , United Petroleum , announced plans to install Australia 's first commercial E85 fuel pumps , one in Sydney and one in Melbourne .
GM Holden , the Victorian state government , Coskata , Caltex , Veolia Environmental Services and Mitsui have announced a consortium with a co @-@ ordinated plan to build a bio @-@ ethanol plant from household waste for use as E85 fuel . In August 2010 Caltex launched the E85 ethanol fuel called Bio E @-@ Flex , designed for use in the Holden Commodore VE Series II flex @-@ fuel vehicles to be released later in 2010 . Caltex Australia plans to begin selling Bio E @-@ Flex in Melbourne from September and expects to have Bio E @-@ Flex available in more than 30 service stations in Melbourne , Sydney , Brisbane , Adelaide and Canberra by the end of October , with plans to increase to 100 metropolitan and regional locations in 2011 .
= = = = Canada = = = =
As part of the North American auto market , by 2007 Canada had available 51 models of E85 flex @-@ vehicles , most from Chrysler , Ford and General Motors , including automobiles , pickup trucks , and SUVs . The country had around 1 @.@ 6 million capable flex fuel E85s on the roads by 2014 . However , most users are not aware they own an E85 , as vehicles are not clearly labeled as such , and even though the newer models have a yellow cap in the fuel tank informing that the vehicle can handle E85 , most users are still not aware because there are hardly any gas stations offering E85 . Another major restriction for greater E85 fuel use is the fact that by June 2008 Canada had only three public E85 pumps , all located in Ontario , in the cities of Guelph , Chatham , and Woodstock . E85 fueling is available primarily for fleet vehicles , including 20 government refueling stations not available for the public . The main feedstocks for E85 production in Canada are corn and wheat , and there were several proposals being discussed to increase the actual use of E85 fuel in FFVs , such as creating an ethanol @-@ friendly highway or ethanol corridor .
= = = = Colombia = = = =
On March 2009 the Colombian government enacted a mandate to introduce E85 flexible @-@ fuel cars . The executive decree applies to all gasoline @-@ powered vehicles with engines smaller than 2 @.@ 0 liters manufactured , imported , and commercialized in the country beginning in 2012 , mandating that 60 % of such vehicles must have flex @-@ fuel engines capable of running with gasoline or E85 , or any blend of both . By 2014 the mandatory quota is 80 % and it will reach 100 percent by 2016 . All vehicles with engines bigger than 2 @.@ 0 liters must be E85 capable starting in 2013 . The decree also mandates that by 2011 all gasoline stations must provide infrastructure to guarantee availability of E85 throughout the country . The mandatory introduction of E85 flex @-@ fuels has caused controversy among carmakers , car dealers , gasoline station owners , and even some ethanol producers complained the industry is not ready to supply enough ethanol for the new E85 fleet .
= = = = New Zealand = = = =
In 2006 New Zealand began a pilot project with two E85 Ford Focus Flexi @-@ Fuel evaluation cars . The main feedstock used in New Zealand for ethanol production is whey , a by @-@ product of milk production .
= = = = Paraguay = = = =
Government officials and businessmen from Paraguay began negotiations in 2007 with Brazilian automakers in order to import flex cars that run on any blend of gasoline and ethanol . If successful , Paraguay would become the first destination for Brazilian flex @-@ fuel car exports . In May 2008 , the Paraguayan government announced a plan to eliminate import taxes of flex @-@ fuel vehicles and an incentive program for ethanol production . The plan also includes the purchase of 20 @,@ 000 flex cars in 2009 for the government fleet .
= = = = Thailand = = = =
In 2006 , tax incentives were established in Thailand for the introduction of compressed natural gas ( CNG ) as an alternative fuel , by eliminating import duties and lowering excise taxes on CNG @-@ compatible cars . Then in 2007 , Thai authorities approved incentives for the production of " eco @-@ cars " , with the goal of the country to become a regional hub for the production of small , affordable and fuel @-@ efficient cars . Seven automakers joint in the program , Toyota , Suzuki , Nissan , Mitsubishi , Honda , Tata and Volkswagen . In 2008 the government announced priority for E85 , expecting these flex @-@ fuel vehicles to become widely available in Thailand in 2009 , three years ahead of schedule . The incentives include cuts in excise tax rates for E85 @-@ compatible cars and reduction of corporate taxes for ethanol producers to make sure E85 fuel supply will be met . This new plan however , brought confusion and protests by the automakers which sign @-@ up for the " eco @-@ cars " , as competition with the E85 flex @-@ fuel cars will negatively affect their ongoing plans and investments , and their production lines will have to be upgraded at a high cost for them to produce flex @-@ fuel cars . They also complained that flex @-@ fuel vehicles popular in a few countries around the world , limiting their export potential as compared with other engine technologies .
Despite the controversy , the first E85 flexible fuel vehicles were introduced in November 2008 . The first two models available in the Thai market were the Volvo S80 and the C30 . The S80 is manufactured locally and the C30 is imported . By the time of the introduction of flex vehicles there were already two gas stations with E85 fuel available . During 2009 it was expected that 15 fueling stations in Bangkok will have E85 fuel available . In October 2009 the Mitsubishi Lancer Ex was launched becoming the first mass @-@ production E85 flexi @-@ fuel vehicle produced in Thailand .
= = = Comparison among the leading markets = = =
= = List of currently produced flexible @-@ fuel vehicles = =
= = = Worldwide = = =
= = = Brazil = = =
= = = Europe = = =
Citroën C4 1 @.@ 6 BioFlex
Dacia Duster , Dacia Logan , Dacia Sandero
Fiat 500X 1 @.@ 6 16V E.torQ , Fiat Aegea 1 @.@ 6 16V E.torQ
Ford Focus , Ford C @-@ MAX , Ford Mondeo , Ford S @-@ Max , Ford Galaxy
Koenigsegg CCXR
Peugeot 307 1 @.@ 6 BioFlex
Saab 9 @-@ 5 , Saab 9 @-@ 3
SEAT León 1 @.@ 6 MPI MultiFuel , SEAT Altea 1 @.@ 6 MPI MultiFuel , SEAT Altea XL 1 @.@ 6 MPI MultiFuel
Volvo C30 1.8F FlexiFuel , S40 1.8F FlexiFuel , V50 1.8F FlexiFuel , XC60 ( concept ) , V70 2.0F FlexiFuel , S80 2.0F FlexiFuel
= = = Thailand = = =
Mitsubishi : Lancer Ex 1 @.@ 8
Honda : Civic FB , City 6th gen , CR @-@ V 4th gen , Accord 9th gen
Mazda : Mazda 3 BM
= = = United States = = =
= Mount Hope Estate =
Mount Hope Estate is a National Register of Historic Places @-@ listed property in Rapho and Penn Townships , Lancaster County , Pennsylvania , Lancaster County , Pennsylvania . The original estate was the center of operations of the Grubb Family Iron Dynasty during the 19th century and included over 2 @,@ 500 acres ( 1 @,@ 000 ha ) , a charcoal iron furnace , a grist mill , housing for employees and tenants , plus supporting structures such as a post office , a general store , a railroad station , a school and a church . The existing mansion and grounds remain from what was once a thriving industrial headquarters complex and small village .
The mansion itself was originally constructed as a Federal @-@ style home by the prominent family of iron masters ; an 1895 remodeling transformed the structure with the addition of Victorian features . The mansion is constructed of locally quarried red sandstone , as are the outbuildings , which at one time numbered nearly 30 . The grounds is also notable for its pre @-@ 1840 American formal garden , of which there are very few surviving . The estate currently hosts the Mount Hope Estate and Winery , the Swashbuckler Brewing Company , the Pennsylvania Renaissance Faire , and other events held throughout the year ( see below ) .
= = History = =
The estate was the home and center of operations of the Grubb Family Iron Dynasty during the 19th century . The Mount Hope Grubbs were from an early American family whose founder , John Grubb , had come to America from Stoke Climsland , Cornwall , England and settled in Delaware . John 's youngest son Peter Grubb came to the local area about 1734 , when he discovered the vast iron deposits in Lebanon County and purchased 300 acres ( 120 ha ) . By 1742 he had founded the highly successful Cornwall Ironworks , named to recall his father 's ancestral home . By 1783 the family 's holdings covered 10 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 000 ha ) . The property was split several times among heirs , and various lands passed between the Grubb and Coleman families in the late 18th century . In 1784 , Peter Grubb 's youngest son Peter Grubb , Jr. purchased an additional 212 @.@ 5 acres ( 86 @.@ 0 ha ) and built a charcoal furnace at a place that he called " Mount Hope " . Peter Jr. left the land to his two sons , who inherited a total of 2 @,@ 307 acres ( 934 ha ) that were to become known as the " Mount Hope Estate " . His youngest son , Henry Bates Grubb , acquired his brother 's share and built the mansion by 1805 .
The Grubbs were locally prominent by at least 1784 , and from 1840 to 1870 were the leading iron manufacturers in Pennsylvania , with Mount Hope Estate serving as the center of their operations . During this period the estate played host to many leading Pennsylvanians including the Shippen family , Episcopalian ministers including Bishop William White and Bishop Alonzo Potter , and other leading ironmasters including Robert Coleman . At the Grubb family 's height in the mid @-@ to @-@ late 19th century , the estate included a charcoal furnace , mill workers ' houses , Mount Hope Episcopal Church ( also called Hope Church , and " principally erected for the Grubb family " ) , the mansion , many stone outbuildings , and large formal gardens .
After the death of Henry Bates Grubb , the estate was managed by his widow , Harriet Amelia Buckley Grubb , until her children reached adulthood . In 1848 – 49 , at a cost of about $ 2 @,@ 000 , she had an Episcopal church , known today as " Hope Church " , erected on the property , " for the moral and spiritual uplift of the tenants on her estate and the employees of the Mount Hope Furnace " . In 1885 , Clement Brooke Grubb , one of Henry 's sons , purchased the mansion and surrounding land for $ 300 @,@ 000 from the heirs of his younger brother , Alfred Bates Grubb . That October , Clement gave the church and churchyard to the Episcopal Diocese of Central Pennsylvania .
Upon Clement 's death , he left it to his daughter , the last descendant of the Grubb family to own it , Daisy Elizabeth Brooke Grubb , who renovated the 32 @-@ room mansion in the Victorian architectural style . After Daisy 's death , the property was subdivided and passed through numerous owners until Charles Romito purchased the mansion and immediately surrounding land for $ 1 million in 1980 to open a winery .
= = = Mount Hope Estate and Winery = = =
After planting the vineyards and vinting wines , Romito opened the Mount Hope Estate and Winery in 1980 . To promote his new business the first year , Romito hosted several events including an art show , a bluegrass concert , a fifties revival , a country @-@ western weekend , a classical orchestra concert , and a one @-@ day modern jousting tournament . The jousting tournament was so popular that Romito held a two @-@ day renaissance festival the following year in the winery 's parking lot , and gradually expanded this into a permanent attraction , the Pennsylvania Renaissance Faire . The property was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1980 , and in 1991 the boundaries were increased as part of the Iron and Steel Resources of Pennsylvania Multiple Property Submission ( MPS ) .
= = = Swashbuckler Brewing Company = = =
The Swashbuckler Brewing Company , founded by Pennsylvania Renaissance Faire general contractor Scott Bowser , has operated on the grounds since 2000 , and has an annual capacity of 1 @,@ 200 barrels . The company also has a brewpub on the faire grounds , called the Swashbuckler Brew Pub , which serves up its own beers . Bowser has described the beers as " middle of the road , " saying " ... we 're not going for medals . We can 't ; we can sell out completely on a big , hot weekend . " The pub is also open from October through November during theater hours .
= = Architecture = =
Two distinct architectural styles are visible in the Estate . Originally constructed in the Federal style for Henry Bates Grubb between 1800 and 1805 , Mount Hope Estate was the most formal ironmaster 's mansion built in the area between 1750 and 1850 . In 1895 , Daisy Grubb oversaw significant changes , adding a Victorian ballroom , a billiard room , chandeliers , and parquet floors , and converting original hinged doors to sliding doors , while still maintaining much of the original construction , including the original facade and fireplace mantels .
= = = Exterior = = =
The south @-@ facing two @-@ story facade , made of locally cut red sandstone , remains substantially unchanged from the original 1800 – 05 construction . The wooden porch running the length of the facade appears to be a reconstruction , as part of the 1895 remodeling , of a similar original porch .
The entire west end of the house went through substantial changes in the 1895 remodelling . This included the construction of a striking three @-@ story bay window rising to an octagonal turret with a patterned roof , and a two @-@ story bay window near the southwest corner . The most significant additions made during the 1895 remodelling are located at the rear ( north ) of the house . These include a conservatory with a polygonal glass dome , a greenhouse just east of the conservatory , and an enlarged kitchen . The eastern end of the house was also remodeled in 1895 , in locally cut red sandstone to match the facade . Aside from several gothic arches from the original construction , the entire visible structure at this end was built in 1895 .
= = = Interior = = =
The interior of the mansion , like the exterior , is a mixture of original 1800 – 05 construction and decoration , blended rooms , and Victorian construction and decor .
The entry hall is almost entirely original construction . Nearly all the woodwork and decoration in this area dates to the 1800 – 05 period , with the exception of several balusters and newel posts on the spiral staircase , which were Victorian replacements . The major change to the entry hall was the construction of false walls , allowing the conversion of the original hinged doors into sliding doors . The second floor central hall and Washington Room ( on the second floor , in the southeast corner ) were also changed very little in the renovation .
The dining room , on the other hand , saw extensive remodeling in 1895 . The room size was increased by the construction of a bay window , parquet floor was installed , and the room was decorated in cherry woodwork , with a gilt and crystal chandelier and sconces . The only original item remaining left in the room was the fireplace mantel . The Pink Room , named for the pink damask which covered the walls in 1895 , the library , the Best Chamber ( Daisy Grubb 's bedroom ) , was also extensively remodeled .
A number of new rooms were added to the house as part of the 1895 work . A billiard room and ballroom were added in the rear of the house , and several ornate bathrooms were added on the second and third floors .
= = Grounds = =
= = = Outbuildings = = =
At one time there were nearly 30 outbuildings on the estate , as well as a wall surrounding the estate , all constructed of the same locally quarried red sandstone as the mansion , " of which there seems to be an inexhaustible supply on the estate " . Some of the buildings , like Hope Church , are on property that was given away or subdivided over the years , and today , only four remain on the estate , all located to the north ( rear ) and northeast of the mansion .
The smokehouse is a square two @-@ story building with a hipped roof , and is believed to date to the early 19th century . East of the smokehouse , a 11 ⁄ 2 @-@ story building with a three bay facade and a gabled roof was used as a post office in the late 19th century , and may have served as a schoolhouse originally . The manager 's farmhouse stands
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